HBMT4403

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBMT4403
Teaching of Upper Secondary
Mathematics Part III
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBMT4403
TEACHING OF
UPPER SECONDARY
MATHEMATICS
PART III
Nor Hayati Md.
Yusof Aisah Ali
Dr Koay Chen Yong

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Nor Hayati Md. Yusof

Aisah Ali
Dr Koay Chen Yong
Moderator: Goh Su Mei
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, May 2009

Second Edition, August 2014
Third Edition, December 2015 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2015, HBMT4403

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xvii
Topic 1 Differentiation 1
1.1 Derivative of a Function 2
1.1.1 Differentiation from First Principles 2
1.1.2 Differentiation of xn 4
1.1.3 Differentiation of ex 5
1.1.4 Differentiation of ln x 6
1.1.5 Differentiation of sin x, cos x and tan x 7
1.1.6 Differentiation of kf(x) where k is a Constant 8
1.1.7 Differentiation of Sums and Differences of Functions 9
1.1.8 Differentiation of Products of Functions, Quotients
and Composite Functions 10
1.2 Differentiation of Composite Functions 13
1.2.1 Differentiation of Implicit Functions 13
1.2.2 Differentiation of Parametric Equations 14
1.3 Applications of Differentiation 15
1.3.1 Gradient of a Curve 15
1.3.2 Equations of the Tangent and the Normal to a Curve 16
1.3.3 Stationary Points 20
1.3.4 Maximum or Minimum Points (Local Points) 22
1.3.5 Point of Inflexion 24
1.3.6 Absolute Minimum and Maximum Values 26
1.3.7 Application of Differentiation Concept to
Solve Problems 28
Summary 30
Key Terms 32
References 33
Topic 2 Analytical Geometry: Circle and Conic Cross-section 34

2.1 The Circle 35
2.1.1 Equation of a Circle with Centre (a,b) and Radius, r 35
2.1.2 Equation of a Circle with Centre at the Origin 36
2.1.3 The General Equation of a Circle 37
2.1.4 Tangent to a Circle 38
2.2 Analytical Geometry: Basic Concepts 40
2.2.1 The Parabola 42
2.2.2 The Ellipse 43
iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.2.3 Hyperbola 46
2.2.4 Rectangular Hyperbola 49
2.3 Shifted Conic 51
2.3.1 Parametric Equations 51
2.3.2 Applications to Chords, Tangents and Normals 53
2.3.3 Problem Solving 57
Summary 59
Key Terms 60
References 60
Topic 3 Integration 62
3.1 Integration 63
3.1.1 Integration as Anti-derivative 63
3.1.2 Standard Integrals 64
3.1.3 Integration of kf(x) and f(x) +g(x) 67
3.1.4 Integration by Partial Fractions 68
3.1.5 Integration by Substitution 70
3.1.6 Integration by Parts 71
3.2 Definite Integration 72
3.2.1 Approximate Integration 73
3.2.2 The Trapezium Rule 74
3.3 Application of Integration 75
3.3.1 Areas of Plane Regions 75
3.3.2 Volume of Revolutions 80
Summary 87
Key Terms 90
References 91
Topic 4 Linear Programming 92

4.1 Problem Formulation 93
4.1.1 Basic Concept of Problem Formulation 94
4.1.2 State the Objective Function and the Constraints 95
4.2 Graphical Solution 97
4.2.1 Feasible Region in a Plane 97
4.2.2 Determine the Optimal Solution 102
4.3 Simplex Method 108
4.3.1 Standard Form for Maximisation Problems 108
4.3.2 Standard Form for Minimisation Problems 111
4.3.3 Construct Simplex Tableaux 112
4.3.4 Determine the Optimal Solution by Considering
Basic Feasible Solutions 113
TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Summary 120
Key Terms 121
References 122
Topic 5 Network Planning 123

5.1 Network 124
5.1.1 Activities, Events and Network 125
5.1.2 Construction and Interpretation of a Network 127
5.2 Critical Path 131
5.2.1 Identifying Critical Paths 131
5.2.2 Calculating Completion Time 133
5.3 Floats 136
Summary 139
Key Terms 140
References 140
Topic 6 Permutation and Combination 141

6.1 Permutation 142
6.1.1 Permutation of “n” Different Objects 145
6.1.2 Permutation of “r” from “n” Objects 146
6.1.3 Permutation when There are Similar Objects 148
6.1.4 Permutation in a Circle 149
6.1.5 Solving Problems 151
6.2 Combination 153
6.2.1 Combination and Conditional Selection 155
Summary 157
Key Terms 158
References 158
Topic 7 Probability 159

7.1 Basic Probability 160
7.1.1 Basic Concepts of Probability 160
7.1.2 Techniques of Counting 161
7.1.3 Probability of Events/Outcomes 163
7.1.4 Sets Presentations 165
7.2 Mutually Exclusive Events 168
7.2.1 One Event or More Mutually Exclusive Events 169
7.2.2 Probability Laws 171
7.2.3 Probability Trees 173
7.3 Independent and Conditional Events 175
7.3.1 Independent Events 177
7.3.2 Dependent Events 178
vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.3.3 Probability Involving Three or More Events 180

7.3.4 Miscellaneous Problems 182
Summary 183
Key Terms 188
References 188
Topic 8 Probability Distributions 189

8.1 Basic Probability 189
8.1.1 Random Variables 190
8.1.2 Discrete Random Variables 191
8.1.3 Continuous Random Variables 194
8.1.4 Probability Density Function (PDF) 194
8.2 Mathematical Expectation 197
8.2.1 Experimental Approach 197
8.2.2 Theoretical Approach 197
8.2.3 The Expectation of Any Function of X 200
8.3 Expected Value Using Mean, Variance and
Standard Deviation 201
8.3.1 Mean 202
8.3.2 Variance 202
8.3.3 Standard Deviation 203
Summary 205
Key Terms 206
References 206
Topic 9 Binomial and Normal Distribution 207

9.1 Binomial 208
9.1.1 Binomial Distribution and Function 208
9.1.2 Binomial Probability Tables 210
9.2 Normal Distribution 211
9.2.1 Probability Density Function 211
9.2.2 Normal Variable: Z 213
9.2.3 Use of the Standard Normal Distribution Tables 214
9.2.4 Using Standardised Normal Tables for Any
Normal Distribution 220
9.2.5 Mean and Standard Deviation,  and 222
9.3 Poisson Distribution 223
9.3.1 Distribution of Random Events 224
9.3.2 Approximation of Poisson Distribution 225
TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Summary 227
Key Terms 228
References 228
Topic 10 Correlation and Regression 230

10.1 Scatter Diagram 231
10.1.1 Scatter Plots and Diagram 231
10.1.2 Least Square Regression Lines 235
10.2 Pearson's Correlation Coefficient 241
10.2.1 Correlation Coefficient 241
10.3 Linear Regression Lines 242
Summary 246
Key Terms 247
References 247
Answers 248
viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
EQWTUG IWKFG

x  PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the
course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend to
complete the course successfully. Please refer to the Course Guide as you go
through the course material, as it will help you to clarify important study
components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBMT4403 Teaching of Upper Secondary Mathematics Part III is one of the
courses offered by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth three credit hours and should be covered
over a period of 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to learners taking the Bachelor of Teaching, majoring in
Mathematics (with Honours) programme.
The HBMT4403 introduces the learners to develop the understanding of

mathematical concepts and their applications, together with the skills in
mathematical reasoning and problem solving. This course covers the content area
of differentiation, analytical geometry, integration, linear programming, network
planning, permutation and combination, probability distributions, binomial and
normal distribution, correlation and regression. Learners will be exposed to some
effective strategies in teaching the stipulated content area and the use of effective
mathematical language.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material and understand the course requirements, as well as and how
the course is conducted.
xii  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study
hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), test(s) and examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain definitions, concept, principles and theorems related to
differentiation, analytical geometry, integration, linear programming,
network planning, permutation and combination, probability distributions,
binomial and normal distribution, correlation and regression;
2. Apply mathematical concepts in solving daily life problems;
3. Use the language of mathematics effectively; and
4. Apply the skills to teach Mathematics to Form Six students.
COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 consists of three subtopics. In the first subtopic, we discuss the derivative
of a function. Learners should know how to obtain the derivative of a function
from first principles, use the notations dy d2
f  x  f  x  , use the
dx , y
, ,
dx
2
derivatives of x n , e x , ln x, sin x, cos x, tan x and carry out differentiation of
kf x f x
, fxg fxg ,  f  g   x  . In the second subtopic, we
gx
x, x ,
discuss the derivative of a function defined implicitly or parametrically. Learners
should know how to find the first derivative of a function defined parametrically.
In the third subtopic, we discuss applications of differentiation. Learners will be
exposed to find the gradients of, the tangents and normals to the graph of function.
They will be able to determine stationary points, local extremum points, points of
inflexion, absolute minimum and maximum values.
Topic 2 also consists of three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss a circle.

Learners will be taught the equation and tangent of a circle. In subtopic 2, we
discuss basic concepts of analytical geometry. Here, learners will be able to
understand the meaning of parabolas, ellipses and hyperbola. In subtopic 3, we
will discuss shifted conic. They will be able to determine tangent, normal and
chords.
Topic 3 comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the integration of a

function. Here, learners will be able to understand indefinite integration as the
reverse process of differentiation. Learners will also know how to integrate x n ,
e x , ln x, sin x, cos x, sec 2 x, kf x and f x   g  x  , integrate a rational
function and integration by parts. In subtopic 2, we discuss definite integration.
Learners
will be able to evaluate a definite integral, including the approximate value by
using the trapezium rule. In subtopic 3, we discuss the application of integration.
Learners will be able to calculate plane areas and volumes of revolution about one
of the coordinate axes.
Topic 4 also comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the problem
formulation. Learners will be able to explain the basic concept of problem
formulation, interpret a given problem and state the constraints. They will also be
xiv  COURSE GUIDE
able to state the objective function that needs to be minimised or maximised. In

subtopic 2, we discuss a graphical solution. Learners will be able to identify the
feasible region, and determine the optimal solution. In subtopic 3, we discuss the
simplex method. Learners will be able to obtain the standard simplex form,
construct simplex table and determine the optimal solution by considering basic
feasible solutions.
Topic 5 also consists of three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the networks.

Learners will be able to understand the concepts of activities, events, networks,
construct and interpret networks. In subtopic 2, we discuss critical paths. Learners
should be able to identify the critical activities, critical paths and calculate the
minimum completion times. In subtopic 3, floats are introduced. Learners will be
able to calculate the minimum completion times and calculate and explain total,
free, and independent floats.
Topic 6 consists of two subtopics. Topic 6 is about the permutation and

combination. In subtopic 1, we discuss the concept of permutation. Learners
should be able to use the formulae for permutation and combination. They should
also know about permutation of ‘r’ from ‘n’ objects and combination of
‘r’ from ‘n’ objects. In subtopic 2, we discuss the arrangements, permutation and
combinations. Learners should be able to solve problems involving permutation,
combination and apply the concept of arrangements and conditional selection.
Topic 7 comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the basic concepts of

probability. Learners will be able to use the techniques of counting, calculate the
probability of an event and plan the steps on how to represent a set using a
diagram. In subtopic 2, we discuss mutually exclusive events. They will solve
problems involving probability laws and probability tree. In subtopic 3, we
discuss about independence and conditional events. Learners should be able to
identify the concept of independent, dependent events and the possible outcomes.
Finally, learners will be taught how to apply the concept of conditional events and
probability.
Topic 8 is about probability distributions and contains three subtopics. In subtopic

1, we discuss the concept of random variables. Learners will be taught to
understand the concepts of discrete and continuous random variables. They will
construct a probability distribution table for a discrete random variable. In
subtopic 2, we discuss the concept of mathematical expectation. In subtopic 3, we
introduce how to calculate the mean and variance of a discrete random variable.
COURSE GUIDE  xv
Topic 9 contains three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the binomial

distributions. Learners will be taught how to use the probability function of the
binomial distribution. They will also be using the cumulative binomial probability
tables. In subtopic 2, we discuss the normal distribution. Learners will use the
probability density function, standardise a normal variable, use the standard
normal distribution tables and calculate mean and standard deviation  and .
Finally, we introduce the Poisson distribution. Learners will be taught to
understand the concept of Poisson distribution and to determine the
approximations of Poisson Distribution.
Topic 10 comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the scatter diagram.

Learners will be introduced to scatter plots and diagram and least squares
regression line. In subtopic 2, we introduce the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient.
Learners should be able to determine correlation coefficient and interpretation of
the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient. In subtopic 3, we show the linear regression
lines. We will also discuss the linear regression model, and the concept of Linear
Regression and Prediction – Relationship of correlation coefficient, regression
coefficient and coefficient correlation.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
xvi  COURSE GUIDE
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It
may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This
component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary,
you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find
points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea
for you to revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
COURSE GUIDE  xvii
REFERENCES
The following textbooks are identified and useful for this module. In addition to
the textbooks, students are encouraged to refer to books and browse websites in
the internet, as listed in each topic, which are suitable and related to the contents:
Chin Siew Wui, Khor Seng Chye, Leow Soo Kar, & Poh Ah Hai. (2003). STPM
Mathematics S paper 2. Johor Bahru, Malaysia: Penerbitan Pelangi.
Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia. (2002). Mathematics S syllabus and specimen

Papers. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Percetakan Warni.
Soon Chin Loong, Tong Swee Foong, & Lau Too Kya. (2007). Longman Pre-U
text STPM Mathematics S paper 2. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.
Tai Pon Hoy. (2007). Longman Pre-U text STPM Mathematics S&T paper 1.
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.
Tan Chong Eng, & Khor Seng Chye. (2006). Additional Mathematics Form 5.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Pustaka Kamza.
Tey Kim Soon & Tan Ah Geok. (2003). STPM Mathematics S & Mathematics T-
paper 1. Johor Bahru, Malaysia: Penerbitan Pelangi.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-
journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.
Topic  Differentiation
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain how to obtain the derivative of a function from the first
principles;
2
2. Identify the notations of f   x  , f x dy d y ;

dx , dx2
 ,

3. Carry out differentiation  of
f x xn , ex , ln x, sin x, cos x, tan x ,
kf x, f x   gx, f xgx, ,
g x;
f
gx
o
4. Choose the appropriate approach to find the first derivative of an

implicit function and a function defined parametrically;
5. Apply suitable strategies to find the gradients, tangents and normal to
the graph of a function; and
6. Explain how to determine stationary points, local extremum points,
points of inflexion, absolute minimum and maximum values.
 INTRODUCTION
Often, we have a formula which describes the behaviour of the quantity, and
differential calculus provides us with the means of obtaining the rate of change as
accurately as the formula will allow. The process of differentiation can be used to
calculate maximum and minimum values; for example, we can find the dimensions
of the box of maximum volume which can be cut from a given area of sheet metal.
2  TOPIC 1 DIFFERENTIATION
This topic will introduce to you the derivative of a function as the gradient of a
tangent.
1.1 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

In this topic, we will discuss derivative of a function. Students should know how
to obtain the derivative of a function from first principles, use the notations
f  x 
2
f x dy d y , e , ln x, sin x, cos x, tan x

, dx , n x
, f x
2
, use the derivatives of x
dx
and carry out differentiation of kf x f  x   g  x  , f  x  g ,  f  g  x.
gx
,
x,
1.1.1 Differentiation from First Principles
Consider a point A(x, y) on the curve y = f (x) and B is a neighbouring point with
coordinates x  x, y  y ,where x denotes a small increase in x andy denotes
a corresponding small increase in y (see Figure 1.1).
TOPIC 1 DIFFERENTIATION  3
Figure 1.1: Point B x  x, y  y , where x denotes a small increase in x and
y denotes a corresponding small increase in y
Change in y
Gradient of chord, AB =  y
BC  x
Change in x
AC
As point B is moved along the curve towards the fixed point A,

x  and the
0
direction of the chord AB moves closer to the direction of AD, the tangent to the
curve at A. Thus in the limiting value,
y dy
lim =
x0 x dx
If y = f (x), dy  f  x  lim f  x  x   f  x 
  x0
dx x
This process is known as differentiating with respect to x from first principles.

dy f   x  is called the derivative of f (x).
dx or
Example 1: Finding the derivative from first principles
If y = x2, find dy from first principles.

dx
Solution:
f  x   x2 ; f  x  x    x  x  x  x   x2  2 xx   x 2
From the formula,
dy  lim  f  x  x   f ( x) 
x0  
dx  x 
 x2  2xx  (x)2  x2  Fill in the formula
= lim  
x0  x 
= lim
x0
2 x  x  = 2x
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Find the first derivatives of the following functions with respect to x, using first principles:
(a)y  x3(b)y  3x2  x  1
1.1.2 Differentiation of xn
Let us go back to Example 1 about the differentiation from first principles.
y  x2 ,
dy lim ( x  x)  x2  2xx  (x)2  x2 = lim2x  x= 2x
2
= lim
dx  x0
2
x x0 x x0
x
Hence, we can make a conclusion that
If y = x n , then dy  nxn1, n  R
dx
For example,
dy
 nxn1, n 
If y = x n , then R dx
dy
4  4x41  4x3
y = x , then
dx
1.1.3 Differentiation of ex
Consider the exponential function
f  x   ex , then differentiate from first
principles,
f ( x)  lim
f (x  x)  f ( xx x ex (ex  (ex 
x0
 lim e  e  lim  lim
x) x0 x0 1) x0 1)
x ex
x x x
Note that this can also be deduced using a calculator and substituting values of
x close to zero. That (ex 
lim = 1, therefore, f ( x)  e x
is, x0 1)
x
Hence, if y = f (x) = ex , then dy  f ( x)  ex

dx
If y  e f (x) , y  and u  f ( x)
let eu
dy u
 e ; du f ( x)
du dx 
dy dy du
By the chain rule,  .  e u . f ( x)  e f ( x ) . f ( x)
dx du dx
Hence, in general If y  e f ( x) , then dy  e f ( x). f ( x )
dx
For example,
y  e x3
 3x 2 
dy / dx  e x3
 3x 2 e x3
1.1.4 Differentiation of ln x
The function ln x is the inverse function of ex. If y = ln x, then x = ey.
Let x = ey, differentiate x with respect to y,
We dx y , therefore, dy  1 1
get e 
dy dx dx x
dy
if y = ln x, then dy  1 .
Hence,
dxx
Example 2: Differentiation involving exponential and logarithmic functions
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

(a)5x 3(b) e 2x (c)ln x 3
Solution:
(a)Lety  5x3 (b)Lety  e2x
dy  53x31   15x2 dy  e2x. d 2x   e2x.2  2e2x

dx dx dx
dy  3
(c)Let y  ln x3  3ln x
dxx
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Find the first derivatives of the following functions with respect to x.

(a)y  x5
(c) y  (x3  e2x )4 (e)y  x3  ln 2x5
(d) y  (x 2  1)e2x3
(b) y  5x 4
1.1.5 Differentiation of sin x, cos x and tan x

Let us look at the differentiation of sin x. From first principles, if y = sin x,
dy sin( x  x)  sin

x  lim , [using sin( A  B)  sin Acos B  cos Asin B ]
dx x0 x
sin x cosx  cos x sin x  sin x  sin x(cosx  1) 
x x 
sin
 lim  lim  cos x
x x
 
cosx  1
In the limit, as x  0,(  0 and sin x
) 1
x x
dy
Therefore,  sin x(0)  cos x(1) , hence,
dx
if y = sin x, then dy  cos x

dx
if y = cos x, then dy   sin x ,

dx
if y = tan x, then dy  sec2 x

dx
where x is in radians.
Let us go through the examples below to understand how these equations are
applied.
Example 3: Differentiation involving trigonometric functions
(a)sin x  cos x (b)x 2 cos x (c)tan 2x
Solution:
(a) d sin x  cos x   cos x  ( sin x)  cos x  sin x

dx
(b) d x 2 cos x  cos x d x 2   x 2 d cos x

dx dx dx
 cos x(2x)  x 2 ( sin x)  x(2 cos x  x sin x)
(c) d tan 2x  sec2 2x d 2x  2sec2 2x

dx dx
SELF-CHECK 1.3

(c) 5 tan x
(a)3sin x  2 cos x (b)x cos x
4
1.1.6 Differentiation of kf(x) where k is a Constant

Let us look at the differentiation of kf(x). Consider y  kf (x)
dy kf ( x  x)  kf ( x ) k  f ( x  x)  f (x)

 lim  lim
dx x0
x0 x
x
 f (x  x)  f (x)  d f (x)
 k  lim  k
 x0  dx
x
Hence d kf ( x)  k d  f ( x)  kf ( x) and

d
d
kxn   knx n1
,n
dx dx
x R
For example,
d  kf ( x)  k d  f ( x)  kf (
dx
x)
dx
d 3( x2  4)  3 d ( x2  4)  3(2x)  6x

dx dx
1.1.7 Differentiation of Sums and Differences of

Functions
Do you know that, the rule which is used to differentiate functions which are the
sum or difference of two or more functions, is known as the sum and difference
rule. Let us look at how this rule is derived:
Let y  f (x)  g(x) , from the derived definition,

dy [ f ( x  x)  g( x  x)]  [ f ( x)  g( x)]
 lim
dx x0 x
[ f ( x  x)  f ( x)]  [g( x  x)  g( x)]
 lim
x0 x
f ( x  x)  f ( x ) g ( x  x)  g ( x ) d d
 lim  lim   f ( x)   g( x)
x0 x0 x dx dx
Hence, ifx y  f (x)  g(x),
dy  f (x)  g(x)
Then
dx
Now, study the examples below to see how this rule is applied.
Example 4: Differentiation of sums and differences of functions

Find dy for:
(a)y  x5 (b)y  5x2  3x  8
dx
Solution:
(a)dy  5x51  5x 4
(b) dy  5  2  x  3  10x  3
dx dx
SELF-CHECK 1.4
Find dy for each of the following:

dx
4
(a)y  2x  x 2 (b)y 
x
 1 2
(c)f (x)  x 4  6x3  5 (d) f (x)  x 
x 
1.1.8 Differentiation of Products of Functions,

Quotients and Composite Functions
Let us look at the rule that is used to differentiate functions which are products of
two functions, known as the product rule.
If y  f (x).g (x), then dy  g( x). f ( x)  f ( x).g( x)

dx
The rule that is used to differentiate functions which are rational expressions is
known as the quotient rule.
y  f (x) ,then dy  g( x) f ( x)  f ( x)g( x)

If
g(x) dx [g( x)]2
A function which can be expressed as a composition of two simple functions is

called a composite function. The rule that is used to differentiate composite
functions is known as the chain rule. Consider the function y  f (u) , where u is
a function of x .
In order to find dy , we have dy  dy  du

dx dxdudx
Hence, if y  ( f  g )(x),then dy  f [g( x)]g( x)
dx
Example 5: Diffentiation of Products, Quotients and Composite Functions

(a)If y  (x3  1)3 (x 2  2x  1) , find dy using the product rule.
dx
(b)If y  2  5x , find dy using the quotient rule.
3x 2  1 dx
If y  (x3  2x)3 , find dy using the chain rule.
(c)
dx
Solution:
(a)dy  (x 2  2x  1) d (x3  1)3  (x3  1)3 d (x 2  2x  1)
dx dx dx
 (x 2  2x  1)3(x3  1)2 (3x 2 )  (x3  1)3 (2x  2)

 (x3  1)2[9x 2 (x 2  2x  1)  (x3  1)(2x  2)]
 (x3  1)2[(9x 4  18x3  9x 2 )  (2x 4  2x3  2x  2)]
 (x3  1)2 (11x 4  20x3  9x 2  2x  2)
3x2  1 ddx2  5x   2  5x dxd 3x2  1

dy 
(b)
dx  3x2  12
3x2  15  2  5x  6x  15x  12x  5

 3x2  1
2
2
 3x2  1 2
(c)y  (x3  2x)3 , let y  u 3 where u  x3  2x
dy  3u 2 , du  3x 2  2 , and dy  dy  du  3(x3  2x)2(3x2  2)

du dx dxdudx
SELF-CHECK 1.5
Find dy for each of the following:

dx
(a)y  (2x3  1)(x  5)
(b)y  (x 2  1)3 2  x3
(c)y 
3x  22 (d)y 
3x 2  2
1x2 x3
1
(e)(x 2  3)4 (f)
2x 2  3x
ACTIVITY 1.1
1.From first principles, show that if y  uv , then dy  u dv  v du

dxdxdx
v du  u dv dxdx
2.From first principles, show that if y  u , then dy  v2
v dx
1.2 DIFFERENTIATION OF
COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
In this subtopic, we discuss about the derivative of a function defined implicitly or
parametrically. Learners should know how to find the first derivative of a function
defined parametrically.
1.2.1 Differentiation of Implicit Functions

The functions you have differentiated so far are in the form of y  f (x).
However, some functions cannot be expressed in that form, for example,
x 3  2x 2  3  xy . When a function is specified by an equation connecting x and
y and is not easily transposed to the form y  f ( x) , it is called an implicit
function. In order to find dy

from a given implicit function, we need to apply
dx
the chain rule d dv du
dy dy du and the product rule
 
 uv  u  v . The
dx du dx dx dx dx
technique to find dy is called implicit differentiation. Let us look at the
dx
example below to understand this technique.
Example 6: Differentiation of Implicit Functions
x3  xy  y 3  2
Differentiate each term with respect to x.
Solution:
d  x3   d  xy   d  y3   0
dx dx dx
3x 2  y d x  x dy  d y 3  dy  0  3x 2  y  x dy  3y 2 . dy  0
dx dxdydx dx dx
 x3y
  2 dy
  3xy
2  dy   3x 2  y
dx dxx  3y 2
1.2.2 Differentiation of Parametric Equations

Some functions can be represented by expressing x and y separately in terms of
a third variable, called a parameter. Consider two expressions x  f (t) and
y  g(t) , where f and g are functions of parameter t . The derivative dy

can
be obtained by applying the chain rule: dx
 dy 
dy dy dt  dt 
  
 dx 

dx dt dx
 
d 
Example 7: Differentiation of Parametric Equations
y = (t – 2)4. Find dy .
Given x = 3(t – 4) and
dx
dx  dy dy4(t  2)3
3;  4(t  2) 3 ; By the chain rule,
dt dt dx 3
SELF-CHECK 1.6
1.Find dy for each of the following functions in terms of x and y.

dx
(a)4x 2  9 y 2  3x (b)x3  xy 2  6xy
2.Find dy in terms of the parameter t for each of the following:

dx
(a)x  4t(t  2) , y  2t 2  3 (b)x  1  t 2 ,y  t(1  t 3 )
ACTIVITY 1.2
A curve has parametric equations x  2sin t and y  3cos t . Show that

dy   3 tan t .
dx 2
1.3 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

In subtopic 1.3, we will discuss applications of differentiation. Students will be
exposed to find the gradients of, the tangents and normals to the graph of function.
They will be able to determine stationary points, local extremum points, points of
inflexion, absolute minimum and maximum values.
1.3.1 Gradient of a Curve
Figure 1.2: Gradient of a curve
The gradient of a curve, y  f ( x) , at a point R on the curve is given by the
gradient of the tangent at R. It is also given by the value of dy

at the point R,
dx
which can be calculated using the equation of the curve. Thus, we can calculate
the gradient of the tangent to the curve at any point R.
Example 8: Gradient of a curve

Find the gradient of the curve y  x 2  8x  4 at the point where x  1 .
Solution:
Differentiate with respect to x , dy  2x  8 . When x  1,dy  2(1)  8  10 .
dx dx
Therefore, the gradient of the curve y  x 2  8x  4at x  1, is 10.
1.3.2 Equations of the Tangent and the Normal to a

Curve
Now we will look at two types of equations – equation of tangent to the curve and
equation of the normal to the curve.
(a) Equation of the Tangent to the Curve

Let us look at the gradient of a curve at a point which is the gradient of the
tangent to the curve at that point. If y  f ( x) represents the equation of a
curve, then dy
is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at that point. If the
dx
coordinates of the point is known, we can find the equation of the tangent.
Example 9: Equation of the tangent

Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y  2x3  x 2  x  4 at the point where x  1.
Solution:
y  2x3  x 2  x  4 , dy  6x 2  2x  1, when x  1, dy  5
dx dx
 1  1  4  2 , therefore, the gradient of the tangent at (1,2) is 5. Equation of the tangent to the curve at the
(2)  5(x 1)  y  5x  7

(b) Equation of the Normal to the Curve
Figure 1.3: Normal to the curve
The normal to a curve y  f ( x) at a particular point is the straight line which

is at a right angle to the tangent at the point. Consider the gradient of the
tangent is m1 , then the gradient 1
m2 , of the normal is given by m2   .
m1
This is used to find the equation of the normal at any specific point on a curve.
Example 10: Equation of the normal

Find the equation of the normal to the curve 3x 2  xy  2 y 2  5at the point (1,2) .
Solution:
Differentiate with respect to x,
6 x  x dy  y  4 y dy  0  x  4 y  dy   y  6x
dx dx dx
dy   ( y  6x)  y  6x
dx x  4 y4 y  x
When x  1, y  2, dy  2  6  8
dx8 17
The gradient of the tangent is 8 and the gradient of the normal is  7 .
7 8
Equation of the normal to the curve at the point (1,2) is given by
y  y  m(x  x )  y  2   7 (x 1)  y   7 x  23 8y  7x  23
1 1
8 88
(c) Increasing and Decreasing Functions

If the tangent at any point (x, y) to the curve with equation y  f ( x)
dy
makes an angle,  with the positive x-axis, then  tan . If the curve is
dx
as shown in Figure 1.4(a), as x increases, y increases and 0 , i.e.

