Units 1-9

COURSE CODE: 6466

COMPARATIVE EDUCATION

Faculty of Education, Distance, Non-Formal & Continuing Education

Department, Allama Iqbal Open University, 2016
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 COURSE TEAM

Chairman Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary

Members Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary

Ms. Naila Naseer
Dr. Amtul Hafeez
Ms. Mamoona Ambreen
Dr. Rahmatullah Bhatti
Dr. Aftab
Dr. Muhammad Zafar Iqbal

Course Development Coordinator Ms. Naila Naseer

Editor Ms. Humaira Ejaz
Reviewers Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood
Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary
Ms. Naila Naseer
Ms. Tahira Bibi
Ms. Mamoona Ambreen

Course Coordinator Ms. Naila Naseer

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 FOREWORD

Comparative education is a field of study which makes comparisons between educational

theories and practices and provides information about similarities and differences in educational
systems in different countries.
This course has been developed to provide an opportunity to the learners to have a deep
overview and understanding regarding the significance and scope of comparative education.
Different units of this course will help students to learn about educational practices of different
countries at different levels (primary education, secondary education, higher education, teacher
education and special education). It will promote the understanding of students regarding the
distance education systems in developed and developing countries. Students will develop
comparative analytical skills regarding curriculum planning and development in different
countries. Overall, this course will facilitate students to relate educational practices of other
countries with our education system so that they can compare and contrast between the local and
global educational practices.
It is very important to equip our students with the necessary knowledge and approaches
regarding comparative education so that they may understand relationship between education
and development in different societies. In this regard, I congratulate the Dean Faculty of
Education and the course team for developing this course.

Prof. Dr. Shahid Siddiqui

Vice Chancellor
Allama Iqbal Open University

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The course is developed by the input of many people. The course development
coordinator acknowledges the hardwork and efforts of all the people (Chairman DNFCE, Dean
F/O Education, unit writers, unit reviewers, editors, designers and the course team) who put their
knowledge and expertise in the development process of this course with dedication and devotion.

I am also grateful to the Vice Chancellor Allama Iqbal Open University for providing
facilities and encouragement for writing this course.
(Ms. Naila Naseer)
Course Development Coordinator

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 INTRODUCTION

Basic rationale for the development of this course is that many important educational

queries can be best analyzed from an international-comparative perspective. So, the course

focuses on the study of concept, historical perspectives, trends/issues and educational systems in

comparative perspective. Different units of this course will help pupils to know the educational

practices at primary education, secondary education, higher education, teacher education and

special education in many countries. It will enhance the students’ understanding regarding the

distance education systems in different countries. The course will also foster comparative

analytical skills in students regarding curriculum planning and development.

The course tends to enhance the understanding of the different educational practices and

cross cultural understanding of educational ideas, approaches and challenges in students. Overall,

the course focuses on significance of comparative education and its application in our scenario so

a better educational system may evolve.

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 OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

The objectives of this course are to enable students to:

1. analyze the concept and scope of comparative education.

2. differentiate among approaches of comparative education.

3. evaluate primary education in comparative perspective.

4. analyze secondary education in comparative perspective.

5. critically analyze higher education in comparative perspective.

6. discuss the status of teacher education in comparative perspective.

7. plan and develop curriculum in perspective of different countries.

8. evaluate different distance education system in different countries of the world.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Team
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Objectives of the Course
Unit 1 Comparative Education: Introduction

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept and Scope of Comparative Education
a. The Concept of Comparative Education
b. The Scope of Comparative Education
4. Comparative Vs International Education: An Analysis
5. Historical Development of Comparative Education
6. Comparative Education: Trends and Issues

Unit No.2 Concept of Educational Approaches

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept and Scope of Educational Approaches
4. Types of Educational Approaches
5. Descriptive Approach
a. Classical Approach
b. Standard or Spiral Approach
6. Historical Approach
a. Prescriptive Approach
7. Quantitative Approach
8. Sociological Approach
9. Conflict Theory
10. Open System Theory

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Unit No. 3 Primary Education

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Nature of Primary Education
4. Concept and Scope of Primary Education
5. Primary Education in Comparative Perspectives:
a. Primary Education in USA
b. Primary Education in UK
c. Primary Education in Pakistan
d. Primary Education in Sri Lanka

Unit No. 4 Secondary Education

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept and Scope of Secondary Education
4. Secondary Education in Comparative Perspectives
a. Secondary Education in USA
b. Secondary Education in UK
c. Secondary Education in India
d. Secondary Education in Pakistan
e. Secondary Education in Malaysia
5. Comparison between Eastern and western countries in secondary education

Unit No 5 Higher Education

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept and Scope of Higher education
a. Concept of Higher Education
b. Scope of Higher Education
4. Bologna Process in Higher Education

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 5. University Education in Comparative Perspectives:
a. United States of America (USA)
b. UK
c. Pakistan
d. India

Unit No. 6 Teacher Education

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept of Teacher Education
4. Scope of Teacher Education
5. Teacher Education in Comparative Perspective
a. USA
b. UK
c. Pakistan
d. India

Unit No. 7 Special Education

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. The Concept and Scope of Special Education:
4. Special Education in:
a. Pakistan
b. United Kingdom
c. India
d. Norway

Unit No. 8 Curriculum Planning and Development

1. Introduction
2. Objectives

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 3. Curriculum Planning
4. Curriculum Development
5. Concept and Scope of Curriculum Development
6. Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development
7. Phases and Steps in Curriculum Development
8. Curriculum Development in Comparative Perspectives:
a. Curriculum Development in United States of America
b. Curriculum Development in United Kingdom
c. Curriculum Development in India
d. Curriculum Development in Pakistan

Unit No. 9 Comparison: Distance Education System

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept and Scope of Distance Education System
4. Comparative Distance Education System:
a. Canada
b. UK
c. Pakistan
d. India
5. Comparisons of different Distance Education Systems

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 Comparative Education: Introduction

Written by: Prof. Dr. Tanveer-uz-zaman

Reviewed by: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Objectives

Concept and Scope of Comparative Education

 The Concept of Comparative Education

 The Scope of Comparative Education

Comparative Vs International Education: An Analysis.

Historical Development of Comparative Education

Comparative Education: Trends and Issues

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References

INTRODUCTION:
Collection of data on educational systems in different regions has been rapidly growing
since the 19th century. Comparative education is the comparative study of educational theories
and practices in various countries. Comparative education attempts to use cross-national data to
test propositions about the relationship between education and society and between teaching
practices and learning outcomes. Comparative education considers the implications of
comparative studies for the formation and implementation of policies in education, social,
national and international development. Comparative analysis in education proved to be a useful
tool in the science of education from a number of standpoints. It provides us with knowledge and
information on other countries' educational systems, practices and outputs. It also provides
descriptions of other nations' lifestyles including their educational practices.
Comparative education invites contributions from associated disciplines in the fields of
government, management, sociology, and technology and communications which affect

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educational research and policy decisions. Comparative education aims at a) explaining
educational systems, processes, or outcomes; b) helping the development of educational
institutions and practices; c) emphasizing the relationships between education and society; and d)
forming generalized statements about education relevant in more than one country.
In fact, students in educational institutions are not prepared without the study of
comparative education due to the justifiable reasons that is: comparative education provides
reference for reforms. Through studying the educational systems of other countries we can
discover which reforms are possible and desirable. The study helps students to improve the
education in their home country. Comparative education helps students to acquire better
understanding of education system of other countries and borrow some aspects for better
improvement of education at home. Comparative education contributes to the internalization of
school curriculum and student learning experience; develop students’ broader world views,
cross–cultural and comparative analytical skills. Similarly, the study of comparative education
helps students to make connection between the local and global, and the relationship between
education, development and society.
Furthermore, comparative education help students to understand how educational systems are
shaped by wealth, ideology, social cultural features of the country and impacts of globalization
on education policy and practice in different regions and countries (Lawrent, 2012).
Objectives:
After studying this unit, students will be able to:
1. Explore the concept and scope of comparative education.
2. Comprehend comparative versus international education.
3. Grasp the historical perspective of comparative education.
4. Identify trends and issues of comparative education.

1.1 Concept and Scope of Comparative Education:

Following is the concept and scope of comparative education:

1.1.1 The Concept of Comparative Education:

Comparative educationists are primarily scholars who study education in different
environments in order to discover why they are the way they are and also attempt to solve

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educational problems. Comparative education is a multi-disciplinary subject that uses knowledge
from other humanities and social sciences disciplines.
Sodhi (2006) perceives comparative education as a field of study that applies historical,
philosophical and social science theories and methods to international problems in education.
Getao (1996) defined Comparative Education as a discipline, the study of educational
systems in which one seeks to understand the similarities and differences among educational
systems.
As a summary of the definitions of comparative education, it can be said that it is a discipline
through which one makes comparisons of education systems across national boundaries by
examining in detail the structure, curriculum, administration, financing and participation, with
the aim of understanding the factors and forces that account for the differences and similarities in
these systems of education.

1.1.2 The Scope of Comparative Education:

Evans (2013) has elaborated the scope of comparative education under following five
perspectives:
i. The subject matter and content; this covers the essential components of educational
systems such as structure, aims, content or curriculum, administration, financing,
teacher education.
ii. Geographical units of study; these comprises intra-national, international, regional,
continental and global or world systems studies and analysis.
iii. Ideological scope; this compares countries' educational systems on the basis of
different political, social and economic ideologies. For example, democratic,
communism, socialist, capitalist, free market and mixed economies.
iv. Thematic scope; this scope focuses on educational themes, topical issues or
problems and compares them within one or more geographical units. For example
free primary and secondary education, universal primary education, education for all
and universal higher education.
v. The historical or spatial scope; this deals with the study of the historical
development of the discipline from the earliest (pre-historic) phase known as the

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 period of Travelers' Tales to the modern phase known as the period of social science
perspectives.
So, it is apparent that the scope of comparative education could be viewed in the
following ways:
 First there is the subject matter/content perspective which covers the essential
components of educational systems such as aims, content or curriculum,
administration, financing, teacher education and structure.
 Secondly, there is the geographical unit/area study perspective which comprises intra-
national, international, regional, continental and global or world systems studies and
analysis. Intra-national studies involve studies done within a nation. The national
studies may involve several nations within a region or a continent.
 Then there is also the ideological approach, which compares countries educational
systems on the basis of differing political, social and economic ideologies that are
followed.
 The national philosophy in a country influences the kind of the education that is
provided. This can further be affected by the political party manifestoes that
propagate a particular ideology. The Socialist countries have used socialism as the
main ideology that is followed in their countries and this has affected the education
system in those countries. On the other hand Western countries have used several
ideologies such as pragmatism, nationalism and democracy in furthering their
educational ideals. The thematic scope focuses on themes, topical issues or problems
and compares them within one or more geographical units. This can further be done
by analyzing of a topical issue in education and understanding it.
 Lastly the special/ historical scope deals with the study of historical development of
education.

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 Activity No. 1.
1. Discuss the term comparative education with at least two educationalists and write its definition in
your own words.
2. Go to the library and find out the concept of comparative education and write it in your own words.
3. With reference to at least two scholars, write down the scope of comparative education in your own
words.
1.2 Comparative Vs International Education: An Analysis:
Comparative education has following international relevance and impacts:
 Education for international understanding:
According to Mugo and Wolhuter (2011) international understanding is a central purpose for
studying comparative education. Unilateral and multilateral co-operation programs have been
developed to promote international understanding. Education is seen as the possible way to
enhance international understanding. To understand other nations of the world, their philosophies
of life, education, culture and sociology and to understand the forces, geographical, cultural,
local and religious factors influencing their life, to know more about their customs, traditions and
culture is absolutely essential. An understanding of how these cultures are affecting education
systems and how these cultures are shaped by education is important for the development of
clear concept of internationalism. Exchanging students, teachers and other social workers is
intended to promote the international systems of education.

• Relax national pride:

This is necessary for combat feelings of superiority, especially among, the populations of
countries technologically and economically developed and with military prowess. They need to
understand that other countries are essential for their sustenance and therefore have to work for
mutual benefit of each other.
Kubow and Fossum (2007) have discussed that comparative thinking and international
perspectives taking are essential for citizens to get along in diverse, global society. Comparison
challenges students to suspend judgment of these foreign systems that they might base on their
limited and localized perspectives. Through the development of comparative thinking skills,
students should be able to undertake analyses of their home cultures and systems with a more

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nuanced understanding of various cultural factors at play. Comparative education also
encourages students and educators to ask, "What kinds of educational policy, planning, and
teaching are appropriate for what kind of society?" The field of Comparative Education focuses
our attention on what might be the appropriate and inappropriate policy, while fostering
awareness of the ideologies underlying educational practice. Hence, comparative study can also
cultivate a political consciousness.
Since, comparative education studies operate on different geographical levels, so the utility
and value of comparative education is different. It can be viewed at the different levels i.e.:
o The global level,
o The supra-national,
o The national,
o The sub-national,
o The institutional,

On a global level, the significance of comparative education has been raised by the
phenomenon of globalization. For example, according to Larsen et al. (2008: 148) and
O'Sullivan (2008: 140) globalization has resulted in a renaissance of comparative education in
teacher education programs at respectively Canadian and Irish universities. Comparative
Education identifies and describes world trends and movements in education. Forces of
globalization have acted upon education internationally, creating greater uniformity and
standardization. Planet-wide societal (economic, political, social and technological) forces have
come to shape education, and need to be taken cognizance of in order to understand education.
Comparativists involve themselves in the universal evaluation of education systems globally by
assessing how these systems live up to global trends and challenges of the twenty-first century.
The Millennium Developmental Goals and the campaign for Education for All are global
education policies. Similarly, global initiatives such as universal adult literacy, the Millennium
Development Goals and Education for All call for the expertise of comparativists to assist with
educational planning in order to achieve these goals. Current world wide trends such as the
information and communication revolution, the technological revolution, and the neoliberal
economic revolution at the same time hold the possibility of dragging humanity in the twenty-
first century to new, unfathomed depths, and the promise to uplift humanity to unprecedented

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planes; placing at the door of comparative education the assignment of helping education to steer
the world towards the latter.

On the supra-national level, a substantial amount of literature focuses on the nature of

educational provision in different regions of the world. Regional units are constructed on one or
more (educational or contextual) characteristics common to the region. Such characteristics
obtain increased significance if they distinguish the particular region from other regions.
Characteristics can include level of educational development, goals of education, forms of
educational administration, institutional fabric of educational institutions, or contextual
characteristics such as political organization, colonial history, cultural origin, or level of
economic development. For a complete understanding of national systems of education and
individual institutions, it is necessary to turn to regional forces. Regional foci also enlarge the
geographic range of educational planning and philanthropic activities.

The level of the nation-state is, of course, the level at which the overwhelming majority of
published comparative education studies occurs. Here comparative education studies describe
and explain (from societal forces shaping education systems) national education systems.
Comparative education research invokes the educational experience of foreign countries to guide
educational reform projects in the home country. National level studies in the field of
comparative education can also be of value to other fields of educational inquiry. Combinations
of national, political, social and economic forces result in configurations of societies discernible
at national level, and by explicating such national education societal interrelationships,
comparative education yields valuable information to the field of sociology of education. It is
when an education system requires a nation-wide change that comparative education serves the
philanthropic ideal at national level.

Current worldwide societal trends of the demise of the once omnipotent nation-state, the
resulting decentralization, and the rise of multicultural societies, bring the sub-national
category as level of comparative analysis to the fore. In Germany, for example, the challenge of
the educational handling of the substantial number of immigrant (guest worker) children, in the
second half of the twentieth century played a pivotal role in the rise of comparative education as

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a field of teaching in German universities and in the rise of comparative education as an
organized field of scholarly inquiry in Germany (Waterkamp, 2008, p.66). A paradigm such as
feministic studies reveals the experience of women in education, and understanding this
experience is the first step towards re-designing education systems and teaching practice to
rectify any wrong. It is also by assessing equity in educational systems, not only with respect to
the trinity gender, ethnicity/race and socioeconomic status, but also with respect to other, newer,
contemporary dimensions of diversity, that comparative education plays its part in evaluating
education systems. A more positive message emanates from studies in the paradigm of cultural
revitalization. The cultural revitalization paradigm focuses on deliberative efforts by members of
a society to create a more satisfying culture, both at local and national levels, by means of
educational initiatives.

At the level of the institution, the paradigm of ethnography (focusing on the culture of a
particular educational institution), a fuller description of a school or other educational institution
could be obtained, as well as a more complete understanding. On the level of the class, the
paradigms of ethnography (studying the culture of a particular class) and of critical ethnography,
as well as the paradigm of ethno-methodology (studying the social dynamics and norms within a
particular class) can be valuable in knowing and understanding what is happening at class-room
level. Planel (2008) did an empirical study of 10 student teachers from England doing their
teaching practice in France, that comparative education in teacher education courses should be
reconstructed as comparative pedagogy. In times of increasing multicultural classrooms,
comprehensive schools and inclusive education, Planel argues that comparative pedagogy is
useful and relevant for teachers as it helps to enhance teachers' understanding of children of
diverse socio-economic and cultural backgrounds, and thus culminates in more effective teaching
and learning, in view of the importance of teaching to have resonance with, to be linked to the
life-world of the students. In an age of individualization and human rights, the individual level is
destined to assume ever increasing importance in comparative education.

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 Activity No. 2.
1. Discuss to analyze comparative vs. international education in detail with the educationists’ of
AIOU.
2. Use the central library of AIOU to understand the perspective of comparative education at the
global level.
3. Ask your two teachers the perspective of comparative education at the supra-national level to
explain it in your own words.
4. How the perspective of comparative education at the sub-national level can be explained to
your students?
5. Make a group of your students to understand the perspective of comparative education at the
institutional level.

1.3 Historical Development of Comparative Education:

The history of comparative education can be traced from the earliest times of human
history. In education circles reformers and educationists have been comparing their system with
that found in other countries in order to improve their own. Comparative education is a fully
established academic field of study that examines education in one country (or group of
countries) by using data and insights drawn from the practices and situation in another country,
or countries. Programs and courses in comparative education are offered in many universities
throughout the world, and relevant studies are regularly published in scholarly journals. The field
of comparative education is supported by many projects associated with UNESCO and the
national education ministries of various nations.
Evans (2013) has elaborated the following historical phases of comparative education:
 The phase of Travelers Tales i.e. Pre-history to end of 18th century.
 Period of Pioneers or Phase of Selective Education Borrowing i.e. during the
19th century.
 The phase of concern for Cultural Context or Period of Philosophers i.e. from 1900 to
end of World War II.
 The phase of Social Science perspective i.e. from1945 to the present.