2
dy
is positive and y is said to be an increasing function of x.
dx
Figure 1.4(a): Increasing functions Figure 1.4(b): Decreasing functions
If the curve y  f ( x) is as shown in figure 1.4(b), then

 dy
    tan   0 , i.e. negative and y is said to be a decreasing
2 dx
function of x.
f (x) increases as x increases if f ( x) > 0; f (x) decreases as x increases

if f ( x) < 0.
Example 11: Increasing and decreasing functions

Determine the intervals of increase and decrease for the function
f (x)  x 2  6x .
Solution:
f ( x)  2x  6 ;
When f ( x) > 0,  then2x  6 > 0, x > 3 When f ( x) < 0, 
Condition for increasing function
then2x  6 < 0, x < 3
Condition for decreasing function

Figure 1.5: Intervals of increase and decrease for the
f (x)  x 2  6x
function
and
Therefore, the function f (x) is increasing in the interval (3,

)
decreasing in the interval (,3).
ECK 1.7
radient of each of the following curves at the given points. (a)y  2x3  5x  3,x  3(b)y  (x 2  2)(2x 2  1),x 
equations of the tangent and the normal to each of the following curves at the given points.
2  9x  5 , point (2,2)
2  1)(x 2  1) , point (– 1,– 6)
e the intervals of increase and decrease of the functions: (a)f (x)  x 2  6x  2(b)f (x)  x  12 x  3
1.3.3 Stationary Points

What does a stationary point mean?
of the curve y  f ( x) is a point at which the tangent to the curve is parallel to the x -axis, i.e. the gradient of the
In Figure 1.6, P, Q and R are stationary points of the curve y  f ( x) .

Figure 1.6: Stationary points
To find the coordinates of the stationary point on the curve y  f ( x) , solve the
equation dy
 0. For each solution of x  , the point P , f ( is a stationary
dx
)
point and each value of f ( is known as the stationary value.
)
Example 12: Finding stationary points

Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y  x3  5x 2  3x  1.
Solution:
dy  3x 2 10x  3 , at the stationary point, dy  0
dx dx
3x 2  10x  3  0  3x  1x  3  0  3x 1  0 orx  3  0

x  1 or x  3 ; when x  1 , y   14 ; when x  3, y  10
3 3 27
14  and 3,10 .
Therefore, the stationary points are  13 , 27
 
1.3.4 Maximum or Minimum Points (Local Points)

Let us consider a point P on the curve y  f ( x) at which the gradient is zero, i.e.
dy
dx  0 or f ( x)  0 . Let x  , such that f ' x0   0 , then Px 0 , f x0 is a
x0
stationary point. Choose all x near x0 .
Case (i) if x < x 0 and f ( x) > 0 ; if x > x 0 and f ( x) < 0

The stationary point Px0 , f x0  is a maximum point or local maximum point
as shown in Figure 1.7(a).
Figure 1.7(a): Maximum point
Figure 1.7(b): Minimum point
Case (ii) if x < x 0 and f ( x) < 0 ; if x > x 0 and f ( x) > 0

The stationary point Px0 , f x0  is a minimum point or local minimum point as
shown in Figure 1.7(b).
A turning point is a stationary point, either a maximum or a minimum point.
Example 13: Maximum and minimum points

Find the coordinates of the maximum and minimum points on the curve
y  x3  3x 2  6 .
Solution:
dy  3x 2  6x ; For minimum or maximum point, dy  0
dx dx
3x 2  6x  0  3x(x  2)  0  x  0 orx  2
When x  0, y  6 , when x  2, y  2 ; the stationary points are 0,6 and 2,2

For the point 0,6, choose x  1 < 0, dy  9 > 0; choose x  1 > 0, dy  3< 0
dx dx
Therefore, the point 0,6 is a maximum point.
For the point 2,2, choose x  1 < 2, dy  3< 0 ; choose x  3 > 2, dy  9 > 0
dx dx
Therefore, the point 2,2 is a minimum point.
SELF-CHECK 1.8
1.Find the coordinates of the stationary points of each of the following curves:
x3 5
(a)y  x 3 3x  26 (b)y x 2
6x
32
coordinates of the stationary points of the following curves, and determine whether the point is a maximum or
4  4x3  2(b)f (x)  x  2 2 x  1
ACTIVITY 1.3
 12 
Show that the curve 33x  y  3xy has a turning point at2, 2.3 
3 
1.3.5 Point of Inflexion

Do you know what a point of inflexion is? Let us understand its definition below:
s from concave upwards to concave downwards (or vice versa) is known as a point of inflexion (see Figure 1.8(a)
d y
2    dy
At the point of inflexion, 0 or f ( x) 0 and the value of or f ( x) has
dx dx
2
the same sign as the curve passes through the point of inflexion.
Figure 1.8 (a): Point of inflexion
Figure 1.8(b): Point of inflexion

Figure 1.8(c): Point of inflexion
Below are the conditions for a point x0 , f (x0 ) to be a point of inflexion.
(a) Method I
(i) f ( x0 )  0
or
(ii) f ( x) has the same sign, for all x near x 0
(b) Method II
(i) f  ( x0 )  0 If f
(ii) f


 ( x )  0,
Summary of conditions for the nature of a point0 x 0 , f on the
(x 0 )
curve y  f (x) (See Table 1.1)
Table 1.1: Summary of Conditions for the Nature of a Point x 0 , f (x 0 ) on

the Curve y  f (x)
Stationary point Maximum point Minimum point Point of inflexion

f ( x)  0  x  x0 f ( x)  0  x  x0 f ( x)  0  x  x0 f ( x)  0  x  x0
and and and

f ( x0 )  0 
f ( x0 )  0 f  ( x0 )  0
or or or
f ( x)  0  x  x0 f ( x)  0  x  x0 f ( x)  0  x  x0
and and and
if x  x0 , f ( x)  0 if x  x0 , f ( x)  0 f (x) has the same sign
if x  x 0 , f ( x)  0 if x  x0 , f ( x)  0 for all
x  x0 and x  x0
Example 14: Points of Inflexion

Find the coordinates of the point of inflexion on the curve y  x3  3x 2  1 .
Solution:
dy  2 d2y d2y
3x  6x ;  6x  6 ; for point of inflexion,  0  first condition
dx dx 2 dx 2
d3y
6x  6  0, x  1 ; When x  1, y  3 ;  6  0  second condition
dx3
Therefore, the coordinates of the point of inflexion is (–1, 3).
SELF-CHECK 1.9
Find the coordinates of the point of inflexion for each of the following curves:
(a)y  x3  6x 2  15x  6(b)y  x  13 3  x 
1.3.6 Absolute Minimum and Maximum Values

This section will discuss five minimum points including absolute minimum and
maximum values.
Figure 1.9: Absolute minimum and maximum values

Figure 1.9 shows a graph in the interval [A,D] . Do you know that there are five
important points? Let us look at each of them:
(a) The points B (x 2 , y2 ) and C (x 3 , y3 ) are known as the local extremum points;
(b) The point B (x 2 , y2 ) is the local maximum point and

y2 is the local
maximum value;
(c) The point C (x 3 , y3 )
is the local minimum point and y3 is the local
minimum value;
(d) The absolute maximum value of a function is the biggest value of the
function in the interval [A,D]; and
(e) The absolute minimum value of a function is the smallest value of the
function in the interval [A,D].
Example 15: Absolute extremum values

Find the absolute extremum value of the function y  x 2  4x  2 .
Solution:
dy  2x  4 , and for stationary point, dy  0 ; 2x  4  0, x  2
dx dx
When x  2, y  2 ; d 2 y
2>0
dx 2
Therefore, the function has an absolute minimum value of -2.
SELF-CHECK 1.10
Find the absolute extremum value of the following functions: (a)y  x 2  8x  15(b)y  x 2  4x  1
1.3.7 Application of Differentiation Concept to Solve

Problems
In this section we will look at how differentiation can be applied to real life
situations.
(a) Rates of Change

We call dy the rate of change of y with respect to x.
dx
dy > 0, y increases as x increases;

If
dx
and
if dy < 0, y decreases as x increases.
dx
ds
(i) The velocity, v 
dt , is defined as the rate of change of displacement
s with respect to time, t.
(ii) The acceleration, a  , is defined as the rate of change of velocity,

dv
dt
v with respect to time, t.
Example 16: Rates of change

Find the rate of change of the volume V  1 r 2h , of a container in the
pe of a cone, with respect to the radius, r. Hence, find the rate of change of the volume when r  20cm and h  1
Solution:
The rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius, r, is
dV  1  (2r)h  2 rh
dr3 3
When r  20cm , h  15cm , dV  2  (20)(15)  200

dr3
Hence, the rate of change of the volume is 200cm3.
Solve the questions in Self-Check 1.11 below to test your understanding of

this concept.
SELF-CHECK 1.11
1.A cuboid with a square base is to be made with 200 cm3 of thin
metal sheet. Show that the volume, V is given by V  50x  1 x3 ,
2
where x is the length of the side of the base. Find the maximum volume of the cuboid.
2.Find the volume of the largest right circular cone that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius, r .
(b) Minimum and Maximum Values

We will illustrate through the example how the methods developed in
obtaining minimum and maximum values can be used to solve practical
problems.
ample 17: Solving problems on maximum and minimum values

field has a perimeter of 200 metres. Find the length and width of the field, so that the field has a maximum area
lution:
t x be the length of the field, y be the width of the field and A be the area of the field; A = xy . Given that the pe
erefore, 2x  2 y  200 ; x  y  100

bstitute y  100  x into A = xy
e have A = x(100  x)  100 x  x 2
Differentiate A with respect to x ; dA  100  2x

dx
For maximum or minimum value, dA  0

dx
d2A
100  2x  0  x  50 ;  2 < 0, for all values of x
dx2
That is, A has a maximum value when x  50 and y  50
The field has a maximum area when the length and width are equal to 50 metres.
of 6cm3s-1. Find the rate of increase of the radius when the radius is 3cm. Find the rate of increase of the surfa
h a way that its volume is changing at a rate of 216cm3s-1. Find the rate of change of the edge when the edge is
 Differentiation of a function y  f ( x) with respect to x is defined as:

dy
f ( x)   lim f (x   x)  f ( x)
dx  x0 x
 Differentiation of standard functions:
dy
Derivatives ( )
Functions (y)
dx
xn nx n1
ex ex
ln x 1
x
sin x cos x
cos x -sin x
tan x sec2x
 Differentiation of sums and differences:

If y dy f ( x)  g( x)
f (x)  g(x), the
n dx 
 Differentiation of products:
If y dy
f (x).g(x), then  g( x). f ( x)  f ( x).g(
x) dx
 Differentiation of quotients:
If y  f (x)
, then dy  g( x) f ( x)  f ( x)g( x)
g(x) dx [g( x)]2
 Differentiation of composite functions:

If y  ( f  g )(x),
then dy  f [ g( x)]g( x)
dx
 Parametric differentiation:
If x  dy dy dt
f (t) and y  g(t) , then  
dx dt dx
dy
 Gradient of a curve is
dx
 Rate of change: If
y  f ( x) , then dy dy dx
 
dt dx dt
 For maximum point:
(a) dy
changes from positive to negative when moving through the
dx
stationary point;
d2y
(b) < 0
dx2
(c) values of y on either side of the stationary point are smaller.
 For minimum point:
(a) dy
changes from negative to positive when moving through the
dx point;
stationary d2y
(b) > 0; and
dx
2
(c) values of y on either side of the stationary point are larger.

 For point of inflexion:
(a) dy
has the same sign on either side of the stationary point; and
dx
d2y
(b) = 0
dx2
 Equations of tangent and normal:

(a) The equation of the tangent is
dy y  y1  m x  x1  at the point P x1 , y1  ,
where gradient m 
dx
(b) The equation of the normal is
y  y1  m1  x  x1  at the point P x1 , y1  ,
where m1 is the gradient of the normal at P and mm1  1
Absolute extremum valueEquation of the tangent

Absolute maximum valueFirst principles
Absolute minimum valueGradient
DifferentiationLocal maximum Differentiation of composite functionsLocal minimum Differentiation
Differentiation of quotientsRate of change Differentiation of sums and differencesSecond derivative
Heng, H. H. (2001). O Level Additional Mathematics. Singapore: Pearson

Education Asia.
Koo, S. H., Lim, C. C., Lye, M. S., Ong, B. S. & Tan, C. E. (2006). Success in
STPM Mathematics T. Shah Alam, Malaysia: Penerbit Fajar Bakti.
Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia. (2002). Mathematics S syllabus and specimen papers.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Percetakan Warni.
Tai, P. H. (2007). Longman Pre-U text STPM Mathematics S&T Paper 1.
Tey, K. S., & Tan, A. G. (2003). STPM Mathematics S & Mathematics T-
Topic  Analytical
2 Geometry:
Circle and
Conic
Cross-
section
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Determine the equation of a circle and identify its centre and radius;
Find the equations and graphs of ellipses, parabolas and hyperbolas;
Find the parametric representation of a curve (excluding trigonometric expressions);
Find the coordinates of a point of intersection; and
Solve problems concerning loci.
 INTRODUCTION
The word conic is derived from the word cone, which is a geometric figure. It is
defined as the locus of a point which moves so that the ratio of its distance from a
fixed point to its distance from a fixed line is a constant. In general, analytical
geometry is the marriage of algebra and geometry.
TOPIC 2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY: CIRCLE AND CONIC CROSS–SECTION  35
2.1 THE CIRCLE

A circle is the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from a fixed
point is always a constant.
2.1.1 Equation of a Circle with Centre (a,b)

and Radius, r
Let C(a, b) be the fixed point and P (x, y) be the moving point.
By definition, PC  r , where r is the constant distance.
PC 2  r 2
Therefore, (x  a) 2  ( y  b) 2  is the equation of the locus of P. The fixed

r2
point is called the centre of the circle and the constant distance is called the radius
of the circle.
Hence, the standard form of the equation of a circle is:
(x  a)2  ( y  b)2  r 2
With centre (a, b) and radius, r , as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Equation of a circle with centre (a,b) and radius, r

36  TOPIC 2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY: CIRCLE AND CONIC CROSS–SECTION
2.1.2 Equation of a Circle with Centre at the Origin

If the circle is the locus of the point P which is at a fixed distance, r from the centre
at the origin O , which means a  b  0 , the equation of the locus of P becomes:
x2y2r2
This is the equation of a circle with centre (0,0) and radius, r , as shown in
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Equation of a circle with centre at the origin
Example 1: Finding the equation of a circle

Find the equation of the circle with centre (2,1) and radius = 4.
Solution:
Using (x  a)2  ( y  b)2  r
2 The equation of the circle is:
(x  2)2  ( y  1) 2  4 2
(x  2)2  ( y  1)2  16
2.1.3 The General Equation of a Circle

From the equation of a circle with centre (a,b) and radius r,
(x  a)2  ( y  b)2  r 2
x 2  y 2  2ax  2by  a 2  b2  r 2  0
Let g  a , f  b and c  a 2  b 2  r 2
Therefore, the general equation of circle is
x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c  0 where g , f and c are constants,
With centre ( g, f ) centre = (a, b)  ( g, f

)
And radius, r  g2f2c r a 2  b 2  c g 2  f 2  c
The conditions for an equation to be a circle are:

(a) It is a quadratic equation in x and y and does not have term in xy;
(b) Coefficients
of x 2 and y 2 are equal; and
(c) Radius, r  g2f2c >0.
Example 2: Finding the centre and radius of a circle

Find the centre and radius of the circle x 2  y 2  4x  2 y  4  0
Solution:
By comparing with the general equation,
x 2  y 2  4x  2 y  4  0
x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c  0
With centre ( g, f ) and radius, r g 2  f 2  c

Comparing coefficients:
General Equation Problem

x 2g 4
y 2f –2
c c –4
nt of x, 4  2g  g  2 Coefficient of y,  2  2 f  f  1 Constant term,c  4

e, the centre of the circle is (– 2, 1) and The radius of the circle = (2) 2  (1) 2  4= 3
2.1.4 Tangent to a Circle

Let P(x, y) be a point on the circle x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c  as shown in the
0
Figure 2.3. Then the centre C is ( g, f ).
Figure 2.3: Tangent to a circle
The gradient of PC y  ( f ) y  f
m  x  (g) 
is xg
The tangent at P is perpendicular to PC. Hence, its gradient is:
m1xg
1
my  f
Example 3: Finding equation of the tangent to a circle

Find the equation of the tangent at the point P(1, 5) on the circle
x 2  y 2  4x  2 y  10  0
Solution:
By comparing with the general equation,
x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c  0 , with centre ( g, f ) :
Coefficient of x, 4  2g  g  2 and coefficient of y,  2  2 f  f  1
Therefore, the centre of the circle is C(– 2, 1).
51  4 and gradient of tangent at P is  3 .
Gradient of PC =
1  (2)3 4
Equation of tangent at P is y  5   3 (x 1)
4
4 y  20  3x  3  4 y  3x  23
SELF-CHECK 2.1
Find the equation of each of the following circles:
Centre (3,1) and radius = 4
Centre (3,– 2) and touching the line x  y  3  0
Find the centre and radius of each of the following circles: (a)x 2  y 2  6x  4 y  3  0
(b)2x 2  2 y 2  8x  8 y  3  0
Find the equations of the tangents to the following circles at the points given.
(a)x2  y2  5x  y  4  0, at P(1, 0)
(b)2x2  2 y2  x  11y  1  0, at P(2,5)
2.2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY:

BASIC CONCEPTS
In this subtopic, we will discuss basic concepts of analytical geometry. Here,
learners will be able to understand the meaning of parabolas, ellipses and
hyperbolas.
Figure 2.4 shows the different types of conics.
Figure 2.4: Types of conics

Source: Hornsby, Lial & Rockswold (2007)
The traditional conic sections are the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola. A circle is a
special case of the ellipse. The remaining situations are called degenerate conics.
ned as the locus of a point which moves so that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point to its distance from a fi
The fixed point is called the focus, and the fixed line is called directrix (see
Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: Focus and directrix

Source: http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/conic-sections.html
The constant ratio is known as eccentricity of the conic and is denoted by e.

(a) The conic is a parabola, when e  1;
(b) The conic is an ellipse, when 0  e  1 ; and
(c) The conic is a hyperbola, when e  1.
Different values of eccentricity make different curves (see Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6: Eccentricity

Source: http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/conic-sections.html
2.2.1 The Parabola

In this subtopic, we will discuss in detail about parabola.
ch a way that its distance from a fixed point (focus) is always equal to its perpendicular distance from a fixed str
Figure 2.7: The parabola
In Figure 2.7, let

Q(a,0) be the fixed point and x be the fixed line. Let
a
P(x, y) be the moving point.
By PQ  PR  PQ 2  PR 2
definition,
(x  a)2  ( y  0)2  (x  a)2
x 2  2ax  a 2  y 2  x 2  2ax  a 2
The general equation of a parabola is y 2  4ax

(a) The fixed point Q(a,0) is called the focus.
(b) The fixed line x  a, is called the directrix.
(c) 0 is called the vertex.
(d) If the power of y is even, the graph is symmetrical about the x -axis and
exists only for x  0.
Example 4: Graphs of a parabola Sketch the curve y 2  3(x  1)
Solution:
To sketch the graph of a parabola, first, identify the range of x and its vertex.
y 2  3(x  1)
Since y 2  0Therefore 3(x  1)  0
The range of x is x  1 and the vertex is 1,0.
Figure 2.8: The curve y 2  3(x  1)
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Sketch the curves of the following parabolas: 1.y 2  4x
2. y  12  8(x  2)
2.2.2 The Ellipse

In this subtopic, you will be introduced to the ellipse including the definition of an
ellipse, equations relevant to an ellipse and graphs of an ellipse.
such a way such that its distance from a fixed point is always in a constant ratio, where 0  e  1 , to its perpend
The general equation of an ellipse is:
x 2 y 2
1
a 2b 2
By rearranging the terms to make x 2 the subject,
a2
x2
2
(b  y 2 )
b 2
Sinc x 2  0, b 2  y 2  0
e
(b  y)(b  y)  0
b  y  b
Hence, the graph exists only in the range  b  y  b.
Similarly, by rearranging the terms to make y 2 the subject,
y 2  b2 2
(a  x 2 )
a2
Sinc y 2  0, a 2  x 2  0
e
(a  x)(a  x)  0
ax a
Hence, the graph exists only in the range  a  x  a.

Now, since the equation has only even powers of x and y , the graph is
symmetrical about both the x and y axes.
When x  0, y  b and when y  0, x  a
The graph of an ellipse is as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9: An ellipse
(a) The longer axis, AA’ is called the major axis and AA’ = 2a.
(b) The shorter axis, BB’ is called the minor axis and BB’ = 2b.
(c) An ellipse is symmetrical with respect to its axes.
(d) The origin O is called the centre of the ellipse.
(e) A line joining any two points on an ellipse is called the chord of the ellipse.
(f) A chord which passes through the centre of an ellipse is called a diameter of
the ellipse.
Example 5: Graphs of an ellipse

Show that the equation x 2  3y 2  9 represents an ellipse.
State the length of the major and minor axis, and sketch the curve.
Solution:
Given that x 2  3y 2  9
x 2 y 2 x 2y 2 Rewrite in the form
1  1 x 2 y 2
93 32 ( 3) 2 1
a 22b
This is the equation of an ellipse with a  3 and b 3 .
Thus, the major axis is 2a  6 and the minor axis is 2b  2 3. The sketch of the curve is shown in Figure 2.10
Figure 2.10: An ellipse with equation x 2  3y 2  9
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Sketch the graphs of the following ellipses:
 x  1 2 y2
1.  1
2516
x 2  y  12 9
2. 1
4
2.2.3 Hyperbola
In this subtopic, you will be introduced to the hyperbola including the definition
of a hyperbola, equations relevant to hyperbola and graphs for hyperbola.
h move in such a way that its distance from a fixed point is always in a constant ratio, e( 1), to its perpendicular
The general equation of a hyperbola is:
x 2 y 2
1
a 2 b2
By rearranging the terms to make y 2 the subject,
y 2  b2 2
(x  a 2 )
a2
Since y 2  0, x2a20 x  a or xa


Hence, the curve does not exist for  a  x  a .

For large values of x , either positive or negative,
as x   , b2 b
y2 x2 y x
a 
2 a
b 2
Hence, y  
2
are the asymptotes of the curve x  y  1
x a 2 b2
a
The graph of the hyperbola is as shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: The hyperbola
b b
(a) There are two asymptotes y  x and y   x.
a a
(b) The graph is symmetrical about the x -axis and y-axis.
(c) A’A is called the major axis and A’A = 2a.
Example 6: Graph of hyperbola

x2 y2
Sketch the graph of the curve  1
169
Solution:
x2 y2
1, a  4, b  3
169
Asymptotes are y   3 x
When y  0, x 2  16 ,
x  4 4
x2 y 2
The graph of  is as shown in Figure 2.12.
169 1
x2 y2
Figure 2.12: The hyperbola with equation 1
169
SELF-CHECK 2.4
Sketch the curves of the following hyperbolas:
x 12 y2
 1
y 2 x  22 3
1
2.
1. 4
9
4
2.2.4 Rectangular Hyperbola

x2 y2
From the equation of hyperbola,   when a  b , the equation
a 2 2 b 1,
x2 y
2
2 2 becomes x 2 y 2  a 2 , with asymptotes y   x , inclined at  45

a b 1, 
to the axes, and are perpendicular to one another. This type of hyperbola is called
the rectangular hyperbola. If the rectangular hyperbola x 2  y 2  a is rotated
2
through an angle 45 in the positive direction (anti-clockwise), then using the
asymptotes as the new x and y  axes, it can be shown that the equation of the
rectangular hyperbola is now 1 1

xy  a or, where c 
2
a The graphs of
2 2
.
2 2
x  y  a and xy  c are as shown in Figures 2.13 and 2.14.
2 2 2
2
Figure 2.13: The hyperbola with equation
x2y2a2
Figure 2.14: The hyperbola with equation xy  c 2
Example 7: Graph of hyperbola

Sketch the graph of the curve (x  1) y  3
Solution:
When y  0, x  1  0  x  1
The centre is at (1, 0). Asymptotes are at x  1 and y  0.
The graph of (x  1) y  3 is as shown in Figure 2.15.
Figure 2.15: The hyperbola with equation (x  1) y  3

SELF-CHECK 2.5
Sketch the curves of the following rectangular hyperbolas:

yx3
1.xy  6 2.x( y  1)  4 3.
x1
2.3 SHIFTED CONIC

In this subtopic, we will discuss about shifted conic. You will be able to determine
tangents, normals and chords.
2.3.1 Parametric Equations

In this subtopic, you will learn how to find parametric equations for parabolas and
rectangular hyperbola.
(a) Parabola
A parabola can also be defined using parametric coordinates. Let x  at 2
and y  2at , where t  R is the parameter.
Then, y 2  4a 2t 2 y 2  4a(at 2 )  4ax


Therefore, the equation of the locus of the point P can be written as
x  at2 , y  2at, t 
R
Any point on the curve y 2  can be represented by (at 2 ,2at) which is
4ax
known as the parametric coordinates.
Example 8: Finding parametric equations

Find the parametric equation of the curve y 2  20x
Solution:
Rewriting y 2  20x as y 2  4(5)x
Comparing with the standard equation y 2  4ax ,
y2= 4(5)x
y2= 4ax
we see that a  5.
For y 2  4ax , its parametric equations are x  at 2 , y  2at.
Therefore, for y 2  20x , its parametric equations are x  5t 2 , y  10t.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
Write the parametric equations of the following parabolas: 1.y 2  28x3.( y  1)2  2(3  x)
2.y 2  5(x 1)4.( y  2)2  6(x  1)
(b) Rectangular Hyperbola

The rectangular hyperbola xy  c can also be defined using parametric
2
coordinates. Let c
x and y  , where t  R, t  0 is the parameter.
ct t
Then xy  ct.
, c2
c
t
Therefore, the equation of the locus of the point, P can be written as
c
x  ct, y  , t  R, t  0
t
c
Any point on the curve xy  c can be represented by (ct, which is
2
)
t
known as the parametric coordinates.
Example 9: Finding parametric equations

Write the parametric equations for the curve (x  3)( y  4)  16.
Solution:
(x  3)( y  4)  16 (4) 2 c=4
Let x  3  4t and y  4  4 x  3  4t , andy  4  4

t t
Therefore, the parametric equations are x  3  4t , y  4  4
t
SELF-CHECK 2.7
Write the parametric equations of the following rectangular hyperbolas:
y2x
1.xy  3 3.
2x 1
1
2.y  5  4.9xy  16
x5
2.3.2 Applications to Chords, Tangents and Normals

In this section, we will discuss the chords, tangent and normals. You will also
learn how to find point of intersection between normals for parabola and equation
of rectangular hyperbola.
(a) Parabola
Let P(ap 2 ,2ap) and Q(aq 2 , be two points on the parabola y 2  4ax.
2aq)
Gradient of PQ  2ap  2a( p  q)

 a( p  q)( p 
2
 pq
2aq
ap2  aq q)
2
Therefore, the gradient of the chord joining the points P(ap 2 ,2ap) and
Q(aq 2 ,2aq) 2
is .
pq
2
Conside y  2ap (x  ap 2 )
r  p
q
( p  q) y  2ap( p  q)  2x  2ap 2  ( p  q) y  2ap 2  2apq  2x  2ap 2
Equation of the chord PQ is: ( p  q) y  2x 

2apq
When Q moves towards P, the chord PQ gets shorter, until, when q  p ,
the point Q coincides with the point P. The chord PQ becomes the
tangent at P.
2 1
Gradient of tangent at P  
2p p
When q  p , 2 py  2x  2ap 2
Equation of tangent at P is: py  x  ap

2
Figure 2.16: Two points P(ap2, 2ap) and Q(aq2, 2aq) on the parabola y2  4ax
Using the fact m1m2  1 for

Gradient of normal at P = p perpendicular lines.
Equation of normal at P is y  2ap   p(x  ap 2 )
y  px  2ap  ap
3
Example 10: Point of intersection between normals

Let P(ap 2 ,2ap) and Q(aq 2 ,2ap) to the parabola y 2  4ax . Show that the
coordinates of the point of intersection between the normals at P and Q is
a(2  p 2  q 2  pq),apq( p  q) . 
Solution:
The equation of the normal line at P(ap 2 ,2ap) is y  px  2ap  ap3(1)
The equation of the normal at Q(aq 2 ,2ap) is y  qx  2aq  aq3(2)
(1) – (2):
x( p  q)  2a( p  q)  a( p3  q3 )  2a( p  q)  a( p  q)( p 2  pq  q 2 )

x  a(2  p 2  q 2  pq)
Substituting the value of x into (1),

y  ap(2  p 2  q 2  pq)  2ap  ap3  y  apq( p  q)
Therefore, the coordinates of the point of intersection is:

a(2  p2  q2  pq ), apq ( p  q )  .
(b) Rectangular Hyperbola

c c
Let P(cp, ) and Q(cq, ) be two points on the rectangular hyperbola
p q
xy  c .
2
c c pq
 1
Gradient of PQ  q
p
pq 

cq  cp qp pq
Gradient of the chord joining the points c c 1
P(cp , ) and Q(cq , ) is  
p q pq
Consider c 1
y  (x  cp)  pqy  cq  x  cp
p p
q
Then, equation of the chord PQ is pqy  x  c( p  q)

When Q moves towards P, the chord PQ gets shorter until when q  p, the
point Q coincides with point P. The chord PQ becomes the tangent at P.
1
Gradient of tangent at P =  and equation of tangent at P is
p2
p2yx
2cp
Gradient of normal at P is p 2 .
c
Consider y  p 2 (x  cp)
p
Equation of normal at P is
py  p 3 x  c  cp
4
bola xy  c2 for all values of k . A perpendicular line from the origin meets the line y  2ck  k 2 x at Q
2ck)2  4k 2c 2  0
la xy  c2
To obtain the equation of the locus of Q, simplify y  1 x  k 2  x

k2 y
Substituting k 2  x into y  2ck  k 2 x ,
y
x x y 2  x2  2c xy
we have, y  x  2c 
y ( y 2  x 2 )2  4c 2 xy
y
Therefore, the equation of the locus of Q is ( y 2  x 2 )2  4c 2 xy .
SELF-CHECK 2.8
1.Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the parabola

3 
2
y  24x at the point Q,
 26 .
 