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 1. The Phase of Traveler’s Tales
Historically people visited places for various reasons such as commerce, conversation,
curiosity or conflict. However everyone who has ever been interested in the upbringing of
children or in education in general has always tended to find out what goes on in other
communities. Studies of early writers of comparative education indicate that they drew examples
from other societies that they visited or heard about. They actually tended to look for differences
and similarities in respect to education of other communities and their own.
This phase was marked by descriptive reports of travelers who comprised military
conquerors, business expeditions and even explorers. The motives for accounts of travelers' tales
were partly curiosity and the need for comparison. They gave descriptive account of features in
foreign systems of educational as they saw them. Their reports on education was fragmental,
generally unsystematic, exaggerated at times and understatements at other times. Although they
were stimulating they were superficial and piecemeal and as such were of little comparative
value but worth considering. Some of the contributors during this phase were:

Herodotus (484-425 BC) - in his commentaries on the Persian wars he attempted a comparison
of culture.
Xenophon (430-355 BC) -An Athenian, he gave a detailed account of the education for
citizenship given to the youth in Persia. He compared the aims and structure of education in
Persian and Sparta. According to him, he admired the Spartan education and wished that the
Athenians could copy it.
Plato- A Greek philosopher compared the aims and structure of the Spartan and Greek systems.
In his two books i.e. "The law" and "The Republic" he compared education system in Sparta and
Athens. Like Xenophon he admired the Spartan education system which was state controlled and
emphasized on discipline which was military type. He went ahead and argued that the Athenian
education was likely to bring about permissiveness and lack of social order. He therefore
recommended that the Athenians should copy Sparta.
Julius Caesar (102-42BC) - As the Roman emperor he also described how children were
educated in countries beyond Rome. He also admired especially the Spartan state controlled
education system. He also commented on education of the Belgian, Acquitanians and Celts as
indicated in his writings on Gallic wars.

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Cicero (106-43BC) - He made comparisons between Greek and Roman education. In his book
"De Republica" (57BC) he explained that he favored state controlled system as opposed to a
family centered system. In his "De Oratore" he claimed that Greece was far better than every
other nation in the practice of eloquence and hence in education.
Tacitus (AD 55-116) - He contrasted the education in his own day with that of earlier periods,
He even began the long history of the ‘'past versus the present" debate.
Marco Polo (13th century) - He traveled to the court of Kublai Khan in China and reported
about the Chinese education system. He observed that there were no quarrels in schools in China
and that honesty and truthfulness were emphasized. He further observed that men and women
lived together peacefully in China a fact he attributed to the education system. However in the
19th century it was noted that the Chinese education system contributed to the corrupt
government system and breaking of laws such as cruelty to prisoners.
Ibn Khaldun (1332-1506) -A Tunisian born scholar who made comparison between the Eastern
Moslem culture and that of the west. He emphasized the need to establish similarities and
differences between the present and the past. He also advocated for the need to know the causes
of the similarities in certain cases and of the differences in others.
Jacop Middendorp (German) -was sent by his government to find information about
universities in France, Italy, Denmark, Poland and Bohemia.
Erasmus (1496-1536) - a scholar during the Renaissance, he gave detailed information about
education in different countries, comparing the state of education in England in his time with that
of Italy.
Montaigne (1533-1592) - From France he traveled widely to Germany, Italy and other European
countries and gave account on the education of the people he visited.
William Petty (1623-1687) - A professor of Anatomy at Oxford University and founder of the
Royal society, presented a more scholarly approach to the observation of foreign counties in his
book" The methods of enquiring into the state of any country."
Le Chatolais (1773) and Diderot (1776) - From Russia, they compared the Russian education
with that of France.
Condorcet (France) - After the French Revolution, he compared the French education system
with that of England, Italy and Germany. He gave his report to the National Assembly.

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 From the account of the scholars mentioned above, it should be noted that during ancient
time, there were examples of individuals with interest in comparisons of all kind. During the
(13th-15thcenturies) travel of one kind or another became greater in length and more
comprehensive in character. During the 16th century cases of embryonic comparative education
research became more frequent. This was partly due to the impetus of geographical exploration
and discovery of the time. As such there were writings, of traveling scholars and others sent to
other countries to study education. During the 17th century there was increasing and more
significant international contacts as foreign travel not only became more possible, but more and
more common. During this time, travelers guide books, became available and recommended that
the travelers should observe school activities in the countries they toured. They were also to
consider and gather information on libraries, lectures, school debate, among other key
educational activities. Learning institutions especially universities during this period and after the
Renaissance and Reformation in Europe also made some contributions to the development of
comparative education.
 Relevance of this Phase to Present Day Theory and Practice of Education:
From the above accounts of the travelers' tales phase, the present day theory and practice can
derive the following relevance:

i. Features of traveler's tales still remain with us in the work of journalists and other
education trippers.
ii. The report of travelers' tales is an informal way of getting to know the experience of
other societies. They actually form the first step of understanding education in other
countries.
iii. Teachers can use stories given by these travelers on their return from visits to other
countries, as an addition to their learning experience in schools.
iv. The eye-witnesses accounts are still deemed as valuable and relevant in research today. In
fact the novels and stories about other countries are all commendable in our present day
educational practice.

2. The Phase of Selective Education Borrowing (1817-1900):

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 Historically the 19th century Europe was characterized by the aftermath of the French
Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Agrarian Revolution and the Colonization process. Education
reformers at this time were concerned with the social and political conditions of these revolutions
and the reaction of the masses. In education they saw the means of moral improvement and
social amelioration. Education reformers were concerned that the ability of individual school
system to improve their selves, faced a lot of oppositions even where there were good intentions.
This brought the need to share the best ideas and practices available in many countries. In this
regard there was a significant change of approach that suggested a more systematic and
comprehensive collection of data and in turn "selective borrowing" in education.
This phase can be said to have been characterized and motivate by two main factors. The
first, being the efforts aimed at developing a methodology or a system of rules and regulations
that ought to be followed when studying foreign systems of education. The second, being the
drive to learn lessons from foreign systems for the sole purpose of borrowing educational ideals.
These two factors resulted in journey to foreign countries by travelers with special interest in
educational matters. At this time, there were serious attempts of observations and study of other
systems of education. In this phase travelers no longer traveled for general curiosity and
enlightment, but rather they wanted to discover what was going on in education in other
countries in order to identify what aspects they would borrow for improving their own systems
of education.
Some of the scholar attributed to this phase and hence the development of comparative
education include;

Victor cousin (1792-1867) - He lived in France at time when Europe was in chaos after the
Napoleonic wars. He was a professor of philosophy and head of France's normal school. After
the Napoleonic wars there was need to bring reform in France. He visited Prussia and
investigated its education with the aim of finding out areas of relevance for reform of education
in France. In (1813) he wrote a report and recommended selective education borrowing from
Prussian experience. He believed that with this borrowing rivalry and antipathies would be out of
place. As such he said people of stature should not be afraid to borrow from wherever and
whatever is appropriate.

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Horrace Mann (1796-1859) - From America, he visited Prussia, Scotland, Ireland, France,
Germany, Holland and England. His experience in these foreign countries led him to conclude
that history provided an explanation for the conditions which he saw. According to him he saw
the role of history in comparative education studies as that of illuminating present problems. He
argued that many features of Prussian education could be useful in America despite the gap he
saw between the political and social ideas of the two countries.
Henry Barnard (1811-1900) - From America, he visited Europe and was impressed with the
Prussian education ideas on education like his colleague Horrace Mann. He actually founded the
"Connecticut common school journal" where he prepared and published many of his report and
details on foreign systems of education, and between 1856-1881, he edited and published a
journal entitled "The American journal of Education". He also presented statistical material from
various education systems in his publications as well as historical and descriptive data of a
comparative nature.
Mathew Arnold (1822-1888) - From England, he advocated for an expansion of state activities
in education because of what he had seen for himself on tours which took him several times to
the continent of Europe. He recommended that the people of England should look at what the
French and other countries on the continent of Europe were doing. According to him if this was
done in England or a similar thing on the same principle then he said that the English system of
education would be better off. For him he advocated for the borrowing of positive points of
continental systems of education. However, he cautioned on the dangers of making comparisons
based on analysis of inadequate statistical data.
K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870) - From Russia, he read works of European educational reformers
and attempted to introduce many views into the schools with which he was associated. He also
visited foreign countries in order to observe educational institutions and so conduct educational
studies. He acknowledged national differences in systems of education. As a result he
emphasized the non-transferability of national traditions as they affected education. However, he
suggested the possible transfer of general schemes across national boundaries.
Marc Antoine Julian de Paris (1775-1848) - He was born in 1775 in Paris and as he grew up,
he distinguished himself as a scholar. He lived during the time of Napoleon and the Napoleonic
wars. He actually became a diplomat in Napoleon's government. In his travel, he noticed the
crisis created by the Napoleonic wars. He was concerned about deterioration of the society after

25
wars. He was further disturbed by the social and political conditions of revolution in the early
19th century in Europe. He believed that the political and business life of France was based on
oneself interest. He saw educations as a provider of solution to those problems and a positive
science which could be used to improve the French society through systematic and rigorous
approach of comparative analysis. In 1817, he published a book entitled "Plan and Preliminary
views of work in Comparative Education". His plan gave a comprehensive scheme for a
comparative study of foreign systems of education. The purpose of his visits to other countries
was to use foreign examples, to stimulate the French system of education. However he was
concerned that the ability of individual school system to improve them was limited. He actually
proposed the established of an Educational commission to collect and distribute information
among member educational states. The collection of facts and observations arranged in analytical
charts would permit both to be related and compared. The establishment of a National Institute of
Education as a demonstration centre for the best teaching methods in Europe.
As a result of his recommendations Jullien is said to have impacted greatly on the
development of comparative education in the following ways;
i. From his works "Comparative Educational Plans and Preliminary View on Comparative
Education" comparative methodologies and analytical methods emerged. These have
continued to influence the development and study of comparative education to date.
ii. From the recommendation that a Bureau of Education be started in Europe, which came
to being, this latter culminated into the establishment of UNESCO as part of the United
Nations programs.
iii. From the recommendation of collection of facts and observations arranged in analytical
charts, which enable one to relate and compare issues, educational borrowing became a
method in comparative education. The aim was transplanting. This kind of borrowing
involves cataloguing of data and lessons on borrowing.
iv. Scholars such as Victor Cousin and others used his recommendations to study foreign
education system with an intention to transplant. However their studies were more
descriptive and not analytical.
v. Following the industrial Revolution, came Imperialism and the Missionary movements.
These took their education systems and planted them in the new lands. They were
actually influenced by the work of Jullien.

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 vi. Educational administrators, reformers, politician, and experts in various field no longer
traveled for general curiosity, but they did this to specifically discover what was
happening in education overseas in order to improve their own systems.
vii. From his recommendations also, various national agencies were established for the
collection and distribution of information about education, for example, the United States
Office of Education (1867), the Mussee Pedagogigue in Paris (1879), and the Office of
Special Inquiring and Reports in London (1895).
viii. Also by the end of the 19th century most governments were increasingly funding and
encouraging studies on foreign education system and as a result promoting the
development of comparative education.
 Relevance of this Phase to Present Day Theory and Practice of Education:
A thorough look into this phase reveals that the accounts given were both "descriptive" and
"utilitarian" in purpose. In education today, descriptive studies are considered valuable and
relevant. Also all educational stake holders endeavor to make education useful and hence
utilitarian. People still make visits to other countries or institutions for the purpose of observing
what they may consider to be of value to them and bring it back to be used at the home situation.
This further implies the importance of learning from experiences of others in order to improve
institutions and even on own system of education.

3. The Phase of Cultural Context or the Period of Philosophers (1900-1945):

This phase or period is also referred to as the period of cultural analysis. There was general
uneasiness by many scholars about descriptive studies. During this period emphasis in
comparative education shifted from description to analysis. Scholars at this time were mainly
interested in the relations between education and the society. In practice governments were
encouraging and even sponsoring studies of foreign system of education and those who got
involved in these studies became more concerned with problems, of comparison. It was
observed that, it was not enough to only accumulate masses of information about education
practices in other countries or simply borrow practices indiscriminately. The question of
interpreting observed practices in context and of judging or predicting whether a particular
arrangement or practice could be transplanted successfully in the home situation had to be dealt
with critically.

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 The desire to move from the descriptive and sometimes uncritical approach of the earlier
phase to a more analytical approach can be said to be the major motivation and characteristic of
this phase. During this phase there was an increasing trend towards analytical studies of
interrelationships between education practice and the society. This became more generally
recognized and accepted. There also grew a major concern to understand some of factors which
helped to shape systems of education in different countries. At this time the problem for
comparative educationist was no longer one of selective educational borrowing alone, but also
one of predicting the possible success of educational transplant through a thorough knowledge of
cultural contexts in both the donor and the recipient country. Many comparative educationists
were concerned with accounting for the features of existing systems of education in terms of the
forces or factors that shaped them to be the way they were. Some of the scholars who made their
contributions during these phase include;

Michael Saddler (1886-1943) - From England, he noted that "in studying foreign systems of
education we should not forget that the things outside the school matter even more than the
things inside the schools, and in most cases they actually govern and interpret the things inside
the school''. He argued that education and society are closely related and that schools must be
studied in the context of the society. He further stated that comparisons cannot be made on
statistics only, but that the social, political, economic and other factors should be looked into as
well. He pointed out that a national system of education is a living thing. It often lays special
emphasis on those parts of training which the national character particularly needs. He argued
that the value of studying foreign systems of educationist often results in our being better fitted
to study and understand our own system. He cautioned on the dangers of piecemeal education
borrowing while maintaining the importance of the schools cultural context. His main
theoretical emphasis was that schools of society must be studied in the context of the society. He
used sociological and historical data to explain trends in education.
William Torrey Harris (1835-1909) - From America, he cautioned on the need for care in the
use of statistics in education particularly statistics of foreign systems of education. He argued
that each individual state puts its own stamp on its education system. According to him, it is not
possible to borrow from another system as easily and as really as one might like to, because,
what may work in one social situation may not be suitable for another. He further argued that

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comparative studies could reveal universal relations between education and society. This is
because a nation's system of education is strongly affected by its culture and consequently
embodies ideals reflecting that culture and in turn it gives a basis for comparative enquiry for
those who are interested in the outcome of educational policies in different countries. To a great
extent, he said that education does break down the caste system and also brings democracy in
society.
Isaac Kandel (1881-1965) - From America, at Teachers' college in Columbia University. He
published many journals and wrote numerous books. In 1933, he published a book entitled
"Studies in Comparative Education" which for a long time was a standard textbook in
comparative education. In 1954 he revised and published the first work and entitled it "The New
era in Education: A comparative study". His main concern was on the forces and factors which
shaped and account for the existing system education. To him he sought to find out why events
occurred, when and as they did occur, and which characteristics occurred in the place they did.
He argued that every nation has a character, which is a result of its history and philosophy. This
he emphasized it should be studied because the character of the school can only be understood
through understanding the country's national character. He also argued that the school cannot be
understood outside society. He also observed that broad social movements and political wars
across national boundaries affect national systems differently. To him he did not believe in
borrowing.
Nicholas Hans (England) - He worked at the University of London, King's college and he
published a work on "World Year book of Education". He became a regular contributor to the
annual issues of the year book of education. In 1949, he published his book entitled
"Comparative Education: A study of Educational Factors and Traditions". This book has
also been used as a textbook of comparative education in many institutions of learning. Hans,
like his contemporarily Saddler and Kandel was also more concerned with accounting for the
existing systems of education in terms of the force and factors which shape these systems of
education of different countries.
With the works of Kandel and Hans courses in comparative education became part of
teacher training programs, in many colleges and universities around the world during this period.
In fact those that taught comparative education tend to follow the format, content and style of
textbooks authored by scholars during this period.

29
 As more scholars and individuals got interested in the development of comparative
education some national and international agencies were also formed. For example, the
International Bureau of Education (IBE) was established in Geneva in (1925). Some of the main
functions of these agencies included; to study education problems of international concern and
dissemination of education data world-wide.
 Relevance of this Phase to Present Day Theory and Practice of Education:
The phase emphasized the need to understand features in systems of education in terms of factors
and forces which shape these educational systems. This process does help in establishing
similarities and difference in systems of education and offers explanation as to why things are as
they are. As such the motivation and activities of this phase have relevance to the theory and
practice of education today.

4. The Phase of Social Science Perspectives -1945 to Present:

This is the period that is presumed to have just started after the Second World War. It
brought about a completely new scenario. In essence there has been an increase in interest and
activity in comparative education. Two main aspects stand out in this phase. The first one is the
establishment of new and influential national and international agencies that are involved in
educational inquiry, planning and program implementation. Also closely related are comparative
educationists who see the field of comparative education as most productive in the future in
terms of more involvement in international projects in education that are potentially of a
reformative kind. The second aspect is the recognition and increased activity in the study and
teaching of comparative education as a discipline in colleges, universities and establishment of
comparative educational centers for research. With this new emphasis, there was a shift from
descriptive accounts to a social science approach.

In this period, concern for the analysis of the antecedent factors became less and more
emphasis lay on analyzing the relationship of the contemporary issues in society and education.
In terms of methodology the mode of analysis has shifted from historical to more quantitative
and empirical, using techniques such as sociology, economics, philosophy and political science
approaches. Comparative educationists emphasize the need to organize and interpret facts
collected so that, the collected information or data can be translated into systems that offer

30
explanation and theories regarding the collected data. As a result, comparative educationists
have been pre-occupied with debates in an effort to identify the best method of conducting
comparative education studies so as to yield the most valid data and information that can be used
by all stake holders in terms of education practice and reforms.
With the emergencies of a new scenario in the world order, a new generation of scholars also
emerged. Faced with the problem of educational reforms, the scholars and educational
administrators took a new look and interest in comparative education. This has also brought in
various experts who prefer to use their own techniques as they deal with comparative education
issues. Among them are those scholars who still use the historians' mode of analysis,
philosophers who use philosophical techniques, sociologists who use sociological techniques and
even the psychologists and economists have entered into the field of comparative education and
are known to use their research techniques. This therefore calls for the use of inter -disciplinary
method of inquiry where social scientists collaborate with comparative educationist to analyze
common problems and examine various national solutions with the intention of increasing the
theoretical insight that will promote education reform. Some of the scholars who have made
substantial effort in the development of comparative education during this phase include;

Vernon Mallinson (Britain) - He uses the concept of national character as a means of

explaining the similarities and differences that exist in systems of education. In 1957, he
published a book entitled "An Introduction to the Study of Comparative Education “where
he explains the concept of "national character" and how it determines the kind of education that a
country follows. In this concept of national character he shows how differences between
education systems come about. He also published several other articles that mainly emphasized
aspects, of the French, Belgian, German, Dutch and Italian education systems.
Joseph A. Lauwerys (Britain) - He was a professor of comparative education at the University
of London, Institute of Education (1947). He is known for his devotion and contribution to the
continuation of the World year book of Education period in association with Columbia
University, New York, This work contributed to the support of the much needed international
data collection and expansion of comparative education courses. He actually stressed the need to
collect reliable data on an international scale in orders to facilitate comparisons in education.

31
George Z. F. Beredy (1920-1983) - An American professor of comparative education at the
Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York. He edited many publications including
"Comparative Education Review" and "Yearbook of Education". In 1964 he published a book
entitled "Comparative Methods in Education." In this book he stated clearly his beliefs about the
purposes that comparative education should seek to achieve and the methods it should follow.
He is actually remembered for the "Systematic Area Studies Approach" in comparative
education that he popularized as a scholar.
Brian Holmes (England) - He was a professor of comparative education and worked closely
with Hans and Lauwerys, at the University of London, Institute of Education. His major
contribution was in the search for a comparative education methodology. He eventually
popularized the "Problem Solving Approaches as a Methodology in comparative education
research. He published two books one in 1965, entitled "Problems in Education: A comparative
Approach" and the second one in 1981, entitled "Comparative Education: Some consideration of
Methods". Both books reflect his major interest in the methodology of comparative education
and are major textbooks used by students of comparative education even today.
Edmond J. King (England) - He was a professor of Education, at the University of London,
King's college. He inherited the legacy of Nicholas Hans who was also at the King's College. He
wrote several books including "Other schools and ours" (1958) and "Comparative Studies and
Educational Decision" (1968). He was the general editor of the Pergamon press "Society and
school Progress" series which covered a number of countries by way of area studies. He
distinguished between what was appropriate for students who were beginners in the field of
comparative education and those who already had some background in comparative education,
and those who were engaged in research work.
Harold Noah form Columbia University and Max Eckstein from the City University of New
York. They advocated for methods of comparative education which they offered to be
characterized by systematic, controlled, empirical and where possible apply quantitative
investigations. They co-authored two books i.e. "Towards science of comparative
Education'' (1969) and "Scientific Investigations in Comparative Education'' (1969), which was a
collection of readings that illustrated their general approach. These works also contributed to the
refinement of methodology in comparative education. Institutions of higher learning also
contributed to the development of comparative education during this phase. Some of the renown

32
universalities that established comparative education studies included among others, London,
Columbia, Berlin, Chicago, Syracuse, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Hamburg, Nashville, Reading
and Salzburg. In African, Asia and Latin America, many universities have also established
comparative education centers and they even teach it as an academic discipline today.
Other players to the development of comparative education during this phase include;
International, regional and national agencies, for example, the International Bureau of Education,
UNESCO, UNICEF among others. Their main functions include, collecting analyzing and
disseminating educational documentation and information. These are also involved in
undertaking surveys and project studies in the field of comparative Education. A number of
Education Societies have also been formed by individuals, interested in the field of comparative
education. Their main aims include; initiating and coordinating researched and also to co-operate
with other persons, and organizations interested in international and comparative studies. Some
of the comparative education societies that were established include comparative education
society New York (1958). British and German sections of the society were also established.
Canada, Korea, Japan and Africa have also established similar comparative education societies.
All these societies are affiliated to the World Council of Comparative Societies.
 Characteristics of this phase:
Besides the contribution of individual, and educations organizations to the development
of comparative education during this phase, this phase was and is also marked by very many
characteristics which include;
i. An explosion of knowledge - the challenge of this is how this knowledge ought to be
disseminated. This would imply that teachers have to acquire new roles.
ii. Drive for knowledge world wide - a common phenomenon where everybody everywhere
wants education both in the developed and developing world.
iii. Drive for liberty through liberation struggles both political and ideological. Education has
been at the centre of these struggles. This has also witnessed the emergence of education
for the masses, for political, economic, cultural and intellectual liberalization.
iv. Rapid urbanization and Industrialization which has greatly impacted on education.
v. Population explosion - this has led to population related problems. For example, in Kenya
over 50% of the population is of school-going age. This means that their education and
upkeep has to be catered for by a very small working population.

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 vi. Increasing concern for quality education. There has been need to emphasis on education
that is relevant to the life and needs of the students and the society they are to serve. This
has created a lot of interest in education worldwide. Comparative educationists have been
called upon by international agencies to help solve these myriad educational challenges.
vii. Comparative education as an academic discipline has become part f the development of
specialized interdisciplinary fields of study that emerged with the expansion of graduate
education in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa among others.
viii. The world power shifts. After the two world wars, there was an accelerated shift of world
power from the Great Britain to the U.S.A. and U.S.SR. Communism and Capitalism
took centre stage and the world was divided accordingly. This had a big effect on national
systems of education.
ix. As time went by the U.S.A assuming centre place in world politics, there has been great
need for American presence in and understanding of the cultures and education of other
countries. In this regard many universities have established departments of comparative
education.
x. With the collapse of communism in the mid 1980s the power structure in the world
changed. The new world order has the U.S.A. in a steering position with its loyal
lieutenants, i.e. IMF and World Bank. Their policies have made significant impacts in
education the world over. For example the Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS) led to
the freezing of employment of teachers in Kenya in 1998 among other impacts.
xi. Arising from the cold war there was a great concern for scientific and technological
development especially after the launch of the Sputnik in 1957 by Russia. This concern
led to massive funding of research in science education. The third world countries also
experienced increased funding and as such comparative educationists were in the centre
of these endeavors. In this regard many agencies such as the Ford Foundation, Carnegie
foundation and many others funded research and development of comparative education
as part of a wider U.S.A. foreign policy.
xii. A major issue on methodology in comparative education emerged and researchers and
scholars like Beredy, Holmes and Arnold Noah were engaged in active debate on this.
xiii. Today comparative education is taught in many universities at both undergraduate and
graduate levels. There are also many publications i.e. books, journals and magazines on

34
 comparative education. This has been propagated by the numerous national, regional and
international comparative education societies and associations that bring together
scholars in comparative education.
 Relevance of this Phase to Present Day Theory and Practice of Education:
This phase has been a major provider of information, data and advice in the process of
reconstruction for peace through education. Comparative educationists have also been motivated
to work with personnel in systems of education and international organizations with the view of
providing information and other relevant data and advice as may be required. As such
comparative educationists have been giving sound advice to various states and international
societies for educational reforms.

Activity No. 3.
1. To analyze historical perspective of comparative education in detail, read the relevant section
from three books.
2. To analyze different phases of comparative education, visit the library and write the
phenomena.
3. Discuss your understanding about the perspective of comparative education at the supra-
national level with your two teachers.
4. Make a group of your class fellows and discuss the relevance of different phases of
comparative education with the present day.

1.4 Comparative Education: Trends and Issues:

Holmes (1980) says that trends in comparative education can be analyzed in terms of
attempts to collect and classify data more systematically and in terms of the contribution
comparative education can make to our understanding of educational change. As for the first
trend, the machinery for collecting data has improved enormously. Understanding the planned
development of education depends, however, on the soundness of social scientific research
methods. Profound theoretical differences now divide workers in the field and paradigm shifts
are undoubtedly taking place. Both trends testify to the robust health of comparative education
although in some ways it remains neglected by other social scientists. Holmes has indicated
following trends and issues in comparative education:

35
 1. The classification of data:
Taxonomies and models are vital if data about education throughout the world are to be
collected and classified. Nineteenth-century European interest was in the numbers of children
attending school. During the first half of the last century elementary schools grew in number. In
the second half of the century more attention was paid to the expansion of secondary schools.
The unambiguous translation of terms like primary and secondary schools and higher education
is not easy.
Determined efforts have therefore been made to devise models to compare school
enrolments at various levels of education. Franz Hilker did pioneering work in this field and in
1963 Saul Robinsohn and Brian Holmes organized a conference at the UNESCO Institute for
Education in Hamburg to discuss how relevant data in comparative education could usefully be
classified. It was agreed that school systems should be divided into levels and stages broadly
representing age bands and the points of transfer within systems. Three main levels “first, second
and third” were accepted. Each level may have to be divided into stages in order more precisely
to locate points of transfer, to identify different school types and to compare the numbers and
proportions of children at each level and stage. Differentiating each level horizontally and
vertically makes it possible to plot the school careers of individual pupils and groups of children
as they pass through the school system.
More detailed comparisons of educational provision depend upon locating the types of
courses offered at each level. A much less detailed taxonomy developed by Brian Holmes for the
IBE in Geneva has persuaded Member States of UNESCO to submit to the secretariat
information under clearly defined indicators, namely Aims, Administration, Finance, The
Organization and Structure of School Systems, Curricula, Teacher Education and (implicitly)
Third Level Education. The information provided makes it possible to compare each aspect of
education and trends of development. These are described below:
 Aims:
Educational aims can be compared by consulting government statements of 'what ought to be
the case', or of hoped-for outcomes. The trend which these nineteenth-century comparative
educationists set in motion, of recording the details of legislation in their reports, has been
continued. Another source of educational aims is the writings of philosophers. Choice of national

36
philosopher is somewhat arbitrary but in order to facilitate comparisons. Since 1945 great
interest has been shown by comparative educationists in policy debates about concepts such as
'secondary education for all', 'equality of opportunity in education', 'comprehensive schools' and
'mass higher education'.
 Administrative Systems:
Aims have to be translated into policies and then implemented. Traditionally, comparative
educationists have recognized the important role played by administrative systems in the
realization of aims. There is a distinction between centralized and decentralized administrative
arrangements. Centralized systems are thought to be authoritarian and decentralized systems are
considered as democratic. Today, systems analysis models facilitate comparison of policy
formulation, policy adoption and policy implementation in nations. It is now appreciated that the
participants, the alliances formed and the forums in which policies are debated differ in
accordance with the aspect of education under consideration.
For example, educational aims and objectives are discussed nationally by members of a wide
range of social consensus groups. Policy issues, such as comprehensive schools, are frequently
party politicized. On the other hand, salary scales are negotiated between those who pay for
educational services, at national, regional, local or school level, and the teachers who provide the
service. Curricular policies are debated almost exclusively by teachers. Differences between
teachers may lead to controversy but eventually it is they who formulate policy. National,
regional or local governments may adopt curriculum policies and issue regulations but finally
they are implemented by teachers in lecture halls and classrooms.
As for teacher education, ministries may determine how many applicants are admitted to
teacher training institutions and public authorities may issue certificates to teach, but the power
of university academics to control many aspects of teacher training policy remains considerable.
By the same token, the traditional autonomy of universities and the academic freedom enjoyed
by university teachers ensures that university policies are usually formulated, adopted and
implemented by academics themselves. The high costs of providing university places for large
numbers of students and the dissatisfaction which erupted in the late 1960s encouraged
comparative research into the administration of universities.
A few examples demonstrate the crudeness of Kandel's simple distinction between
centralized and decentralized administrative systems. In England and Wales, teachers' salaries

37
are negotiated in a national committee; the content of education is largely determined by teachers
in individual schools under the influence of examinations which are run by teachers. Salary
schedules in the United States are local, but the federal government's Supreme Court decisions
on desegregation have to be obeyed. Curricula in Japan are laid down centrally but teachers in
prefectural and municipal schools are paid according to scales established regionally or locally.
Other examples would demonstrate that in most countries some decisions are made nationally
while others are taken at the local level or in individual schools.
 Finance:
Far more attention is now paid by comparative educationists to the finance of education. The
costs of providing schools for everyone make heavy demands on national budgets. More is now
known about how money is raised and allocated. Internationally, to estimates of per capita
expenditure has been added information about public expenditure on education as a percentage
of Gross National (or Domestic) Product (GNP). It is said that just as GNPs or GDPs can be
established and compared internationally, so statistical indicators of total national educational
provision would allow meaningful comparisons to be made about the 'wealth' of national
educational systems.
The ways in which the running and capital costs of education are raised have been classified.
Historically, property taxes have been important sources of revenue. Income and sales taxes may
be raised nationally, regionally and locally. In some countries taxes are raised specifically to
support the schools, in other countries the educational budget is allocated from general taxation.
The total amounts of revenue from private tuition fees and from international contributions
should be included in estimates of the money spent on education. These figures are less easily
calculated, but without them financial pictures may be distorted. As costs rise phenomenally,
public authorities are looking carefully at how money is spent, with the intention of increasing
the financial efficiency of national systems.
One important concern is to equalize provision, so the processes of allocation are examined.
Frequently a proportion of the money made available from national sources is in the form of
earmarked grants. On the other hand block grants, used at the discretion of the local authorities,
allow for a degree of local participation in decision making. Fairly general information permits
regional differences to be assessed and expenditures on schools in rural areas, small towns and
large cities to be compared.

38
 The wealth of information now available makes the dilemma clear: How can equality and
freedom be reconciled in financial terms? The pressure to equalize provision within nation states
and between them requires that considerable sums are raised nationally and internationally.
National involvement in the allocation of funds may strengthen national or federal control and
may inhibit greater local participation in the formulation and adoption of policy. Since
participation is now an 'in' word, the dilemma, which has been discussed in comparative
education literature, is obvious and will not be easily resolved. It is a problem which comparative
insights might help to solve.
 The Content of Education:
International interest in curricula is a fairly recent innovation. Interest grew out of
successful attempts to expand education and equalize access to school systems. The explosion of
knowledge has created major problems of selecting content. Curriculum ideas and practices are,
however, extremely difficult to change.
Superficially, a much clearer picture can be gained for those countries where curricula are laid
down in national or regional legislation, decrees or regulations. It is less easy to obtain a clear
overall picture of the content of education for countries in which, within national theoretical and
practical constraints, teachers in individual schools are largely responsible for deciding what
should be taught and to whom.
The problems of introducing curriculum reforms can best be analyzed through comparative
education research.
Historically each theory has its national advocates. Cross-national transfer is difficult because
teachers are unwilling or unable to accept new theories and more often than not are unable to
translate into practice the new curriculum theory they are prepared to adopt. Particularly serious
is a situation where technical assistants attempt to transfer curriculum theories known to them. In
recently independent countries the advocates of different theories compete. Approaches to the
content of education inevitably change little in practice.
 Methods of Teaching:
Regarding teaching methods, it is said that they are difficult to describe and classify in spite of
the fact that they are legitimized by aims and epistemological theories. Where the principal aim
of education is to pass on the accumulated wisdom of one generation to the next, teaching
methods are likely to be didactic and rely heavily on carefully selected textbook and

39
documentary sources. If aims are child centered, teachers should encourage pupils to 'learn by
doing' or from 'experience' in less structured situations. Social centered aims should encourage
teachers to socialize their pupils into an understanding and appreciation of work. In fact
comparative observation confirms that throughout the world teaching methods are very similar
and have not changed much except in a few experimental schools.
 Evaluation and Examinations:
Standards of achievement have been compared and methods of evaluating such achievement can
be classified. Among the most common forms of assessment are examinations which demand
written answers to unseen questions; oral examinations; practical examinations; the evaluation of
course work; and objective type tests. In terms of the emphasis placed on each type of
assessment, there are major national differences which make cross-national tests of achievement
difficult to devise.
Major comparative tests of achievement have, however, been carried out over the last twenty-
five years by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).
A well-financed non-governmental organization, it set out, after some initial work at the
UNESCO Institute for Education in Hamburg, to measure and compare achievements in
mathematics. The reasons for choosing mathematics in the first instance were that the subject
was regarded as having a universally understood world language; also it was thought
achievement in mathematics would be some measure of the economic productivity of national
societies. Subsequent studies compared achievements in civics, science and other subjects. The
research was not policy orientated. Flawed though the approach is, the amount of data collected
is impressive. Correlations between achievement measured on internationally valid tests and
teaching methods, type of school and a number of socio-economic variables, while interesting,
cannot easily be interpreted in national policy terms. These studies rely heavily on psychometric
techniques and undoubtedly set a new trend in empirical comparative education research.

EXERCISE
Q1. In the light of different definitions of comparative education, define the term in your own
words.
Q2. Discuss the concept of comparative education in detail. Give examples to support your
answer.

40
Q3. What do you understand by the scope of comparative education? Elaborate in detail.
Q4. Discuss the historical perspective of comparative education.
Q5. Discuss different phases of development of comparative education.
Q6. Discuss different trends and issues in comparative education.
Q5. What are different issues in education development in Pakistan? Discuss in detail.

REFERENCES
Evans, V. (2013). Comparative Education. Retrieved from http://camponotes.blogs
pot.com/2013/01/the-scope-of-comparative-education.html. Accessed on October 12,
2015.
Getao F.N. (1996). International Education Systems, Lectern publications: Nairobi.
Kubow, P.K. & Fossum, P.R. (2007). Comparative Education: Exploring issues in international
Context. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Larsen, M.; Majhanovich, S. and Maseman, V.L. (2008). Comparative Education in Canadian
Universities. In: Wolhuter, C.C.; Popov, N.; Manzon, M. and Leutwyler, B. (eds).
Comparative Education at Universities Worldwide. Sofia: World Council of Comparative
Education Societies and Bureau for Educational Services. Pp.145-156.
Lawrent, G, M. (2012). The Rationale of Studying Comparative Education to Students in
Tanzanian Educational Institutions: Challenges and Implications for the Future. Retrieved
from http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/191430/the-rationale-of-studying-comparative-
education-to-students-in-tanzanian, Accessed on October 12, 2015.
Mugo, P., & Wolhuter, C. (2011). Chapter 1. Definition and Purpose of Comparative Education.
Retrieved from http://definition%20and%20purpose%20of%20comparative%20
education.pdf. Accessed on May 01, 2016
O'Sullivan, M.O. (2008). Comparative Education in Teacher Education in the UK and Ireland.
In: Wolhuter, C.C.; Popov, N.; Manzon, M. and Leutwyler, B. (eds). Comparative
Education at Universities Worldwide. Sofia: World Council of Comparative Education
Societies and Bureau for Educational Services: 136-142.
Planel. C. (2008). The Rise and Fall of Comparative Education in Teacher Training: Should it
Rise Again as Comparative Pedagogy? Compare. 38(4): 381-383.