2.Find the equation of the tangent from the point  9, 3 to the curve
xy  9.
2.3.3 Problem Solving

This section will look at how the concepts learned in this topic can be applied in
real-life situations.
Example 12: Application of problem solving

Firdaus hits a golf ball with an initial velocity of 150 feet per second at an angle
of 30° to the horizontal.
(a) Find the parametric equations that describe the position of the ball as a
function of time.
(b) How long is the golf ball in the air?
ns that describe the horizontal (X) and Vertical (Y) position of the ball as a function of time is given by equations
0, h  0 (the ball is on the ground) and g  32
nd seconds). Substituting these values into equations
1 2
y  gt  (v sin
0
 )t  h ............... (2)
2
From (1) and (2), we findx  75 3t
y   1 (32)t 2  (150sin 30)t  0  16t 2  (150sin 300 )t
2
 16t 2  75t
(b)To determine how long the ball is in the air, we solve the equation y  0 .
 16t 2  75t  0  t(16t  75)  0
t  0 seconds or t  75  4.6875 seconds

16
The ball will strike the ground after 4.6875 seconds.
eball with an initial speed of 145 feet per second at an angle of 20° to the horizontal. The ball leaves Fahmi’s han
ations that describe the position of the ball as a function of time.

eball in the air?
 Equation of a circle with centre (a, b) and radius, r is:

(x  a) 2  ( y  b)2  r 2
 Equation of a circle with centre and radius, r is x 2  y 2  r 2

(0,0)
 The general equation of circle is x 2  y 2  2gx  2 fy  c  0 , where g , f

and c are constant, with centre ( g, f ) and radius, r  g2f2c
 The general equation of a parabola is y 2  4ax
 The parametric equations of the parabola are x  at 2 and y  2at
 If P(ap 2 ,2ap) and Q(aq 2 , be two points on the parabola, the equation of
2aq)
the chord PQ is ( p  q) y  2x  2apq
 Equation of the tangent at P(ap 2 , on the parabola y 2  4ax is

py  x  ap 2 2ap)
 Equation of the normal at P(ap 2 ,2ap) y  px  2ap  ap3

is

y2
2
x
The general equation of an ellipse is  1
2 2
a b
Where a  b .
The major axis is 2a and the minor axis is 2b .
 The general equation of a hyperbola is 2

x y2
 1 
2
a b2
b
The asymptotes to the hyperbola y x
are a
 The general equation of a rectangular hyperbola with

y0 0 as
and x 
asymptotes is xy  c2 . The parametric equations of the rectangular hyperbola
are c
x and y 
ct t
c c
 If P(cp, ) and Q(cq, be two points on the rectangular hyperbola, the
p )
q
equation of the chord PQ is pqy  x  c( p  q)
 Equation of tangent at c
P(c , ) on the hyperbola xy  c 2 is p 2 y  x  2cp
p p
 Equation of normal at c
P(cp, ) on the hyperbola xy  c 2 is
p
py  p x  c(1 p )
3 4
Asymptotes Hyperbola
Circle Locus
Ellipse Parabola
Equation of the normal Parallel
Equation of the tangent Parametric equations
Fixed distance Perpendicular
Fixed point Rectangular parabola
Gradient Vertex
Amran Hussin. (1993). Matematik tulen pra-universiti. Shah Alam, Malaysia:

Penerbit Fajar Bakti.
Douglass, F. R. (1996). Analytic geometry (6th ed.). Boston, MA: PWS Publishing
Company.
Heng, H. H. (2001). O Level Additional Mathematics. Singapore: Pearson
Education Asia.
Hornsby, J., Lial, M. L., & Rockswold, G. K. (2007). A graphical approach to
algebra and trigonometry. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
Johnson, D. B., & Mowry, T. A. (2004). Mathematics a practical odyssey (5th

ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Koo, S. H., Lim, C. C., Lye, M. S., Ong, B. S., & Tan, C. E. (2006). Success in
Michael S., & Michael S. III. (1998). Algebra & trigonometry graphing and data
analysis. London, England: Prentice-Hall.
Mohd Kidin Shahran. (2001). Statistik perihalan & kebarangkalian (3rd ed.). Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Rice, B. J., & Strange, J. D. (1996). Plane trigonometry (7th ed.). Boston, MA:
PWS Publishing Company.
Tai, P. H.. (2007). Longman Pre-U text STPM Mathematics S&T paper 1.
Tey, K. S., & Tan, A. G. (2003). STPM Mathematics S & Mathematics T-paper 1.
Johor Bahru, Malaysia: Penerbitan Pelangi.
Topic  Integration
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain indefinite integration as the reverse process of differentiation;
Calculate integration of x n , e x , 1 , sin x, cos x, sec 2 x;
x
Carry out integration of kf x and f x  g  x  ;
Apply the substitution method, integrate by parts method and partial decomposition method to in
Evaluate a definite integral, including the approximate value using the trapezium rule; and
Calculate plane areas and volumes of revolution of one of the coordinate axes.
 INTRODUCTION
Integration is a versatile tool in applied mathematics. It can be regarded as the
reverse of differentiation. For example, we can find the distance travelled by an
object knowing its speed at every instance during the journey. To find the position
of the object, we would need to know where it started from. On the other hand,
integration can be applied to finding plane areas, volumes of non-regular solids,
the location of centre of gravity and the mean value of a function over a given
interval.
This topic will introduce indefinite integration as the reverse process of

differentiation.
TOPIC 3 INTEGRATION  63
3.1 INTEGRATION
In this subtopic, we will discuss the integration of a function. Here, you will be able
to understand indefinite integration as the reverse process of differentiation. You will
also know how to integrate x n , e x ,ln x, sin x, cos x, sec 2 x, kf x  and f x   g
x ,
integrate a rational function and integration by parts.
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation.
In differentiation, we differentiate df (x) f ' (x) which is

f (x) and we write
dx 
called the derivative of f (x) . Conversely, in integration, f (x) is the anti-
derivative of f ( x) for a given function
and the process of finding  f (x)dx
f (x) is called integration.
Given that df (x)  f ' (x) , then f  x    f ( x)dx

dx
We write  f (x)dx  F (x)  c , where is denoted as the indefinite
f
(x)dx
integral of f (x) and c is known as the constant of integration.
3.1.1 Integration as Anti-derivative

Let us look at integration as an anti-derivative.
dy
If  f (x)
dx
Then  dy   f (x)dx  Therefore, y =  f (x)dx
Example 1
Show that d (x3  4)  3x 2 . Find  3x 2dx
dx
Solution:
d (x3  4)  3x 2
dx
Then 3x2dx  x3  c
64  TOPIC 3 INTEGRATION
SELF-CHECK 3.1
d  x  1 1
Show that dx 1  5x  . Find  dx
 1  5x 2 1  5x2
3.1.2 Standard Integrals

Do you know that there are four types of standard integrals? Let us look at each of
them.
(a) Integrals of x n , e and ln x

x
(i) To integrate a power of x , we add 1 to the power and divide by the

new power.
xn1 
 x dx 
n
n  1c
(e
(ii) Since d x ) x then
d
x
e  e x dx  e x 
d 1
(iii) Since (ln x)  , where x  0 then  1dx  ln x  c wher
e
x0.
x
dx x
Example 2
Determine the integrals (a)  x6 dx (b)  2e2x dx(c)  5x3 dx
Solution:
x 61 x7
(a) x dx  6  1  c  7  c
6
 e2x 
(b) 2e dx = 2 e dx  2  2   c  e c
2x 2x 2x

(c)  3 dx = 3  1 3
dx ln x  c
5x 5x 5
(b) Integral of sin x, cos x and sec2x

Since d (sin x)  cos x ,
dx
d d
(cos x)   sin x,
dx (tan x)  sec2 x , then
dx
 sin xdx   cos x  c

where c is a constant.
 cos xdx  sin x  c
 sec xdx  tan x  c
2
Example 3
Find each of the following integrals:

 
(a) (sin 2x  cos x)dx  2  dx
(b)secx 2 

Solution
(a) (sin 2x  cos x)dx = 1  2sin 2xdx   cos xdx

2
  1 cos 2x  sin x  c
2
  tan x     c
2  dx=
(b)secx
 
 2
 


2
Other results of integrals of trigonometric functions are:
 sec x tan xd
x
 sec x  c
 csc
2
x dx  co xc
t
 csc x cot xdx =  csc x + c
Do you still remember your trigonometry? Where:

csc() = 1/sin();
sec() = 1/cos();
cot() = 1/tan(); and
cot() = cos() / sin().
Some integration involving trigonometric functions can be solved using the

formulae below:
 f ( x)n1 n  c1
 f ( x)  f ( x) n dx 
 f (x)dx  ln f ( x)  c
f ( x)
Example 4
Find each of the following integrals.
(a) cos x sin 2 xdx (b)  sin x  cos x dx

sin x  cos x
Solution:
(a)Let f (x)  sin x  f '(x)  cos x

 cos x sin 2 xdx Express in the form  f (x)  f (x)n
sin3 x 
= c
3
(b)Let f (x)  sin x  cos x  f ' (x)  cos x  sin x

 sin x  cos x dx Express in the form  f (x)
sin x  cos x f (x)
= lnsin x  cos x c
SELF-CHECK 3.2
Find each of the following:

 2x  3 
(a)
 x
 dx (b)  2dx (c) 
2 x
3edx
 4  3x
3ex
(d)  ex  2 dx (e)  sin x cos xdx
4
(f) 3sec 2x tan 2xdx
3.1.3 Integration of kf(x) and f(x) +g(x)

Let us look at the integration of kf (x)
and f (x)  g(x) .
(a) If k is a constant,  kf (x)dx  k  f (x)dx
(b) [ f (x)  g(x)]dx   f (x)dx   g(x)dx
Example 5
Find
(a) (6x3  2x 2 )dx (b) (x 2  5)2 dx
Solution:
(a) (6x3  2x 2 )dx =  6x3dx   2x 2dx

= 6 x 4  2 x3  c = 3 x 4  2 x3  c
4 3 2 3
(b) (x 2  5)2 dx =  (x 4  10x 2  25)dx =  x 4 dx  10x 2dx   25dx

x5  10 3
= x  25x  c
53
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Integrate each of the following with respect to x.
2
(a)x  (b) x  x  1
x
(c)x(2  x3 )(d)3x(x7  5)
3.1.4 Integration by Partial Fractions

f (x)
If the integrand is of the form , where f (x) and g(x) are polynomials of x
g(x)
an f (x)
d g(x) can be factorised, must first be expressed as partial fractions
g(x)
before integration is attempted.
The rule for factorisation is as follows:
dx  1 ln  a  x   c, (|x|< a)
(a)  a2  x22a a  x 
 
(b)  dx  1 ln x  a   c, (|x|> a)
x 2  a 22a x  a 
  
dx  1 tan 1 x   c
(c) a
a 2  x 2a 
Let us look at Example 6 to further understand this concept.

Example 6
Find: dx
(a) (b) x4
x 2
9
 2x 2
dx
 x 1
Solution:
(a) dx
 x2
9
=
dx  1 1  1 dx
  
1 (x  3)(x  3) 6  x  3 x1 3x  3 
= ln(x  3)  ln(x  3) c = ln  c
6 6 x3
 
(b) First, change the expression into partial fractions.
x4 x
 A B
 2x
2x  x 1
 2
2x 4 1x x 1
1
1
x  4  Ax 1  B2x  1)
Let x  1, 5  5 1 7 3 7
3B, then B  and let x   ,   A, then A  
3 2 2 2 3
Thus, x4 7 5
 
2x  x 1
2
3(2x  1) 3(x 1)
x4  7 5 
dx
Hence,
 2x =     dx
x  3(2x  3(x 1) 
2
1 1)
7 dx 5 dx
=    
3 2x  1 3 x 1
7 5
= ln2x  1  lnx 1  c
6 3
SELF-CHECK 3.4
Find the following integrals in partial fractions and perform the integration.
x2
(a) x  34  xdx (b)    2xdx
 x  1 2  x  2 
3.1.5 Integration by Substitution
We found that  f (x)dx can be solved by the method of anti-derivative and some
of them can be applied directly to the standard formulae, such as
 f (x) f ' (x)
f ' (x) f (x) dx 
n
n1 and
  f (x) dx  ln f (x)  c
 c,
n1
However, some integrals cannot be dealt with in these formulae and may possibly
be solved by a change of variable which is known as the method of substitution.
How do we do integration by substitution? Let us look at the following example.
Example 7
Integrate x(2x  1)5
Solution:
Let u  2 x  1  x  1 u  1
2
du  2 dx  1 dx  1 du

dx du2 2
Hence,  x2x 1 dx   1 u  1 u5  1 du
5
2 2
1u 7 u6 
1
 
=  u 65 udu =   c
4 47 6
(2x 1) 6 6(2x 1)  7 c
= u 6 6u  7  c = 168 
168
=2x 16 12x  1  c
1
168
SELF-CHECK 3.5
Find each of the following integrals by the substitution method.
(a)  2x dx (b)  1dx

x1 x ln x
3.1.6 Integration by Parts

To integrate the product of two functions, we use the formula below:
 f ( x).g( x)dx  f ( x).g( x)   g( x). f (
The product to be integrated comprises two parts:

(a) One is to be differentiated; and
(b) The other is to be integrated.
Example 8
Find  x 2 cos 2xdx
Solution:
Using  f ( x).g( x)dx  f ( x).g( x)   g( x). f ( x)dx
Let f (x)  x 2 and g  x   cos 2x
g(x)  1 sin 2x
f   x   2x
2
2 1  1
Therefore,  x 2 cos 2xdx = 2xsin 2x  sin
 2x(2x)dx
  2
 x sin 2x   x sin 2xdx

2
2
Integration by parts needs to be applied for  x sin 2xdx

Let p(x)  xandq  x   sin 2x
p( x)  1andq(x)   1 cos 2x
2
x 2 sin 2x  1  1 
Therefore,  x cos 2xdx =  x 2 cos 2x    2 cos 2x(1)dx
2
2   
 x sin 2x  x cos 2x  sin 2x  c
2
2 2 4
SELF-CHECK 3.6
Find each of the following integrals:
(a) 2 xexdx (b) 3x sin xdx (c) x6 ln 1 dx

x
3.2 DEFINITE INTEGRATION

Consider the region under the curve f (x) between x  and x  b , where
a
f (x)  0 and is continuous for all x  (a,b) . Let P(x, y) be any point on the curve
and assuming the region under the curve f (x) between x  and x  b is
a
divided into many such strips. Therefore, the total area under the curve y  f (x)
between x  and x  b is given by A = (area b ) – (area a ).
a
(a) The Definite Integrals

Do you know the difference between indefinite integral and definite
is the indefinite

integral? We have just learnt that the integral f (x)dx
integral of f (x) with respect to x . An integral with limits is a definite
integral, and the definite integral of f (x) between the limits x  and
a
x  b is given by
b
 b
  A(b)  A(a)
f (x)dx  A(x)
a a
Example 9
 3x  2dx
2
Evaluate 1
Solution
2
3  = (6 – 4) – ( 3  2 ) = 2 1
1 3x  2dx = 2 x2  2x 1
2
2 2
SELF-CHECK 3.7
By using the substitution method, evaluate

4
3x
4
x1
(a)  dx (b)  dx
3 x2 0 2x  1
3.2.1 Approximate Integration

b
We can evaluate the definite integral
exactly by the integration
 a
f
(x)dx
methods we have learnt but if the functions are complicated, they might not be
able to be evaluated. We need to use some method of approximation. An
approximate value for the integration can be found by estimating the area
b
 a
f (x)dx by the trapezium rule.
Figure 3.1: Approximate integration
3.2.2 The Trapezium Rule

What does the trapezium rule mean? Figure 3.1 showed the area bounded by the
curve y  f (x) and the x-axis from x  to x  b . In Figure 3.2, the area divided
a
into n strips by (n  equidistant ordinates of length y0 , y1 , y2 ,..., yn1 , yn , each
1)
strip has a width, d = b 
The trapezium rule is:
an
a f (x)dx 2y 0  2(1y  y2  y 3 ...  y n1n

)y
b d
Figure 3.2: The trapezium rule

Example 10
Find  1 dx using the trapezium rule to estimatefive ordinates. Write the
2
1 1 x
value in four decimal places.
Solution:
We divide the area into four strips (n = 4), each of width d  2 1  1  0.25
44
x x0 = 1 x2 = 1.25 x3 = 1.50 x4 = 1.75 x5 = 2

y0 = 0.5 y1 = 0.444444 y2 = 0.400000 y3 = 0.363636 y4 = 0.333333
 0.25 0.5  20.444444  0.400000  0.363636  0.333333
21
1111x dx
x 2
= 0.406186 = 0.4062 (to 4 decimal places)
F-CHECK 3.8
the trapezium rule with 6 intervals of equal width to estimate the areas shown. Provide your answers in two de
1dx

16

1
(a) (b) 1 x3dx
4 1x 0
3.3 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

How do we apply integration? The concept of integration can be applied to
calculate plane areas and volumes of revolution. Let us look at the section below.
3.3.1 Areas of Plane Regions

(a) The Region Bounded by the Curve and the x-axis
Figure 3.3 shows the region bounded by the graph y  f (x), the x-axis and
the vertical lines x  and x  b . We have
a
  (x)dx
b b
Area, A =ydx =f
a a
To find the area of a region, it is important to sketch a graph of the given

curve or curves. This will enable us to identify whether the part of the
required area lies below the x-axis. The area of the region above the x-axis
has a positive value, while the area of the region below the x-axis has a
negative value.
Figure 3. 3: The region bounded by the graph y  f (x) , the x-axis and the vertical
lines x  a and x  b
Example 11
Find the area bounded by the curve y  x 2  x  6 and the x-axis.
Solution:
Sketch the curve.
Find the two points where the curve cuts the x-axis.
b
Apply area =  a
ydx
y  x 2  x  6  x  2x  3
When y = 0, x  2x  3 = 0  x  2 or x  3
Figure 3.4: The area bounded by the curve y  x 2  x  6 and the x-axis
Area =   2x

2 2
yd  x  x  6 dx  6x
2 2
 3 x  3
x3
= 2 3
 3
 8 4
  27 9  5 2
=    12      18 = 20 6unit
 3 2   3 2 
5
Hence, the numerical value of the area = 20 unit2
6
Notes: The area of a plane region which lies below the x-axis has a negative
value.
(b) The Region Bounded by the Curve and the y-axis

Figure 3.5 shows the region bounded by the graph y 
f (x), the y-axis and
the horizontal lines y  c and y  d . We have

d
Area, A = xdy
c
Figure 3.5: The region bounded by the graph y  f (x) , the y-axis and the horizontal
lines y  c and y  d
Example 12
Find the area bounded by y  2x3 , the y-axis and the line y = 16.
Solution:
Sketch the curve,

d

Apply area =xdy
c
1
 y 3
Required area = shaded area =xdy =
16

16
 dy
0 0 
2
 4 16
y2 3 
 4

=   
316 
=  3  0
4  2  
 4   
 3 
 0
= 12 unit2
Hence, the numerical value of the area is 12 unit2.
Figure 3.6: The area bounded by y  2x3 , the y-axis and the line y = 16
(c) The Region Bounded betweenTwo Curves

Consider the region bounded between two curves y  f (x) and y  g(x)
1 2
as shown below (Figure 3.7). The shaded area, A, is given by,
Area =f (x) dx g(x)

 dx
b b
a
a
=f(x)  g(x) dx

b
Figure 3.7: The area bounded by the graph

y1  f (x) and the graph y2  g( x)
Example 13
Findtheareaenclosedbytheliney1  x  2andthecurve
y2  x  2x  2 .
2
Solution:
(a)Sketch the curve.
(b)Find the two points of intersection between the curve and the straight line.
b
(c)
  12ydx.
Apply the formula for the required area, A=y
a
(a)
Figure 3.8: The area enclosed by the line

y1  x  2 and the curve y 2 x 2  2x  2
(b) When they intersect, x 2  2x  2  x  2

x 2  3x  0 x(x  3)  0 x  0 or x  3
 
(c) The enclosed area, A =  3 (x  2) dx   3 (x

0 0
2
 2x  2) dx0=  3 (x 2
 3x) dx
 x3 3 9
=  3 = (9  27) = units
2
 2
3 2
 x2
2 
0
ELF-CHECK 3.9
nd the area bounded by the curve y x  3and the y-axis between y  0 and y  4.
nd the area bounded by the two curves y 2  8  x and y 2  x.
etch the graph of y  x3  6x 2  8x. Then, find the area of the region bounded by the curve and the x-axis.
3.3.2 Volume of Revolutions

In this section, students will be able to calculate volumes of revolution about one
of the coordinate axes.
(a) Volume of revolution about the x-axis

Consider the area bounded by the curve y  f (x) and the x-axis from x  a
to x  b as shown in Figure 3.9. When the shaded area is rotated about the
x-axis through 2 radians, a solid will be formed as in Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.9: The area bounded by the curve y  f (x) and the x-axis from x  a to x  b
Figure 3.10: The shaded area is rotated about the x-axis through 2 radians
We split the solid formed into many small elements, and each of these
elements has the radius, y , and the thickness, dx .
Volume of each element = (area) (thickness) = y 2 dx

Then, the total volume of the solid generated is equal to the sum of all the
small elements from x  a to x  b.
Therefore, the volume, V, is given by
b
V  y dx where
2
y  f (x)
a
Example 14
x2
The region between the curve y , the x-axis and the lines x  3 and
2
x  5 is rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis. Find the volume of revolution formed.
Solution:
x2
Figure 3.11: The curve y , the x-axis and the lines x  3 and x  5 is
2
rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis
The region is shaded in Figure 3.11.
Volume generated, V  b  y2dx

 a
5  x 2 2
5
4
   y2dx      dx    x dx
5
2 
3 3 3 4
  x5 5
      55  35 
 3125  243
1441  units3
 

4  5 3 20 20 10
(b) Volume of Revolution about the y-

axis Consider the area between the
curve y  y  b as shown in the Figure f (x), and the y-axis from y  a to
3.12.
Figure 3.12: The area between the curve y  f  x , and the y–axis from y  a to y  b
When this region is rotated about the y-axis through 2 radians, the radius
of a small disc is measured from the axis of rotation.
Then, we have volume generated, V, given by
V  x dy
b
2
where x is to be expressed in terms of y .
a
curve y  x 2  1, the y-axis and the lines y  2 and y  4 is rotated 2 radians about the y-axis. Find the volum
Figure 3.13: The region between the curve y  x 2  1 , the y-axis and the lines
y  2 and y  4 is rotated 2 radians about the y-axis
 x dy  (y 1) dy

b 4
2
Volume generated, V
a 2
 y2 4  16  4 
   y    4    2   4 units3
2 2  2  2 
(c) Volume of revolution generated by the region between two curves
Figure 3.14: R is the region bounded by the y1  f (x) and y2  g( x) , and the
curves
x-axis from x  a to x  b
If f (x)  g(x) for a  x  b and R is the region bounded by the curves

y1  f (x) and y2  g(x) , and thex  axis from x  to x  b , the volume
a
of revolution when R is rotated about the x  axis is given by
V
b
a
  g(x)dx
2
f (x)  
2
Example 16
Calculate the volume obtained by rotating the area bounded by the curve
y 2  8x and y  x 2 about the x-axis.
Solution:
Figure 3.15: The area bounded by the curve y 2  8x and y  x 2 about the x-axis
Volume generated, V    
b
a
f 
2

  (8x  x ) dx4
2
(x) g(x)dx
2
8x2x5 2  32  48
     16   units3
 25 0  5 5
(d) Volume of Revolution about the Line y = h
Figure 3.16: The region R bounded by the y  f (x) and the line y  h
curve
When the region R bounded by the curve y  f (x), the line y  and the
h
ordinates x  and x  b is rotated 2 radians about the line y  h , the
a
volume generated is given by
V    a( y  h)2dx
b
17
enclosed by the curve y  5x  x 2 and the line y  6 is rotated about the line y  6. Find the volume of the solid g
Volume generated, V   a ( y  h)2 dx

b
 5x  x  6 dx  x10x  37x  60x  36 dx 

3 2 3
2 4 3 2
2 2
 x5 10 37 3
  x4 x3  30x2  36x
 54 3 2
   243  405  333  270 108   32  40  296 120  72 
  5 
 52  3 
 211 405 296  1
  259  units 3
 523 30
y  6 is rotated
Figure 3.17: The area enclosed by the

curve y  5x  x 2 and the line
about the line y  6
SELF-CHECK 3.10
Find the volume of revolution formed for each of the situations below.
(a)The region between the curve y  2x, the x-axis and the lines x  1
and x  3 is rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis.
(b)The region between the curve y  3x, the y-axis and the lines x  3
and x  6 is rotated through 2 radians about the y-axis.
(c)The region between the curve y  4 and the lines y  x  32is

x
rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis.
 Integration is the reverse of differentiation.

For d 5
(x )  5x 4 , therefore, 5x 4dx  x 5
example, dx 
 Standard integrals
f (x)
 f ( x)dx
xn xn1  c , n  
1
n1
ex ex  c
1 ln x  c
x
sin x  cos x  c
cos x sin x  c
sec2 x tan x  c
 Properties of integration
 If k is a constant,  kf (x)dx  k  f (x)dx
  [ f ( x)  g( x)]dx   f ( x)dx   g( x)dx

 Integration by partial fractions
dx 1
  ax
a2   ln   c, (| x |< a)
x 2 2a a  x)
 
 x 2 dx
a2
1 xa (| x |> a)
  2aln  x  a  c,
 x 
dx 1  
  tan 1 c
 
a 2
x2
a
a
 
 Integration by substitution
f( f ( x)
 f ( x)  f ( x)n dx x)n1   f(
dx  ln f ( x)  c
and
n1 x)
 Integration by parts
 f ( x).g( x)dx  f ( x).g( x)   g( x). f ( x)dx

 Area under curve

b b
Area, A =  a
ydx =  a
f (x)dx
Area, B =  c
xdy
b b
Area C =  a
f (x) dx   g(x) dx
a
=  ab  f (x)  g(x)dx
 Volume of revolution
About the x-axis: V  b  y2dx

 a where y  f (x).
About the y-axis: V  b  x2dy

 a where x is to be expressed in terms of y .
 The trapezium drule

y f (x)dx  
b
y 2( y  y y  ...  )y
 a 2
0 1 2 3 n1 n
Area under curve Integration by substitution

Definite integral Region
Indefinite integral Standard integrals
Integration Trapezium rule
Integration by partial fractions Trigonometric functions
Integration by parts Volume of revolution
Amran Hussin. (1993). Matematik Tulen Pra-Universiti. Shah Alam, Malaysia:

Heng, H. H. (2001). O Level Additional Mathematics. Singapura: Pearson
Education Asia.
Koo, S. H., Lim, C. C., Lye, M. S., Ong, B. S., & Tan, C. E. (2006). Success in
Mohd Kidin Shahran. (2001). Statistic perihalan & kebarangkalian (edisi ketiga).
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Tai, P. H. (2007). Longman Pre-U text STPM Mathematics S & T Paper 1.
Tey, K. S., & Tan, A. G. (2003). STPM Mathematics S & Mathematics T-paper 1.
Johor Bharu, Malaysia: Penerbitan Pelangi.
Topic  Linear
4 Programming
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Interpret a given problem and state the constraints;
State the objective function that needs to be minimised or maximised;
Identify the feasible region;
Determine the optimal solution by considering values at the vertices of the feasible region;
Obtain the standard simplex form by using slack or surplus variables;
Construct simple simplex tableaux; and
Determinetheoptimalsolution byconsideringbasicfeasible solutions.
 INTRODUCTION
In the world of business, manufacturers and industries, we often think about the
best value or the optimum value of a quantity.
For example, Noraini wants to sell her home-made scented flowers. She needs to
think about how to maximise her income at the least cost. How many flowers
should Noraini make each day? How much does Noraini want to sell each of her
flowers for? She will have to consider the limiting factors or constraints, such as
the number of hours she can work on the flowers per day and the amount of
money she can spend on raw materials.
TOPIC 4 LINEAR PROGRAMMING  93
Noraini can use linear programming to help her make the right decision. A
problem that involves the maximisation of profits or the minimisation of costs can
be solved with the help of linear programming techniques. A linear programming
model takes the following form:
Objective function:
Z  a1 x1  a2 x2  ...  an xn
Constraints:
b11 x1  b12 x2  ...  b1n xn  c1

b21 x1  b22 x2  ...  b2n xn  c2
.
.
bm1 x1  bm2 x2  ...  bmn xn  cm
Where
 Z is the objective function value that is being optimised;

 xi are the decision variables whose optimal values are to be found; and
 ai , bij and ci are constants derived from the specifics of the problem.
We will look at how to apply the formula above in the next section.
4.1 PROBLEM FORMULATION

Before we can solve a linear programming problem, we have to understand the
problem. What are the conditions (or constraints) stated in the problem and how
do we determine the desired goal to maximise profit or minimise cost? It is
desirable to discuss how to formulate the problems in standard form.
Standard form includes decision variables, objective functions and linear

constraints. These can be represented using inequalities. We have to ensure
convenient calculations, which means that important elements are not neglected.
94  TOPIC 4 LINEAR PROGRAMMING
4.1.1 Basic Concept of Problem Formulation

A linear programming problem has three components, that is:
(a) Decision variables;
(b) A linear objective function to be maximised or minimised; and
(c) A set of linear constraints.
Example 1
A factory manufactured two types of souvenirs: toy and key chain, which are
made of plastic and rubber. To make 1 unit of toy, 1 unit of plastic and 1 unit of
rubber are needed. For 1 unit of key chain, 5 units of plastic and 2 units of rubber
are needed. The daily amount of plastic and rubber available for production are
400 and 1100 units respectively. The daily production capacity of the factory for
toys and key chains are 150 and 360 respectively. The net profit obtained from
the sales of toys and key chains are RM5 and RM4 per unit respectively. How
many toys and key chains should be produced by the manufacturer in order to
obtain maximum profit? Formulate this problem as a linear programme to
maximise the profits obtained.
Solution:
Step 1 Understanding the problem