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Popov, N. and Wolhuter, C.C. (2007). Comparative Education at Universities Worldwide.
Strategies for Policy in Science and Education (Bulgaria): 362-377. Sodhi, T.S. (2006)
Text Book of Comparative Education, Sixth edition, Vikas publishing house, Delhi.
Sifuna D.N., Chege F. & Oanda I.
Sodhi, T.S. (2006). Text Book of Comparative Education, Sixth Edition. Vikas Publishing
House: New Delhi.
Waterkamp, D. 2008. Comparative Education as a Field of Teaching in German Universities. In:
Wolhuter, C.C.; Popov, N.; Manzon, M. and Leutwyler, B. (eds). Comparative Education
at Universities Worldwide. Sofia: World Council of Comparative Education Societies
and Bureau for Educational Services. Pp. 66-72.

Unit No.2

42
 Concept of Educational Approaches

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary

Reviewed By: Naila Naseer

Contents

Introduction
Objectives
Concept and Scope of Educational Approaches
Types of Educational Approaches
 Descriptive Approach
 Quantitative Approach

43
  Historical Approach
 Sociological Approach

2.1 INTRODUCTION:
Education provides a platform for the standardized learning opportunities to an individual
in systematic, organized and evaluative environments, where the individual learn basic skills for
accessing the achievements made by the earlier generations and an opening for an innovative
ideas, observations and creativity. In modern contemporary world the responsibility of education
of an individual is mostly taken by the state and role of the parents is to keep the individual
motivated to stay in the educational system.

44
 The importance of highly specialized education in scientific and technological fields is
recognized overwhelmingly. But the general education has its own importance. Researcher have
pleaded that general education has a major role in developing countries in meeting their socio-
economic goals. Some of the important goals may include:
 From students perspective a highly sophisticated and worthwhile education which
provide an international recognition
 Training the future skilled force to meet the needs of modern society and contribute
towards its further enhancement.
 Provision of platform in which the problems of the society are identified and resolved
through appropriate solutions
 Establishing, revising and strengthening the moral, cultural and spiritual values existing
in a society.
Specifically focusing on the individual the outcome of the generalized education which is
more descriptive in nature nurtures a variety of qualities and skills so as to positively think,
assess and take actions in accordance to the standardized knowledge acquired through the
educational process. The expectations from an educated person may include:
 A clarity and effectiveness in thinking, writing and communicating critically with
cogency, precision and deliberation.
 Able to appreciate and evaluate the way we obtain knowledge and comprehend the
meanings of universe, society, and ourselves.
 A broad knowledge of global cultures and value systems and an understanding about
historical constructive forces that matured them.
 A well developed understanding of moral, social and ethical problems existing in the
society.
 An in depth study in at least on field of knowledge.
With these goals and expectation in mind, a systematic, broad and lasting approach has to be
defined and adopted, which can provide a continuous, sustainable and effective learning
environments to meet the standardized requirements of a society.

2.2 Objectives
The unit is organized to bring the following outcomes:

45
 a. Understand the concept and application of educational approaches
b. Application of different types of educational approaches
c. Differentiate descriptive from prescriptive approaches
d. Assess the need and applicability of quantitative approach
e. Build a concept of traditional and historical approach
f. Make an understanding about the role of sociology in education.

2.2 Concept and Scope of Educational Approaches

Education is regarded as a systematic gradual process in which an individual goes
through a series of interconnected changes in order to develop mental, emotional, physical,
moral, social, and aesthetic faculties as a part of learning group in order to be a potent member of
the society. When we talk about approach it means getting nearer or come close to something in
time and space in order to contact it for a purpose. The educational approach can be defined as
how to take on education in order to present it to the recipients, for an overall positive change in
the society in due course of time. So the educational approach is the selection of parameter of
knowledge, skills, and elements of individual development in accordance to the need of the
society in qualitative and quantitative measures. It is the umbrella under which the learning
theories assemble and are applied subsequently to the learning habitats. It can be elaborated by a
diagram as below:

EDUCATION

Knowledge, Skill & Learning Habitats, School,

Individual Development colleges & Universities

Approach
Delivery is aApproach
Means and broad based application of variety of theories in order to achieve
educational strategic goals. It encompasses wide parameters selected by the educational strategist
therefore it is not a part of teacher’s agenda to decide which approach to apply for learning.
While deciding the approach the educational strategist ponders over:
 who is going to present the approach (authority)
 what to present (the contents)
 how to present (the delivery means)

46
  who are the recipients (the learners)
 where to present (the area of influence i.e., countrywide, provincial, limited to
selected areas)
 when to present (the starting session)
In any society education is considered as the essence of social structure on which the
complete society stands, the value system, the economy, security and the justice system. The
needs of the society dictate how the structure of education system should be modeled. Education
is seen as the social obligation of an individual in order to calibrate oneself with societal
requirements.
For under developing country where general awareness is low and people mostly resort to
indigenous, superstitious or radicalized beliefs. In these circumstances the education has to be
the foundational or descriptive so as to provide them in depth knowledge to lay a sound
foundation.
Another problem of the developing countries is meeting the requirement of United Nation’s
‘Education for All’ program (EFA) for which education has to be provided at mass level.
Moreover the endeavor of a country to provide not only the minimum required educational
standards but also the proceeding levels of education to its masses to enhance the professional
prerequisites for keeping the ratio between qualified personnel and the vacant slots in public and
private sectors. In order to meet such type of requirements the education at levels has to be
provided in mass thus following a quantitative approach.
Education is seen with varying perspectives by the authorities and the stake holders. For
authorities it is more of an enrichment program, of the nation as a whole. It provides a trained
work force which could facilitate the governance aspects for a smooth flow of state machinery. A
political outlook may follow a historical approach which could standardize the citizen into a
blend of nationhood and coherence.
There could be a variety of approaches to provide education to the masses depending upon
the need and policy of the political architect where one aspect remains common to all approaches
that it benefits the society and the individual.

2.3Types of Educational Approaches

47
 Approaches could be of two types, one leading from the educationalist perspective
towards the recipient and the other from the recipient’s point of view. But the approach in real
sense is wide and is conditional to accommodate beneficiaries in mass. For any educational
approach learning remains the prime objective, which has its inherent process and essential steps.

Curriculum Obligations
Facts Objectives
Skills Methodology
Attitude

Learner Teacher
Stage of Learning Knowledge
Style of Learning
Experience
Background
Confidence
Interest
Enthusiasm

Setting
Class Rooms
Virtual
Clinics
Rounds

As depicted in the figure the process of learning, the approach is outside of it. But it influences
curriculum, as what to deliver and how to deliver, i.e., methodology under the guiding objectives
of the whole process. The process terminates at the assessment process which is linked to the
educational system, in which inputs are the investments in terms of finances, manpower,
policies, structure, approach (application of theory and knowledge + Objectives) and the legal
structure. After the due course of learning, assessment reveals the virtual level of learning
acquired by the individual. Virtual because the real level of learning is assessed by the society
where the individual would present his or her behavioural transformation for final assessment
carried out longitudinally for the rest of life according to the values of society.

48
 Therefore the assessment of learning is a unending process of life just like the learning
process itself is a lifelong process. The assessment by the society signifies the actual learning,
where an individual beyond the personal scope resolves the problems of the society for which he
or she had been educated.

EMPLOYER
Social
assessment COMMUNITY
Transformational based upon
Process
Assessment
INPUTS problem STAKEHOLDERS
solving &
Conduct WORLD

There could be a number of approaches towards education but in this unit following educational
approaches are discussed:
 Descriptive Approach
 Historical Approach
 Qualitative Approach
 Sociological Approach

2.4 Descriptive Approach

This approach is related to the existing practices and standards acquired over a period of
time, which are considered essentials to be taught to the individual right from the outset without
making a discrimination. As the name indicates it is derived from the word, ‘describe’ and
‘description’, meaning how the thing actually looks like or explain what one know or observes. It
is based on the fact what people actually require in their lives and what is contemporary that
becomes essential.
For instance in learning a language, if the priority is given to the style of native speaker
or to the syntax and grammar which prevails where the language is spoken that constitutes the
descriptive approach to learning or education. That means when education is delivered without
set rules in accordance to the need and comprehension level of the students and teachers
becomes a descriptive approach. That includes leverage on both ends from teacher’s perspective
as well as from the student’s desire. If a realistic or perennial philosophy is followed then it is the

49
teacher to decide how to make an individual learn. On the other hand in pragmatic or
existentialist philosophy the student is the centre of dependence, how he or she wants to get
learned. Descriptive approach is closer to pragmatism and existentialism as it supports all what is
functional. Similarly the source of knowledge can be anybody and anything, acceptable to the
recipients but should be rational and logical. Moreover it should be authentic, and proven in
practical experiences.
When tracing historical educational evidence it reveals that each centre of learning had its
own mode of education and delivery of knowledge. The teaching methodology of Greeks was
entirely different to Chinese. Greek educational methodology can also be termed descriptive
since they had their own construct towards right to receive education, disciplines and
methodology. With the passage of time a number of sub approaches coaxial to the descriptive
approach have been developed. One thing which is inherent to descriptive approach is that it is
never standardized, it adapts with the changing needs and requirements.

2.4.1 Classical Approach

It is based on 5th century the medieval educational philosophy when a number of subjects
were regarded as essential for human maturity and to become a potent member of the society.
Only the ruling and the elite or liberal (free) class was entitled for these subjects. The masses
were to acquire skills in order to sustain a livelihood. These subjects for the above mentioned
classes were divided into two parts, Trivium and Quadrivium
 Trivium
o Grammar
o Logic
o Rhetoric
 Quadrivium
o Arithmetic
o Geometry
o Music
o Astronomy/ Astrology
Classical approach has been considered as the part of descriptive approach because the
learning process started with indigenous knowledge and experiences or transference of skills

50
from one generation to another takes places in a localized manner. The knowledge was not
prescribed and was open and depended upon the experience and observation of teacher. In
classical approach, it was not mandatory for the student to follow teacher’s point of view. The
teacher’s way was not considered as the only way. That provides us the reason why Aristotle was
a realist and his teacher Plato was an idealist.
This approach demands from the student to observe and memorize the exact details of the
contents. The contents memorized used to become the logical data for the next phase. For
instance in lower classes memorization of mathematical tables was very important and that
remained to be a pre-requisite for the student to excel in the subject. Even today the algebraic
formulae are important to be learned by heart for their application in problem solving. In
Grammar first the rules were to be memorized and then names of things in the surroundings. In
geography the names and locations of nations and their references were learnt by heart. In
dialectic stage the individual was taught to reason, explore and justify the findings. Last the
rhetoric was the delivery of knowledge to others.
2.4.1.1 Advantages of Classical Approach
The advantage of the classical approach is that it centralizes the learning in class room
and teacher is experienced, knowledgeable and logical. Students are there to question against
their observation from nature and society. The teacher provides them the relevant answers and
the students note for future guidance. The problems, observations and questions are
contemporary and so are there solutions. The learning is open and students and teachers are not
bound by any strict curriculum. This approach could be ideal for tertiary level of education.

2.4.1.2 Disadvantages of Classical Approach

In modern times it is very hard to find a teacher so much equipped with the knowledge to
answer all the questions especially at primary level of education, where the students had not
confronted enough experience and observations. Therefore, till secondary level of education
classical approach is restricted to trivium level.

2.4.2 Standard or Spiral Approach

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 This type of approach used to be followed in western school systems, in which the
students used to read the book loud for everyone to listen or to read silently for oneself or by the
teacher. The teacher introduces the passage
before reading and clarifies after the reading.
The students revise the lesson as a group to
reinforce by peer teaching, explanation,
demonstrating or performing in the form of an
activity. The role of the teacher remains with
planning, presenting it, providing guidance and
evaluates the students progress.
Most of the standard contemporary text
books follow the spiral approach. It takes about
three to four weeks to cover a topic, called unit, after which a test is taken. The set of topics are
repeated in the series of grouped curriculum each year until optimal cognitive level is provided.
 Grade I – III
 Grade IV – V
 Grade VI – VIII
 Grade IX – X
 Grade XI – XII
2.4.2.1 Advantages of Standard Approach
The prime advantage of standard or spiral method is an ease for the teacher, all activities,
diagnosis, research and evaluation is self explanatory in the text books but still the teacher has
role and can induct related materials. The student is provided an opportunity to go through the
topic again and again for two to three successive years.

2.4.2.2 Disadvantages of Standard Approach

When the student again after a cycle reaches the same topic, it needs to be refreshed
again since the topic is studied after a long period of time. There is a void of relevance of the
topic to other topics during learning cycle.
Standard approach or spiral is successful when student interested and repeats the
knowledge in independent work. In addition the teacher has to modify the text book where a

52
difficulty occurs. To keep abreast the students of the past students the teacher need to summarily
review the past topics on weekly basis.

2.5 Historical Approach

In historical approach the education is delivered on conservative grounds, and everything
which forms part of the education follows set rules and precedence derived from rational
theories, experiences, ideas and beliefs, which become standardized over a period of time.
Historically, the educational system constitutes a school having a number of class rooms of
varied age groups learning at asymmetrical ascending levels where teacher delivers the
knowledge to the student, who listen carefully and takes notes from the presentation of the
teacher. Imitation used to play an important role in attaining a standardized knowledge as
advocated by Piaget (1962). Bruner, Ross and Wood (1979) also term action which leads to
constructive learning and rated it as important tool for learning. In contemporary educational
scene there are many technical tools those have replaced the action previously been
conceptualized through teachers actions, observations and experiences. These tools have taken
an important place in present learning environments in the shape of computers, videos, over head
projectors, multimedia, mobile and tablet thus presenting a virtual reality of all one can learn. On
the other hand the actual movement by the recipient of knowledge has been curtailed, which used
to provide a physical evidence of all that was learnt. Even the scientific models are replaced by
virtual simulators. Resultantly, the learning though very quick, but is not beyond the scope of
eyes and diminishes as the screen is switched off and fades away with the passage of time.
But besides induction of modern and post modern tools the actual conception of learning
and educational system as a whole remains historical in most of the institutions. The teacher still
holds the central place in the educational system at least at primary and secondary level.
Traditionally the books were prescribed for each stage of learning. The learner was bound to
adhere to the contents of the prescribed books for each discipline.

2.5.1 Prescriptive Approach

As the descriptive approach is said to be what is prevailing, the prescriptive approach is
how it should be. Based upon the values, rules and laws the prescriptive approach if referred to
be historical in nature. Where a set procedure which has come up after a lot of deliberation and

53
trails and considered to be the right option. In education prescriptive approach can be related to
idealist, realist, perennial or essentialist philosophies because it is strict and somewhat rigid in
nature.
In prescriptive educational approach the text books are prescribed and are provide to the
students and only those concepts are studied which are considered essential and harmonious to
the societal needs. The students have a limited choice and more stress is laid on the subjects, that
are more scientific and utility based. Ethics remain important and are considered as the tool kit
for survival of a nation.
Prescriptive approach is based on the belief that the order, stability and discipline in the
world is due to the fixed laws and principles. It the laws and principles are flexible an injustice
would creep in and thus peace would be jeopardized. Prescriptive approach stresses more on the
conceptual understanding of the facts then producing new reasons to justify.
2.5.1.1 Advantages of Prescriptive Approach
The prescribed text books provide a well balanced chronological development of
information to the students. Books are more helpful for the teachers with weak cognitive ability
and teaching skills, where complete lesson design and the exercises are well laid out. The
approach standardizes the ability level of students for assessment and grades. Moreover, the text
books provide a lead to calculate time and space in advance. Prescriptive approach provides a
uniform standard of ethics and values for the entire community which provides a better discipline
and social norms.
2.5.1.2 Disadvantage of Prescriptive Approach
Prescriptive approach shuts down the novelty and creativity from the students since
books are designed on a singular theme. The information and knowledge changes rapidly and
text books soon are outdated. The students are tested for only factual knowledge and books do
not cater for the background knowledge of the students.

2.6 Quantitative Approach

The quantitative educational approach can be understood in two different perspectives,
firstly in purely academic sense in which quantitative literacy is focused and secondly relating to
physical quantity, where numerical enhancement of literate individual is focused. In both
perspectives the approach presents a logical and rational validity.