The problem is to determine the number of toys and key chains to be produced
by the manufacturer in order to obtain maximum profit.
Step 2 Identifying all the variables

Consider x as the number of units of toy to produce and y as the number of
units of key chains to produce.
Step 3 Identifying the objective function and all the constraints

From the information given, x units of plastic will be required to produce
x units of toys and y units of plastic will be required to produce y units of key
chains. So, the total amount of plastic used to produce x units of toys and y units
of key chains is x  y units. The maximum amount of plastic available is 400
units per day. Hence, the amount of plastic used per day cannot exceed 400 units.
This condition can be expressed algebraically as the inequality x  y  400. This

inequality is known as a constraint for the plastic resource.
Similarly, to produce x units of toys and y units of key chains, where profit
obtained from the sales of toys and key chains are RM5 and RM4 per unit
respectively, the total amount of rubber required is 5x  2 y  units and this
quantity cannot exceed 1100 units per day. So, the constraint for the rubber
resource is 5x  2 y  1100 .
The production capacity of toys is 150 units per day. This means the factory
cannot manufacture more than 150 units of toys daily. This requirement is
represented by the inequality x  150 .
Similarly, the production capacity for key chains is represented by the

inequality y  360.
The total amount of profit obtained from selling x units of toy and y units of key
chains is RM (5x  4y), and this amount is to be maximised.
The variables x and y cannot be negative values since they represent quantities
to be produced. This is represented by the inequalities x  0 and y  0 .
Therefore, the mathematical formulation of the problem is given as follows:
Maximise
z  5x  4y Objective function
Subject to
x  y  400
5x  2y 
1100 Constraints
x  150
y  360 y 
x0 , 0
4.1.2 State the Objective Function and the Constraints

In solving a linear programming problem, the first step is to determine the desired
goal or aim, which is the objective. The desired goal could be to maximise profit
or minimise cost. The relationship between the variables involved in achieving the
objective will be expressed in the form of a mathematical function called the
objective function.
Conditions that limit the achievement of the objective are known as constraints.
The structural constraints are the physical or resource limitations on the objective
such as raw materials, labour or markets. The non-negativity constraints limit the
solution to positive answers only.
Example 2
Minimum requirements for a special diet are 5 units of carbohydrates, 9 units of
vitamin and 10 units of protein. Two types of ingredients A and B are to be used
for every special diet. Relevant information is shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Two Types of Diet
Diet A Diet B
Carbohydrates 1 unit 1 unit
Vitamin 3 units 1 unit
Protein 5 units 1 unit
Cost RM 2 RM 1
To satisfy all dietary requirements, determine how the special diet should be
prepared at a minimum cost. Formulate this problem as a linear programme to
minimise the cost obtained.
Solution:
Let x = quantity of ingredients A, and y = quantity of ingredients B
Minimise z  2x  Objective function
Subject to: y x  y  5
3x  y  9
5x  y  Constraints
10
x0,y0
ach of Ali’s and Bala’s time. Ali can work 8 hours per day while Bala can work 12 hours a day. If the profit from on
t his cars can cover not more than 600 km. The cost per car to Village X is RM20 and Village Y is RM15. Determin
4.2 GRAPHICAL SOLUTION

We can use the graphical method to solve linear programming problems. It is
recommended for you to revise the topic on mathematical inequalities which plays
an important role in linear programming.
The straight line ax  by  c , with a, b and c as constants, partitions the Cartesian

plane into 3 parts:
(a) Those points (x, y) which satisfy the given equation ax  by  c ;
(b) Those points (x, y) which satisfy the inequality ax  by  c ; and
(c) Those points (x, y) which satisfy the inequality ax  by  c .
We call the first part as the boundary and the other two parts are called open half
planes. What is the feasible region? Let us look at the subtopic below.
4.2.1 Feasible Region in a Plane

A feasible region consists of all the feasible solutions; while a feasible solution is
a solution which satisfies all the constraints of the problem in linear programming.
Let us look at Figure 4.1 which shows a graph of the straight line 2x  3y  12 .
This line divides the coordinate plane into two regions:

(a)
2x  3y  (Unshaded)
12
(b) 2x  3y  12 (Shaded)
Here, we find that all the points that lie on the straight line satisfy the
equation 2x  3y  12. So, the points A ( 0,4) , B (6,0) and C (3,2) lying on the
straight line satisfy the equation.
Whereas, all the points that lie below or above the straight line satisfy the
inequality 2x  3y  or the inequality 2x  3y  12. For example, the point
12
D (2,1) that lies below the line satisfies the inequality 2x  3y  and E (4,4)
12
that lies above the straight line satisfies the inequality 2x  3y  12.
(Shaded)
Figure 4.1: The two regions: 2x  3y  (unshaded) and 2x  3y 

12 12
We can conclude that all points that lie on or below the straight line satisfy the
inequality 2x  3y  12, and all points that lie above the straight line satisfy the
inequality 2x  3y  12 .
Figure 4.2: Region

x  0 and y  0
Figure 4.2 shows the first quadrant of the coordinate plane and all points in this
quadrant satisfy both inequalities x  0 and y  0 .
Figure 4.3: Region 2x  3y  12

Figure 4.4: Region 2x  3y  12
The shaded region in Figure 4.3 represents points which satisfy the inequalities
2x  3y  x  and y  0 . Meanwhile, the shaded region in Figure 4.4
12, 0
represents points which satisfy the inequalities 2x  3y  12, x  0 and y  0 .
Let us consider the inequalities, 7x  3y  21, x  0 and y  0 . Figure 4.5 shows

the shaded region which represents points that satisfy the inequalities.
From Figures 4.3 and 4.5, by combining that two regions as shown in Figure 4.6,
in the shaded area, there are points which satisfy both inequalities 2x  3y  12 ,
7x  3y  21, and inequalities x  and y  0 . For example, point P (1, 2)
0
satisfies both these inequalities as it lies inside this region. Every point which lies
within the shaded region (including points located on the boundaries of the
region) is known as a feasible solution to the set of inequalities and the area is
called the feasible region.
Figure 4.5: Region 7x  3y  21
Figure 4.6: Region 7x  3y  21, 2x  3y  12 , x  0 and y  0

4.2.2 Determine the Optimal Solution

We have learnt that a feasible solution is a solution which satisfies all the
constraints, while the feasible region consists of all the feasible solutions of the
problem in linear programming. The point belonging to the feasible region with
the greatest objective function value (for maximisation problems) or with the
smallest objective function value (for minimisation problems) is the optimal
solution of the linear programming problem. Let us look at the examples below to
understand better.
Example 3
Let us use the scenario from Example 1 and apply the graphical method to solve
the problem.
Maximise z  5x  4y
Subject to (a) x  y  400 (b) 5x  2y  1100
(c) x  150 (d) y  360
(e) x0,y0
Find the respective feasible regions and the optimal solution.
Solution:
The intersection of the five closed half planes produce the shaded region in
Figure 4.7 and is the set of all points on or inside the polygon ABCDE, which is
quadrilateral. A region is called a feasible region and points A, B, C, D and E
are called extreme points or feasible solutions of the feasible region.
Here, the bounding lines of the given half planes are
x  y  400,
5x  2y  x and y  360.
1100, 150
The points of intersection are A, B, C, D and E.
Let us select a value for z. For example, 1000.
Therefore, 5x  4y  1000
This is the line FG in Figure 4.7
With the help of a ruler and a set-square, move the line

5x  4y  further
1000
away from the origin in the upward direction until it passes the final extreme
point, that is optimal point C (100,300) .
From Figure 4.7, we can see that the highest objective function value is on the
objective function line FG, which is located as right as possible from other
objective function lines but still lies inside the feasible region. Point C is such a
point and it is the intersection of constraints x  y  400 and 5x  2y  1100.
This point is called the optimal solution.
We solve the following simultaneous equations to determine the optimal

solution:
x  y  400
5x  2y  1100
By solving both the equations above, we

x*  100
get
y*  300
By substituting these values into the objective function, we obtain

z*  5(100)  4(300)
= RM1700
Therefore, the manufacturer should produce 100 units of toys and 300 units of
key chains per day in order to obtain a maximum profit of RM1700.
Figure 4.7: The bounding lines of the given half planes are x  y  400,
5x  2y  1100, x  150 andy  360
can also find the profits using points A, B, D and E but all these points give lower profits as compared to point C.
Point A (150,0) : The profit is 5(150)  4(0)= RM 750

Point B (150,175) Point D ( 40,360)
: The profit is 5(150)  4(175)  RM 1450
Point E ( 0,360)
: The profit is 5(40)  4(360) = RM 1640
: The profit is 5(0)  4(360)= RM 1440
Example 4
Minimisation problems can also be solved using the graphical method. Let us
use the scenario from example 2 to illustrate this method.
Minimise z  2x  y
Subject to: x  y  5
3x  y  9
5x  y 
10
x0,y0
Solution:
The feasible region of the problem above is shown in Figure 4.8. The line CD
represents the objective function 2x  y  10 . Note that the direction of the
objective function values decrease downwards from right to left. Value for z
can be selected, for example, 10. Then the objective function
becomes 2x  y  10 , that is line CD as shown in Figure 4.8. With the help of
a
ruler and a set-square, move the line 2x  y  nearer to the origin in the
10
downward direction until it passes the final extreme point, that is the optimal
point A( 2,3).
The optimal point is at the intersection of

xy and 3x  y  9 . By solving
5
these two equations simultaneously, we get x*  and y*  with optimal
2 3
value z*  7 . Therefore, the special diet should mix 2 units of ingredient A and 3
units of ingredient B to be prepared at a minimum cost of RM7.
We can also find the costs by using point B but the point gives a larger cost
compared to point A. By solving the two equations 3x  y  and 5x  y  10
9
simultaneously, we get point B( 0.5, with value z  8.5 . So, the cost is
7.5)
RM8.50 larger than a minimum cost RM7.
Figure 4.8: Minimise z  2x  y , subject to x  y  5, 3x  y  9 , 5x  y  10 and

x0 , y0
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Suria Bakery makes two sizes of banana cakes, regular and large.
Each cake requires three stages of production: mixing, baking and
packaging. The number of minutes required to complete each
process for a box of banana cake is as follows:
Mixing Baking Packaging

Regular 2 2 1
Large 1 3 1
The mixing division can handle up to 20 hours of work while the

baking division has 30 hours and the packaging division has 11
hours and 40 minutes of work respectively. The profit is RM3 per
regular box and RM2 per large box. The bakery wishes to maximise
profit.
(a) State the objective function and constraints algebraically.
(b) Draw a graph of the problem, shading the feasible region.
(c) Find the best possible combination of regular and large cakes
to produce and sell in order to realise maximum profit.
2. Pak Dollah wishes to prepare a special diet for his canteen. This diet
requires 240 kg of proteins, 150 kg of vitamins and 30 kg of fats per
student each month. He purchases two food products R and S which
cost RM4 and RM3 per kilogramme respectively. Each kilogramme
contains a certain number of units of protein, vitamin and fat as
shown below:
Product Protein Vitamin Fat

R 20% 25% 2%
S 30% 10% 6%
(a) State the objective function and constraints algebraically.

(b) Draw a graph of the problem, shading the feasible region.
(c) How does Pak Dollah minimise the cost? What is this cost?
4.3 SIMPLEX METHOD

In the previous sections, we showed how the graphical solution procedure can be
used to solve linear programming problems involving two decision variables.
However, most linear programming problems involve three or more variables to
be solved graphically and thus, an algebraic method is used to solve the problems.
This method is called the simplex method and was developed in 1947 by George
Dantzig.
4.3.1 Standard Form for Maximisation Problems

To illustrate the simplex method, we refer back to Example 1.
Maximise z  5x  4y
Subject to x  y  400 (1)
5x  2 y  1100 (2)
x  150 (3)
y  360 (4)
x0, y (5)
0
The first step in the simplex method is to convert the constraints from inequalities
to equations. Less than or equal to constraints (  ) are converted to equations by
adding a slack variable to each constraint. Slack variables represent unused
resources (in this example, slack variables represent unused amount of plastic).
Constraint (1) states that the total amount of plastic used is not necessarily the
same as the available amount. This means the available plastic may not be fully
utilised. Hence, we can introduce a slack variable; say s1 to the left hand side of
constraint (1) to represent the unused amount of plastic. So, constraint (1) can be
written in an equation form as x  y  s1  400 .
If, say
x  and y  0 , then s1  400 . This means if no toys or key chains are
0
produced in a day, then there are 400 slack or unused plastic in the factory. But
if s1  0 , the amount of plastic is fully utilised. Hence, varies between 0 and 400 .
s1
Similarly, we can introduce slack variables xs , s and s4

2 3
and (4) as follows: 5x  2 y  s2  1100 y
to constraints (2), (3)
Note that each constraint has its own slack variable and this slack variable does
not appear in the objective function. So, the problem can be rewritten in the
following form and is known as the standard form.
Maximise
z  5x  4y
Subject to
x  y  s1  400 (1)
5x  2 y  s2  (2)
1100 (3)
x  s3  150 (4)
y  s4  360
x, y, s1 , s2 , s3 , s4  0
The standard form contains all the constraints which is expressed in the equation
form and its entire variables are non-negative. The above constraint equations
were formed with four equations and six variables. Therefore, we need four
equations with four variables, to solve it. Hence, we have to assign the value 0 to
two variables.
Initial solution
Equations (1) to (4) may be rewritten as
s1  400  x  y
s2  1100  5x  2 y
s3  150  x
s4  360  y
Put
x  0 and y  0 , the above equations are easily solved.
The solutions are s1  400, s2  1100, s3  150, and s4  360 .
The variables x and y which are fixed at zero are known as non-basic variables
and variables s1 , s2 , s3 and s4 , are known as basic variables.
This solution is denoted by point 0 in Figure 4.7.
Improving the initial solution

We should examine whether this initial solution can be improved or not, to find
the maximum profits.
Let us look at the objective function

z  5x  4y .
The coefficient of x in the objective function is 5. This means if the value of x
increases by 1 unit and y remains the same, then profit z will increase by 5
units. So, x should be introduced into the solution and one of the slack
variables s1 , s2 , s3 , should be removed from the solution. Which one among the
s4
four slack variables s1 , s2 , s3 and s4 , should be replaced?
Now, consider s1  400  x  y (1)

s2  1100  5x  2 (2)
y (3)
s3  150  x (4)
s4  360  y
In equation (1): Put s1  0 , and y is fixed at 0, so x  400

In equation (2): Put s2  0 , and y is fixed at 0, so x  220
In equation (3): Put s3  0 , so x  150
There are three values of x in the new solutions: 400, 220 or 150 .
Put x  400 , and y is fixed at 0,

so s1  0, s2  900, s3  250 and s4  360
Both s2 and s3 have negative values and these violate the non-negativity
constraints of the problem.

so s  180, s  0, s  70 and s  360
1 2 3 4
This case also violates the non-negativity restriction.

so s1  250, s2  350, s3  0 and s4  360
This case is allowed. Then, we choose the smallest value of x .
By substituting
x  150  into equations (1), (2), and z , these equations can be
s3
expressed in terms of s3 and y as follows:
z  5(150  s3 )  4 y
s1  400  (150  s3 )  y
s2  1100  5(150  s3 )  2
y s3  150  x
s4  360  y
Put s3  0 , and y  0 ,
Then s1  250, s2  350, x  150 , s4  360and z  750
This solution is denoted by the point A (150,0) and the profit z has increased
from 0 to 750 in figure 4.7.
1  s2 into the equations s , x,

Substituting y  1100  750  1 and s4 , and
5s 2
3
 y
then put s2  0 , and s3  0 . The new solutions are s1  75, y  175, x  150 ,
s4  185 and z  1450 . This solution is denoted by the point B (150,175) and the
profit z has increased from RM 750 to RM1450 in Figure 4.7.
Using the same method, we obtained that profit has again increased from RM1450
to RM1700 which is denoted by the point C(100, 300) in Figure 4.7.
In summary, the simplex method starts at the origin 0, and moves along the
boundary of the feasible region until the optimum point is found. The aim of each
movement is to improve the objective function value.
4.3.2 Standard Form for Minimisation Problems

Let us consider again each constraint in Example 2.
Minimise z  2x 
Subject to: y x  y  5 (1)
3x  y  9 (2)
5x  y  (3)
10
x0,y0
The constraint x  y  5
states that the quantity on the left hand side x  y is
greater than or equal to 5. So, the new variable, say s1 , should be introduced to the
right hand side to represent the surplus quantity. The constraint can be expressed
in an equation as
x  y  5  s1 or x  y  s1  5
The variable s1 is called a surplus variable.

Similarly, we can introduce surplus variables s2 an d
s3 to constraints (2) and (3)
as follows: 3x  y  s2  9 and 5x  y  s3  10
So, the problem can be rewritten in the following form and is known as the
standard form.
Minimise
z  2x  y
Subject to:
x  y  s1  5 (1)
3x  y  s2  9 (2)
5x  y  s3  10 (3)
x, y, s1 , s2 , s3  0
In summary, a slack variable is introduced for the  constraint and a surplus

variable is introduced for the  constraint.
4.3.3 Construct Simplex Tableaux

The calculations of the simplex method are summarised in a sequence of tables
which are known as simplex tableaux. To illustrate the simplex tableaux, we will
again use Example 1. The objective function and constraint equations that are
involved are in the following form:
z  5x  4y  0 (Objective equation)
x  y  s1  400
5x  2 y  s2 
1100
(Constraint equations)
x  s3  150
y  s4  360
x, y, s1 , s2 , s3 , s4  0
These equations are put into a tabular form as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Simplex Tableaux
Basic z x y s1 s2 s3 s4 Solution
z 1 -5 -4 0 0 0 0 0 z equation
s1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 400 s1 equation
s2 0 5 2 0 1 0 0 1100 s2 equation
s3 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150 s3 equation
s4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 360
s4 equation
How do we know that the current solution is the best? If we examine the
z equation, we can see that variables x and y are negative (–5 and –4
respectively). This is equivalent to the positive coefficients in the original
objective function. Since the objective function is to be maximised, the value of
z can be increased by increasing the value of x or y .
In general, we choose the variable with the most negative coefficient.
4.3.4 Determine the Optimal Solution by Considering

Basic Feasible Solutions
The solution is not yet optimal and the non-basic variable with the largest
negative entry is selected to be the new basic variable. This is called the entering
variable. Therefore, for the initial Table 4.2, the variable x is selected as the
entering variable because of its smallest value in the z equation (that is -5).
However, which variable is chosen to leave the basis? For each basic variable row
where the entering variable column is positive, the ratio of the value in the
solution column to the positive entry is computed. The basic variable
corresponding to the smallest ratio is the leaving variable. The ratio is not
computed for the basic variables where the entries in the “entering variable”
column are negative or zero.
Pivot column is the column corresponding to the entering variable while pivot
row is the row corresponding to the leaving variable. Pivot entry or pivot
element is the entry corresponding to the intersection of the pivot row and pivot
column.
Table 4.3: Simplex Tableaux with Pivot

Entering variable
z 1 –5 –4 0 0 0 0 0
400
s1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 400  400
1
s2 0 5 2 0 1 0 0 1100 1100
5  220
150
s3 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150  150
1
s4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 360
Leaving variable Pivot element
The fourth row has the smallest ratio (that is 150), therefore variable s3 is the
leaving variable.
Forming new simplex tableaux

The values in the simplex Table 4.4 will change by replacing s3 with x .
(a) Pivot row: Divide all the elements in this row by the pivot element and label
this row with the entering variable.
Table 4.4: New Simplex Tableaux after Replacing S3 with x
R1 R2 R3 z 1 –5 –4 0 0 0 0 0
s1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 400
R4 R 5
s2 0 5 2 0 1 0 0 1100
Note that the “solution” column has a new value for x , i.e. 150.
x 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
s4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 360
(b) Other rows (including row z ):
Row z :
Old row z + 5(new pivot row) = new row z,
R1 + 5R4  R1
Row s :
1
Old row s1 – new pivot row = new row s1 ,
R2 – R4  R2
Row s :
2
Old row s2 – 5(new pivot row) = new row s2 ,
R3 – 5R4  R3
Row s :
4
The row remains unchanged since the entry in the pivot column is zero.
For Table 4.5, the variable y is selected as the entering variable because of
its negative value in the z equation (that is –4). This means the current
solution is not yet optimal.
Table 4.5: Simplex Tableaux after Selecting y as Entering Variable
Entering variable
z 1 0 –4 0 0 5 0 750
250
s1 0 0 1 1 0 –1 0 250  250
1
0 0 2 0 1 –5 0 350 350
s2  175
2
x 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150
360
s4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 360  360
1

The third row has the smallest ratio (that is 175), therefore variable s2
is the
leaving variable. This solution is denoted by point A (150,0) and
profit z has increased from 0 to 750 in Figure 4.7.
To obtain Table 4.6

The values in tableau 2 will change if s2 is replaced with y .
(a) Pivot row: Divide all the elements in this row by the pivot element (that is
2) and label this row with the entering variable, y .
z 1 0 –4 0 0 5 0 750 R1
s1 0 0 1 1 0 –1 0 250 R2
y 0 0 2 0 1 –5 0 350
R3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150 R4
s4 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 360
R5
Note that the “solution” column has a new value for y , i.e. 175.
(b) Other rows (including row z ):
Row z :
Old row z + 4 (new pivot row) = new row z,
R1 + 4R3  R1
Row s :
1
Old row s1 – new pivot row = new row s1 ,
R2 – R3  R3
Row x :
The row remains unchanged since the entry in the pivot column is zero.
Row s :
4
Old row s4 – new pivot row = new row
s4 ,
R5 – R3  R5
Table 4.6
For Table 4.6, variable
s3 is selected as the entering variable because of its
negative value in the z equation (that is –5). This means the current solution
is not yet optimal.
Table 4.6: Simplex Tableaux after using s3 as the Entering Variable

Entering variable
z 1 0 0 0 2 -5 0 1450
75
0 0 0 1 3 0 75  2  50
s1 1 3
2 2
y 0 0 1 0 1 0
5
2 2 175
x 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150 150
 150
1
s4 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 185 185
2  2  74
2 5
The second row has the smallest ratio (that is 50), therefore variable s1 is
the leaving variable. This solution is denoted by point B (150,175) and
profit z has increased from RM 750 to RM1450 in Figure 4.7.
To obtain Table 4.7

The values in Table 4.6 will change if s1 is replaced with s .
3
(a) Pivot row: Divide all the elements in this row by the pivot element (that is
3 ) and label this row with the entering variable,
s3 .
2
(b)(b)
z 1 0 0 0 2 -5 0 1450 R1
0 0 0 1 1 3 0
s3 2  2 2 75
3 23 23 3 2
1 1  50 R2
2
 
3
3
0 0 1 0 1 5 0
y 175 R3
2 2
x 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 150 R4
s4 0 0 0 0 1 5 1 185
2 2 R5
Note that the “solution” column has a new value s3 , i.e. 50.
for
Row z :
Old row z + 5(new pivot row) = new row z,
R1 + 5R2  R1
Row y :
5
Old row  (new pivot row) = new row y,
2
y
5
R3  R2  R3
2
Row x :
Old row x – new pivot row = new row x,
R4 – R2  R4
Row s :
4
Old row 5
s4 – (new pivot row) = new row s ,
4
2
R5 – 5 R2  R5
2
Table 4.8: Solution to the Problem
z 1 0 0 10 1 0 0 1700
3 3
s3 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 50
3 3
y 0 0 1 5 0 0 300
1
3 3
x 0 1 0 2 1 0 0 100
3 3
s4 0 0 0 5 1 0 1 60
3 3
We obtained that profit has again increased from RM1450 to RM1700

which is denoted by point C(100, 300) in Figure 4.7.
This table is optimal since there are no more negative value entries in the
z row.
Now, let us practice with some exercise questions.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
Solve the following problem using the simplex method:
Maximise z  6x  8y Subject to: 30x  20y  300 5x  10 y  110

x  0, y  0
Maximise z  x1  4x2  5x3 Subject to:3x1  6x2  3x3  22 x1  2x2  3x3  14

2x1  2x2  14
x1 , x 2 , x 3  0
 A technique used to solve linear optimisation problems is called Linear

Programming (LP).
 A linear programming problem has three components: Decision variables, a
linear objective function to be maximised or minimised, and a set of linear
constraints.
 The relationship between the variables involved in achieving the objective is
expressed in the form of a mathematical function called objective function.
 Conditions that limit the achievement of the objective are known as
constraints.
 We can use the graphical method to solve linear programming problems.
 The straight line
ax  by  c , a, and c as constants, partitions the
with b
Cartesian plane into three parts:
(a) Points (x, y) which satisfy the given equation ax  by  c ;
(b) Points (x, y) which satisfy the inequality ax  by  c ; and
(c) Points (x, y) which satisfy the inequality ax  by  c .
 We call the first part as the boundary and the other two parts as open half
planes.
 The feasible region consists of all the feasible solutions.
 A feasible solution is a solution that satisfies all the constraints of the
problem in linear programming.
 The point belonging to the feasible region with the greatest objective function
value (for maximisation problems) or with the smallest objective function
value (for minimisation problems) is the optimal solution for the linear
programming problem.
 The variables x and y are known as non-basic variables and variables
s1 , s2 , and s , are known as basic variables.
4
s3
 A slack variable is introduced for the  constraint and a surplus variable is

introduced for the  constraint.
 An algebraic method used to solve linear programming problems is called the
simplex method.
 The calculations of the simplex method are summarised in a sequence of

tables which are known as simplex tableaux.
 The optimal solution is obtained if all the non-basic variables have non-
negative entries and all the basic variables have zero entries in the z equation.
Meanwhile, the solution is not yet optimal and the non-basic variable with the
most negative entry is selected to be the new basic variable that is the
entering variable.
 For each basic variable row where the entering variable column is positive, the
ratio of the value in the solution column to the positive entry is computed. The
basic variable corresponding to the smallest ratio is the leaving variable. The
ratio is not computed for the basic variables where the entries in the “entering
variable” column are negative or zero.
 Pivot column is the column corresponding to the entering variable while the
pivot row is the row corresponding to the leaving variable. Pivot entry or
pivot element is the entry corresponding to the intersection of the pivot row
and pivot column.
Basic variables Objective function

Boundary Open half planes
Constraints Optimal solution
Entering variable Pivot column
Feasible region Pivot element
Feasible solutions Pivot entry
Graphical method Pivot row
Leaving variable Simplex method
Linear programming Simplex tableaux
Maximise Slack variable
Minimise Surplus variable
Non-basic variables Variable
Chin, S. W., Khor, S. C., Leow, S. K., & Poh, A. H. (2003). STPM Mathematics S
Ignizio, J. P. (1982). Linear programming in single and multiple objective systems.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mokhtar S. B., John, J. J., & Hanif D. S. (1977). Linear programming and network
flows. Canada: John Wiley & Sons.
Richard B. D. (1991). Introduction to linear programming: Applications and
extensions. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
Soon, C. L., Tong, S. F., & Lau, T. K. (2007). Longman Pre-U text STPM
Mathematics S Paper 2. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.
Tan, C. E., & Khor, S. C. (2006). Additional Mathematics Form 5. Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia: Pustaka Kamza.
Topic  Network
5 Planning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain network, activities and events to students;
Give examples of real-world situations where students can apply network planning process;
Construct and interpret networkplanningbasedonruleson construction of network;
Produce critical path tables and completion time diagrams;
Identify Earliest Start Time (EST) and Latest Start Time (LST) based on completion time diagra
Predict floats or extra time a project has.
 INTRODUCTION
Network planning, a field in mathematics, is a study on a series of activities and
events that lead to a completed project. These series of activities and events linked
together in mathematical presentation is called a network. This topic will start
with definitions of terms and jargons in network. Then, we will move on to
construction and interpretation of network and identifying critical path and float in
network.
You will then be introduced to the application of network in real life such as
finding the shortest and longest time taken to complete a project and applying
network planning concepts in problem solving.
124  TOPIC 5 NETWORK PLANNING
It is very important for teachers to understand the content and teaching methods to
teach effectively. By the end of this topic, you should be able to identify problems
faced by students in learning network planning and suggestions to overcome the
problems.
The purpose of this module is to develop activities that will enable your students
to better appreciate and understand some aspects of network planning that are
consistent with the principles and standards for the Form Six syllabus. The
module includes definition, construction, interpretation and application of network
in mathematical, business, economic and other relevant areas.
Teachers should pose two sets of knowledge to teach effectively:

(a) Deep and flexible understanding in subject matters.
(b) Teaching knowledge – teachers must be able to see how sub-topics connect
to each other and relate to everyday life.
These will be useful for teachers in delivering the knowledge to students. It will
also help teachers to identify misconceptions and solutions to the misconceptions.
You are strongly encouraged to use mind mapping, graphs and visuals to deliver
the ideas better.
5.1 NETWORK
Teachers can start by defining a network as a set of activities and events that have
a clear start and finish or a specific aim. This set of activities for the starting point
of a project are connected to each other until the finishing point and is collectively
called a network.
Network planning is the process of managing and planning a project to ensure the optimal level.
Let us look at an example of a project i.e. building a house. In order to ensure

successful completion of this project, the following activities need to be executed:
(a) Drawing a plan;
(b) Hiring a contractor;
(c) Building a house;
TOPIC 5 NETWORK PLANNING  125
(d) Approval for the house safety; and

(e) Completed house.
Now, draw a diagram that can connect the activities together as per Figure 5.1.
This is what we call a network. Network planning is the process of making sure
the project is completed in optimal time within the budgeted cost.
Figure 5.1: Activities involved in building a house
In your lessons, ask students to provide other examples of a project and list the
activities that need to be executed.
5.1.1 Activities, Events and Network

In this subtopic, you are introduced to concepts and definitions of activities,
events and network.
An activity is an operation which consume resources and time, that must be completed for a project.
Figure 5.1 showed some examples of activities such as drawing the house plan,
buying raw materials and hiring a contractor.
An activity is represented by arrow points from left to right. The direction and
length of an arrow do not have any meaning and the activities are labelled by
numbers. Figure 5.2 shows an example of presentation of activity A.
Figure 5.2: Representations for activity A

Event is a point in time, which shows the start or the end of an activity or a
group of activities.
Each event has at least a preceding activity (activity that occurred before) and a
succeeding activity (activity that occurs after except for start and end event).
An event is represented by a circle or a node.
Figure 5.3: Representation of a node
Event represents the start and end point of an activity. Activity A can be converted
into an event as follows:
Figure 5.4: Example of a complete activity
In layman terms, teachers can explain to students that events are activities that
really take place or are completed. For example, the activity of drawing a plan
becomes an event when a plan is produced. A tail event is when the drawing starts
and a head event is when a plan is produced.
In some cases, there can be more than one activity having the same tail or head
event.
Figure 5.5: Some activities may share the same tail or head event
In cases where more than one activity lead to an event, the event is not completed
until all activities are completed. For example, in order to start building a house,
two activities must be completed: drawing a plan and buying raw materials. After
these two activities are completed, then an event is completed. For easy reference,
events are labelled with numbers starting from left to right as in the example
below:
Figure 5.6: How events are labelled
From Figure 5.6, we can describe that activity A is known as activity 1-2 and
activity B is known as activity 2-3. Event 2 is the head of activity A and also a tail
of activity B.
Reminder: Teachers are strongly advised to provide students with real-life

examples at every point for students’ easy understanding.
ence of activities and events which are illustrated graphically to show the interrelation among the various activiti
5.1.2 Construction and Interpretation of a Network

The next step is to guide students to construct a network. Once students are able to
construct a network themselves, teachers can continue by giving examples and
teaching students to interpret the network given.
Start teaching how to construct a network by introducing the rules and rationale
for each rule.
(a) Rules on construction of network
(i) A network must have a single starting event and an ending event. This
is because a project can only start at one time and it must have an
ending. A network is not formed until the project is completed. As
such, every network must have a unanimous ending event.
(ii) Each event (except a start event) must have one activity before it. Each
event (except an end event) must have an activity after it. A network is
a series of activities, so it should have a continuous connection except
for a start and an end event.
(iii) Preceding activities can begin only after prerequisite activities are
completed. One activity must end before a new activity begins.
(iv) Two activities cannot have the same tail event and head event.
Below is the example:
Figure 5.7: Example of an incorrect diagram
Figure 5.7 presents A depending on B and at the same time, B

depending on A. This is not possible as a preceding activity has to be
completed before another activity can happen (see rule 3).
(v) “Loops” (a sequence of activities that starts and ends at the same
event) is not allowed. See example below:
Figure 5.8: A loop is not allowed
After students are aware of the rules in constructing a network,

teachers can start constructing it.
There are two steps in network planning:

 Identify all activities needed for a project; and
 Prepare the precedent table.
The activities can be tabulated in a table as shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Activity Table

The next step is to combine all the sub-networks from the table.
Explain to students how steps 1 to 3 start with the same event and can
be presented as below:
 Combination of steps 1 to 3. Explain to students how step 1 to 3
that starts with the same event are presented:
Figure 5.9: Steps 1 to 3
 Combination of steps 4 and 5:
Figure 5.10: Additional steps 4 and 5 added to the first three steps
Activity A precedes step D and ends with activity G. Activity B

precedes activity E and ends with activity G.
 Combination of steps 6 to 8:
Figure 5.11: The diagram after the addition of steps 6 to 8
In Figure 5.11, activity C precedes activity F, thus F is connected to

the event for activity C and ends with activity H.
Activities F and G precede activity H so they are connected to activity

H. Finally, we number the start event with 0 as the starting point and the
end event 6 (in this case) as the ending point. From this example, we
can see that there are 6 events in this network to complete the project.
se in class to apply all network concepts. Direct students to construct a network based on your example. The nex
5.2 CRITICAL PATH

In this subtopic, we will discuss critical paths. Students should be able to identify
the critical activities, critical paths and calculate the minimum completion times.
5.2.1 Identifying Critical Paths

Teachers should start this topic by giving an overall picture of the topic. This
topic emphasises two other important factors in project planning: time and cost.
Time is crucial because the time taken to complete a project will directly
determine the cost involved. Therefore, it is very important to obtain information
on the duration of each activity. This duration will also determine the minimum
time taken to complete the entire project.
Then, define all terms and concepts in the topic by explaining the meanings and
definitions.
Table 5.2: Definition of Path, Critical Path and Minimum Completion Time
Terms/Concepts Definition
Path Continuous line leading from the first event and connecting
adjacent activities until the last event.
Critical Path This is a sequence of activities which forms the longest path
between the start and finish event of a project. All activities on a
critical path are known as critical activities. A delay in any of
the critical activities will increase the project duration. A
network may have more than one critical path.
Minimum The minimum completion time for a project is the shortest time
Completion Time required to complete it. The critical path of a network gives the
shortest time in which the entire project can be completed.
Critical paths and completion time diagrams can be created by adding duration to
the activity table.
Let us look at the example in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Critical Path Table
Activity Preceding Activity Duration (Weeks)

A – 3
B – 1
C B 2
D A 3
E A 4
F C, D 7
G E 5
H F, G 2
From the critical path table (Table 5.3), we can construct a network together with
the durations as follows:
Figure 5.12: Diagram based on Table 5.3
The path for the network above can be tabulated into a table as shown below.
Table 5.4: Path for Network
Path Length of path (weeks)

B-C-F-H 1 + 2 + 7 + 2 = 12
A-D-F-H 3 + 3 + 7 + 2 = 15
A-E-G-H 3 + 4 + 5 + 2 = 14
The critical path is the longest path i.e. A-D-F-H and the minimum time to
complete the project is 15 weeks. Critical activities are activities A, D, F and H.
5.2.2 Calculating Completion Time

Two other concepts in calculating completion time are earliest start time (EST)
and latest start time (LST).
Table 5.5: The Meaning of EST and LST
Earliest Start Time (EST) Latest Start Time (LST)

Earliest possible time the next activity Latest possible time at which all the
can start. preceding activities must be completed
without increasing the duration of the project.
First, you have to describe the diagram to the students.

Figure 5.13: Completion time diagram
The three sections of a completion time diagram are as follows:

(a) X = Event number
(b) Y = EST of an event X, that is the earliest time the next activity can start.
(c) Z = LST of an event X, that is the latest time that a preceding activity must
be completed.
After describing the diagram, explain to students using numbers. Below is the
example for EST:
Figure 5.14: EST in a completion time diagram
EST for event 3 can be calculated in the following way:
Y = EST for event 2 + duration of activity K

=4+5
=9
Then, continue with an example of LST:
Figure 5.15: LST in a completion time diagram
The value of Z can be calculated as follows:
Z = LST event 3 – duration of activity K

=8–2
=6
Continue your examples with other scenarios such as:

(a) EST with more than 1 preceding event.
(b) LST with more than 1 head event.
(c) Situation where EST = LST.
In the myLMS forum, post your suggestions and comment on suggestions from others. Then, decide which is th
SELF-CHECK 5.1
List the steps involved in network planning.
Why is it important to identify a critical path? What conclusion can we derive by identifying the following:
Critical path;
Earliest completion time; and
Latest completion time.
5.3 FLOATS
Once students have mastered the concepts of network and critical path, you can
introduce the last subtopic: Floats. Teachers can describe floats as the extra or
spare time a project has. However, activities in a critical path do not have floats as
critical activities must be completed on time. Thus, floats are spare time
associated with non-critical activities. There are three types of floats:
(a) Total float;
(b) Free float; and
(c) Independent float.
Each activity can be better explained in a diagram so that students can visualise
each type. Now consider Figure 5.16 as your example. From Figure 5.16, we can
infer that activity P has:
(a) Earliest Tail Time (ETT) of 8 days – Earliest Start Time, EST
(b) Latest Tail Time (LTT) of 10 days – Latest Start Time, LST
(c) Earliest Head Time (EHT) of 15 days – Earliest Finishing Time, EFT
(d) EHT is the earliest start time for the head event.
(e) Latest Head Time (LHT) of 19 days – Latest Finishing Time, LFT
(f) LHT is the latest start time for the head event.
Now, let us describe float calculation to students using Figure 5.16.
Figure 5.16: Floats
(a) Total float
tal float is the amount of time an activity or a path of activities can be delayed without affecting the overall proj
Total float is calculated as follows:
Total Float = Latest head time – Earliest tail time – Activity duration
(Total float = LHT–ETT–t)
where LHT is the latest head time for activity P, ETT is the earliest start
time for the tail event and t is the duration of the activity. Thus,
Total Float = 19 – 8 – 3 = 8 days
Teachers can explain to students that for activity P, we have a total of 8 days
of spare time to complete the project if any need arises.
Total float is the most important type of float because it involves the overall
project duration.
(b) Free Float
e amount of time an activity can be delayed without affecting the beginning of the subsequent activity at its earl
However, it may affect the float of a preceding activity. Thus, free float is
calculated as follows:
Free float = Earliest head time – Earliest tail time – Activity duration
(Free float = EHT–ETT–t)
where EHT is the earliest head time, ETT is the earliest start time for the tail
event and t is the duration of the activity. Thus, free float for activity P is:
Free float = 15 – 8 – 3 = 4 days
(c) Independent float
n activity can be delayed when all activities that follow are completed as early as possible and all the preceding a
As such, a float of either a preceding or succeeding activity is not affected

by the independent float. Independent float is calculated as follows:
Independent float = Earliest head time – Latest tail time – Activity duration
(Independent float = EHT–LTT–t)
EHT is the earliest head time, LTT is the latest start time for the tail event
and t is the activity duration. If the value is negative, the independent float is
considered zero. Thus, the independent float for activity P is:
Independent float = 15 – 10 – 3 = 2 days.
Again, using Figure 5.13, elaborate to students how each type of float is
calculated. For effective teaching, use diagrams so that students can
visualise the concepts.
5.3
Internet for one example on critical path analysis. Discuss with another learner the various terms involved in a n
 Network planning in the context of the mathematics field is a study on a series

of activities and events that lead to a completed project.
 A network is a set of activities and events that have a clear start and finish or a
specific aim.
 An activity is an operation which consumes resources and time. An activity

needs to be completed for a project to be considered successful.
 An event is a point in time, which shows the start or the end of an activity or a
group of activities.
 A network is a sequence of activities and events which are illustrated

graphically to show the interrelation among the various activities and events
of a project.
 There are six rules that needs to be adhered to when constructing a network.
 A network planning consists of two steps – identifying all activities needed for
a project and preparing a precedent table.
 Time and cost are two important factors in project planning.
 A critical path is a sequence of activities which form the longest path between
the start and finish event of a project.
 Earliest start time (EST) and latest start time (LST) are two concepts in
calculating completion time
 Floats are extra or spare time a project has. There are three types of floats;
total, free and independent floats.
Activities Independent floats

Critical path Latest finishing time (LFT)
Earliest finishing time (EFT) Latest head time (LHT)
Earliest head time (EHT) Latest start time (LST)
Earliest start time (EST) Latest tail time (LTT)
Earliest tail time (ETT) Loop
Event Minimum completion time
Floats Network
Free floats Tail event
Head event Total floats
A. Shukor A. Rahman. (1996). Matematik matrikulasi, jilid 2. Shah Alam,

Malaysia: Penerbit Fajar Bakti.
Amran Hussin. (1993). Matematik tulen pra-universiti. Shah Alam, Malaysia:
Heng, H. H. (2001). O Level additional mathematics. Singapore: Pearson
Education.
Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia. (2002). Mathematics syllabus and specimen papers.
Mohd Kidin Shahran. (2001). Statistik perihalan dan kebarangkalian. Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Topic  Permutation
6 and
Combination
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the concept of permutation;
Determine the number of permutations of n different objects;
Calculate the number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time;
Identify the number of permutations for arranging n objects containing a group of similar ob
Plan the steps on determining the number of permutations of arranging n different objects i
Explain the concept of combination; and
Apply the concept of combination and conditional selection.
 INTRODUCTION
Can you work out how many ways there are to stack four different books on top
of each other?
In this topic, we will be able to find out how easy it is to determine the solutions
to solve the problems.
142  TOPIC 6 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION
Explore the difference between permutation and combinations using the following
web links. You can also enhance your understanding by comparing permutations
and combinations.
http://www.mathsisfun.com/combinatorics/combinations-permutations.html
http://betterexplained.com/articles/easy-permutations-and-combinations/
http://www.mathplanet.com/education/pre-algebra/probability-and-
statistic/combinations-and-permutations
6.1 PERMUTATION
When we are given a set of objects, we may wish to arrange them in various
orders. When all the objects are different, the number of arrangements is easy to
obtain. For example, three students, A, B and C, are asked to sit on a set of three
chairs. We may obtain the number of arrangements as follows.
The first can be A, B or C. There are three possible ways of filling the first chair.
After filling the first chair, we now have only two chairs to choose from, having
used up the first chair for the first student. Thus, we have two ways to fill the
second chair. After filling the first and second chairs, we now have only one way
to fill the remaining chair. Thus, we have a total of 3 21 or six ways to fill the
three chairs. You can list all the possible ways of seating as follows:
ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA.
There are six possible arrangements. Each possible arrangement is known as a

permutation. In each permutation, the arrangement is different. The order of the
students is important.
rmutation is an arrangement of a group of objects in a particular order. The order of the objects is important.
TOPIC 6 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION  143
The number of ways of filling the three chairs = 3 21= 6

We have just used the Multiplication Rule:
If one event can occur in r ways, a second event can occur in s ways, a third
event can occur in t ways and so on, then there are r  s t ... ways of
performing all the events successively.
ample 1
listing all the possible arrangements, find the number of:
o-letter words, and
ree-letter words.
at you can form from the letters of the word KITE. In each case, determine the number of words that begin with
ution:
ways
mber of possible arrangements for two-letter words = 4312 words. The words are: KI, KT, KE, IT, IE, IK, TE, TI, T
s begin with vowels E and I.
(b)
4 ways3 ways 2 ways

The number of possible arrangements for three-letter words = 432  24
words.
rds are: KIT, KTI, KEI, KIE, KET, KTE, ITK, IKT, IET, ITE, IKE, IEK, TEI, TIE, TKI, TIK, TKE, TEK, EKI, EIK, ETI, EIT, EKT, ET
words begin with vowels E and I. 232=12
Below is an activity you can execute in your class.
e:
number of permutations for n different objects.
ers
organised list.
ner.
na and orange on the index cards.
t favourite fruit out of the three. Then choose your second most favourite and your least favourite fruit out of al
Record this arrangement.

Change the order of the fruit. Record this arrangement.
(f)Continue rearranging the cards until you have found all the possible arrangements.
You can also draw a tree diagram. Follow the steps below to draw a tree diagram
Work with a partner.
Copy and complete the tree diagram below.
Discuss in the class to answer: How many different ways are there to arrange the three fruits?
6.1.1 Permutation of “n” Different Objects

If we have n distinct objects that we need to arrange according to an order, there
are n ways of filling the first position, (n–1) ways of filling the second position,
(n–2) ways of filling the third position and so on until the last position.
Thus, there are n (n–1)(n–2)...3.2.1 ways of arranging n objects. We read it as

permutation of n objects and represent it by nPn. In symbol, nPn. = n (n–1) (n-
2)...3.2.1. Because the formula nPn appears quite frequently, we usually use n! to
represent it and this is read as n factorial.
Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a row is nPn  n!

Note: Factorial notation

0! = 1
1! = 1
2! = 21
3! = 3 21
4! = 4 321
5! = 5 4 3 21
In general: n! n(n 1)(n  2)...3

21
Example 2
In how many ways can the letters CHAIR be arranged?
Solution:
Given five different letters taken five at a time, the number of permutations
= 5 P5  5!  120 .
SELF-CHECK 6.1
How many six-digit numbers can you form from the digits 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8 without repeating any digit?
6.1.2 Permutation of “r” from “n” Objects

It is not always necessary that, given n objects, we must arrange all of them.
Frequently, we only wish to arrange a smaller number of the objects. Let us
suppose we only wish to arrange r objects, where r  n .
From the reasoning above, we know there are n ways of filling the first position,
(n –1) ways of filling the second position and (n – 2) ways for the third position.
For the rth position, we should have (n – r +1) ways to fill it. So the number of
ways to arrange r objects will be n(n 1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) .
For example, if we have eight objects and we wish to arrange only five objects out
of these eight objects, then the number of ways for the positions are:
Position 1 8 ways
Position 2 (8–1) or 7 ways
Thus, the number of ways of arranging five out of eight objects is 87654.
8
Symbolically, we can write this as P5= 8  7  6  5  4 = 6,720.
If we multiply both sides of the equation 8 P5by 3!, we obtain the simpler formula:
8 8!
P5 
3!
Number of permutations for r objects from n different objects is:

n! = n(n 1)(n  2)...(n  r  1)
n Pr 
(n  r)!
le 3
any six-digit numbers can be formed from the nine digits 1, 2, 3,...,9 if every digit can be used only once?
n:
he digits are all different, we have nine ways to choose the first digit, eight ways to choose the second and so on
9! 9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2 1
The total number of ways = 96P=
(9  6)! 3  2 1
= 362,880
6
= 60,480
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Find the number of permutations of selecting three letters from five different letters A, B, C, D and E.
6.1.3 Permutation when There are Similar Objects

If there are similar objects, any rearrangement of these objects will not constitute
any new arrangement. Let us look at the case where we have n objects, r of which
are of the same type and the rest are different. If we assume the r objects are
different, we will then have n! ways of arranging all the objects. But as the r
objects are similar, they have r! ways of arrangements among themselves and they
are the same. So we n!
ways of arranging the n objects.
have r!
Number of permutations for arranging n objects containing a group of r1 similar objects, a group o
n! r1!r2 !r3!...
Example 4
How many permutations can be formed from the letters of the word
STATISTICS?
Solution:
There are 10 letters with 3 letters S, 3 letters T, 2 letters I, 1 letter A and 1 letter
C.
The number of permutations is

10!  50, 400
3!3!2!
SELF-CHECK 6.3
How many permutations can be formed from the letters of these words:
MINIMUM
COMMITTEE
6.1.4 Permutation In a Circle

There is no starting point when objects are placed in a circular arrangement. For
example, let us say we arrange five cards labelled P, Q, R, S, and T in the
arrangements PQRST, TPQRS, STPQR, RSTPQ and QRSTP. These are
technically the same in a circle. Thus, we will have only 4! instead of 5! ways.
Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a circle, if the

positions are not marked in any way, is n  1!
tions of arranging n differentobjects in a circle, when clockwise and anti-clockwise arrangements are consider
5
ny ways are there to arrange eight students at a round table?
ny ways are there to arrange eight students, with two of them being identical twins dressed alike, at a round tab
umber of arrangements is (8 1)!  7!  5,040 ways
(b)The number of arrangements is 5, 040  2,520 ways

2!
a child are to be seated at a round table with seven seats. Find the number of ways they may be arranged if the
nd
our tutor online or face-to-face.

6.1.5 Solving Problems

In many cases of permutations, there are some inherent conditions imposed. We
have to analyse the situations to decide on the number of possible ways. As the
conditions may be varied and complex, we need to be careful to ensure that we are
doing the right calculations.
Example 6
How many ways can five people be seated in a car if:
(a) All of them can drive?
(b) Only one of them can drive?
(c) Only two people can drive?
Solution:
(a) The five of them can be arranged in any way since all can drive, thus
giving 5! ways.
(b) Only one person can drive and must occupy the driver seat. The other four
people can be arranged in 4! ways.
(c) We have 2! ways of choosing the driver since two persons can drive.
After fixing the driver, the other driver can be arranged just like the other
three. So there are 2!4! ways to arrange them.
l be arranged in a row. If there are four storybooks, two novels and two fiction books, find the number of differe
ooks in a row; and
must be arranged side by side.
Example 7
How many ways can five boys and two girls be arranged in a row if
(a) The two girls must be side by side?
(b) The two girls must not be side by side?
Solution:
(a) The two girls can be grouped into one unit and there are 2! ways of
arranging them. GG B B B B B
Now, we have six objects (i.e. five boys and one unit containing two girls)
to be arranged in a row. These can be arranged in 6! ways.
Therefore, the number of arrangements = 2! 6! = 1,440
(b) Total number of arrangements without restrictions = 7!
Number of arrangements with both girls side by side = 2! 6!
So, number of arrangements with both girls not side by side
 7! 2!6!
 3,600
SELF-CHECK 6.6
How many ways can the word “EXPECT” be arranged if both the letters
E must be separated?
6.2 COMBINATION
Imagine that you are a sepak takraw coach. You have four talented school players:
P, Q, R and S. How many possible selections of two students from the four
players can you make?
You could list 12 possible ways of selecting the two students.
PQ, QP  Combination 1
PR, RP  Combination 2
PS, SP  Combination 3
QR, RQ  Combination 4
RS, SR  Combination 5
PS, SP  Combination 6
Can you see that some of the groups comprise the same two students in different
order? Is the order of students important?
In the first row, students PQ and QP are really the same selection. They are all
known as one combination. Each row in the list is equivalent to one combination.
Therefore, there are only six possible combinations.
A combination is a group of objects where the order of objects selected is immaterial.

IVITY 6.2
ning Outcome:
etermine the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n
rent objects.
erials:
index cards
n writing papers
edures:
k with a partner.
e the names of the four pizza toppings on the index cards: pepperoni, mushroom, sausage and green pepper.
ct any pair of cards. Make a list of all the possible combinations. Note that the order of toppings is not importan
is considered the same as
Record all the combinations.
Discuss this question in class: How many different combinations are possible?
Refer to Activity 6.2. In how many ways can two items be chosen from a list of
four items? Let us call the menu items A, B, C and D and take two items at a time.
AB AC AD BC BD CD
BA CA DA CB DB DC
From the list, count only the different arrangements. Arrangements AB and BA are
the same in this case: AB AC AD BC BD CD
So, there are six ways to choose two items from a list of four items. In general,
when we select r objects out of n distinct objects, where the order is not
considered, then it is the combination of n objects taking r at a time. We designate
this by nC r.
The number of combinations of r objects from n different objects is

nP n!
n C r r 
r! r!(n  r)!
8
number of possible netball teams which consist of 7 players that can be formed from 14 players taking part in a s
etball team has seven players, a team can be formed by selecting seven players from 14 players in any order.
Therefore, the number of possible teams = 14C7  3, 432
from a box containing four different blue balls and five different yellow balls. How many ways can the three balls
6.2.1 Combination and Conditional Selection

Some problems regarding combinations may involve selecting objects under
certain conditions. These conditions or restrictions must be taken into account
before you use the formula to calculate the number of possible combinations.
We are to choose a team of six prefects, with the condition that there should be more males than females in th
7! = 7
In this case, the combination is 7C
6
1! 6!
Case 2: 5 males and a female

In this case, the combination is 7C  4C  7!  4!  21 4  84
5 1
2!5! 1! 3!
Case 3: 4 males and 2 females

7!  4!
In this case, the combination is 7C4  4C 2  35 6  210
3!4!2! 2!
e combination in each case is independent of the others. So the total number of choices is 7 + 84 + 210 = 301.
representatives chosen among seven Form 5 students, four Form 4 students and the teacher in charge. How m
 A permutation is an arrangement of a group of objects in a particular order.

The order of the objects is important.
 Multiplication Rule: If one event can occur in r ways, a second event can
occur in s ways, a third event can occur in t ways and so on, then there are
r  s t ...ways of performing all the events successively.
 Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a row is n P n n!
 Number of permutations for r objects from n different objects is

n n!
Pr  = n(n 1)(n  2)...(n  r  1)
(n 
r)!
 Number of permutations for arranging n objects containing a group of r1

similar objects, a group of r2 similar objects, a group of r3 similar objects and
so on is n! r1!
r2 !r3!...
 Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a circle, if the

positions are not marked in any way is n  1!
 Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a circle, with

clockwise and anti-clockwise arrangements are considered the same, is
(n  1)!
2
 A combination is a group of objects where the order of objects selected is

immaterial. The number of combinations of r objects from n different objects
is
n
P n! r!
Cr r 
n
r! (n  r)!
Anti-clockwise arrangements Independent

Arrangement Inherent conditions
Assume Multiplication rule
Clockwise arrangements Order
Combination Permutation
Constitute Restrictions
Factorial Select
Immaterial Tree diagram
Chin, S. W., Khor, S. C. , Leow, S. K., & Poh, A. H. (2003). STPM Mathematics S
Glencoe. (2001). Mathematics applications and connections course 2. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill.
NY: McGraw-Hill.
Mathematics S paper 2. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.
Topic  Probability
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain to students the basic concept of probability;
Demonstrate the application of techniques of counting;
Calculate the probability of an event;
Show the steps on representing a set using a diagram;
Illustrate the meaning of mutually exclusive events using examples;
Define independent and dependent events; and
Demonstrate solving real world problems by applying probability laws and probability tree.
 INTRODUCTION
Will a person throwing a dart hit the bull’s eye at least once in 10 throws?
You can determine the answer to this question if you understand the concept of
probability. We encounter many activities with more than one possible result or
outcome. We can also predict the possibility of an event occurring by applying the
theory of probability.
160  TOPIC 7 PROBABILITY
7.1 BASIC PROBABILITY

A dice is thrown and the result is observed. This is an experiment because it is an
activity that we carry out so that we can observe its results or outcomes. In this
subtopic, we will learn how to describe the sample space of an experiment and to
determine the number of outcomes of an event.
7.1.1 Basic Concepts of Probability

From the experiment above, there are six possible outcomes. The set of all the
possible outcomes is called sample space. We use the letter S to denote the
sample space of a certain experiment, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6}.
There are six possible outcomes for sample space S. This can be written as:
n(S) = 6. Any subset of the sample space is an event. An event is usually denoted
by a capital letter. For example, let us say X is the event of selecting an odd
number. Then, X is a subset of S, X = {1, 3, 5}, then n(X) = 3.
Example 1
A box contains 2 blue balls, 3 green balls and 4 red balls. A ball is picked at
random from the box. List the sample space for this experiment. If X is the
event of red balls, determine the number of sample space and possible
outcomes.
Solution:
Let B represent blue balls, G represent green balls and R represent red balls.
Sample space, S = {B1, B2, G1, G2, G3, R1, R2, R3, R4}
Event X = {R1, R2, R3, R4 }, therefore, n(S) = 9 and n(X) = 4
s picked at random from the bag. List the sample space for this experiment. If X is the event of yellow pens, dete
TOPIC 7 PROBABILITY  161
7.1.2 Techniques of Counting

We have already learned that permutation is the arrangement of some or all the
objects by taking into consideration the order of the objects mentioned.
Combination, on the other hand, is the selection of some objects from the set
without considering the order and arrangement of the objects. For example, the
number of permutations for three letters, P, Q and R, taking two letters at a time,
is 6. The arrangements obtained are as follows: PQ, QP, PR, RP, QR, QP.
The number of two-letter combinations from the three letters P, Q and R, is only
three: PQ, PR and QR. Note that PQ and QP are two different permutations but
they are considered as one combination only. Similarly, PR and RP are considered
as one combination, and QR and RQ are one combination as well. The following
are some of the results of permutation.
Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a line is n

Pn ,
which is n!
Example 2
In how many ways can the three letters A, B and C be arranged?
In how many ways can the six numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 be arranged?
Solution:
The three letters A, B and C is arranged in 3! = 6 ways (i.e. ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, and CBA
Number of permutations for numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 is 6 P
6 = 6!= 720
Number of permutations for r objects from n different objects is n Pr , where

n!= n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1)
n Pr 
(n  r)!
e applying for two vacancies as prefect and assistant prefect. Find the total number of ways of filling up the two
Solution:
The order of selection is important, thus, the two vacancies are for two different
5!posts. The number of ways of filling the two vacancies is 5 P  (5  2)!  20
2
The number of permutations for arranging n objects containing a group of

n1 , n2 , n3 ,... ,... similar objects is
n!
n1!n2 !n3!...
Example 4
How many permutations can be formed from the letters of the word
CALCULATOR?
Solution:
There are 10 letters with 2 letters A, 2 letters C, 2 letters L and 1 letter U, T, O
10!
and R. The number of permutations is   453 600
2!2!2!
The number of combinations of r objects from n different objects is nC , r

where
n!= n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1)
n Cr 
r!(n  r)! 1.2.3...r
Example 5
Find the number of ways three letters can be selected from the word FLOWER.
Solution:
The number of ways 3 letters can be selected from 6 letters without considering
its arrangement is 6C  6! = 20.
3
3!3!
SELF-CHECK 7.2
How many different 4 letters can be constructed from the letters

{ J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R }, where no letter is repeated in the word and irrespective of whether the word exists
Five balls are randomly selected from a box containing 4 black balls and 6 green balls.
In how many ways can the five balls be chosen if
There is no restriction; and
Green balls must be more than black balls?
Find the probability that of the five balls chosen, there is only one green ball.
7.1.3 Probability of Events/Outcomes

Probability measures the likelihood that an event occurs. The probability of an
event can be thought of as the relative frequency of the event; that is, the fraction
of the time that the event can be expected to occur if the experiment is repeated
over and over many times. Probabilities are numbers between 0 and 1. An event
with probability 0 has no chance of occurring, and an event with probability 1 is
certain to occur.
Let us use S to represent the sampling space in each problem under consideration.
Consider A as an event in S, which means A is a subset of S, then the probability
of A occurring, P(A), is defined as
P(A) = number of outcomes in

A number of outcomes
in S
= n(A)
n(S)
The probability of an event depends on the ways the elements are chosen. For
example, in a sport with 8 runners, we assume that each runner has an equal
1
chance of winning. Then the probability that a certain participant wins is .
8
The selection of an element is random if every element concerned has the same
opportunity of being selected. To solve the probability problems, we always need
to determine the number of choices for the sampling space as well as the event.
This usually involves permutations and combinations.
Basic Probability rules:
Probability, P(A) = n(A)

n(S)
Since A is a subset of S, we have
0  n( A)  n(S )
0  n( A)  1
n(S )
0  P( A)  1
Let A’ be the event A that does not occur and S the sample space. Then
P(A’) = 1 – P(A)orP(A) + P(A’) = 1
A’ is called the complement of event A.
e6
seven cards is numbered 1 to 7. A card is drawn randomly from the set of cards. Find the probability that the nu
ot 7
S) = 7
e event of the number drawn is 7, then n(X) = 1.
X) = 1
nt that the number drawn is not 7 is X’. By the complement rule, P(X’) = 1  1 = 6
77
HECK 7.3
dices are rolled. If X is a random variable which represents the sum of the two numbers of the dice, find the pro
b)X = 10(c)X is not 12
7.1.4 Sets Presentations

In this section we will look at how to represent a set using Venn diagram. First,
you will need to understand the concept of union and intersection of sets.
(a) Union and Intersection of Sets

We can define the union of the two sets, A and B, represented as A  B , to
be the set which contains all the elements in A and those in B. The
intersection of A and B, represented by A  B , is the set which contains the
common elements of both A and B, i.e. elements which are in A as well as in
B.
Example 7
Given sets A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, find A  B and
A  B.
Solution:
A  B = {2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A  B = {6, 8, 10}
Rules of operations:
Self complement: (A’)’= A. This means the complement of the complement
of a set is the set itself.
Complement of union: ( A  B )’ = A’  B’
Complement of intersection: ( A  B )’ = A’  B’
Distribution rules: ( A  B )  C = (A  C )  (B  C
)
( A  B )  C = (A  C )  ( B  C )
(b) Venn Diagram
Another way of representing a set is by using a diagram. It shows the
relationship between the sets clearly. We usually shade the sets which
represent the results of operations in the Venn diagram.
Figure 7.1: Representing a set using Venn diagrams

(c) Representing Rules of Operations Using Venn Diagrams

Rules of operations can be better understood if we use the Venn diagrams to
represent the sets.
Figure 7.2: Representing rules of operations using Venn diagrams
Notes:
(i) The symbol n(A) denotes the number of elements in the set A.
(ii) The empty set is the set without any elements, represented by { } or .
(iii) Set A and B are mutually exclusive sets if the intersection is empty,
thus
A  B=  .
(iv) If A and B are not mutually exclusive, then A and B have some
elements in common. But n(A  B )  n(A) + n(B), because maybe
some of the elements would be counted twice.
(v) In general, n(A  B )  (n(A) + n(B)).
(vi) If A and B are mutually exclusive, then A and B do not share any
common elements. We can say that n(A  B ) = n(A) + n(B).
Example 8
Given A = { 2, 3, 4, 5 }, B = { 6, 7} and C = { 3, 9 } . Find
(a) n(A  B ), (b) n(A  C ), (c) n(B  C )
Solution:
(a) A  B= , i.e. A and B are mutually exclusive.