54
 2.6.1 Quantitative Literacy
Quantitative literacy relates to the requirement of general level of mathematical skill and
knowledge expected from all citizens. Almost in every society people generally hesitant to get
involved in mathematical skills. It may be due to the weak educators in the field of quantitative
literacy. Quantitative literacy is a routine affair which includes number sense, data
representation, measurement and calculation of mass, area and volume, statistics, variables and
accounting. In addition it includes geometric shapes, spatial visualization and chance, which
helps in projecting values, predictions and everyday expanses (Dossey, 2012). Glenda Price
includes computation, inquiry interpretation and application of mathematical concepts as critical
needs of present day life style.
Quantitative learning is essential for any course that needs accuracy and precision, e.g.,
mathematics, algebra, physics, geometry and statistics. Even in subjects like chemistry, biology
and economics we need extensive quantitative literacy skills. Computer science and engineering
demands an outstanding ability in quantitative literacy.
When special emphasis is provided to quantitative literacy it is termed as quantitative
approach in education because mathematical skills lead better lot of students towards scientific
and technological discipline which is regarded as critical for the progress of a society.
2.6.2 Enhancing Quantity of Literates
In the comity of nations every nation wants to stand tall as progressive, well developed,
strong and stable country. The United Nations has a number of development indicators to gauge
the standing of a country in which literacy rate and educational standards are very important
indicators. Developing countries are always striving hard to raise their literacy rate for which a
quantitative approach of mass education is adopted. United Nations itself has launched
Education for All programmes to pursue the developing countries to educate their coming
generation in totality. In this context countries follow a quantitative approach to meet the targets
specified in their own national goals. In addition other measures are taken to increase the number
of individuals seeking higher education and also to increase the individuals having doctorate
level education. Developing countries usually keep initiating incentives to people in order to
meet the international requirements.
2.6.2.1 Distance Education

55
 Distance education programme is also based on the quantitative approach in order to
provide an opportunity to the individuals living in far flung areas and professional who cannot
spare time to complete or enhance their educational qualifications. Many countries are engaged
in rendering this facility to their citizens, which has immensely increased their international
standing. Distance education facilitates a large quantum of students to achieve access to
accredited educational qualification without being physically engaged in educational routine. It is
the separation learner and the teacher in time and space or both. A variety of methods are
adopted as course ware, which includes postal print, radio broadcasts, television, and now
computer based learning. Distance quantitative approach allows learners and tutors to interact
freely. It also caters for face-to-face interaction during tutorials. The large scale educational
operations are facilitated by a network of various staff organized in development teams.
2.6.2.1.1 Guiding Principle of Distance Education
Distance education endeavours to provide as much closer commitment to learning as it
happens in face to face interactions. The following principles are the key for this quantitative
approach:
a. Clear purpose, objective and outcomes of the learning experience
b. The student/learner is actively engaged without longer gaps.
c. A variety of media and means to correspond should be available to the learner.
d. Must include problem-based and also knowledge based material which should invoke
logical thought process, analysis and synthesis on one side while comprehension and
application of learned knowledge on the other.
e. Learning is always sensitive to context and social support interaction.

2.6.2.2 Advantages of Distance Education

Distance education allows the learner to set own pace and place of study. Those engaged
in livelihood may also take distance education programmes and can study in void slots. It offers
full time accredited degree at a very less cost. There is complete freedom, learner can keep
interaction with the tutor using a variety of communication means and even face to face if
needed.
2.6.2.3 Advantages of Distance Education

56
 Distance education is ideal for an individual who is self motivated and determined to
undergo the course of study. A learner sometimes feels isolated and misses the motivation of the
teacher and assistance of peers. Sometimes the teaching material is inadequate to the needs of
learner and needs a library.
2.6.2.2 Massive Open Online Courses
It is also regarded as the outcome of quantitative approach of education in which
unlimited induction and open access via internet is provided to the participants free of cost to
geographically dispersed learners. Traditional course material such as reading, videos, CDs and
problem sets are provided to the students. The term Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) was
first introduced by Dave Cornier, the University of Prince Edward Island.
The year 2012 was named as year of MOOC a wide range of courses were offered online
free of cost. The best education of the world was believed to be available to every corner of the
world. Udacity, Coursera, and edX were three brands offering online courses. More than 2
million students were signed in with these three MOOC providers. Today MOOC has been
launched by some leading universities as well offering courses in almost every field of
education.
2.6.2.2.1 Advantages of Massive Open Online Courses
MOOCs present equal access for entire learning community. Diverse choices of
programmes are offered to the learners. Students can participate in online courses which highly
interactive. Tools like video conferences, blogs, podcasts and forums are facilitated at a click.
Students can discuss and share experiences worldwide with real problems rather than presenting
a hypothetical example in a class room. These discussion and provide a computerised system of
review and assessment of students.

2.6.2.2.2 Disadvantages of Massive Open Online Courses

Courses offered by MOOC providers are supervised and monitored by a number of
teachers and professors but as the number of students is overwhelmingly high therefore, an
active feedback on assignments and tests difficult to communicate. The interaction of students
with teachers who teach is totally absent and it is difficult to contact them. There is no
motivating factor for the weaker students and soon they lack interest and abandon the course, as
it is free. Only those students who are self motivated and posses a lot of perseverance can

57
successfully complete the course. Researches on MOOCs reveal that only 7.7% of the total
intake usually completes the course. Lastly the providers of MOOCs face a lot of financial
problems since it is free of cost.

2.7 Sociological Approach

Sociology is an unsystematic body of knowledge gained through the study of the whole
and parts of society. It is the study how the individuals perceive education and its dividends.
Sociology of education is specifically concerned with the public schooling system which further
widens to higher, disabled, and continuing education usually looked after and offered by the
state. When sociological approach is referred it is taken from the perspective of the society and
their demands or expectations from the educational system.
Education is visualized as the tool for guiding and modelling the next generation into the
value system and blending them with the requisite knowledge and skill which could help them in
future livelihood to become a potent member of the society. Sociological approach critically
examines the aspiration of the society developed related to the educational system in order to
provide the society with a force of intellectuals, skilled manpower and leaders to address societal
problems with longer lasting and sustainable solutions.
Society looks towards the educational system to provide all citizens equality in providing
opportunity to be equipped with the prerequisites for a successful future.
2.7.1 Functionalism
It advocates that existence of everything and happening in the society has a purpose no
matter how strange, damaging or unethical it is in its meaning. Functionalism has its core
perspective of balance or equilibrium that naturally exists with consensus. Functionalism defines
society as the self-regulating and organizing system with interconnected and dependent elements.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1919) is acknowledged as the pioneer of the sociological approach
towards education, who professed that adequate degree of homogeneity is the factor for the
existence of a society. Education reinforces and sometimes generates that element of
homogeneity in an individual from the outset by developing basic similarities that interdependent
and collective lifestyle demands.
According to the Durkheim adult generation influence the younger generation, which is
still not ready to take on social life, through education by developing and stimulating physical,

58
moral and intellectual states. The society expect the younger generation to be sound in the above
mentioned areas in order to confront the challenging milieu which lies ahead in time.
Under no circumstances education can be separated from the society as they are reflective
of each other in terms of behaviour, problems and their solutions. Education is closely related to
all institutions and also to values and beliefs. According to the functionalism theory of
sociological approach education has the following important functions:
a. Reinforces the social solidarity by learning about noble people in history and by
pledging allegiance with the society, restricts and individual to do crime.
b. Maintaining social role by presenting a model of mini society, a school has a
hierarchy similar to the outside world, which trains individuals.
c. The co-curricular activities sorts the talents of the students just like people in society
have variety of specialities and choose different professions.
d. Moral values for the foundation of school system and society as well.
e. Any change in the society has an impact on the educational environment and
similarly the change in educational policies influences the whole society.
f. Class rooms are mini societies and are agents of socialization.
g. The school acts as the transformational machinery between affective norms and moral
values of the family and affective morality in the society.
2.7.2.1 Structural Functionalism
a. Educational institutions play a major role in socializing children.
b. Socialization in educational institutions helps new generation learn knowledge, set
their attitudes and standardize social values as a dynamic citizen.
c. Educational institutions regulate behaviours of students until they internalize it
permanently.
d. Prepares the individuals for placement into the social labour market, as doctors,
engineers, educationalist, businessmen and soldiers.
e. Educational institutions rate the future society by assessing the students, those with
high grades achieve higher positions and those with lower grades take the lower
positions in the job market.

2.7.3. Conflict Theory

59
 The conflict theory of socialization approach advocates that the relationship in the society
is dependent upon domination, oppression, exploitation and subordination. These ideas came up
after Karl Marx (1919-1883) who emphasized on the materialist approach in history, taking a
critical stance towards a situation and ripening it to revolution. Since education is controlled by
the state machinery and that in turn is controlled by most influential in the society by purpose
want to reproduce the social inequalities. The so controlled educational system controlled by the
dominant group enforces its doctrine by:
a. Ensuring that the status quo to be maintained where lower class students would grow
into lower class adults and middle and higher class students grow into the same class
adults.
b. McLeod professes that teachers are always status conscious and treat the children of
higher class by providing them the maximum opportunities to participate, develop
language, critical thinking and social skills so that they can easily surpass the students
of lower classes.
c. Educational institutions also act as tool of socialization to provide power to one group
over the other.
d. The theory believes that people believe that major goal of education is to establish
equality in society but contrarily schools does not transform but maintain the earlier
stature of influence and dominance.

2.7.4 Open System Theory

Open system theory was introduced by Ludwig von Bertanlanffy (1956), a biologist but
recognized in many disciplines. He defines a system as an assemblage of combination of parts
where their close interaction makes them interdependent. It has a preferred state and parts of the
system may have a system within themselves.

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System approach is the process of comprehending how entities influence each other
when they interact. Without interaction there would be no interdependence and thus the
element would become independent. System include the solar system where each planet
has its own orbit, angle of axis, conditions etc., and on planets, e.g., taking Earth has its
own ecosystem in which a number of entities such as water, air, plants, animals and
natural phenomena work together to generate a life. In society exists a social system
different people do different jobs and a life goes on. When a system holds an
intermediary position it reacts two-way within its self with integral parts and with the
surrounding system or systems. Visualizing the properties of open and closed system:
a. A closed system has no other system at higher hierarchy therefore would not
interact with environment. Such a system is considered to be a theoretical
abstraction with regard to human experience and observation.
b. Open system interacts with environment under imposed conditions and
contingencies on dependent system.
c. In dynamic environment the conditions randomly change, where as in stable
environments the conditions remain uniform.
d. Contingencies are the unusual and unexpected changes occur due to the influence
of ultra higher system on which higher system is dependent.

61
 The open system considers the education as an independent integrated entity within the
framework of society in which a number of collaborating or interacting system influence the
process.

An education system has the inputs in the form of knowledge skills, and attitude to be
maintained in an organization dictated by the higher system. That comes through curricula
designed for a variety of courses and grades in an educational organization. Then the structure
provided to facilitate learning activities that include the staff and the physical plant.
The central processing or organizational activities of the educational system include,
teaching, learning, skill-development, and associated administrative activities.
The output is the changes occurred in the knowledge level, skills, and attitude of the
processing material i.e. students. The review of the system output proposes the change in the
curricula and the infrastructure.

62
 The environments of educational organization are political, technological, social,
economic, and ecological environments.
The open system provides a clear picture of all the elements which influence the
educational system internally and externally. In open system since there are number of higher
systems surrounding the organization therefore their influence on the educational institution is
inevitable as a guideline it has to be participatory decision making including all the stakeholders.

2.8 Activities
a. There is a shortage of qualified teachers in the higher educational level of your country.
Draft a comprehensive report to address the gap indicating the type of educational
approach to be applied in most economical environments.
b. In your country there is growing tendency of lawlessness and immoral practices indicate
the approach to be applied and at which level. Provide a road map of the plan and which
areas of educational system will be addressed.
c. How can an effective socialization approach be incorporated in educational system which
inhibits social harmony and participation?

2.9 Self Assessment Questions

1. How can you differentiate between descriptive and prescriptive approaches?
2. What are the areas where historical approach can be made?
3. Differentiate between distance educational approach and online approach?
4. How students are using MOOCS for their additional studies?
5. Describe the concept of Distance Education.
6. Write note on the following.
a- Quantitative approach
b- Sociological Approach.

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2.10 References

Dede, D. The Evolution of Distance Education: Emerging Technologies and

(1996) Distributed learning. The American Journal of Distance Education, 10(2),
4-36

Hedegaard, The influence on societal knowledge traditions on children’s thinking and

M. (1999) conceptual development. In M Hedegaard, & J. Lompscher (Eds). Learning
activity and development. Aarthus: University Press.

Joseph Menis Learning science through a historical approach. Ramat-Fan: University

Press

Jeanne, H. B. School and society: A sociological approach to education. SAGE

& Spade, J.Z. Publications, Inc.
(2011)

Kaufman, R., Useful Educational Results. Lancaster: Pro-Active Publications.

Watkins.
R.,Leigh, D. http://www.teachthought.com/trends/modern-trends-education-50-
(2001) different-approaches-learning/

Lisa Chesser http://www.teachthought.com/trends/modern-trends-education-50-

different-approaches-learning/
M Hedegaard A cultural-historical approach to learning in class rooms. Article retrieved
(2004) from
http://ojs.statsbiblioteket.dk/index.php/outlines/article/download/2148/1893

M.Francis Modern sociological theory and introduction, Oxford University Press.

Abraham,
(2008)

64
 A Comparison of Assessment Practices and Their Effects on Learning and
Pedersen, Motivation in a Student-Centred Learning Environment. Journal of Educational
Susan & Multimedia and Hypermedia, 13(3), pp. 283–307.
Williams,
Doug. (2004).

Paul Cooper Giving it a name: The value of descriptive categories in educational

2008) approaches to emotional and behavioural difficulties. British Journal of
Special Education. London: SFL

Simonson, Teaching learning at a distance: Foundation of distance education.

M., Smaldino, Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
S., Albright,
M., &
Zvacek, S.
(2006)

Smaldino, Instructional technology and media for learning (9 ed.). Upper Saddle
S.E.,Lowther, River: Pearson Education Inc.
D.L., &
Russell, J.D.
(2008)

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 Unit No. 3

PRIMARY EDUCATION

Written by:
Dr. Amtul Hafeez Chaudhary
Reviewed By:
Naila Naseer

66
 Contents

Introductions
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Concept and Scope of Primary Education
3.3 Primary Education in:
3.3.1 USA
3.3.2 U.K
3.3.3 Pakistan
3.4.4 Sri Lanka

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INTRODUCTION:
Primary education, also called elementary education, is for children in kindergarten
through sixth grade. Primary education provides students with a basic understanding of various
subjects as well as the skills they will use throughout their lives. A primary school or elementary
school is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of
about five to eleven, coming before secondary school and after preschool.
In this world, every person knows that importance and significance of every type of
education whether special education, primary education or distance education. There is a famous
quote that “education is the key to success”. With the help of education, person can get success
and progress. Education broadens and horizons the various paths of person. In this way, person
understands the world around us. When we talk about different levels of education then primary
education holds great importance and significance. Primary education helps the person how
different things are working and how they should be improve and operated.
No one teaches us how to dream. We just do. But dreams can only carry the 61 million
children not in school, mostly girl, in Pakistan so far. Educating children no matter where they
are is one of the biggest steps we can take toward ending extreme poverty. Education is key to
building a society that can overcome poverty in a sustainable manner. (Ahmed, 1995).
The need to fulfill the right to education is greatest in humanitarian crises. More than
40% of out of school children live in conflict-affected poor countries, and millions are forced out
of school by natural disasters each year. In emergency situation, education can save and sustain
lives. A safe school environment can give children a sense of normalcy during a crisis. Schools
can also aid in post-conflict reconstruction. Yet only 2% of all humanitarian aid goes into
education. Schools should be a higher priority during humanitarian crises, and national education
plans should include contingencies for emergencies (Ali, 1998).

3.1 Objectives:
After studying the unit you will be able to:
 Understand the importance of primary education in education system
 Compare the structure of primary education in different countries (PK, USA, UK, Sri
Lanka)
 Describe the issues and problems in education system of Pakistan.

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3.2 Nature of Primary Education:
Child gets primary education during his/her school years and with the help of primary
education gets knowledge related to different things. Primary education lends self-confidence,
hope, courage, perseverance in order to face challenges and dedication to a purpose. Primary
education reigns supreme and unchallenged. The primary education should aim at all-around
development of the students. It should impart knowledge and information and also develop
character and personality. Thus, primary education should be comprehensive. It should broaden
the outlook, develop skills and abilities and prepare for the students for life and world. It has to
keep in view both the spiritual and utilitarian aspects of life of the students. It means that a
student should be able to stand well on his/her feet and face the challenges of life bravely and
successfully.
Primary education should be flexible, result-oriented, vocational and adaptable to the
changing needs and requirements of the society. It cannot be static, rigid and conservative.
Knowledge with purpose and relevance should be the aim of primary education. Knowledge for
its own sake cannot be desirable. Knowledge is just a means to have better standards of living
and more meaningful social and individual life. Primary education should help the students to
become more manly, humane, social and liberal in outlooks. Every educated man and woman
should be imbued with the strong sense of pride and honor for our common cultural heritage and
history. Education is an art and technique to draw out full and the best of the boys and girls.
On the whole after discussing the importance and significance of primary education it is easy to
conclude every level of education has its own importance and it is very important for every child
to get primary education to gain more confidence and it is considered to be the main root of
every education.

3.3 Concept and Scope of Primary Education:

Concept of Primary Education:

A primary school or elementary school is a school in which children receive primary or
elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming before secondary school and
after preschool. It is the first stage of compulsory education in most parts of the world, and is

69
normally available without charge, but may be offered in a fee-paying independent school. The
term grade school is sometimes used in the US though this term may refer to both primary
education and secondary education.
The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, which was first used in
1802.[1]
 Primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth
Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO).[2]
 Elementary school is preferred in some countries, especially in the United States and
Canada.
Scope of Primary Education:
The scope of primary education can be grasped by the following headings:
 Targeted Ages: A primary education is for children who are approximately five to
eleven years old. There are exceptions, of course, in the case of children with learning
disabilities and those in special education. There are no age restrictions in these instances.
 Targeted Subjects: The subjects targeted by primary education are reading, math, social
studies, science, physical education and health. Subjects are not intended for intensive
study. Rather, they are meant to be taught for general exposure and to lay the groundwork
for more rigorous study later on.
 Targeted Skills: Skills that are the focus of primary education include those that
reinforce basic math and reading mastery. Skills that lead to reading fluency and
comprehension, as well as number recognition and basic mathematical operations, are
among those most emphasized by educators during primary school.
 Targeted Learning Problems: A quality primary education seeks to help all students
succeed, especially those who have learning problems or disabilities, such as dyslexia and
attention deficit disorder. If these problems are addressed early -- at least by third grade --
students increase their chance of finishing high school. To that end, special educators,
tutors and interventionists are often used by elementary schools.
 Structural Exceptions: Early childhood education, particularly kindergarten, is
sometimes part of the equation when its program is aligned with state objectives. Not all
states have mandatory kindergarten attendance policies. Also, the fifth and sixth grades

70
 are sometimes classified as being part of the middle school or junior high school.
Therefore, there is no official policy that explicitly dictates the grade levels that have to
be included in primary education.
 Child Mental Development: A toddler has to turn into accountable towards him and his
family, other then there’s hardly any such ladder that is lead him there suddenly.
Psychological development will inculcate an accounting perspective towards his family.
Primary education happens to be the resource that may bring this mental development
because we are part of a kid.
 Overcoming the Language Barrier: Language becomes a barrier regarding the kids that
the prime target on elementary education often to stress on overcoming this language
barrier. The importance of primary education often to develop strength. Kids ought to
develop properly communication skills to firmly simply commence with everybody.
Even whereas expressing his thoughts, he mustn’t be scared. Instead, he has to have the
confidence to firmly specific his views freely (Ali, 1998).
 Developing Imaginative Power: Primary education may be a key aspect for developing
intellectual ability. Together with communication skills, primary education helps in
improving verbal skills, nonverbal skill, monitoring ability, plan generating capability,
concentration power and the majority of necessary, and memory power. These would be
the long term resources that ought to build along at the basic stage (Bikak, 2003).
 Social Responsibility: Primary education shows the infants the correct method to
execute their willingness in the direction of the society. Being a social being, kids ought
to cognizant of the responsibilities these normally take. The behavior of a toddler reflects
his personal development. Different social activities, like dealing with an aged person,
nature of cooperation or sharing perspective, responsibility towards nature and plenty of
additional attributes are inculcated (Halali, 2006).
 Emotional Improvement: The importance of primary education too lies within the
objectives of emotional improvement. A kid mustn’t be a target of frustration, stress or
anger. Primary education leads the infants towards building emotional strength. The inner
power is directed towards enlightening his capability, rather than just becoming
demolishing perspective.

71
  Humanity: A kids mind often is molded into any form. Proper primary education is
needed to firmly mildew him into your creative being, full of love, passion, patience,
respect, hope, perseverance and trust. It happens to be the responsibility on your folks to
firmly unlock these valuable treasures in his or her kids (Adedayom, 1999). The overall
development of a toddler can be real with right primary education. Proper primary
education leads on within the direction of achieving his goals. Thus, regarding the
betterment of your respective kids, create it mandatory to firmly led him achieve his aim.
Primary Education consists of a 4-year foundation stage from Primary 1 to 4 and a 2-year
orientation stage from Primary 5 to 6. The overall aim of primary education is to give
students a good grasp of English language, Mother Tongue and Mathematics (Adler,
2002).

Activity:
1. Go to the internet, search on www.google.com “scope of primary education in
developing countries” and prepare a chart indicating scope of primary education for
developing countries.

3.4 Primary Education in Comparative Perspectives:

Following is the description of primary education in different courtiers of the World i.e. USA,
UK, Pakistan and Sri Lanka:
3.4.1 Primary Education in USA:
Primary Education in the United States (also elementary education) refers to the first
eight years of formal education in most jurisdictions, often in elementary school. Preschool
programs, which are less formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered
part of primary education. The first year of primary education is commonly referred to as
kindergarten and begins at or around age 5. Subsequent years are usually numbered being
referred to as first grade, second grade, and so forth. Students graduating from fifth grade,
typically the last elementary year, are normally age 11. In 2001, there were 92,858 elementary
schools (68,173 public, 24, 685 private in the United States. Some private schools, and some
public schools, are offering pre-kindergarten (also known as preschool or pre-K) as part of
elementary school. The first three to five years of an individual’s life can be the most critical

72
period of their education. During this time period young minds work on several physical,
intellectual, and emotional development, including curiosity, formation of character, personality,
cognition, language skills, and social skills (Bikak, 2003).
Structure of Primary Education in USA:
Elementary education starts at the age of five or six, depending on the particular state and
whether a kindergarten (K) year is provided. Even when provided, attendance at kindergarten
isn’t always compulsory. To qualify for kindergarten a child must be five years old on or before
a ‘cut-off’ date, e.g. 1st September or October, to attend that year. Usually a child must be
enrolled in kindergarten or first grade in the calendar year in which he turns six. Elementary
school, which is almost always co-educational (mixed boys and girls), is usually attended from
the age of 5 or 6 until 11 (grades K to 6), when students go on to a middle or junior high school.
In some districts, students attend elementary school until 13 (up to grade 8) before attending a
senior high school.
The elementary school curriculum varies with the organization and educational aims of
individual schools and local communities. Promotion from one grade to the next is based on a
student’s achievement of specified skills, although a child is required to repeat a year in
exceptional circumstances only. (Some school districts are returning to testing as a means of
determining when a child is ready to move to the next grade, in an effort to reduce reliance on
‘social promotion,’ and this is becoming yet another contentious issue.)
Elementary schools provide instruction in the fundamental skills of reading, writing and math’s,
as well as history and geography (taught together as social studies), crafts, music, science, art
and physical education (phys ed) or gym. Foreign languages, which used to be taught at high
schools only, are now being introduced during the last few years of elementary school in some
areas (although in some cities, state schools don’t offer any foreign language teaching).
Elementary students are usually given regular homework, although in many schools few children
complete it.
Since 1965, the federal government has promoted the growth of state-funded programs such as
Head Star, a program under the United States Department of Health and Human Services, In
2007, I t served over 22 million preschool-aged children and their families. Head Start works to
educate the whole child in addition to providing health and nutrition services to low-income
families. In eh Untied States, children start their formal education around the age of six. (They

73
may prepare for this beginning, the first grade, by attending a kindergarten program at age five or
a nursery school program even earlier). The first year at school is called kindergarten. It is
required by all American children to be enrolled in the American education system. The second
year at school is considered the first year of primary school ad is referred to as first grade.
Primary school most commonly consists of five years of education, referred to as first through
fifth grades. At age five-six, American children begin elementary school by enrolling in the first
grade, the first of twelve possible grades. Academic year in United States school year runs from
September to June, with a full summer vacation (Adedayo, 1999).
3.4.1.2 Enrollment of Children:
Enrolling a child in an American public school is a fairly simple process. There are no
interactions and interviews. The basic requirement for enrollment of a child in a public school is
that and child lives in the district. As a parent all you need to furnish is proof of residence with
your name and address on it, like an apartment lease, though telephone and electric (Utility bills)
are widely preferred proofs. You will also be required to submit vaccination ad other medical
records (Alton-Lee, 2003).

Activity
1. Go to the library and read some material on historical background of the Primary
education in USA. Make an outline and discuss with your class fellows.

3.5 Primary Education in UK:

Primary education begins in the UK at age 5 and continues until age 11, comprising key stages
one and two under the UK educational system. Primary education as the first phase of
compulsory education, comparable with key stages 1 and 2 of the system in England (Ages
four/five to 11). Preschool education is defined as the period between birth and entry to formal
schooling, although this review focused attention on the period immediately prior to school (ages
three and four in England). Structure is defined as that which is decided for the schools by
central or local government. It does not cover aspects of structure that lie mainly within the
school’s own control (Such as management structures, timetabling or allocation of resources)
(Baig, 2006).
The primary stage covers three age ranges:

74
  Nursery (under 5), infant (5 to 7 or 8) (Key Stage 1) and
 Junior (up to 11 or 12) (Key Stage 2)
But in Scotland and Northern Ireland there is generally no distinction between infant and junior
schools. In Wales, although the types of school are the same, the Foundation Phase has brought
together what was previously known as the Early Years (from 3 to 5-year-olds) and Key Stage 1
(from 5 to 7-year-olds) of the National Curriculum to create one phase of education for children
aged between three and seven. In England, primary schools generally cater for 4-11 year olds.
Some primary schools may have a nursery or a children’s centre attached to cater for younger
children. Most public sector primary schools take both boys and girls in mixed classes. It is usual
to transfer straight to secondary school at age 11 (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) or 12
(in Scotland), but in England some children make the transition via middle schools catering for
various age ranges between 8 and 14. Depending on their individual age ranges middle schools
are classified as either primary or secondary. The major goals of primary education are achieving
basic literacy and numeracy amongst all pupils, as well as establishing foundations in science,
mathematics and other subjects. Children in England and Northern Ireland are assessed at the
end of Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2. In Wales, all learners in their final year of Foundation
Phase and Key Stage 2 must be assessed through teacher assessments.
3.3.2.1 The Structure of the English Primary Education System:
The section seeks to describe the structure of primary education in England at the present time.
In so doing it covers:
 Who has control of and responsibility for the structure of primary education
 Different primary school types
 Key stages in primary school education
 The structure of the National Curriculum
 Assessment in pre-school and primary years
 Length, structure and control of the school year
 The Structure of inspection in primary education
3.3.2.1.1 Structure of Primary Education in England:
The control of education in England leis with the national government and central
Department for Children, Schools and families (DCSF). However, education in England is
largely decentralized and many responsibilities lie with the Local Authorities (LAS), churches,

75
voluntary bodies, governing bodies of schools and head teachers (O’Donnell et al. 2007) The 150
English Las take responsibility for area-wide aspects of educational provision. There are
different types of local government structures: single-tier and two-tier configurations: Single tier
local government exists where as locality – usually a town, city or other urban area, is served by
a single authority, which is responsible for all local service provision (..) and two-tier local
government exist where, rather than all local services being provided by the local council, there
is a division of responsibilities between a district (local) council, and a county council, which
will cover a number of districts (Labour Party 2007). The duties of Las in relation to the structure
of education cover the followings: appointment and support of governors; being the employer of
teaching and non-teaching staff (although they may not have this right in respect of church,
voluntary or foundation schools); coordinating school admissions processes; setting dates for the
school year; and providing education, behavioral and finance plans for maintained schools.
Governors and head teacher are responsible for what goes on within the school. For example,
they decide on the use of the school premises (including extended school services); delegation of
school budgets; performance target setting in relation to National Curriculum assessments, public
examinations and unauthorized absence; pupil discipline and providing the LA with information
about the school (Department for education and Employment (DFEE 2001). In addition to
overseeing primary education in maintained schools Las are required to provide a free, part-time
place in some form of pre-school for every three or four-year-old whose parents request it. This
can be done through nurseries attached to primary schools or, outside the maintained sector, by
parent groups, voluntary, private or independent bodes (for example private nurseries,, nurseries
attached to independent schools and pre-school playgroups). Accord into to a recent Eurydice
Report (2006) most provision for children aged three to five years in England is in state
maintained nursery schools, classes in primary school, classes in primary schools, and in
voluntary and private settings (Alton-Lee, 2003).
3.3.2.1.2 Primary School types in England
The legal framework in England divides primary schools into three categories:
 Community schools: which are established and fully funded by Las (and are often
referred to as ‘maintained’ schools).

76
  Voluntary schools: which were originally established by voluntary or religious bodes
(mainly churches). These bodes still retain some control over the management of these
schools although the schools are now largely funded by Las.
 Foundation school: which are also funded by Las but owned by school governing bodies
or charitable foundations?
Primary schooling in England accommodates children aged from five to 11 years. Children must
start full-time school the school term after they become five, although most children actually
start school at age four. There are a number of different school types that cover the age ranges
They are:
 Infant schools (typically age four to seven)
 First schools (typically age eighth to 12 or nine to 13)
 Junior schools (typically age seven to 11)
 Middle schools (typically age eight to 13)
 Primary schools with pre schools or nurseries 4 (typically age three to 11)
 Primary schools without pre-schools or nurseries (typically age five to 11).
There are some other primary school types, including special schools that cater only for
children with special educational needs and can be community, voluntary or foundation schools.
Outside the mainstream primary school system there are Independent schools where parents pay
for places (Eurydcie 2006)
3.3.2.1.3 The National Curriculum and ‘Key Stages’ in Pre School and Primary Education
The Education reform Act of 1988 set out a National Curriculum for every maintained school.
This was made up of specified subjects and are as followed:
 A set of attainment targets which specify the knowledge, skills and understanding
which pupils of different abilities and maturities are expected to have reached by the
end of a each key stage.
 The types of matters, skills and processes which are to be taught to pupils of different
abilities and maturities during each key stage.
 Assessment for pupils at or near the end of each key stage for the purpose of
ascertaining.
 What they have achieved in relation to the attainment targets for that stage. (Section
2) 3 Middle schools may be deemed primary or secondary, depending on the number

77
 of pupils under and over the age of 11.4 Pre-school education can also be provided in
other ‘setting’, such as independent nurseries, day care and play groups. These
typically take children from three months to school age (although this varies
according to the provision in individual settings) (GB Statues, 1988).
Activity:
1. Make a group of your class fellows and discuss the structure of primary education of
USA and UK. Make a chart indicating similarities and contrasts in the two countries’
primary education system.

3.3.3 Primary Education in Pakistan:

Pakistan is the country situated in South Asia and it is the sixth most populous country in
the world. After Indonesia, one can also find a large number of Muslim populations in Pakistan.
Education in Pakistan has got a sea change in the last few decades. Before the independence the
literacy condition in Pakistan was very poor. Hardly few people were literate at that time. Now
Pakistan education commission and Pakistan education foundation have taken up the initiative to
educate girls and reduce gender disparity in the country
Structure of Primary Education:
The standard national system of education is mainly inspired from the British System.
Pre-School education is designed for 3-5 years old and usually consists of three stages (Play
Group, Nursery and Kindergarten (KG)). After pre-school education, students go through junior
school from grade 1 to 5. Only 80% of Pakistani children finish primary school education.
Classes from 1st to 5th are considered under primary education. In Pakistan, only 63% of
Pakistani children finish their primary education. In Pakistan, the education system adopted from
colonial authorities has been described as one of the most underdeveloped in the world. Barely
60% of children complete grades 1 to 5 at primary school, despite three years of play group,
nursery and kindergarten pre-school to prepare them.
Only 87% of Pakistani children finish primary school education. The standard national
system of education is mainly inspired from the British system. Pre-school education is designed
for 3-5 years old and usually consists of three stages: Play Group, Nursery and Kindergarten
(also called ‘KG’ or ‘Prep’). After pre-school education, student go through junior from grades 1
to 5.. This is preceded by middle school from grades 6 to 8. At middle school, single-sex

78
education is usually preferred by the community, but co-education is also common in urban
cities. The curriculum is usually subject to the institution. The eight commonly examined
disciplines are Urdu, English, mathematics, arts, science, social studies, Islamic studies and
sometimes computer studies (subject to availability of a computer laboratory). Provincial and
regional languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto and others may be taught in their respective
provinces, particularly in languages such as Turkish, Arabic, Persian, French and Chinese. The
language of instruction depends on the nature of the institution itself, whether it is an English-
medium school or an Urdu-medium school. As of 2009, Pakistan faces a net primary school
attendance rate for both sexes of 66 percent (Halai, 2006).
Pakistan’s poor performance in the education sector is mainly caused by the low level of
public investment. Public expenditure on education has been 202 % of GNP in recent years, a
marginal increase from 2% before 1984-85. In addition, the allocation of government funds I
skewed towards higher education, allowing the upper income class to reap majority of the
benefits of public subsidy on education. Lower education institutes such as primary schools
suffer under such conditions as the lower income classes are unable to enjoy subsides and quality
education. As a result, Pakistan has on of the lowest rates of literacy in the world and the lowest
among counties of comparative resources and socio-economic situation. Pakistan Science
Foundation 9PSF) has initiated “La Main a La Pate” – and Inquiry-Based Learning program in
Pakistan with the support of the French government. First launched in France in 1996, the
program is aimed at renovating and revitalizing the teaching of science in primary schools. In
launch of “La Main a La Pate” in 2010. The most recent workshop was in December 2011 that
was conducted by two French trainers, Michel Ouliach and Patrick Marcel. It was attended by 30
teacher from Islamabad, Kot Addu, Rawalpindi and Karachi, according to a report in newspaper
(Baig, 2006).
Issues in Primary Education in Pakistan:
Education is the systematic process of instruction for the development of character or mental
powers. The primary stage of education is of prime importance for the edifice of career.
Soundness and tidiness of this stage enable a child to raise a standard of his personality.
Unfortunately the importance of this stage is ignored to a large extent in our country.
The drawbacks are multifarious in nature and require considerations on the part of the
responsible. They have just followed the same principle of making policies in closed rooms and

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draft curriculum which was followed in the colonial era. Even now a days in our country, both
the public sector and private sector have the capacity to publish books yet not according to the
psychological level of the subject. They have borrowed ideas from elsewhere in the world and
feel proud to present it in seminars and workshops.
The parents of today are also responsible to a greater extinct as they are not questioning the
effects of these curriculum. They just pushing their young ones and finally opt for tuitions, which
is not the right solution. The amount they spend on borrowing ideas and then its practical
implantation will be in my opinion far less than the amount required for the research to know the
psychology of the subject (Pakistani Children).
Then another drawback of our primary education system is that of different school system for
varied classes of the society again following the agenda of the colonial rulers, empowering a
particular section of the society, typically known as the feudal lords, to run the affairs of the state
and to be easily affected by the name of modernism, enlighten moderation etc.
Another drawback the teachers are also following the typical trait of punishing the students
harshly. Schools' authorities in the private sector are also highly responsible for the poor status of
primary education system in our country. They have interests in building of the students but to
earn more and more money even they are also not highly qualified, they have the money they are
the managers, leaders, and administrators having a single agenda that boss is always right. The
government should channelize and monitor the schools in private sector.

3.3.4 Primary Education in Sri Lanka:

Present School System: Today, there are 10,390 government schools. The curriculum
offered is approved by the Ministry of Education.
Schooling is compulsory for children from 5 + to 13 years of age. Education is state funded and
offered free of charge at all levels, including the university level. The government also provides
free textbooks to schoolchildren. Literacy rates and educational attainment levels rose steadily
after Sri Lanka became an independent nation in 1948 and today the youth literacy rate stands at
97%. The government gives high priority to improving the national education system and access
to education. The medium of language could be Sinhala, Tamil or English. English is taught as a
second language. Students sit the G.C.E O/L at the end of 11 years of formal education and
G.C.E. A/L examinations at the end of 13 years.