So n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) = 4 + 2 = 6
(b) A  C   , i.e. A and C are not mutually exclusive. So we have to

carry out the union first. A  C = {2, 3, 4, 5, 9}, so n(A  C ) = 5
(c) B  C= , i.e. B and C are mutually

exclusive. So n(B  C ) = n(B) + n(C) = 2 + 2
=4
SELF-CHECK 7.4
Two events A and B are such that P(A) = 13 , P(B) = 1 and P(A  B)= 3
25 5 5
Find:
(a)P(A  B) (b)P(A  B’)
7.2 MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

“A and B” and “A or B” are two examples of composite events. In the set notation,
“A and B” is just the intersection of A and B, represented by A  B, while “A or B”
is the union of A and B, and is represented by A  B.
Figure 7.3 (a): A  B
Figure 7.3 (b): A  B
From the Venn diagram, it is obvious that for any two events A and B,
n(A  B ) = n(A) + n(B) – n (A  B )
n( A  B) n( A) n(B) n( A  B)
n(S )  n(S )  n(S )  n(S )
P ( A  B) = P( A)  P(B)  P( A  B)
7.2.1 One Event or More Mutually Exclusive Events

Exclusive events are events that cannot happen together. If A and B are exclusive
events in the sampling space S, then A  B= . It can be shown in the Venn
diagram in Figure 7.4:
Figure 7.4: A  B= 
From the rule: P ( A

 B) = P( A)  P(B)  P( A  B)
We find that since A  B=  , then P(A  B) = 0, and P (  B) = P( A)  P(B)
A
For two mutually exclusive events A and B, A  B=  , P(A  B) = 0, and

P ( A  B) = P( A)  P(B)
This is known as addition law of mutually exclusive events.
ari Raya. Among the guests are her 2 younger sisters, 3 cousins and 5 friends. The first guest has arrived. What i
her younger sister

cousin
friend
r or her cousin)
r or her friend)
friend)
ball (F), netball (N) and tennis (T). Information regarding a student joining these games is as follows: P(F) = 0.50,
T) = 0.85
7.2.2 Probability Laws

If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events in the sampling space S, then
A  B  C =  . We may have P(A  B  C) = 0. In general,
For n mutually exclusive events E1 , E2 ,..., En , in a sample space S,

E1  E2  E3  ...  En   , P( E1  E2  E3  ...  En ) = 0, and
P ( E1  E2  E3  ...  En ) = P(E1 )  P(E2 )  P(E3 )  ...  P(En )

Example 10
Three women, Amira, Balkis and Dewi, apply to fill in a vacancy. Only one
applicant will be successful. The probability that Amira, Balkis and Dewi will be
successful are 0.4, 0.3 and 0.2 respectively. Find the probability that:
(a) One of them will be successful; and
(b) None of them will be successful.
Solution:
(a) Let A represent the event that Amira is successful
B represent the event that Balkis is successful
D represent the event that Dewi is successful
Since only one applicant will be successful, events A, B and D are mutually
exclusive. Thus, P(A  B  D ) = P(A) + P(B) + P(D)
= 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.9
The probability that one of them will be successful is 0.9.
(b) 1– P(A  B  D )= 1 – 0.9 = 0.1
The probability that none of them will be successful is 0.1.
SELF-CHECK 7.6
ded into three qualifications: SPM holders (A), diploma holders (B) and degree holders (C). A worker is selected a
holders.
7.2.3 Probability Trees

A tree diagram is a schematic diagram of a sequence of events and gives a clear
picture of a probability situation. It can be used to solve probability problems by
applying the following steps:
(a) Step 1: Determine the first circumstance and create one branch for each
event. Write the probability on the branch.
(b) Step 2: Determine the next random circumstance and draw branches to each
of the branches in step 1. Write the probabilities on the branches.
(c) Step 3: Continue the process as necessary.
Example 11
A boy is tossing a fair coin and rolling a dice together.
(a) List all the possible outcomes with a tree diagram.
(b) Calculate the probability of head being obtained.
Solution:
(a) Tossing a fair coin can result in two possible outcomes {head (H), tail
(T)}. Rolling a dice can result in six possible outcomes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Tossing a coin and a dice together results in 12 possible outcomes,
S = {(H,1), (H,2), (H,3), (H,4), (H,5), (H,6), (T,1),( T,2), (T,3), (T,4),
(T,5), (T,6)}. S is called sample space. The outcomes can be shown in a
tree diagram as follows:
(b)P[(H1)  (H2)  (H3)  (H4)  (H5)  (H6)]

= P(H1)+P(H2)+P(H3)+P(H4)+P(H5)+P(H6) = 6( 1  1 )  1
262
The above outcomes can be identified as the choice of one out of two for coin and
a choice of one out of six for dice, thus giving us a total of 2 6 possible
12
outcomes. The multiplication principle states that if an operation can be carried
out in m ways and the second operation in n ways and these operations are
independent, then they can be carried out continuously in m  n ways.
In general, the multiplication principle is as shown in the following:
If an operation can be carried out in r ways, a second operation in s ways, a

third operation in t ways and so on, then there are r  s  t  ... ways of carrying
out all the operations.
chool with the motorcycle and bicycle are 0.70 and 0.30 respectively. Using a tree diagram, list down all his poss
7.3 INDEPENDENT AND CONDITIONAL

EVENTS
When whether an event happens depends on the condition that another event
happens, then the event is a conditional event. For example, a fair dice is thrown.
If it is known that the number obtained is an even number, what is the probability
that the number is 4? The sample space is S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. With the condition
that the number obtained is an even number, the new conditional sample space is
S’ = {2, 4, 6}.
Let A be the event “a 4 is obtained” and B is the event “an even number is
obtained”, then A = {4} and B = {2, 4, 6}. n(A) = 1, n(B)=3, n(A  B) =1.
1
P(A given B has occurred) = .
3
In general, if A and B are two events with P(A)  0 and P(B)  0, then the
probability of A given B has already occurred is written P(A |B) and
P(A |B) = P( A  B) andP(B |A) = P(B  A)

P(B) P( A)
The two definitions can also be written as:
P( A  B) = P(A |B) . P(B) and P(B  A) = P(B |A) . P(A)

Sinc
e P( A  B) P(B  A) , so we have
=
P(A |B) . P(B) = P(B |A) . P(A)
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P( A  B) = 0, it follows that

P(A |B) . P(B) = P(B |A) . P(A) = 0
Example 12
A number is selected randomly from the set {1, 2, 3, ... 10}. If the number chosen is odd, what is th
Solution:
Let A be the event “an odd number occurs” and B the event “the number is greater than or equals
A= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, ( A  B) = {5, 7, 9}, then

n ( A  B) = 3
3
Thus, P(B |A) = P(B  A) = 10 = 3

P( A) 55
10
rest are males. One-third of all the female salespersons are married. Half of all the male salespersons are bachel
married.
probability that the salesperson is a male?
7.3.1 Independent Events

Two events, A and B, are said to be independent if the probability of A happening
does not depend on whether B happens and vice versa. Therefore,
P(A|B) = P(A)
P(B|A) = P(B) and
P ( A  B) = P(A)P(B)
This relationship is known as multiplication law for two independent events.
Example 13
A survey is conducted on the interest in reading magazines ABC and BCA
among students in a school. The probability that the students like to read
magazine ABC is 1 and magazine BCA is 1 . Magazines ABC and BCA are
20 10
independent. What is the probability that a student selected at random will read:
(a) Both magazines ABC and BCA?
(b) Either magazine ABC or magazine BCA?
(c) No magazines?
Solution:
(a)
Let A represent the event that students like to read magazine ABC
B represent the event that students like to read magazine BCA
A’ represent the event that students do not read magazine ABC
B’ represent the event that students do not read magazine BCA
ABC and BCA are independent events.
1 1
P(A) = P(B) =
20 10
P(A  B) = P(A).P(B) 1  1 = 0.005
= 20 10
(b) 1
P(A  B) = P(A)+P(B)–P(A  1 1 = 0.145
B)= + –
20 10 200
(c)
P(A’  B’) = 1– P(A  B)= 1 – 0.145 = 0.855
SELF-CHECK 7.9
A and B are two events such that P(B)= 1 , P(A  B) = 1 and P(B|A) = 1 .
6 10 3
Find(a)P(A) (b) P(A|B) (c) P(A|B’ )
State with reasons, whether events A and B are:

(d)Independent(e)Mutually exclusive
7.3.2 Dependent Events

Two events A and B are independent if P(A|B) = P(A).
Note: We know that B does not affect A’s probability.
Two events A and B are dependent if P(A|B)  P(A)

Note: We know that B does affect A’s probability.
rom a full deck. Use the tree diagrams to find the probability that the second card is a heart. The probability that
Solution:
LetA = 1st heart and 2nd heart, and B = 1st not heart and 2nd heart.
First card Second card Probability of entire limb
12
13 12
51 Heart . 0.06
13 52 51
52 Heart
39
13 39
Begin 51 Not a heart . 0.19
52 51
39
52 12
51 39 13
Heart . 0.19
52 51
Not a heart
38
39 38
51 Not a heart . 0.56
52 51
From the diagram, we find that P(A) = 13 .12  0.06 , and P(B) = 39 .13  0.19
52 51 52 51
So, the probability that the second card is a heart is
P(2nd heart) = P( A  B) =P(A) + P(B) = 0.06 + 0.19 = 0.25

12 39 13
P(B|A) =  0.24 and P(B) = .  0.19
51 52 51
We say that these two events, A and B, are dependent if P(A|B)  P(A).
7.3.3 Probability Involving Three or More Events

We have been looking at probabilities of events composed of two events. One
important rule is
P ( A  B) = P(A) + P(B)  P( A  B)
This rule can be generalised to relate to three events. Given the three events in the
sampling space S, we have in general,
P ( A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B)+P(C)
 P( A  B)  P(B  C )  P(C  A) +P( A  B  C )
(a) If A, B and C are three independent events, then
P ( A  B  C) = P(A) . P(B) . P(C)
(b) If A, B and C are three mutually exclusive events, then
P( A  B  C)  P( A)  P(B)  P(C)
(c) In general, if A1, A2,.. ., An are independent events, then
P ( A1  A2  ...An )  P( A1 ).P( A2 )...P( An )
Example 15
A school offers three foreign languages: Arabic, French and Japanese. Events A,
B and C are defined as follows:
A = The event that a student selected is studying Arabic
B = The event that a student selected is studying French
C = The event that a student selected is studying Japanese
Given that P(A) = 0.45, P( A  B  C)  0.9 ,

P( A  B)  0.6, P( A  C )  0.84
P( A  B)  0.15 , P(B  C )  0.19, P(C  A)  0.25
A student is selected at random. What is the probability that the student is

studying
(a) French (b) Japanese
(c) All the languages (d) None of the languages
Solution:
(a) P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)  P( A  B)
0.6  0.45  P(B)  0.15  P(B)  0.3
The probability that the student is studying French is 0.3.
(b) P( A  C )  P( A)  P(C )  P( A  C )
0.84  0.45  P(C )  0.25  P(C )  0.64
The probability that the student is studying Japanese is 0.64.
(c) P( A  B  C )  P( A)  P(B)  P(C )

 P ( A  B)  P(B  C )  P(C  A)  P( A  B  C
) 0.9  0.45  0.3  0.64  0.15  0.25  0.19  P( A  B 
C)
P( A  B  C )  0.1
The probability that the student is studying all languages is 0.1.
(d) P( A ' B ' C ')  P( A  B  C ) '  1  P( A  B  C )

 1 – 0.9  0.1
The probability that the student is studying none of the languages is 0.1.
B and C apply to fill a vacancy. The probabilities that they will be successful are 0.5, 0.1 and 0.6 respectively. Wh
ill be successful
uccessful
m will be successful
e successful
7.3.4 Miscellaneous Problems

Let us look at more complicated problems involving conditional probability and
the aid of the tree diagram. You should analyse the questions thoroughly before
giving the answers.
lue marbles and 7 yellow marbles. Two marbles are taken out in sequence without replacement. Find the proba
e first is blue;
e first is yellow; and
, andY = Yellow marbles
12
13 12
19 P(B1  B2) = . 0.41
13 20 19
20 Blue
7 P(B1  Y 2) =13 . 7  0.24

Begin
19 20 19
7 13
7 13
20 19 P(Y1  B2) = . 0.24
20 19
Yellow
6 P(Y1  Y 2) = 7 . 6  0.11
19 20 19
P(the first marble is blue) = 13

20
P(the second is blue| the first is blue) = P(B2 |B1) = 12
19
P(the second is blue|the first is yellow) = P(B2 |Y1) = 13

19
P(second one is blue) = P(B1  B2) + P(Y1  B2)
13 .12 + 7 .13
=
20 1920 19
= 0.41 + 0.24 = 0.65
7.11
males and 5 females waiting to see the doctor at a clinic. Two patients are selected without replacement. Find th
male;
a male if the first is a male;
a male if the first is a female; and
s a male, what is the probability that the first is also a male?
 The set of all the possible outcomes is called sample space, S.
 Any subset of the sample space is an event.
 Permutation is the arrangement of some or all the objects by taking into

consideration the order of the objects mentioned.
 Combination is the selection of some of the objects from the set without
taking into consideration the order and the arrangement of the objects.
 Number of permutations of arranging n different objects in a line is n

Pn ,
which is n!
 Number of permutations for r objects from n different objects is n Pr , where

n n!
Pr  = n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1) .
(n 
r)!
 Number of permutations for arranging n objects containing a group of

n1 , n!
, n3 ,... ,... similar objects n !n !n !.
n2
is
1 2 3
 The number of combinations of r objects from n different objects is nC r,
where nC n! n(n  1)(n  2)...(n  r  1)

r  r!(n  r)! = 1.2.3...r .
 Basic Probability rules:

n( A)
(a) Probability, P( A) 
n(S )
Since A is a subset of S, we have
0  P( A)  1
(b) Let A’ be the event ‘A does not occur’.
P(A’) = 1 – P(A) or P(A) + P(A’) = 1
A’ is called the complement of event A.
 The union of the two sets, A and B, represented as A  B , is the set which
contains all the elements in A and those in B.
 The intersection of A and B, represented by A  B , is the set which contain

the common elements of both A and B, i.e. elements which are in A as well as
in B.
 Rules of operations:
Complement of union: ( A  B )’ = A’  B’
Complement of intersection: ( A  B )’ = A’  B’
Distribution rules: ( A  B )  C = (A  C )  (B  C )
( A  B )  C = (A  C )  ( B  C )
 The symbol n(A) denotes the number of elements in the set A.
 The empty set is the set without any elements, is represented by { } or 
 Sets A and B are exclusive sets if their intersection is empty, thus A  B= 
 If A and B are not exclusive, then A and B have some elements in common.
But n(A  B )  n(A) + n(B), because maybe some of the elements would be
counted twice.
 In general, n(A  B )  n(A) + n(B).
 If A and B are exclusive, then A and B do not share any common elements. We
can say that n(A  B ) = n(A) + n(B).
The intersection of A and B, i.e. A  B The union of A and B, i.e. A  B

 The Addition law of mutually exclusive events are:

(a) P(
 B) = P( A)  P(B)  P( A  B)
A
(b) For two mutually exclusive events A and B, A  B= , P(A  B) = 0, and
P ( A  B) = P( A)  P(B)
 Probability Laws
(a) If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events in the sampling space S, then
A  B  C =  . We may have P(A  B  C) = 0.
(b) For n mutually exclusive events
E1 , E2 ,..., En , in a sample space S,
E1  E2  E3  ...  En   , P( E1  E2  E3  ...  En ) = 0, and
P ( E1  E2  E3  ...  En ) = P(E1 )  P(E2 )  P(E3 )  ...  P(En ).
 A tree diagram is a schematic diagram of the sequence of events and gives a

clear picture of a probability situation.
 The multiplication principle states that if an operation can be carried out in

m ways and the second operation in n ways and these operation are
independent, then they can be carried out continuously in m  n ways.
 In general, if an operation can be carried out in r ways, a second operation in s

ways, a third operation in t ways and so on, then they are r  s  t  ... ways of
carrying out all the operations.
 When whether an event happens is considered with the condition that another
event happens, then the event is a conditional event.
 P(B |A) = P(B  A) .

P( A)
 Since P( A  B) P(B  A) , so we have

=
P(A |B) . P(B) = P(B |A) . P(A)
 If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then P( A  B) = 0, it follows that

P(A |B) . P(B) = P(B |A) . P(A) = 0.
 Two events A and B are said to be independent if the probability of A

happening does not depend on whether B happens or not and vice versa.
Therefore, P(A|B) = P(A)
P(B|A) = P(B) and P ( A  B) = P(A)P(B)
This relationship is known as multiplication law for two independent
events.
 Two events A and B are dependent if P(A|B)  P(A).
Note: We knowing that B does not affect A’s probability.

These two events, A and B are dependent if P(A|B)  P(A).
 Probability involving three or more events
P ( A  B  C) = P(A) + P(B)+P(C)
 P( A  B)  P(B  C )  P(C  A) +P( A  B  C )
 If A, B, C are three independent events, then
P ( A  B  C) = P(A) . P(B) . P(C)
 If A, B and C are three mutually exclusive events, then
P( A  B  C)  P(A)  P(B)  P(C)
 In general, if A1, A2,...., An are independent events, then
P ( A1  A2  ...An )  P( A1 ).P( A2 )...P( An

)
Common Intersection
Compliment Multiplication law
Conditional event Multiplication principle
Counting sets Mutually exclusive
Dependent Probability
Distribution rules Random
Elements Sample space
Empty set Subset
Event Tree diagram
Exclusive set Union
Independent Venn diagram
David, B. J., & Thomas A. M. (2004). Mathematics a practical odyssey (5th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning.
NY: McGraw-Hill.
NY: McGraw-Hill.
Mathematics S Paper 2. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: Pearson Malaysia.
Tan, C. E. & Khor, S. C. (2006). Additional Mathematics Form 5. Kuala Lumpur,
Topic  Probability
8 Distributions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain to students the concept of discrete and continuous random variable;

Explain to students the concept of a probability distribution;
2. Construct a probability distribution table for a discrete random variable;
3. Apply approaches to find mathematical expectation value; and
4.
5.
Calculate expected values deviation. using mean, variance and standard
 INTRODUCTION
In everyday life, mathematicians label one outcome as “success” and the other as
“failure”. For example, a bus can be full (success) or not full (failure) and a
student may like rabbits (success) or dislike them (failure). In this topic, we will
see how mathematicians can analyse such events and even use the information to
predict results of future events.
8.1 BASIC PROBABILITY

In the previous topic, we learnt that the basic concepts of probability were
developed in terms of sample space and events. The sample space is a set of
numerical values whereas in others, the outcomes are non-numerical. For
example, when a pair of fair coins is tossed once, non-numerical outcomes
190  TOPIC 8 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
{(head, head), (head, tail), (tail, head), (tail, tail)} are obtained; whereas when a
fair dice is tossed once, numerical outcomes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} form the sample
space.
In probability, we are often interested in real numbers which represent the

outcomes of a random experiment so that a mathematical approach can be used.
This is why the concept of random variable as well as probability distribution
emerges.
8.1.1 Random Variables

Let us study a game of netball which is awarded three free throws. The possible
outcomes are GGG, GGM, GMG, MGG, MMG, MGM, GMM, MMM; where G is
for goal and M for miss. However, results listed in this way are not very useful.
We are more interested in representing the data by a number. Each of the
outcomes can be replaced by the numbers 0, 1, 2 or 3 representing the number of
goals scored in each experiment. We can map the set {GGG, GGM, GMG, MGG,
MMG, MGM, GMM, MMM} to the set {0, 1, 2, 3} as shown in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: The numbers 3, 2, 1 and 0 are connected to the set {GGG, GGM,
GMG, MGG, MMG, MGM, GMM, MMM}
We say that the number of goals scored is a random variable.
ny rule which connects a number to each result in the sample space of an experiment is a random variable.
TOPIC 8 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS  191
he number of “heads” obtained.
space, S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}. X takes the values of 0, 1, 2 and 3. Figure 8.2 shows the r
HH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
8.1.2 Discrete Random Variables

Random variables with exact values are known as discrete random variables. On
the other hand, a random variable is discrete if it can only assume a finite set of
values or infinite but countable set of values. We shall use capital letters such as
X, Y, Z, etc, to refer to random variables. However, when speaking of the values
these random variables assume, we shall use lower case letters such as x, y, z, etc.
pe. If 3 marbles are drawn at random, one by one and with replacement, from the box, find the random variable
yellow’ marbles. Sample space, S = {BBB, BBY, BYB, YBB, BYY, YBY, YYB, YYY}.
between a number and its corresponding results in the sample space.
BYB, YBB, BYY, YBY, YYB, YYY}

Their associated probabilities are as follows:
Table 8.1: Associated Probabilities for a Number and Corresponding Sample Space
X=x Outcomes corresponding to Probabilities

X=x P(X = x)
1 1 1 1
3 BBB   
2 2 2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
2 BBY, BYB, YBB         
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
1 BYY, YBY, YYB
2  2  2  2  2 2 2 2 2  8
0 YYY 1 1 1 1
2 2 2  8
Now, P ( X  3  X  2  X  1 X  0 )
=P( 1 3 3 1
X  3) + P ( X  2) + P (  1) + P ( X  0) =     1
X
8 8 8 8
Hence, X is a discrete random variable. X is also a discrete random variable
because the set of all possible values that X can assume is {0, 1, 2, 3}, i.e. a
countable and finite set.
points if a tail occurs, 10 points if 2 tails occur and loses 10 points if 2 heads occur. Let X represent the number of
at the probability of getting a girl or a boy each time is the same. If Y represents the number of girls obtained, sh
8.1.3 Continuous Random Variables

In many problems, the random variable can take on any value within an interval.
A random variable of this type is called continuous random variable. In these
cases, the elements of the sample space are infinite in number but uncountable.
A continuous random variable represents measured data and a discrete random
variable represents count data.
Example 3
A person intends to take the taxi at a taxi station which services every 30
minutes. Show that the time in minutes, that he has been waiting at the taxi
station, is a continuous random variable.
Solution:
Let X be the time, in minutes, that he has been waiting at the taxi station. X can
assume any value between 0 and 30 minutes, that is any value in the interval
0  X  30 and so X is a continuous variable. If A is the event that he takes less
than k minutes to get a taxi, then the associated probability that event A occurs is:
k
P( A)  P(0  X  k ) =
30 0  X  30
We note that the probability P (A) satisfies the conditions:

P( A)  and P(S )  1
0
Where S is the sample space, which is the whole interval 0  X  30 .

Hence, S = {x | 0  X  30 } is a continuous sample space and X is a continuous
random variable.
8.1.4 Probability Density Function (PDF)

A table listing all possible values that a random variable can take on together with
the associated probabilities is called a probability distribution. From Example 2,
the possible values of X, where X represents the number of “blue” marbles and
their associated probabilities P(  x) can be given in the table below:
X
Table 8.2: Number of “Blue Marbles” (X) and Their Associated Probabilities (P)
X x 0 1 2 3 Total
P( X  x) 1 3 3 1 1
8 8 8 8
This table is known as the probability distribution of the discrete random variable
X. Usually, it is more convenient to represent all the probabilities of a random
variable X by a formula. For example, the probability distribution for X as
described above can be represented by the notation of function f as follows:

1
 8 if x  0,3

f x  3
 if x 1, 2
8
 otherwise
0
This function f is known as probability function (usually used for discrete

random variable) or probability density function; pdf, (usually used for
continuous random variable). From Example 3, the probability density function
x
0  x  30
for the continuous random variable X is
if
k( x)  
0 otherwise
Example 4
A firm has 3 chemists and 4 engineers. Three of them are chosen at random. Let X be a discr
Solution:
4C .3C1
P( X  0) 03 
7 C3
4C .3C
P( X  2) 21 
7 C3
The probability distribution for the discrete random variable X is
Table 8.3: Probability Distribution for Discrete Random Variable X

X x 0 1 2 3 Total
P( X  x) 1 12 18 4 1
35 35 35 35
 4 C .3 C
 x3 x if x  0,1, 2,3
and its probability function is: f ( x)   7C 3
0
 otherwise
SELF-CHECK 8.2
x
f ( x)  15 if x  1, 2, 3, 4,5
1.Given the function  otherwise
0
Show that f (x) is a probability function and find the probabilities:
(a)P( X  2)(b)P(3  X  4)(c)P( X  4)
2. the value ofsuch thatk the functions defined below is a probability function:
Find
x
kx if x  3, 4, 5, 6 k ( x)  10 if x  1, 2, 3, k
(a)f ( x)   (b)
0 otherwise 0 otherwise
SELF-CHECK 8.3
R is a discrete random variable with the probability function given as

 3 r
P(R  r)  k, for r = 0, 1, 2, 3,… .
 4 
Find the value of the constant k .
8.2 MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION

Another important concept in the probability theory that had its origin in gambling
is the expected value or mathematical expectation or the mean. In this subtopic,
we will look into two approaches of mathematical expectation. They are the
experimental approach and theoretical approach. Later on, we will look at some
examples of expectations of any function of X.
8.2.1 Experimental Approach

Suppose a dice is thrown 50 times and the results are recorded in the following
table:
Table 8.4: Results of Dice Throw
Score, x 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency, f 10 8 9 7 11 5
fx 10 16 27 28 55 30
To find the mean score, calculate the product of f and x for each value of x and
then apply the formula:
Mean, x =  fx
f
10  16  27  28  55  30
Mean, x = 50
166
 50
 3.32
8.2.2 Theoretical Approach

The probability distribution of a discrete random variable X, where X represents
“the number on the topmost face of a dice” is as follows:
Table 8.5: Probability Distribution for X
Score, X 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
P(X = x)
6 6 6 6 6 6
We can calculate the expected mean by multiplying each score with its
corresponding probability.
1 1 1 1 1  1  21
Expected mean = 1 2 3 4 5 6   3.5
           
 6  6  6  6  6  6 6
In statistical studies,
(a) An experimental method results in a frequency distribution and a value for
the mean.
(b) A theoretical method results in a probability distribution and an expected
value, which is also known as the mathematical expectation.
Expected value or expectation of X is written in brief as E( X and is given by:

)
E(X )   xP(X  x)
all x
If a probability distribution of a random variable X is symmetrical about x  k ,

then the expected value of X , E( X )  k .
Example 5
A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution:
x 4 8 12 16 20
P(X = x) 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1
Draw a graph to represent this distribution and deduce E( X ) .