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 The education structure is divided into five parts:
 primary,
 junior secondary,
 senior secondary,
 collegiate and
 tertiary

3.3.4.1 Structure of Primary Education:

School education in Sri Lanka is compulsory through to age 14, when students may disengage in
favor of an apprenticeship or job. The first 5 years are spent in primary school. At the end of this
there is an optional scholarship examination that may permit access to a superior grade of
school. At the primary level, female school attendance is essentially universal, according to
government statistics, while it stands at 99 percent for boys. All children are entitled to attend
school free of charge, a provision that includes free books and free school uniforms up to Year
11. Following is the structure of primary education in Sri Lanka:
• Kindergarten: 4-5 year olds
• Grade 1: 5-6 year olds
• Grade 2: 6-7 year olds
• Grade 3: 7-8 year olds
• Grade 4: 8-9 year olds
• Grade 5: 9-10 year olds
• Scholarship Examination
The first five years of schooling at the primary stage of education on is crucial to lay a firm
foundation for the subsequent learning of the child. This period is demarcated into three key
stages:

81
At the end of each stage all children are expected to achieve a list of essential al learning
competencies. Besides, there are also desirable learning competencies for those gifted children.
The integrated primary curriculum is woven round four main subject areas:
 Language (mother tongue).
 Mathematics.
 Environment related activities.
 Religion.
Activity-based oral English (ABOE) is introduced through environment related activities.
English words are used in day to-day transactions. The idea is to ensure that children become
familiar with English words early so that they will learn English better once it is introduced as a
second language at grade three. An introduction to the second national language i.e., Sinhala for
Tamil speaking children and Tamil for Sinhala speaking children is also implemented from grade
three onwards. This is done to promote national integration and the intention of the government
is to ensure that future citizens are trilingual. At every stage, education is child-centered and
activity-based. There is less emphasis on examinations and structure, but more on developing the
child’s mind, skills and abilities. The new curriculum also requires upgraded classrooms,
materials for activities and a play area in the school garden for children to engage in various
activities. Primary education program is designed to make schools child-friendly. At the end of

82
the primary stage of education there is the grade five scholarship examinations to award
bursaries to deserving children and selection for placement in prestigious secondary schools. The
competitiveness of this examination has had an adverse impact on children. Therefore the
Ministry of Education has taken several measures to minimize these ill effects and further action
is intended to be taken in the future.

1.3.4.2 Primary School:

Primary schooling runs from Year 1 to Year 5 (typically ages 6 – 10). The curriculum at the
primary level is integrated and based on basic language and numerical skills. Main areas of study
are: native tongue (Sinhala or Tamil), mathematics, environmental activities, religion, and
English. Students are required to pass end-of-year promotion examinations to move on to the
next Year.
• Primary completion rates currently stand at 98 percent (UIS 2008), with 96 percent of
graduating primary school students progressing to secondary studies.
In Sri Lanka, Kindergarten is followed by 5 years of learning. It is concluded by the
Scholarship Examination taken by children in 5th grade. Children begin to go to kindergarten
when they are between 4 and 5 years old, and usually leave once they are 9-10 years old.
The primary school’s final exam, the Scholarship Examination, is very important as it
determines a child’s future. The personal result and performance defines whether a child can
gain access to a prominent government school. The exam can be taken in one of three languages:
Sinhala, Tamil or English.
The weekly timetable of primary education can vary between 16 and 24.5 hours,
depending on the grade and age of the child. There is a wide variety of subjects taught in these
schools including:
 First National Language (Tamil or Sinhala)
 Second National Language (Tamil or Sinhala)
 English
 Environment related activities (Social studies, Science, Health, Physical Education, and
aesthetic subjects such as Art, Music and Dancing)
 Religion

83
 Co-curricular activities (Meditation, participation in cultural and religious festivals and
events)
 Optional curricular activities (pupils in 5th grade can choose a subject with regards to
their skills and interests, for example Art, Agriculture or Dancing)
As well as these classes, pupils attend an assembly each morning, which has a religious focus,
drills and exercise (1hr and a quarter per week of each). Children have between an hour and a
quarter and two and half hours of break time per week, depending on their grade.

Activity: Write down below some crucial points for the need of Primary education in
USA, UK, Pakistan and Sri Lanka?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

EXERCISE
Hopefully you have studied the unit, now please answer the following questions:-
Q.1 Define the term Primary education?
Q.2 Critically examine the historical perspective of primary education?
Q.3 Compare and Contrast the primary education methods in USA, Pakistan?
Q.4 How the primary teaching activities are different in UK than Sri lanka?
Q.5 Critically examine the importance of primary education?
Q.6 Write a short note on following:
a) Importance of activities at primary education level
b) Significance of primary education at Preschool level
c) Montessori Method is useful for developing countries
d) Weaknesses in our primary education system.

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REFRENCES
1. Ahmed, I. (1995). “A study of problems and possibilities of using an investigative
approach in science teaching”. Unpublished Master’s thesis of the Aga Khan University,
Institute for educational Development. Karachi, Pakistan.
2. Ali, T, (1998). “Use of inquiry in science classroom teaching in Pakistan in middle
school”. Unpublished Master’s thesis of the Aga Khan University, Institute for
educational Development. Karachi, Pakistan.
3. Baig, S. & Halai, A. (2006). “Learning Mathematical Rules with Reasoning. Eurasia”.
Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education.
4. Bikak, I, S (2003). “A Study of the access for girls students to science group at the
secondary level”. Unpublished Master’s thesis of the Aga Khan University, Institute for
educational Development. Karachi, Pakistan.
5. Brissenden, D. (1988). “Talking about mathematics, mathematical Discussions in Priamy
Classrooms”. London: Blackwell.
6. Ernest P. (1999). “Forms of knowledge in mathematics and mathematics education”:
Philosophical and rhetorical perspective. Educational Studies in mathematics.
7. ESRA Project team (2005). “Education Sector reform Assistance Program. Quarterly”
progress report 11. July to September, 2005. USAID Pakistan.
8. ESRA Project Team (2006). “Education Sector Reform Assistant program”. Quarterly.
Progress report 14. April to June 2006. USAID Pakistan.
9. Adedayo, O.a. (1999) Differential effectiveness by gender of instructional methods on
achievement in mathematics at tertiary level. Educational Studies in Mathematics.
10. Adler, J. (2001) ”Teaching in Multilingual Mathematics Classrooms”. Dordrecht:
Kluwer.
11. Adler, J. (2002) “Lessons From ad In Curriculum Reform Across Contexts?” the
Mathematics Educator. 12.2.1 5. (Guest Editorial).
12. Adler, J. and Reed, Y. (Eds). (2002) Challenges for teacher development: An
investigation of take up in South Africa. Van Schaik: Pretoria.
13. Adler, J. Bapoos, A., Brondie, K., Davis, H., Dikgomo, P., Lelliott, T., Nyabanyaba, T.,

85
14. Reed, Y., Setati, M., & Slonimsky, L. (1999). Mixed-mode Further Diplomas and the
Effects”: Summary Report on Major Findings of a Three year Research Project (3).
Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand.
15. Aikenhead, G. And Jegede, O. (1999) “Cross-cultural science Education” a cognitive
explanation of a cultural phenomenon. Journal of Research in Science Teaching.
16. Atweh, B. And Cooper, T. (1995) “The construction of gender, social class and
mathematics in the classrooms”. Educational Studies in Mathematics.
17. Bynyi, G. (1997) “Multilingualism and discourse in primary school mathematics in
Kenya”. Language, Culture and Curriculum.
18. Carnoy, M. and Marshall (2004) “Comparing Cuban primacy student’s academic
performance with the rest of Latin America”.
19. Alexdaer, R. (2000). “Culture and pedagogy’: International comparisons in primary
education. Oxford: Blackwell.
20. Alton-Lee, A (2003). “Quality teaching for diverse students in schooling”: Best evidence
synthesis. Wellington: Ministry of Education.
21. http://ilm.com.pk/learning-articles/what-is-primary-education/
22. https://www.justlanded.com/english/Sri-Lanka/Sri-Lanka-Guide/Education/Primary-
education

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 UNIT 4

SECONDARY EDUCATION

Written By:
Mamonah Ambreen
Reviewed By:
Naila Naseer

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 Contents

1. Introduction
2. Objectives
3. Concept and scope of secondary education
4. Secondary Education in Comparative Perspectives
5. Secondary Education in USA
6. Secondary education in UK
7. Secondary Education in India
8. Secondary Education in Pakistan
9. Secondary Education in Malaysia
10. Conclusion
11. Activities
12. Exercise
13. References

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4.1 INTRODUCTION:
Education is the most important factor which plays a leading role in human resource
development. It promotes productive and informed populace and creates opportunities for the
socially and deprived sections of society. Educational philosophy stresses on a learning
process through which knowledge, skills and experience are transferred from one generation to
the next generation through teaching, training, research development that ultimately replicate the
socioeconomic development of the country. Secondary education is an important sub-sector of
the entire educational system. It also provide middle level work force for the financial system
and on the other hand it also nourishes for the high levels of education. Higher education, which
is aimed to produce professional in different fields depends on the quality of secondary
education. This level of education therefore need to be restored in such a way that it prepares
youth for the pursuit of higher education as well as prepares to adjust to their practical lives
meaningfully and productively.
In order to determine the effective system of education, secondary education is universally
recognized as a fundamental stage. Secondary education is the stage where a student enters in
adolescence. It is the most crucial stage of the life. In this age, the basic perception and
behaviors start taking the shape. The problems of adjustment with the new changing in the body
and mind are critically significant. Four year of education provides an excellent opportunity for
the educationists to shape the behavior and attitudes of the learner though a comprehensive
curriculum. In this unit, we will study the concept and scope of secondary education. Discuss the
secondary education system in the developing and developed countries i.e USA UK Pakistan
India Malaysia in comparison.

4.2 Objectives:
After studying the unit, you will be able to:
 Understand the Concept and scope of secondary education
 Explain the Secondary education in the context of
o USA
o UK
o Pakistan
o India

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 o Malaysia

4.3 Concept and Scope of Secondary Education:

Education prevails over behaviors of the individuals and institutional managers working for the
development/poverty alleviation and fundamental change of society and sustainable economic
development which is a key to opening of venues for development towards the competitive
international community as well. Globalization has made economic life more competitive and
demanding, making human expertise development more significant. Only as educated workforce
equipped with modern skills can compete and benefit from exploiting the opportunities created
by globalization
The effective system of education, secondary education is universally recognized. Developed
countries such as the United States, U.S.S.R: China, and many of the European countries are
concentrating all their attention and research on in exploring better solution to the over
increasing problem face by the young people at secondary school level. Most of the countries
that composed the skilled man power of a nation are trained before the end of the high school
level. The quality of the higher education is depending upon the quality achieved at this stage.
The formation of character and foundation of future leadership are laid at this stage. This stage of
age come at a time when youth in the formative adolescence stage. The educational system and
curriculum must be according to the needs of the learner and new trends / developments in the
societies and also in the global perspective.
The secondary education serves purposes of training of civil servants and official worker for
government services. Globally especially in the developing countries are missing the technical
and vocational subject at secondary level. The importance of the secondary education today and
in future is to provide the society a healthy young person with self esteem, concern for others and
with knowledge, skills and motivation to pursue.

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4.4 Secondary Education in Comparative Perspectives:
4.4.1 Secondary Education in USA:
4. 4.1.1 Types of schools in USA
Secondary education in USA is provided within a number of different schools and settings e.g.
 Charter schools
 University-preparatory schools
 Home schooling
 Secondary School
In some districts, students attend a
combined junior/senior high school or
attend a middle school until 14 (grade
8) before transferring to a four-year
senior high school. Like primary
education, secondary education is co-
educational (boys and girls are together
in the same classroom). American high
schools are often much larger than
secondary schools in other countries, and regional high schools with over 2,000 students are common
in some rural areas and city suburban. Secondary school students must take certain ‘core’ curriculum
courses for a prescribed number of years or terms, as determined by each state. These generally
include English, mathematics, general science, health, physical education and social studies or social
sciences (which may include American history and government, geography, world history and social
problems). Students are streamed (tracked) in some high schools for academic subjects, where the
brightest students are put on a ‘fast track’.
4.4.1.2 Current secondary education system in USA:
Secondary education is often divided into two phases, middle or junior high school and high
school. Students are usually given more independence, moving to different classrooms for
different subjects, and being allowed to choose some of their class subjects (electives). High
school (occasionally senior high school) usually runs from 9th or 10th through 12th grades.
Students in these grades are commonly referred to as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10),
juniors (grade 11) and seniors (grade 12).
4.4.1.3 American Secondary Schools: Middle School:

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  Middle School includes the 6th – 8th grades between elementary school and senior high school.
 At this time, students are given more independence in the following
 Having different teachers for each subject.
 Taking on more independent homework assignments and projects.
 Moving to different classrooms for different subjects
 Being allowed to choose some of their class subjects (electives).
4.4.1.4 American Secondary Schools: High School
 High school - 9th through 12th grade.
 The students in these grades are classified as
 Freshmen (grade 9)
 Sophomores (grade 10)
 Juniors (grade 11)
 Seniors (grade 12)
 Students are encouraged to pursue a concentration in a specific area of study in preparation for
college
 Early college options allow students to earn college credits simultaneously.
 Vocational programs provide certifications for graduation
4.4.1.5 Curriculum of Secondary Education of USA
 Students take a broad variety of classes
 Curricula vary widely in quality and rigidity
 Some states consider 65 (on a 100-point scale) a passing grade, while others consider it to be as
low as 60 or as high as 75.
 Varied tracks to graduation include Advanced Placement (AP) courses which result in graduation
plans with higher GPAs
 End of Course exams required to earn credit toward graduation
 Mandatory subjects are required in nearly all U.S. high schools:
 Science (3 years of biology, chemistry and physics)
 Mathematics (4 years of algebra, geometry, pre-calculus, statistics, and calculus)
 English (4 years of literature, humanities, composition, etc.)
 Social sciences (3 years world and U.S. history, gov./economics)
 Physical education (4 years)
 Many states require a "health" course (anatomy, first aid, sexuality, birth control)

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4.4.1.6 Secondary Vocational Education in USA:
The objectives of vocational education are more varied at the secondary than at the
postsecondary level. Secondary vocational courses can be classified into three types:
1. Consumer and homemaking education.
2. General labor market preparation.
3. Specific labor market preparation courses that teach students the skills needed to enter a
particular occupational field.
Such courses can be grouped into the following occupational program areas.
 Agriculture;
 Business and office;
 Marketing and distribution;
 Health;
 Occupational home economics;
 Trade and industry (including construction, mechanics and repairs, and precision
production); and
 Technical and communications.
4.4.1.6 Finances and Control of Secondary Schools
Approximately 11% of U.S. secondary and elementary students attend private schools. The
majority of these schools (about three-quarters) are religiously affiliated, though for the most part
they welcome students of other faiths. Almost one-half of the religious schools are Catholic;
however, any organization or individual may establish a school for any educational purpose (so
long as state regulations are obeyed), and private schools represent a wide range of backgrounds
and philosophies.
Private schools must rely on tuition for a large part of their support, though they may receive
funds from their church, donations, or other sources. The average tuition for a private school in
the United States in 2003, according to a Cato Institute study, was $4,689. The average private
elementary school tuition was less than $3,500, and the average secondary school tuition was
$6,052. Church-affiliated schools tended to be less expensive and boarding schools, which
provide their students with housing and meals, may charge $20,000 or even considerably more.

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4.4.1.8 Policy for Secondary Education in USA
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (Recovery Act) was signed into law by
President Obama on February 17th, 2009. It is an unprecedented effort to jumpstart the economy,
create or save millions of jobs, and put a down payment on addressing long-neglected challenges
so country can thrive in the 21st century. The aim of USA policy is to modernize the nation’s
infrastructure, enhance energy independence, expand educational opportunities, preserve and
improve affordable health care, provide tax relief, and protect those in greatest need by making
implementable policies for secondary education.

4.5 Secondary Education in UK:

Secondary education in the UK normally starts for most students at the age of 11 years old.
Though not common, in some parts of the UK there are middle schools which run up to 12 or 13
years old.
In England, public provision of secondary education in an area may consist of a combination of
different types of school, the pattern reflecting historical circumstance and the policy adopted by
the local authority. Comprehensive schools largely admit pupils without reference to ability or
aptitude and cater for all the children in a neighborhood, but in some areas they co-exist with
other types of schools, for example grammar schools. Academies, operating in England, are
publicly funded independent schools. Academies benefit from greater freedoms to help innovate
and raise standards. These include freedom from local authority control, the ability to set their
own pay and conditions for staff, freedom around the delivery of the curriculum and the ability
to change the lengths of terms and school days. The Academies program was first introduced in
March 2000 with the objective of replacing poorly performing schools. Academies were
established and driven by external sponsors, to achieve a transformation in education
performance. The Academies program was expanded through legislation in the Academies Act
2010. This enables all maintained primary, secondary and special schools to apply to become an
Academy. The early focus is on schools rated outstanding by Ousted and the first of these new
academies opened in September 2010. These schools do not have a sponsor but instead are
expected to work with underperforming schools to help raise standards.

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4.5.1 Secondary School Structures of UK:
In England and Wales, 95% of secondary schools are comprehensive. The remainder (all in
England) is grammar schools and secondary modern schools. All state schools (including those
supported by religious bodies) are required to follow the national curriculum. Private schools
(these charge fees and cater for around 7% of the school age population) are not obliged to
follow the national curriculum.
Upper secondary education is provided in schools, sixth form colleges, tertiary colleges and
further education colleges. Both general education courses and vocational education courses are
provided, but the precise course offer varies between institutions. Further education colleges are
the main provider of vocational training but they also provide general education.
4.5.2 Curriculum of UK Secondary Education
There is a national curriculum in England and Wales requiring all pupils from the age of 5 to 16
years to be taught a range of subjects. Pupils in compulsory secondary education (11 to 16) in
state maintained schools are taught, amongst other subjects, English (and Welsh in Welsh-
medium schools), mathematics, science and, in England, a modern foreign language. In post-
compulsory secondary education there are no compulsory subjects.
Curriculum is constructed in five Key Stages:
 Key Stage 1 - Foundation year and Years 1 to 2 - for pupils aged between 5 and 7 years
old
 Key Stage 2 - Years 3 to 6 - for pupils aged between 8 and 11 years old
 Key Stage 3 - Years 7 to 9 - for pupils aged between 12 and 14 years old,
 Key Stage 4 - Years 10 to 11 - for pupils aged between 15 and 16 years old, and
 Key Stage 5 - Years 12 to 13 - for pupils aged between 17 and 18 years old.

4.5.3 Technical and Vocational Education

As the labor market becomes more specialized and require higher levels of skill, governments
and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of vocational education through publicly
funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or traineeship initiatives for
businesses.