Solution:
Axis of symmetry is x  12 . Therefore, E( X )  12
Check:E( X )   xP( X  x)
 4(0.1)  8(0.2)  12(0.4)  16(0.2)  20(0.1)
 0.4  1.6  4.8  3.2  2.0 12
SELF-CHECK 8.4
1. A discrete random variableX has the following probability

distribution.
x 2 4 6 8 10 12
1 1 2 2 1 1
P(X = x)
9 6 9 9 6 9
Draw a graph to represent this distribution and deduce E( X ) .
2.The probability distribution of a random variable X is shown below:

y 1 2 3 4 5
P(Y = y) 0.05 0.25 p 0.25 0.05
Find:
The value of p
A graph to represent this distribution
E(Y )
8.2.3 The Expectation of Any Function of X

For a discrete random variable X , expectation of a function g( X is:
)
Eg( X )   g( X )P( X  x)
If X and Y are any two independent random variables, and a and b are
constants, then
EaX  bY   aE( X )  bE(Y )
Example 6
A discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
x 1 2 3 4 5
P(X = x) 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1
y 2 4 6 8 10
P(Y = y) 0.05 0.15 0.6 0.15 0.05
Find E( X ) , E( X 2 ) , E(5X 2  3X  2) and E(2 X  3Y ) .
Solution:
E( X )   xP( X  x)
1(0.1)  2(0.2)  3(0.4)  4(0.2)  5(0.1)  0.1  0.4  1.2  0.8  0.5  3.0
E( X 2 )   x 2 P( X  x)
1(0.1)  4(0.2)  9(0.4)  16(0.2)  25(0.1)
 0.1  0.8  3.6  3.2  2.5 10.2
E(5X 2  3X  2)  5E( X 2 )  3E( X )  2  5(10.2)  3(3.0)  2  58

E(Y )   yP(Y  y)
 2(0.05)  4(0.15)  6(0.6)  8(0.15)  10(0.05)
 0.1  0.6  3.6  1.2  0.5  6.0
E(2 X  3Y )  2E( X )  3E(Y )

 2(3.0)  3(6.0)  24.0
SELF-CHECK 8.5
X and Y are independent discrete random variables with probability distributions as defined in the following t
x 1 2 3 4
P(X = x) 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1
y 2 4 6 8
P(Y = y) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
Find
(a)E( X ) (b)E( X 2 )
(c)E(4 X 2  3X  1)
(d)E(5X  2Y )
SELF-CHECK 8.6
The discrete random variable X has the following probability function.
if x  1,3
a
f ( x)  
b if x  2
0otherwise

Where a and b are constant.
Find the values of a and b if E( X )  E( X 2 ) .
8.3 EXPECTED VALUE USING MEAN,

VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION
The study of the Expected Value for a discrete random variable is related to the
mean, variance and standard deviation.
8.3.1 Mean
We have learnt that the mean or expected value of any discrete random variable
is obtained by multiplying each value of the random variable by the corresponding
probability and summing the results.
Mean X =
E( X )   xP(X  and P(X  x) = 1
all x
x)
all x
E( X ) 
 xP(  x)
Hence E( X ) can also be written
X  x)
, as
 P(
X
The Greek letter is often used to denote the mean, that is
Mean X = = E( X )
8.3.2 Variance
For a discrete random variable X where E( X )   , the variance, denoted by
Var( X ) or  2
of X is defined as
Var( X ) =  2 = E[( X  )]2

n
For i  1,2,3,..., n
(x   ) P( X  x )
i1
i
2
i
The variance can be expressed in another form that is more adaptable to

computation in cases for which the quantities (xi   ) are not integers.
Var( X ) =  2 = E( X 2 )  E( X )
2
 E( X 2 )   2
Proof:
n
Var ( X )    ) 2 P(  xi )
 (xi i1
X
n
  (x 2  2x    2 )P( X  x )
i i i
i1
n n n
  x 2 P( X  x )  2   x P( X  x )   2   x )
P( X
i i i i
i1 i1
i
i1
 E( X 2 )  2()   2
 E( X 2 )   2
8.3.3 Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of X , denoted by  or SD( X ), is equal to Var( X ) .
Standard deviation of X ,  , SD( X ) =Var( X ) .
Example 7
X is a discrete random variable with probability function given by:
x
f ( x)  10 if x  1, 2, 3, 4
 otherwise
0
Find the following:
Mean
Variance
Standard deviation of X
Solution:
(a)Mean X == E( X )
  xP( X  x)  1 1    3103 
102210  10
44   3

E( X 2 )   x 2 P( X  x)
 1 1   4 2   9 3   16 4   10
10  10  10  10 

(b)Var( X ) =  2  E( X 2 )   2  10  32  1
(c)Standard deviation of X ,  , SD( X ) =Var( X )

1
1
SELF-CHECK 8.7
The discrete random variable X has a probability function given by

x
f ( x)  15 if x  1, 2, 3, 4,5
 otherwise
0
Find(a)Mean
Variance
Standard deviation of X
SELF-CHECK 8.8
If X and Y are independent discrete random variables with E( X 2 )  12 ,

Var( X )  3 , E(Y 2 )  18, and Var (Y )  2, find (a)E(4 X  3Y )(b)E(7 X  2Y )
(c)Var(3X  2Y )(d)Var(3X  2Y )
 Any rule which connects a number to each result in the sample space of an
experiment is a random variable.
 Random variables with exact values are known as discrete random

variables.
 A random variable which can take on any value within an interval is called
continuous random variable.
 A table listing all possible values that a random variable can take on together
with the associated probabilities is called a probability distribution.
 Basic characteristics of a discrete probability distribution are:

(a)
0  P(  x)  1 for all values of x
X
(b)
 P( X  x)  1
all x
 An experimental method results in a frequency distribution and a value for the
mean. Mean, x =
 fx
f
 A theoretical method results in a probability distribution and an expected value,
which is also known as the mathematical expectation, E( X ) = Mean X =
 For a discrete random variable X ,
(a) Expected value or expectation of X , E(X )   xP(X  x)

all x
(b) Expectation of a function

g( X is E  g(X )   g(X )P( X 
)
x)
all x
(c) If X and Y are any two independent random variables, and a and b are
constants, then
E aX  bY   aE( X )  bE(Y )
(d) Variance of X, Var( X )   2  E[( X  )]2

n
 (x  )2P( X  x ), for i  1, 2, 3,..., n
i i
i1
(e) The variance also can be expressed as:

Var( X ) =  2 = E( X 2 )  E( X )  E( X 2 )   2
2
(f) Standard deviation of X ,  , SD( X ) = Var( X )
Continuous random variable Mean

Countable set Probability density function
Discrete random variables Probability distribution
Expected value Probability function
Experimental method Random variables
Finite set Standard deviation
Frequency distribution Theoretical method
Independent random variables Uncountable
Infinite Variance
Chin, S. W., Khor , S. C., Leow, S. K., & Poh, A. H. (2003). STPM Mathematics S
David, B. J., & Thomas A. M. (2004). Mathematics a practical odyssey (5th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thomson Learning.
Topic  Binomial and
9 Normal
Distribution
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain to students the concept of Binomial distribution and function;
Explain to students the concept of Normal distribution;
Use Binomial tables, Standard Normal distribution tables, and Poisson distribution tables;
Demonstrate the application of probabilities of Poisson distribution in solving a problem; and
Apply Poisson distribution to approximate probabilities for a binomial distribution.
 INTRODUCTION
A player in a sepak takraw game is awarded three free throws. What do you think
would be the possible outcomes? Can you predict the score?
In this topic, we will solve problems involving Binomial, Normal and Poisson
distributions.
208  TOPIC 9 BINOMIAL AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
9.1 BINOMIAL
We have seen many examples of events with only two possible outcomes, such as
heads or tails and goal or miss. One outcome is known as “success,” meaning a
preferred event occurs, and the other is known as a “failure,” which means that the
preferred event does not occur. The probability of success in each trial is the same
and each trial is independent of one another. Each trial is known as a Bernoulli
trial. When n independent Bernoulli trials are conducted, a Binomial situation
arises.
9.1.1 Binomial Distribution and Function

A Binomial situation arises when a coin is tossed seven times, obtaining a tail as a
success and a head as a failure.
Similarly, a binomial distribution also arises when a dice is tossed five times with
success as obtaining a ‘4’ and failure as not getting a ‘4’ for each trial.
al discrete random variable and is denoted by X ~ B(n, p) where n is the number of independent trials of an exp
f ( x)  P( X  x)  nC pxqnx
x
, x  0,1, 2,..., n
Where p is the probability of success, q is the probability of failure and p  q  1.
Example 1
A fair coin is tossed 4 times consecutively. Find the probability of getting tail exactly 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 times.
Solution:
Let X represent the number of “tails” obtained in 4 tosses. Then, X is a
binomial random variable with parameters n  4, p  1 and q  1 .

2 2
TOPIC 9 BINOMIAL AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION  209
 1  x  1 4 x
Using P( X  x)  nC pxqnx
x
 4C x   ,
22
 1 0  1 4 1
P( X  0)  4C   
0  2   2  16
 1 1  1  3 1
P( X  1)  C  
4
1 2   2  4
 1 2  1 2 3
P( X  2)  C    
4
222 8
 1  3  1 1 1
P( X  3)  4C      4
322
1
 1  4  1  0 16
P( X  4)  4C     
422
SELF-CHECK 9.1
A fair dice is thrown 3 times. Find the probability of obtaining the number 5:
Exactly once
More than once
At least twice
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Using P( X  x)  nC pxqnx
x
, where x  0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and n  5 , prove that
5
 P( X  x) 1.
x0
9.1.2 Binomial Probability Tables

The Binomial distribution table is used to find the probability for
P( X  x) can also be found from the table using the relationship: P( X  x).
P( X  x)  P( X  x  1)  P( X  x)
Example 2
If X ~ B(7, 0.05), n  7, p  0.05, find
(a)P( X  3) (b)P( X  3)
(d)P( X  2)
(c)P( X  3)
Solution:
(a) P( X  3)  1  P( X  2)
 1  0.9962  0.0038 From the table
(b) P( X  3)  P( X  3)  P( X  2)
 0.9998  0.9962  0.0036 From the table
(c) P( X  3)  P( X  2)
 0.9962 From the table
(d) P( X  2)  0.9962 From the table
SELF-CHECK 9.3
If X ~ B(4, 1), n  4, p  1 , find

5 5
P( X  2)
P( X  2)
(c)P( X  3)
h is most likely to occur is the value of X with the highest probability. Calculate the value of X most likely to occu
9.2 NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Normal distribution is the most important distribution in statistics as it describes a
situation in which very large and very small values are rare, but the “middle-
values” occur commonly. Most measurements in daily life, such as the heights of
a population, the weights of newborn babies or school test results can be
represented by a normal distribution.
9.2.1 Probability Density Function

A normal distribution resembles a relative frequency distribution. The graph of a
normal distribution, called a normal curve, is symmetrical and bell-shaped. The
total area under the curve is one unit and the perpendicular axis represents the
probability density.
A continuous random variable X with probability density function:

( x ) 2
1
f (x)  e 2 2 for   x 
2
is said to have a normal distribution with parameter,and  2 .
In brief, we shall write this as

X ~ N (  ,  2 and read as “ X is normally
)
distributed with mean, and variance,  2 (  0) ”. The graphs of selected
normal distributions are shown in the following:
Figure 9.1(a): Normal curves with

1  2 but 1  2
Figure 9.1(b): Normal curves μ1  μ2 with 1   2

with
Figure 9.1(c): Normal curves with 1  2 and 1   2
Normal curves have the following characteristics:

(a) The x-axis is an asymptote of each curve;
(b) Each graph is bell-shaped and symmetrical about a perpendicular line,
x;
(c) The mean, median and mode all have the same value, that is ; and
(d) The area of the region enclosed between each normal curve and the x-axis

from   to  is 1, i.e.  f (x)dx  1


9.2.2 Normal Variable: Z

To find
P(a  X  b) for X ~ N (, 2 ), we need to calculate the area of the
shaded region shown in Figure 9.2.
b b
1 
( x )2
2
P(a  X  b) =  f (x)dx   e 2 dx
a a
2
Figure 9.2: The area of the shaded region is P(a  X  b)
To evaluate this probability, a normal table with mean   0 and   1 has been
2
prepared in the book of mathematical tables. Since every normal curve has
different values of and  , we must therefore transform the random variable
X
by a process known as “standardisation” in order to use the “standardised normal
distribution” table.
A random variable X can be standardised using the formula:

ZX

(0,1). The continuous random variable Z is the standardised normal random variable and its distribution is the s
SELF-CHECK 9.5
Can you show that E(Z )  0 and Var(Z )  1?
9.2.3 Use of the Standard Normal Distribution Tables

The probability density function for a standardised normal random variable Z is
(z)  z2
1 2   z 
e , , and its graph is as follows:
2
Figure 9.3(a): The graph of Z ~ N (0,1)
Figure 9.3(b): The area of P(Z  z)  Q(z)

We can use the standardised normal table which gives the “upper end” area, that
is P(Z  z)  Q(z) to determine probabilities like P (Z  z ), P (z 1 Z  z 2)
P ( Z  z and P(  z) . For negative values of z1 , we need to use the
) Z
symmetrical property of the normal curve. Let us look at the examples below to
understand better.
Figure 9.4: P(Z  a)  P(Z  a)  Q(a)
Figure 9.5: P(Z  a)  1 P(Z  a)  1  P(Z  a)  1 Q(a)
Figure 9.6: P(b  Z  a)  P(a  Z  b)  P(Z  a)  P(Z  b)  Q(a)  Q(b)
Figure 9.7: P(a  Z  0)  P(0  Z  a)  P(Z  0)  P(Z  a)  Q(0)  Q(a)

Example 3
If the continuous random variable Z has a standardised normal distribution, use
the table to find
(a) P(Z  2) (b) P(Z  1.35)
(c) P(0.3  Z  0.6) (d) P(Z  1.951)
(e) P(Z  1.478) (f) P(0.81  Z  2.63)
(g) P( Z  0.654)
Solution:
(a) P(Z  2)  Q(2)

 0.0228 (from the table)
Figure 9.8: P(Z  2)
(b) P(Z  1.35)  1  P(Z  1.35)

 1  Q(1.35)
1 (from the table)
0.0885
 0.9115
Figure 9.9: P(Z  1.35)

(c) P(0.3  Z  0.6)  P(Z  0.3)  P(Z  0.6)

 Q(0.3)  Q(0.6)  0.3821 0.2743  0.1078 (from the table)
Figure 9.10: P(0.3  Z  0.6)
(d)
P(Z  1.951)  P(Z  1.951)  Q(1.951)  0.0255 (from the table)
Figure 9.11: P(Z  1.951)
(e)
P(Z  1.478)  1  P(Z  1.478)
 1  P(Z  1.478)  1  Q(1.478)  1  0.0697  (from the table)
0.9303
Figure 9.12: P(Z  1.478)
(f) P 0.81  Z  2.63  P  Z  0.81  P  Z  2.63

 1 P  Z  0.81  Q 2.63  1 P  Z  0.81  Q 2.63
 1 Q 0.81  Q 2.63  1  0.2090  0.00427  0.78673
Figure 9.13: P(0.81  Z  2.63) Figure 9.14: P( Z  0.654)
(g)P( Z  0.654)  P(Z  0.654 or Z  0.654)

 P(Z  0.654)  P(Z  0.654
 2P(Z  0.654)  2 0.2565  0.5130 (from the table)
Example 4
If Z ~ N (0,1) , find the value of k if:
(a)P(Z  k)  0.3768(b) P(Z  k)  0.8810
(c)P(Z  k)  0.9671(d) P(Z  k)  0.0145
Solution:
(a)P(Z  k)  0.3768
Q(k) 0.3768  Q(0.314)  0.3768 k  0.314
Figure 9.15: P(Z  k)  0.3768 Figure 9.16: P(Z  k)  0.8810

(b) P Z  k   0.8810
1  P Z  k   0.8810  P Z  k   0.1190
Q k   0.1190  Q 1.18  0.1190  k  1.18
(c)P(Z  k)  0.9671
Since the probability exceeds 0.5, k must be negative.
Q(k) 1 Q(k )  Q(k )  1 Q(k )  Q(k )  1 0.9671  0.0329
Q(1.84)  0.0329 k  1.84  k  1.84
Figure 9.17: P(Z  k)  0.9671
(d)P(Z  k)  0.0145
Take note that for Figure 9.18, k must be negative.
P(Z  k )  0.0145  Q(k )  0.0145
Q(2.182)  0.0145 k  2.182  k  2.182
Figure 9.18: P(Z  k)  0.0145

SELF-CHECK 9.6
1.If Z is a standard normal random variable, find the probability if:

(a) P(Z  3) , (b) P(Z  1.26) ,
(c) P(0.5  Z  2.5) , (d) P(Z  1.25),
(e) P(Z  0.951) , (f) P(0.442  Z  1.345),
(g) P( Z  1.78)
2.If Z ~ N (0,1) , find the values k such that:

(a)P(Z  k)  0.3715(b)P(Z  k)  0.6217
(c)P( Z  k )  0.925(d)P( Z  k )  0.2714
9.2.4 Using Standardised Normal Tables for Any

Normal Distribution
We can also use the standardised normal table for reading the standardised
random variable X where X
X ~ N (, 2
using the formula Z . See
the examples below. ) 
Example 5
X ~ N (100,16) . Find: (a)P( X  106)
(c)P(108  X  112) (b)P( X  88)
(d)P( X  100  4)
Solution:
(a)P( X  106)  P( X 100  106 100)

4 4
 P(Z  1.5)  0.0668
(b)  X  100 88  100 

P  X  88  P  
4 4
 
 P Z  3  P Z  3  Q 3  0.00135
Figure 9.19: P  Z  1.5  0.0668 Figure 9.20: P  Z  3  0.00135
(c) P(108  X  112)  P(108 100  Z  112 100 )

4 4
 P(2  Z  3)  P(Z  2)  (Z  3)  Q(2)  Q(3)
 0.0228  0.00135  0.02145
(d) P( X 100  4)  P(4  X 100  4)

 P(96  X  104)
96 100 104
 P( 100 4Z  4
)
 P(1  Z  1)  1 2P(Z  1)  1 2Q(1)
 1 2(0.1587)  0.6826
Figure 9.21: P(2  Z  3)  0.02145 Figure 9.22: P(1  Z  1)  0.6826

SELF-CHECK 9.7
X ~ N (50,100) . Find:
(a)P( X  65)
(b)P( X  44) (d)P( X  50  1.4)
(c)P(46  X  47) (e)P(40  X  52)
9.2.5 Mean and Standard Deviation,  and 

The continuous random variable X that has the probability density function:
( x ) 2
1 
f (x)  22
for   x 
 2 e
and variance  (or standard deviation  ).

2
is normally distributed with mean
We write it as X ~ N (, 2 ) .
Example 6
If X ~ N (50, 2 ) , and P( X  60)  0.2549 , find the value of  .
Solution:
P( X  60)  0.2549
P(Z  60  50)  0.2549  P(Z  10)  0.2549
 
Q(10)  0.2549

From the table, Q(0.659)  0.2549
Hence,10  0.659   15.1745

Example 7
If the random variable X has a normal distribution with mean, variance 100
and P( X  25)  0.9778, find the value of.
Solution:
P( X  25)  0.9778
P(Z  25   )  0.9778  P(Z  25   )  1  0.9778  0.0222
10 10
P Z  ( 25   )   0.022
 
 10 
From tables, Q(2.01)  0.0222
  25     2.01    25  2.01(10)
Hence,  
 10 
  45.10
ELF-CHECK 9.8
X ~ N (45, 2 ) , and P( X  51)  0.751, find the value of  .

the random variable X has a normal distribution with mean, variance 25 and P( X  27.5)  0.6915, find the va
If X ~ N (  ,  2 ) , P( X  80)  0.0113 and P( X  30)  0.0287 ,
nd the values ofand  .
If Y ~ N (  ,  2 ) , P(Y  102)  0.58 and P(Y  97)  0.75 , find the values ofand  .
9.3 POISSON DISTRIBUTION

It is often useful to define a random variable that counts the number of events that
occur within certain specified boundaries. For example, an experimenter may be
interested in the number of defects in an item, or the number of telephone calls
received by an operator within a certain time limit. The Poisson distribution is
often appropriate to model such situations.
9.3.1 Distribution of Random Events

The Poisson distribution is often useful to model the number of times that a
certain event occurs per unit of time, distance or volume.
A random variable X distributed as a Poisson random variable with parameter  ,

has a probability mass function of
 x
P( X  x)  e 
x!
for
x  0,1,2,3,... with mean, E( X )   , and X.
variance
This can be written as X ~ P() , which should be read as “ X is distributed as a
Poisson random variable with parameter  ”. Notice that the series expansion of
e ensures that these probability values sum to one since
 
e   x 
  2 3  4 
 P( X  x)  e 1   2!  3!  4!  ...
 x! 
x 0
x0  
 
e e 1
SELF-CHECK 9.9
If X ~ P() , proof that E( X )  Var( X )   .
ng industry, the number of industrial accidents averages three per week. If X denote the number of accidents in
(a) The probability that no accidents will occur in a given week.

(b) P( X  4) (c)P( X  4) (d)P( X  4)
Solution:
X ~ P(3)
30
(a)P(0) e e330.05
0!
4
(3)x
(b)P( X  4)  
3
e  0.815 From the table
x0 x!
(c)P( X  4)  1 P( X  3)
 1  0.647  0.353 From the table
(d)P( X  4)  P( X  4)  P( X  3)
 0.815  0.647  0.168 From the table
SELF-CHECK 9.10
Suppose that the expected number of errors in a piece of software is five and has a Poisson distribution. Fi
(a) The probability that a piece of software has no errors.

(b) P( X  6) (c)P( X  6) (d)P( X  6)
9.3.2 Approximation of Poisson Distribution

There is an intimate relationship between Poisson and Binomial distribution. In
the Binomial, B(n, p) situation, if n is large and p is small, then the Poisson
distribution can be used to approximate probabilities for a binomial distribution.
 n    x 
n x
P( X  x)   x  n  1  
n

    
 (np)
np
x
 n x n x
e
where p  n so that   np , then x!   x p (1  p)

This approximation is reasonably good if n is large. But since  is a fixed

constant, p should be small since np   . In particular, the approximation is
quite accurate if n  20 and p  0.05 or if n  100 and p  0.10 .
Example 9
A manufacturer of bulbs knows that 2% of its bulbs are defective. If we have a binomial distributio
probability that a box of 100 of these bulbs contains at most three defective bulbs,
Using the Poisson distribution, and
Using the binomial distribution.
Solution:
(a)  100(0.02)  2
P( X  3)   2 x e2 
3
x0 0.857
x!
100

3
(b) (0.02)x (0.98)
100 x
0.859
x0x
Hence, the Poisson approximation is extremely close to the true
tches, each one has a probability of

e Poisson distribution to make an approximate calculation of the probability that the box contains no more than
 The discrete random variable X is known as Binomial discrete random

variable and is denoted by X ~ B(n, p) where n is the number of
independent trials of an experiment, the probability function of X is given
by f (x)  P( X  x) nCx p x q n  x , x  0,1, 2,..., n
Where p is the probability of success, q is the probability of failure and

p  q  1.
 The Binomial distribution table is used to find the probability for

P( X  x). P( X  x) can also be found from the table using the relationship.
P( X  x)  P( X  x  1)  P( X  x)
 A continuous random variable X with probability density function
( x )
1
2

for   x 
2
f (x)  e 2
 2
is said to have a normal distribution and is denoted by X ~ N (, 2 )

and variance  (or standard deviation  ).
2
with mean
 A random variable X can be standardised by using the formula:
X
Z 
 If X ~ N (  ,  2 ), then Z ~ N (0,1). The continuous random variable Z is the

standardised normal random variable and its distribution is the standardised
normal distribution.
 A random variable X distributed as a Poisson random variable with parameter,

λ has a probability mass function of
 x
P( X  x)  e 
x!
for
x  0,1,2,3,... with mean, E( X )   , X   , and can be written
variance
X ~ P() .
 A Poisson distribution can be used to approximate probabilities for a binomial

distribution if n is large and p is small;
 n    x 
n x
P( X  x)   x  n  1  
n

    
where (np)
x n
p so that   np , then   x p x (1  n x
 e
np
p)
n x!
 
Approximate probabilities Poisson distribution

Binomial distribution Probability
Binomial distribution table Probability density function
Continuous random variable Probability function
Discrete random variable Standard deviation
Normal distribution Standardised normal random variable
Normal distribution mean Variance
Parameter
Richard, L. S. (1995). Introduction to probability and its applications. Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth.
Robert, V. H., & Elliot A. T. (1997). Probability and statistical inference (5th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Tan, C. E., & Khor, S. C. (2006). Additional Mathematics form 5. Kuala Lumpur,
Topic  Correlation
10 and
Regression
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain to students the definition of correlation and regression using examples;
Demonstrate the steps to produce a scatter diagram;
Discuss how to interpret the relationship between X and Y in a scatter diagram;
Show students how to find equation for regression line; and
Guide students on how to predict relationships of correlation coefficient, regression coefficient an
 INTRODUCTION
Correlation and Regression, is a study on the relationship between two
variables: variable X and variable Y. Correlation coefficient is a measurement in
statistic which provides information on how strong the relationship between two
variables is. Regression analysis is a statistical technique which can be used to
obtain the equation relating to the two variables. Data gathered will then be
plotted into a graph to find the equation.
In this topic, we will introduce some concepts of correlation and regression such
as scatter diagrams, least square regression lines, Pearson correlation and
coefficient and regression line. Students will be guided on how to find the
relationship between two variables from the given data.
TOPIC 10 CORRELATION AND REGRESSION  231
The purpose of this module is to develop activities that will enable your students
to better appreciate and understand some aspects of correlation and regression
that are consistent with the principles and standards for the Form Six syllabus.
In order to teach this topic effectively, teachers should not only have a deep
understanding on the topic or be a content expert but also know the teaching
techniques. Therefore, in this topic, we will look at the step-by-step guide on the
content and teaching technique.
Besides mastering the topics covered, teachers are strongly advised to gain
external knowledge so that they could deliver better examples when teaching the
topics. They also need to be sensitive to students’ responses in order to identify
their level of understanding.
After teaching this topic, teachers should be able to summarise the problems faced
by students and propose solutions to overcome them. Teachers are strongly
encouraged to use mind mapping, graphs and visual representations to deliver the
ideas better.
10.1 SCATTER DIAGRAM

In this subtopic, we will discuss scatter diagrams. Students would be introduced to
scatter plots and diagrams and least squares regression lines.
10.1.1 Scatter Plots and Diagrams

Teachers can start by defining the concept of a scatter diagram to students. Scatter
diagrams can be described as a tool for analysing the relationship between two
variables. One variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the other is plotted on
the vertical axis. The pattern of their intersecting points can graphically show
relationship patterns. In layman terms, scatter diagrams is a process to define how
a variable is related to another variable.
For example, we want to see the relationship between children’s age and reading
interest. Now, guide students on the steps to do a scatter diagram:
232  TOPIC 10 CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
Steps:
1. Identify the perceived relationship: education level and reading interest.
2. Gather data related to the identified relationship: education level and reading
interest. The data that may present the relationship are education level (high
school, diploma, Bachelor’s degree, Master’s degree) and the number of
books they read.
3. Assign the data to x and y. Tabulate the data as shown in Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Sample data tabulated for the scatter diagram
4. Next, draw a graph to represent the table.
The following scatter diagram is obtained. Teachers can use the graph to explain
to students that x increases as y increases, which gives a perfect positive
relationship (see Figure 10.2).
Figure 10.2: Scatter diagram based on data in Figure 10.1

However, the teacher must explain that this is just an example. A scatter diagram
can be better explained as a useful tool in perceiving the early relationship
between two variables in order to enable researchers to make an early conclusion
regarding the relationship.
There are different types of scatter diagrams as follows:

(a) If y increases as x increases, the correlation is called a positive correlation or
direct correlation.
(b) If y tends to decrease as x increases, the correlation is called a negative
correlation or inverse correlation.
(c) If no pattern can be linked to x and y, then there is no correlation between
them.
(d) The following diagrams represent the various relationships between two
variables.
No Correlation Relationship
Figure 10.3: No correlation relationship scatter diagram

Strong Negative Correlation Relationship
Figure 10.4: Strong negative correlation relationship scatter diagram
Strong Positive Correlation Relationship
Figure 10.5: Strong positive correlation relationship scatter diagram

Weak Negative Correlation Relationship
Figure 10.6: Weak negative correlation relationship scatter diagram
Weak Positive Correlation Relationship
Figure 10.7: Weak positive correlation relationship scatter diagram
10.1.2 Least Square Regression Lines

Although a scatter graph helps us to determine the relationship between two
variables, it does not provide us with the exact relationship equation to forecast
the value of the variables. To overcome this problem, the line of best fit is drawn
on the scatter diagram. This line is called the regression line.
Teachers can further describe a regression line as a line that is drawn on the
scatter diagram to make an estimation on one of the variables when the
corresponding value of another variable is known. The regression line must pass
through the mean of the data.
Note: For a scatter graph with very little scatter, a regression line can be drawn
with the “By Eye Method”, whereby we draw a line in the middle of the scatter
point. Let us look at the following example:
The following table gives the test marks (x) and the final examination marks (y) of
10 students sitting for the Mathematics paper.
Table 10.1: Marks for Mathematics Paper
Test Mark, x 60 50 80 80 70 60 100 40 90 70

Examination 80 60 90 100 80 70 100 60 90 70
Mark, y
1. Plot the data in a scatter diagram.
2. State the coordinate of a point that the regression line of y on x must

pass through.
1
x
 x / n  1060  50  80  80  70  60  100  40  90  70
 70
1
y  x / n  80  60  90  100  80  70  100  60  90  70
 10
 80
The regression line must pass through the point (70,80).

3. Draw the Regression Line of y on x using Eye Method.

Then, draw a line that touches these two points and passes through the
scatter points as shown in Figure 10.8:
Figure 10.8: Regression line by Eye Method
4. The next step is to find the equation of the graph.

The slope of the graph: 50/50 = 1
The graph intercept at y = 10, therefore we can conclude that the regression
line is y = x + 10.
5. From the above equation, we can find any unknown variables. Let us do
some testing.
When x = 50, y = 50 + 10 = 60
When x = 65, y = 65 + 10 = 75
6. Teachers can then assist to find the value of the unknown variable from
the regression line. To enhance students’ understanding, always prompt
them by providing.
The next step is to guide students on how to draw a regression line for a “fairly
scattered points” diagram or a line for a scatter diagram where the points are not
so near each other. For a fairly scattered diagram, two different regression lines
can be drawn, one is the regression line of y on x and the other is the regression
line of x on y. The regression line of y on x is used to estimate the value of y when
the corresponding value of x is given. The regression line of x on y is used to
estimate the value of x when the corresponding value of y is given.
Now, let us look at the following example:
Table 10.2: Test and Examination Mark
Test Mark, x 18 26 28 34 36 42 48 52 54 60
Examination 54 64 54 62 68 70 76 66 74 70
Mark, y
To draw a regression line, follow these steps:

1. Find the point M( x, y ) for all the data.
2. Draw a line passing through M( x , y ) and parallel to the y-axis. This divides
the points into two groups.
3. Find the point L( xL , yL ), the mean of the points on the left.
4. Find the point R( xR , yR ), the mean of the points on the right.
5. Draw a straight line through the points M, L and R. This is the regression
line of y on x which is y = ax + b.
6. Repeat the steps to draw the regression line of x on y which is x = cy + d.
After explaining the above steps, teachers can draw the regression lines as shown
in Figure 10.9:
Figure 10.9: Regression lines
To find the equation for the regression line y on x:
The point M( x, y ) is (39.8, 66.4). This point is marked on the scatter diagram.
The calculation of L( xL , yL ) and R( xR , yR ) is as follows:
Points on the left Points on the right

x y x y
18 54 42 70
26 64 48 76
28 54 52 66
34 62 54 74
36 68 60 70
 x  142  y  302  x  256  y  356
xL  28.4 yD  60.4 xR  51.2 yR  71.2
L( xL , yL ) is (28.4, 60.4) and R( xR , yR ) is (51.2,71.2).

The line passes through the point M(39.8, 66.4), therefore
y = ax + b
66.4 = 0.474(39.8) + b
a = 47.54
Thus, the regression line y on x is:

y = 0.47x + 47.54
so, when x = 40, y = 0.47(40) + 47.54
= 66.34
To find equation for regression line x on y:

First, divide the data into two groups, top and down:
Points below Points above

x y x y
18 54 42 70
26 64 48 76
28 54 52 66
34 62 54 74
36 68 60 70
xD = 28.4 yD = 60.4 xU = 51.2 yU = 71.2
Thus, D( xD , yD ) is (28.4,60.4) and U( xU , yU ) is (51.2,71.2).
c = 51.2 – 28.4
71.2 – 60.4
= 2.11
x = 2.11x + d
The line passes through (39.8, 66.4), therefore,

39.8 = 2.11(66.4) + d
d = –100.30
Thus, the regression line of x on y is: x = 2.11y – 100.30

So, when y = 60, x = 2.11(60) – 100.30 = 26.30
e going to assess students’ understanding of regression lines. Use the example below to demonstrate finding re
data:
x 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8

y 10 15 30 35 25 30
Draw a scatter diagram for the above data. Find the regression line of y on x.
If x = 3, find y.
10.2 PEARSON'S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

In this second subtopic, we will introduce the Pearson's correlation coefficient.
Students should be able to determine correlation coefficients and interpretation the
value.
10.2.1 Correlation Coefficient

Teachers should always relate one subtopic to another to show its continuity. By
doing this, students will have a comprehensive understanding of the topic. To
explain this subtopic, teachers can use our earlier example: the relationship
between educational level and reading interest. We have seen that educational
level and reading interest are correlated but how strong is the correlation?
The measure of the strength is called the correlation coefficient. It is defined as:
(a) Correlation Coefficient : Measures the strength of the linear relationship

between two variables.
(b) Values : –1.0 (perfect negative) to +1.0 (perfect positive

correlation)
(c) Covariance : A measure of how much two random variables

change together.
If two variables, x and y move in the same direction, then the covariance is
positive.
However, if the two variables, x and y move in opposite directions, then the
covariance is negative.
The value of covariance depends on the units used. Covariance of two

variables x and y measured in metre is different from covariance computed
using centimetre. As such, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, r is used to
measure the strength of the relationship between the two variables x and y.
Sxy
(d) Formula, r : r
Sx .Sy
1
Wher Sxy    x  x  y 
e y n
1
   xy  
xy n
1
S2  x2  x 2
x
n1
S2  y2  y 2
y
n
And 1  r  1
r = +1 indicates a perfect positive linear correlation

r = 0 indicates no correlation
r = –1 indicates a perfect negative linear correlation
10.3 LINEAR REGRESSION LINES

Although correlation coefficient enables us to measure the strength of linear
relationship between two variables, it cannot be used to make an estimation or
forecast on the variables. To overcome this weakness, a most stable line is drawn
on the scatter diagram. This line is called a regression line.
Coefficient of Determination of a Regression Line, r2
The coefficient of determination, r2, is a fraction of the total variation in y that is

explained by the variable x through a regression line y = ax + b. If the
observations scatter closely about the regression line, the value of r2 is close to 1.
If there is no linear relationship among the observations, then the coefficient
determination is close to 0.
If y represents the expected value of y, the mean of observed values of y, then the
coefficient of determination of a regression line yˆ = ax + b is given by:
2 Total sum of squared deviations explained by the regression line

r  Total sum of squared deviations of the points from the mean
This relationship can be explained using the graph shown in Figure 10.10:
Figure 10.10: Explained, unexplained and total deviation for one observed value of y
Example 1
Find the least square regression line of y on x for the following data.
x 2 5 8 10 15 17
y 1 7 10 13 18 20
Estimate the value of y when x = 18.

Find the coefficient of determination, r2.
x y x2 y2 xy
2 1 4 1 2
5 7 25 49 35
8 10 64 100 80
10 13 100 169 130
15 18 225 324 270
17 20 289 400 340
2 = 2
∑x = 57 ∑y = 69 ∑x 707 ∑y = 1043 ∑xy = 857
yˆ = ax + b as a regression line
Sxy 1
  xy  xy
1n  57  69 
 857 
  
6 6 6
  
 33.58
1
S2  x2 x 2
x
n
1
  707    57 /
6 2 6
 27.58
Sx  5.25
1
 y y
2 22
S
y
n
 1 1043   69 / 6 2
6
 41.58
Sy  6.45
 Sxy
a
Sx2
 33.58  1.218
27.58
yax
b
n n
 69  1.218 57 
6
9 
 0.071
The least squares regression line y on x is yˆ = 1.218x – 0.071.
When x = 18 estimate value of y, yˆ = 1.218(18) – 0.071 = 21.853
Coefficient of determination, r2  S/ S S 2
xyx y
 33.58 2
  5.25  6.45 
 
  0.9916 2
 0.983
(strong positive relationship)
Y 10.2
tivities can you suggest to reinforce your students’ understanding of correlation coefficient? Give two suggestion
tudents’misconceptionsandsuggestsolutionsto overcome them. Discuss this with your peers in myVLE.
 Correlation and Regression, is a study on the relationship between two

variables: variable x and variable y.
 Scatter diagram can be described as a tool for analysing the relationship

between two variables. One variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the
other is plotted on the vertical axis.
 There are different types of scatter diagrams:

 No correlation relationship;
 Strong negative correlation relationship;
 Strong positive correlation relationship;
 Weak negative correlation relationship; and
 Weak positive correlation relationship.
 Regression line is the most stable line drawn on the scatter diagram.
Sxy
 Pearson's Correlation Coefficient, r  1  r  1.
Sx .Sy
 S 2
 Coefficient of Determination, r xy
2
.
 S .S 
 x y
 Linear Regression Line, yˆ = ax + b.

Correlation Regression
Free floats Regression lines
Linear equation Scatter diagram
Pearson’s correlation Variable
coefficient
A. Shukor A. Rahman. (1996). Matematik matrikulasi, jilid 2. Shah Alam,

Malaysia: Penerbit Fajar Bakti.
Amran Hussin. (1993). Mathematik tulen pra-universiti. Shah Alam,
Malaysia:Penerbit Fajar Bakti.
Heng, H. H. (2001). O level Additional Mathematics. Singapore: Pearson
Education Asia.
Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia. (2002). Mathematics S syllabus and speciment
papers. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Percetakan Warni.
Mohd Kidin Shahran. (2001). Satistik perihalan dan kebarangkalian (3rd ed.).
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Dewan Bahasa Pustaka.
Answers
TOPIC 1 DIFFERENTIATION
Self-Check 1.1
(a) dy (b) dy
 3x 2  6x  1
dx dx
Self-Check 1.2
(a) dy
 5x 4 (b) dy 20

dx dx x 5
(c dy (d) dy
) 
 4 3x 2  2e 2 x  x3  e2 x
dx

 2 x2  x 1 e2x3
d3
(e) x
dy 5
 3x 2 
dx x
Self-Check 1.3
(a) (b)
f ' (x)  3cos x  2 sin f ' (x)  x sin x  cos x
x
(c)
5
f ' (x)   sec2 x
4
Self-Check 1.4
(a) dy (b)
 2  2x dy 2
dx 
dx x3
(c (d) 1
f ' (x)  4x 3  18x f ' (x)  1 
) 2
x2
ANSWERS  249
Self-Check 1.5
 6x(x 2  1)2 2  x3  3x x  13

(a) dy (b) dy
 8x3  30x 2  2 2
dx 1 dx 2 2  x3
(c)
dy 63x  2 x3x  (d) 3x 3x 2  2
dy
dx  1  x 2 2
2
dx  x  32

1  x  1  x 2
2 (x  3)3x 2  2
(e) dy 5
 3x 2  (f) dy 4x  3

dx x dx 2 2x 2  3x  3
Self-Check 1.6
1. (a) dy 4x  2 y (b) dy 2  2x sin y

 
dx 6 y  2x dx 1  x 2 cos y
2. (a) dy t

(b) dy

1  4t  3
dx 2(t  dx 2t
1)
Self-Check 1.7
1. (a) dy (b)
 59 dy
dx dx  0
2. (a) dy
 17 ; Equation of the tangent: y  17x  36
dx
Gradient of the 1

normal 17
Equation of the normal: 17 y  x  32
(b) dy
 4 ; Equation of the tangent: y  4x  10
dx
1
Gradient of the normal 
4
Equation of the normal: 12 y  3x  1
250  ANSWERS
3. (a) f ' (x)  2x 

6 f ' (x) > 0, Condition for increasing function
When
x>3
When f ' (x) < 0, Condition for decreasing function

x<3
Therefore, the function f (x) is increasing in the interval

(3, ) and decreasing in the interval (,3).
(b) f ' (x)  (x  1)(3x  5)

When f ' (x) > 0, Condition for increasing function
 x : x  1 x
5

or 3
When f ' (x) < 0, Condition for decreasing function
5
x : 1  x  
3
Therefore, the function f (x) is increasing in the interval

(,1) 5  5
and ,  and f (x) decreasing in the interval 1,
 
3  
3
   
Self-Check 1.8
1. (a) The stationary points are (0,6) and (2,2)

2 1
(b) The stationary points are (2, 4 ) and (3, 4 )
3 2
2. (a) The stationary points are (0,–2) and (–3,–29)

Minimum point (–3,–29)
(b) The stationary points are (0,4) and (2,0)
Minimum point (2,0); Maximum point (0,4)
ANSWERS  251
Self-Check 1.9
(a) Point of inflexion (2,–40) (b) Point of inflexion (1,0)
Self-Check 1.10
(a) Absolute minimum value is –31 (b) Absolute maximum value is 5
Self-Check 1.11
1. 92 cm3 2.
32 3
81 r
Self-Check 1.12
1. 1 2. 8 cms–1
– 2 -1
6 cms ; 4 cm s
1
TOPIC 2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY: CIRCLE AND CONIC

CROSS–SECTION
Self-Check 2.1
1. (a) (b)
(x  3)2  ( y  1)2  (x  3)2  ( y  2)2  2
16
2. (a) (b) 13
(3,2) ; 10 (2,2);
2
3. (a) 3x  y  3  0 (b) 7x  9 y  59  0
252  ANSWERS
Self-Check 2.2
1.
2.
Self-Check 2.3
1.
ANSWERS  253
2.
Self-Check 2.4
1.
2.
254  ANSWERS
Self-Check 2.5
1.
2.
3.
ANSWERS  255
Self-Check 2.6
1. x  7t 2 1
2. x3 t2
y  14t 2
y1t
3. 5 2 3
4. x1 t2
x1 t 2
4 5
y t
y  3t  2 2
Self-Check 2.7
1. x  3t y  14t 2. xt5y1t
1
y5
3 t
y t
4
1 4. x t
3. 5
x  t 3
2 2
3
1 y  4t
y 5 
2t 2
Self-Check 2.8
1. y  2x  3  0 xy60
2.
8 y  4x  51 x  9 y  18  0
Self-Check 2.9
(a) (b) 3.197 seconds

x  (145 cos 20° )t
y  16t 2  (145sin 20 )t 

5
256  ANSWERS
TOPIC 3 INTEGRATION
Self-Check 3.1
 x 
c
 
1  5x
 
Self-Check 3.2
(a) 4
3 (b) 2
x 6 x c
2
 ln4  3x   c
3 3
3lnex  2 c
(c) 3 (d)
 e 2x  c
2
(e)  cos5 x (f) 3

sec 2x  c
5 2
Self-Check 3.3
(a) (b) 2 5 2 3
x24 x c x 2 x 2 c
2 5 3
(c) x5 (d) x 9 15 2
x2 c  x c
5 3 2
Self-Check 3.4
(a) 1
 ln 4  x   x  3 
2 5
(b) 4  x  1 2
c7
9 ln x  2   3(x  1)  c
 
ANSWERS  257
Self-Check 3.5
(a) 4
x  1 x  4  (b) lnln x c
c
3
Self-Check 3.6
(a)
2e x x 1  (b)  3cos x  3sin x  c
c
(c) x7 1 x7
ln  c
7 x 49
Self-Check 3.7
(a)
16 2  14 (b)
71
3
Self-Check 3.8
(a) 2.99 (b) 0.81
Self-Check 3.9
1. 1 2. 1 3. 8
33 3 21 3
Self-Check 3.10
(a) 104 3
 units (b) 7 units 3 (c)
3
27
 units
3
5
258  ANSWERS
TOPIC 4 LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Self-Check 4.1
1. x : number of frames type A

y : number of frames type B
2x  3 y  8, x  y  4, x  0, y  0
Objective Function: Maximise z  1.6x  2.4 y
2. x : number of car to Village X

y : number of car to Village Y
x  y  30, 5x  3y  300, x  0, y  0
Objective Function: Minimise z  20x  15 y
Self-Check 4.2
1. Maximise z  3x  2 y
Subject to:
2x  y  200
2x  3y  1800
x  y  700
x  0, y  0
Optimal Solution: Regular = 500 boxes, and Large = 200 boxes
Maximum profit = RM1900
2. Minimise z  4x  3 y
Subject to:
2x  3y  2400
2.5x  y  1500
x  3y  1500
x  0, y  0
Optimal Solution: R = 900 kg, S = 200 kg, and Minimum cost = RM4200
ANSWERS  259
Self-Check 4.3
1. Initial Simplex Table
Basic z x y s1 s2 Solution
z 1 –6 –8 0 0 0
s1 0 30 20 1 0 300
s2 0 5 10 0 1 110
Second Simplex Table
z 1 –2 0 0 8 88
10
s1 0 20 0 1 –2 80
y 0 1 1 0 1 11
2 10
Terminal Simplex Table
z 1 0 0 1 3 96
10 5
x 0 1 0 1 1 4
20  10
y 0 0 1 3 9
1
 40 20
Maximum value of z is 96 when x  4, y  9

260  ANSWERS
2. Initial Simplex Table
Basic z x1 x2 x3 s1 s2 s3 Solution
z 1 –1 –4 –5 0 0 0 0
s1 0 3 6 3 1 0 0 22
s2 0 1 2 3 0 1 0 14
s3 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 14
Second Simplex Table
z 1 2 2 0 0 5 0 70
3 3 3 3
s1 0 2 4 0 1 –1 0 8
x3 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 14
3 3 3 3
s3 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 14
ANSWERS  261
Terminal Simplex Table
z 1 1 0 0 1 9 0 74
6 6 3
x2 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 2
2 4 4
x3 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 10
6 2 3
s3 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 10
2 2
TOPIC 6 PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION
Self-Check 6.1
Given 6 different digits, the number of permutations = 6 6  6!  720

P
Self-Check 6.2
120
Number of permutations = 5 3 5!   60
P  (5  2
3)!
Self-Check 6.3
7! 9!
(a)  420  45,360
3!2! (b) 2!2!
2!
Self-Check 6.4
(a) 48 (b) 288

262  ANSWERS
Self-Check 6.5
(a) 40320 (b) 16
Self-Check 6.6
6!
The number of arrangements without conditions =
2!
If the two E’s are placed side by side, then the number of arrangements = 5!
6!
The number of arrangements with both E’s separated =  5!  240
2!
Self-Check 6.7
9
C 3  84
Self-Check 6.8
(a) 462 (b) 350 (c) 462
TOPIC 7 PROBABILITY
Self-Check 7.1
S= { B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, R1, R2,...,R7, Y1, Y2,...,Y9)

n(S) = 21; X = { Y1, Y2,...,Y9 }; n(X) = 9
Self-Check 7.2
1. Four letters are to be chosen from the alphabets J to R. The number of words
is 9 P 9!
4  (9  = 3024
4)!
ANSWERS  263
2. (a) (i) Number of ways five balls can be chosen randomly from 10 balls
without considering its arrangement = 10C 10! = 252
5  5!5!
(ii) If the green balls must be more than the black balls, then the
possibilities are 4 green balls and 1 black ball or 3 green balls
and 2 black balls or all the 5 balls are green.
Number of ways of choosing 4 green balls and 1 black ball

6 4
C 4. C 1 6! . 4 = 60
 2!
4!
Number of ways of choosing 3 green balls and 2 black balls

6
C . 4C 6! 4! = 120
3 2  3! . 2!
3! 2!
Number of ways of choosing 5 green balls = 6C 6!

 =6
5
5!
Number of ways of selecting 5 balls with the condition that the

number of green balls must be more than the black balls is
60 + 120 + 6 = 186 ways
2. (b) If S is the sample space consisting of all the ways of selecting 5 balls,
then n(S) =252
If G is the event that only one green ball is chosen, then

6! n(G) 6 1
n(G)= 6C . 4C   6 , and P(G) =  
1 4
5! n(S ) 252 42
Self-Check 7.3
(a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 35

18 12 36
Self-Check 7.4
(a) 3 (b) 2
25 5
26  ANSWERS
4
Self-Check 7.5
(a) P(N) = 0.5 (b) P(T) = 0.3 , P(F  N T ) = 0.15 (c) 0.15
Self-Check 7.6
(a) 70 (b) 25
P(A)  0.47 P(A  B)  0.17
= 150 = 150
(c) 15
P(C’  A  B)=  0.1
150
Self-Check 7.7
(a) P(M  M  M) + P(B  B  B)

=P(MMM)+P(BBB) =(0.7 5 0.7 5 0.7) + (0.3 5 0.3 5 0.3) = 0.37
(b) P(2M, 1B) = P(MBM) + P(BMM) + P(MMB)= 3(0.7 5 0.7 5 0.3)= 0.441
(c) P(no bicycle) = P(MMM) = 3 5 0.7 = 0.343

ANSWERS  265
Self-Check 7.8
(a) Let S : sample space

F: salesperson is a female
M: salesperson is a male
R: salesperson is married
n(S) = 80, n(F) = 60, n(M) =20 , n(F  R)=20

P(F  R) = n(F  R) 20 1
n(S )  80 4
(b) n(M  R) =10

10
P(M|R) = P(M  R)
80 1
P(R)  30  3
80
Self-Check 7.9
(a)
P(A  B) =P(B|A) . P(A)
1 1 3
= . P(A)  P(A) =
10 3 10
(b)1
P(A|B) = P( A  B)
10 3
P(B)  1 5
6
(c) P(A) =P(A|B) . P(B) + P(A|B’ ) . P(B’ )
3 3 1 5 5
=  + P(A| [P(B’)=1-P(B)= ]
B’ ) .
10 5 6 6 6
P(A|B’ ) . 5 3 1 6
= -  P(A|B’ ) =
6 10 10 25
(d) P(A|B)  P(A), therefore, A and B are not independent events.
(e) Since P(A  B)  0, events A and B are not mutually exclusive.
266  ANSWERS
Self-Check 7.10
(a) P(A) = 0.5 , P(B) = 0.1 P(C) = 0.6

P(A’) = 0.5, P(B’) = 0.9 P(C’) = 0.4
A, B and C are independent events, so are A, B’ and C’.
Thus, P( A  B'C')  P( A).P(B' ).P(C' )  0.5  0.9  0.4  0.18
P( A ' B  C  P( A ').P(B).P(C  0.5  0.1 0.4  0.02
') ')
 0.5  0.9  0.6  0.27
P( A ' B '  P( A ').P(B
C) ').P(C)
P(only one of them will be successful)=0.18+0.02+0.27=0.47
(b) P(all of them will be successful) =P( A  B  C)
 P( A).P(B).P(C)  0.5  0.1 0.6  0.03
(c) P(none of them will be successful) = P( A'B'C')
 P( A ').P(B ').P(C ')  0.5 0.9  0.4  0.18
(d) P(at least one of them will be successful)
=1 – P(none of them will be successful)
= 1 – 0.18 = 0.82
Self-Check 7.11
P(M1 M 2)  15 .14  0.55

20 19
P(M1 F 2)  15 . 5  0.20
20 19
P(M1 M 2)  5 .15  0.20

20 19
P(M1 M 2)  5 . 4  0.05
20 19
ANSWERS  267
15
(a) P(the first is male)=
20
14
(b) P(the second is male| the first is male)= P(M2 |M1)=
19
15
(c) P(the second is male|the first is female)= P(M2 |F1)=
19
M1  M 2 0.55
(d) P(first is male |second is male) = P(M1|M2 ) =P( )=  0.73
M2 0.75
TOPIC 8 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Self-Check 8.1
1.
X=x Outcomes corresponding to Probabilities
X=x P(X=x)
–10 HH 1 1 1
 
2 2 4
5 HT, TH 1 1 1 1 2
2 2  2 2 4
10 TT 1 1 1
 
2 2 4
Now, P ( X  10  X  5  X  10 )
=P ( X  10) +P (  5) +P (  10)
X X
1 2 1
=    1; Hence, X is a discrete random variable.
4 4 4
268  ANSWERS
2.
Y=y Outcomes corresponding to Probabilities
Y=y P(Y=y)
1 1 1 1
0 BBB 22 2  8
1 BBG, BGB, GBB 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
2  2 2  2 2 2  2 2 2  8
2 BGG, GBG, GGB 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

        
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8
1 1 1 1
3 GGG   
2 2 2 8
Now, P ( X  3  X  2  X  1 X  0 )
=P ( X  3) +P (  2) +P (  1) +P (  0)
X X X
1 3 3 1
=    1
8 8 8 8
Hence, X is a discrete random variable.
Self-Check 8.2
1. (a) P(N) = 0.5 (b) 4 (c) 1

15 3
2. (a) 1 (b) 4
18
ANSWERS  269
Self-Check 8.3

 P(R  r)  1
0

3 3 3
3  ...
2 P(R  r)  k  k k
 4     k   
0   4

 3  3 2  3  1 
 3
 k 1    ...  k    4k
4 4  4 3

       1 
 4
1
4k  1  k 
4
Self-Check 8.4
1
1. Axis of symmetry is x  6  8  7 .
E( X )  7
Therefore,
2
Check:
E( X )   xP( X  x) 1
1 1 2 2  12 7
2 4 1 6 1  8 10
         ( )  
9 6
        9 9 9
  9  9
270  ANSWERS
2. (a) p = 0.4
(b)
(c) E(Y )  3
Check:
E( X )   xP( X  x)
1(0.05)  2(0.25)  3(0.4)  4(0.25)  5(0.05)  3
Self-Check 8.5
(a) E( X )  2.3
(b) E( X 2 )   x 2 P( X  x) 1(0.3)  4(0.2)  9(0.4)  16(0.1)  6.3
(c) E(4 X 2  3X  1)  4E( X 2 )  3E( X )  1 

19.3 (d) E(Y )  4  5E( X )  2E(Y ) =3.5
Self-Check 8.6
Since f(x) is a probability function, then we have

a  b  a  1  2a  b  1  b  1  2a
E( X )  2, E( X 2 )  2a  4  2a  4  2  a  1  b  3
ANSWERS  271
Self-Check 8.7
(a) Mean X = = E( X )   xP( X  x)

 1  2  3  4  5  11
1 2
4       3  

 5 

 15   15   15   15   15  3
E( X 2 )   x 2 P( X  x)
1 2 3 4 5
 1  4  9  16   15
       25 
 15   15   15   15   15 
  
 11  2 14
Var( X ) =  E( X 2 )   2  15    
2
(b)
3 9
14 14
(c) Standard deviation of X ,  , SD( X ) = Var( X ) 
9  3
Self-Check 8.8
E( X )  3, E(Y )  4
(a) 0 (b) 29 (c) Var( X )  Var(Y )  2, 3Var( X )  2Var(Y )  13
(d) 3Var( X )  2Var(Y )  3,
5
TOPIC 9 BINOMIAL AND NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
Self-Check 9.1
Let X represent the number of times the number of 5 is obtained in 3 throws.

1 5
Then X is a binomial random variable with parameters n  3, p  and q 
6 6
3  1  x  5 3 x
By using P(  x)nC  C     ,
X px x q n
x x
6 6
 1 1  5 2 
25
(a) P(  1)3C     
X  
1
 6   6  72
(b) P( X  1)  P( X  2)  P( X  3)
 3C  1 2  5 3C  1 3  5 5 1 16 2
1 0    
2    3   72 216 216 27
 6   6  6  6 
272  ANSWERS
(c) P( X  2)  P( X  2)  P( X  3)
 3C  1 2  5  3C  1 3  5 0
1
2    3  
 6   6  6  6 
5 1 16 2
 72 216
 216 27
Self-Check 9.2
P( X  0)  q5 ; P( X  1)  5 pq 4 ; P( X  2)  10 p 2q3
P( X  3)  10 p 3 q 2 ; P( X  4)  5 p 4q; P( X  5)  p 5
Expand ( p  q)5
Self-Check 9.3
(a) P( X  2)  0.8192  0.4096  0.4096
(b P(  2)  1  0.8192  0.1808
) X
(c) P( X  3)  0.9728
Self-Check 9.4
Calculate P(  x) for x  0,1,2,...,6

X
P( X  0)  0.046656
X P( X  1)  0.186624
P(  2)  0.31104
X
 3)  0.27648
P(
X  4)  0.13824
P(  5)  0.036864
X  6)  0.004096
P(
X
P(
The
hig
hest
val
ue
ANSWERS  273
Self-Check 9.5
X
E(Z )  E
 
  
1 1
 E( X )         0
 
 X
Var(Z )  Var
 
  
1 1
 Var( X )  0     1
2

2
2

Self-Check 9.6
(d) 1. (a) 0.00135 0.1056

(e) (b) 0.8962 0.8292
(c) 0.30229 (f) 0.925
2. (a) 0.328 (c) 1.78

(b) –0.31 (d) 1.10
Self-Check 9.7
(a) 0.0668 (d) 0.1114
(b) 0.2743 (e) 0.4206
(c) 0.0375
Self-Check 9.8
1. 8.86 2. 30
3. 52.73, 11.96 4. 100.8, 5.71
274  ANSWERS
Self-Check 9.9
X ~ P(5)
0
(a 5
P(0)  e5  e5  0.007
) 0!
(b) P( X  6)  0.762 From the table.
(c) P( X  6)  1  P( X  5)
 1  0.616  0.384 From the table.
(d P(  6)  P( X  6)  P( X  5)
) X  0.762  0.616  0.146 From the table.
Self-Check 9.10
  500(0.006)  3
3
P( X  3)  3x e3  0.647
x!
 x0
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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Nor Hayati Md. Yusof

Moderator: Goh Su Mei

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, May 2009

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2015, HBMT4403

Topic 2 Analytical Geometry: Circle and Conic Cross-section 34

Topic 4 Linear Programming 92

Topic 5 Network Planning 123

Topic 6 Permutation and Combination 141

Topic 7 Probability 159

7.3.3 Probability Involving Three or More Events 180

Topic 8 Probability Distributions 189

Topic 9 Binomial and Normal Distribution 207

Topic 10 Correlation and Regression 230

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

The HBMT4403 introduces the learners to develop the understanding of

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

derivatives of x n , e x , ln x, sin x, cos x, tan x and carry out differentiation of

Topic 2 also consists of three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss a circle.

Topic 3 comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the integration of a

able to state the objective function that needs to be minimised or maximised. In

Topic 5 also consists of three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the networks.

Topic 6 consists of two subtopics. Topic 6 is about the permutation and

Topic 7 comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the basic concepts of

Topic 8 is about probability distributions and contains three subtopics. In subtopic

Topic 9 contains three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the binomial

Topic 10 comprises three subtopics. In subtopic 1, we discuss the scatter diagram.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Majlis Peperiksaan Malaysia. (2002). Mathematics S syllabus and specimen

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

2. Identify the notations of f   x  , f x dy d y ;

4. Choose the appropriate approach to find the first derivative of an

1.1 DERIVATIVE OF A FUNCTION

f x dy d y , e , ln x, sin x, cos x, tan x

1.1.1 Differentiation from First Principles

As point B is moved along the curve towards the fixed point A,

This process is known as differentiating with respect to x from first principles.

Example 1: Finding the derivative from first principles

If y = x2, find dy from first principles.

Hence, we can make a conclusion that

Hence, if y = f (x) = ex , then dy  f ( x)  ex

Example 2: Differentiation involving exponential and logarithmic functions

Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

dy  53x31   15x2 dy  e2x. d 2x   e2x.2  2e2x

Find the first derivatives of the following functions with respect to x.

1.1.5 Differentiation of sin x, cos x and tan x

dy sin( x  x)  sin

if y = sin x, then dy  cos x

if y = cos x, then dy   sin x ,

if y = tan x, then dy  sec2 x