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4.5.4 Assessment and Examinations
There is a continuous assessment of pupils’ progress by teachers who may set their own internal
tests and examinations. In addition, towards the end of year 9 (age 14) teachers monitor pupils’
progress against ‘level descriptions’ for each of the national curriculum subjects. Pupils are also
assessed by national tests at this stage in mathematics, English and science.
At the end of compulsory secondary general education (year 11, age 16) pupils are entered for
external examinations (General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE)). The GCSE may be
taken in a range of single subjects. There are no regulations governing the minimum or
maximum number of subjects to be taken by a pupil at any one time. Vocational examinations
are also offered.

4.6 Secondary Education in India:

India’s impressive, sustained economic growth has increased household and labor market
demand for secondary and higher education. Secondary education’s contribution to economic
growth, demonstrated high social benefits (particularly for girls), and support of democratic
citizenship reinforce the need for increased public support at this level, particularly in light of the
very large inequalities in access to secondary education, by income, gender, social group and
geography. The challenge is to dramatically improve access, equity and quality of secondary
education simultaneously. The role of government in secondary education (whether center, state
or local) is not as clear as it is in elementary education. At this point in time, government’s role
should be to universalize opportunity to attend secondary school, rather than to universalize
access. Clear distinction needs to be made between public financing and public provision of
secondary education; there appear to be significant opportunities to improve access, quality and
equity of secondary education through Public Private Partnerships (PPP) and a variety of
demand-side financing measures, which increase accountability and parental choice between
public and private providers.
4.6.1 Access and Equity of Secondary Education
At the lower secondary level (grades 9 and 10), the gross enrollment rate (GER) is 52 %, while at
the senior secondary level (grade 11 and 12) it is just 28%, for a combined GER of 40 % (2005).
In absolute terms, total secondary enrollment (lower and senior secondary) in 2004/05 was 37.1
million students, with 65% (24.3 million) in lower secondary and 35% (12.7 million) in senior

96
secondary. It was estimated at over 40 million in 2008. Secondary education has expanded
slowly, but steadily, over the past twenty years, largely contingent on the growth of elementary
education. The growth in the number of secondary schools over the last two decades has
occurred primarily among private unaided schools, which now represent almost one out of three
of India’s secondary schools. Jointly, private aided and unaided schools make up 60% of all
secondary schools. Most secondary students are boys, and disproportionately from urban areas
and wealthier segments of the population.
4.6.2 Quality and Efficiency of Secondary Education
Unfortunately, small scale standardized assessments of student achievement i. ii. iii. iv.
Secondary Education in India Executive Summary xix in mathematics at the secondary and
senior secondary level in two states suggest that the quality of instruction and learning in very
low
Teachers’ pre-service education at the secondary level (university degree plus teacher education)
suffers from poor standards, weak accreditation and monitoring, outdated pedagogical
approaches, inadequate supplies of basic teaching and learning materials (including ICTs), and
few incentives for improvement.
The quality of learning materials in secondary education, particularly of textbooks, is low.
National and state Boards differ widely in their approach to the organization of information and
presentation of content in textbooks, with Central Board textbooks considerably better than State
Board textbooks. State-level textbooks predominantly address students’ examination needs, with
even less emphasis on conceptual understanding than in the Central Board textbooks. In an effort
to ensure affordability, states have compromised on the physical quality and attractiveness of the
books. Finally, in some states textbook development remains a virtual monopoly of central
institutions such that government schools and teachers do not have a choice and private
publishers are excluded from the market; in those cases there is little incentive to improve.
4.6.3 Management of Secondary Education:
India has a long history of multiple management models at the secondary level, which provides
opportunities for further experimentation and reform, particularly with respect to public-private
partnership models. There is great diversity at the state level in the mix of government, private
aided, and private unaided schools for secondary education

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4.6.4 Financing of Secondary Education:
During the recent drive to achieve universal elementary education, the share of public investment
in secondary education has dwindled, although recurrent spending on this level has stayed
relatively constant. Compared with international benchmarks, India’s per student public spending
on secondary education as a percentage of GDP per capita is somewhat high (27 percent,
compared to a benchmark for fast-growing economies of 18 percent). India’s per-student public
spending on secondary education is also high as a ratio of per student spending on primary
education (2.9, compared to a benchmark for fast-growing economies of 1.4)

4.7 Secondary Education in Pakistan:

Education plays a pivotal role for creation of skills and human capital which certainly leads to
higher economic growth. In our country, education is recognized as a fundamental right. Pakistan
is, therefore, cognizant of the fact that achievement of Universal Primary Enrolment will go a
long way forward to improve overall education and literacy level.
After independence in 1947 affords were made to provide a definite direction to education in
Pakistan. Quaid-i- Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah laid down a set of aims that provided guidance
to all education.
The government of Pakistan is hence committed to improving both the quality and the coverage
of education through effective policy interventions and expenditure allocations.
Secondary education in Pakistan begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. After end of each
of the school years, students are required to pass a national examination administered by a
regional Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education (or BISE).
Upon completion of grade 9, students are expected to take a standardized test in each of the first
parts of their academic subjects. They again give these tests of the second parts of the same
courses at the end of grade 10. Upon successful completion of these examinations, they are
awarded a Secondary School Certificate (or SSC). This is locally termed as 'matriculation
certificate' or 'matric' for short. The curriculum usually includes a combination of eight courses
including electives (such as Biology, Chemistry, Computing and Physics) as well as compulsory
subjects (such as Mathematics, English, Urdu, Islamic studies and Pakistan Studies).

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4.7.1 Education System at secondary level:
Primary and secondary education in Pakistan can be divided into five stages: (1) pre-primary or
early childhood education for children 3 to 4 years of age; (2) primary education (Grades 1-5) in
which students are enrolled at 5 years of age and older; (3) middle stage education (Grades 6-8);
(4) matriculation or secondary education (Grades 9-10); and (5) intermediate or higher secondary
education (Grades 11-12) which is sometimes considered a part of college education. The first
three stages are regarded as elementary or basic education. Students graduating from
matriculation receive the Secondary School Certificate (SSC). Intermediate level graduates
receive the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC).
4.7.2 Types of Schools:
In Pakistan, several types of institutions provide secondary-level education: (1) middle schools
(G 1-8) which are established by upgrading primary schools; (2) secondary schools (G 6-10); and
(3) higher secondary schools (HSSs) for grades 6 to 12. Schools are often upgraded to include
higher grades. Middle schools are established by adding additional facilities to existing primary
schools.
4.7.3 Administrative Structure:
Education, in principle, is a provincial subject in Pakistan. However, under the Local
Government Devolution Plan 2000, district governments, headed by the Executive District
Officer (EDO), are given more administrative authority and control over public institutions at
primary, middle, as well as matriculation levels. At the national level, the Ministry of Education
(MOE) is responsible for the development of the national education policy, national plans and
budget, as well as the overall supervision and implementation of these policies and plans. In
addition, the MOE plays a role of facilitation, coordination, and arbitration in conflicts. It ensures
that the standards of national education adhere to its regulatory and institutional framework.
4.7.4 Admission Requirements for Secondary Level:
Certification obtained from successful completion of primary school is the basis for admission
into middle schools. The headmaster or principal decides on admissions with the school-based
admission committee. However, in some cases such as in urban areas where competition is
fierce, admission tests are conducted to screen the entrants. This is often the case for private or
autonomous schools which are generally considered to be providing quality education in terms of

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academic, social and personal development of students. The same applies to admission into
matriculation education.
4.7.5 Assessment and Evaluation:
The annual examination for promoting students to the next grade in elementary and middle
schools is administered internally by the school. Question papers are created and marked by
subject teachers. The principal along with subject teachers make the final decisions. Students
appear in separate examinations for each subject they are studying, and promotion is granted to
students who score at least 33% in each subject as well as in total. In the past, the year-end
examination for grade 9 was conducted by the school, but now it is conducted by the Board of
Intermediate and Secondary Education of the area which also administers the year-end
examinations for grades 10 to 12.
4.7.6 Curriculum:
According to the Constitution of Pakistan, curriculum development is the domain of the federal
government. Authority is vested in the Curriculum Wing of the MOE through the Federal
Supervision of Curricula, Textbooks and Maintenance of Standards of Education Act, approved
by parliament in 1976. Although localization of the curriculum is not allowed for matriculation-
level education, provincial representation is present at curriculum development committees of
the subjects. Textbooks are developed by the provincial Textbook Boards strictly in accordance
with the curriculum developed by the committees.

4.8 Secondary Education in Malaysia:

Primary and secondary education in Malaysia is regulated by the Ministry of Education whereas
tertiary education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education. Secondary
school is subdivided into more or less 3 parts: national schools, religious schools and national-
type Chinese or Tamil schools.

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4.8.1 The Secondary Education System: Purpose and Structure
The Malaysian secondary education system is envisaged to implement the integrated national
secondary curriculum in line with the goals of the 1987 National Education Philosophy (NEP).
There is an emphasis on critical and creative thinking skills, and on science and technology. The
system is geared towards providing secondary education to give opportunities to the relevant age
group, adequate and quality teaching and learning facilities in line with the development of
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and to improve proficiency in both the
Malay and English languages. Furthermore, the sub-sector is expected to produce students who
have positive attitudes and values, social skills, and creative minds to enhance success either for
future education or employment opportunities
4.8.2 School Structure
 Secondary education (age 13-17) is divided into lower secondary (3 years) and upper
secondary (2 years) education which are both ended with a standardized test. There are
two different final tests, depending on whether the student was doing the last two years in
a technical/academic track or a vocational track.
 Post-secondary education (age 17-18) prepares the students who want to attend a
university.
 University education
4.8.3 Types of Schools:
Several types of institutions provide general secondary level education which differs in both
format and length of their programs. In general, most secondary education institutions offer the
complete secondary cycle, i.e. three years of lower secondary and two years of upper secondary
education (Grades 7-11).

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4.8.4 Student Assessment and Promotion:
Although students sit for the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR) examination (previously
called Lower Certificate of Education Examination) at the end of the three-year lower secondary
program, they are automatically promoted to the upper secondary level regardless of the results.
Hence, in principle, there is no system of repetition throughout the basic education cycle in
Malaysia, both primary and secondary. The automatic promotion from lower to upper secondary
education was introduced in 1992 to ensure equal opportunity for all students to receive eleven
years of basic education. The results of the examinations are, however, used for selecting
students to enroll into several program packages at the upper secondary level within the general
program such as arts, sciences and humanities. Results are also used as entrance criteria to
special types of upper secondary institutions such as fully residential schools, religious schools,
sports schools, performing arts schools and technical schools.
4.8.5 Curriculum:
All education institutions, including private and religious schools, are required to follow the
National Curriculum. Localization of the curriculum is not widely implemented in Malaysia.
However, officials from the SED and the DEO as well as teachers and other stakeholders
participate in the process of curriculum development. Teachers are allowed to plan and select the
most appropriate method and material for students within the framework of the curriculum. In
terms of its characteristics, the lower secondary curriculum emphasizes general education,
consolidation of skills acquired at the primary level and the development of positive attitudes,
values, personality and interests. The core subjects are Malay (the national language), English,
science, mathematics, Islamic religious/moral education and history. At the upper secondary
level, the national curriculum puts emphasis on developing and strengthening knowledge, skills
and values acquired at the lower secondary level. The curriculum focuses on the development of
interests, personality, attitudes and values, with specialization in some fields to cater to the needs
of higher education and future careers. According to the Education (National Curriculum)
Regulations of 1997, the national curriculum is composed of core, elective and additional
subjects. The core subjects are the same as lower secondary level, but upper secondary students
have the option of selecting elective subjects from the following packages: (a) pure science, (b)
additional sciences, (c) applied arts, (d) technology, (e) humanities, (f) technical and vocational,
(g) languages, (h) information and communication technology and (i) Islamic studies. Student

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 admission into each elective subject is determined by both student choice and their achievement
in the Lower Secondary Assessment Test
4.8.6 Secondary Level Technical and Vocational Education
In Malaysia, technical and vocational education (TVE) begins at the upper secondary level. The
programs are offered in Grade 10 and 11 (Form 4 and Form 5). Grade 12 (Form 6) as well as
lower secondary levels do not offer TVE programs. At present, the majority of TVE students are
enrolled in secondary technical schools (STS). Aside from the MOE, the Ministry of Defence
offers secondary level programs in Armed Forces Apprentice Trade Schools (AFATS), leading
to further studies and semi-skilled jobs in the army. The Ministry of Entrepreneurial and Co-
operative Development (MECD) also provides vocational training at the upper secondary level in
MARA Junior Science Colleges. In addition, vocational subjects are also offered in several
general upper secondary schools and other types of schools throughout the country. The
development of TVE in the Malaysian education system is supported by the Education Act of
1996, the Ninth Malaysian Plan 2006-2010 and the Education Development Master Plan 2006-
2010. More specifically, the Government aims at expanding the TVE system at the secondary
level both in terms of enrolment and number of secondary institutions offering technical and
vocational subjects. Students who enroll in TVE institutions/programs can freely switch their
fields to general education or to other TVE streams after completing the program.
4.8.7 Levels of Secondary Education
Secondary education is divided into lower and upper secondary levels, and a special year of
transition program known as 'Remove Class' for students from the National-Type Chinese and
Tamil Primary Schools who do not do well in their language subjects in the UPSR examination.
The different levels are:
 Remove Class a one-year transition program
 Lower secondary level (Form 1 - Form 3, age 13 - 15) focuses on general education
 Upper secondary level (Form 4 - Form 5, age 16 - 17) streams students into either
science, arts, religious, technical or vocational studies
At secondary school level, more than 90% of students continue their education at national public
schools which use Bahasa Malaysia as a medium of instruction. English is taught as a second
language.

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4.8.8 Policies of Malaysian Secondary Education
Major recent policy reforms include the use of English as the medium of instruction in the
teaching of science and mathematics in schools, or English for the Teaching of Mathematics and
Science (ETeMS), which was introduced in 2003. Some other major curricular changes include
the Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (KBSM) introduced in 1989. In the teacher
education program, the priority has shifted from providing sufficient teachers for expanding
secondary education enrolments, to providing sufficient quality teachers to provide quality
education for all secondary school-aged children.
4.9 Comparison between Eastern and western countries in secondary
education

As of 2010, there are 380 out of every 1000 Pakistanis age 15 and above who have never had
any formal schooling. Of the remaining 620 who enrolled in school, 22 dropped out before
finishing primary school, and the remaining 598 completed it. There are 401 out of every 1000
Pakistanis who made it to secondary school. 290 completed secondary school while 111 dropped
out. Only 55 made it to college out of which 39 graduated with a degree. The American system
emphasizes individuality and diversity in learning. It values creativity over conformity, and
eschews rote memorization and drill learning. Students in the American education system are

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encouraged to have fun while learning. They are taught that the pursuance of individual interests
is paramount. In India there are gaps in enrolment rates for several sub-populations. For
example, in lower secondary education, a slight majority (51 per cent) of children aged 14–15
attend school in urban areas; while of the same-aged children in rural areas, less than 40 per cent
attend school. It is noteworthy that a significant proportion of children in both rural and urban
areas are over-age in secondary education. However, there is an equity dimension to the
enrolment in different types of schools. In general, private schools have significantly lower
proportions of students from ST and SC backgrounds, in both lower and higher secondary
education.

4.10 Conclusion:
It is clear from the preceding discussion that there are some definite differences between the two
education systems. Both have their advantages and disadvantages. Western education encourages
people to pursue their true interests, producing a broad range of skills and areas of expertise.
Eastern education, on the other hand, discourages the pursuit of learning that has no strictly
practical purpose, such as visual and performing arts. Eastern education, however, is an efficient
way of training people to perform tasks that require quick and precise thinking.

4.11 Activities
1. Discuss the meaning and definition of secondary education with any of scholar of related area
and report the outcome of discussion.

2. In the space below write down the need and scope of secondary education in Pakistan.

3. Prepare a comparison chart of secondary education in Asian and western countries.

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4.12 Exercise
Q.1 Discuss the scope of and concept of secondary education
Q2 Give brief introduction of secondary education system in USA.
Q.3 Critically analyze the Finances and Control of secondary schools in USA and how Pakistan
can benefit from their policy.
Q.4 Discuss the term technical and vocational secondary education.
Q.5 Discuss the Secondary Education system in India
Q.6 critically analyze system of Secondary education in Pakistan and also administrative
Structure of secondary education.
Q.7 Explain what types of secondary schools are in Pakistan and what type of curriculum is
being implemented for this level and suggest some measure for its improvement.
Q.8 Explain Secondary Education in Malaysia, its Purpose and Structure.
Q.9 Critically discuss the policies of Malaysian secondary education.
Q.10 Make a brief comparison between Eastern and western countries in secondary education

4.13 REFERENCES
Aaes, H. (1998). School Self-Evaluation and Decentralization. in Denmark. May 1998. /LSE
Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education. Denmark
Amaro, G. (1996). Pupil Assessment in Portugal. Paper presented at British Council/School
Curriculum and Assessment Authority Seminar on Pupil Assessment across Europe, P.
23-25
Audit Unit HM Inspectors of Schools. (1996). Examination Results in Scottish Schools
Edinburgh: The Scottish Office.
Britton, E. & Raizen, S. (1996). Examining the Examinations: An international comparison of
science and mathematics examinations for college-bound students. Boston: Kluwer
Academic Publishers.

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Bunnell, T. (2004). Malaysia, Modernity and the Multimedia Corridor: A Critical Geography of
Intelligent Landscapes: New York. Rutledge
Council of Europe. (1991). Modern Languages, Strasbourg: Council of Europe.
Chuan, C. (2005). A critical review of commitment studies: a call for research in Sarawak school
settings. Journal Penyelidikan, MPBL, Vol. 6, pp. 73-92
Dahlman, J. & Anuja, U. (2005). India and the Knowledge Economy: Leveraging the Strengths
and Opportunities. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Department for Education and Employment. (1996). Public Examinations GCSE and GCE in
England 1995, London: HMSO.
Eurostat .(1998). Education across the European Union Statistics and Indicators. Luxembourg.
Eurostat. (1997). Education across the European Union Statistics and Indicators. Luxembourg
Gruber, K. H. (1996) Assessment in Austrian Schools. OECD International Conference on
Assessment in Schools: International Comparisons, p.20-23
Gruber, K. H. (1996). Curriculum Change in Austria. OECD Project Teachers and Curriculum
Reform in Basic Schooling, p.12-16
Goldin, C. (2008). Race between Education and Technology. Cambridge: Harvard University, p.
6–7.
Hinke, H. (1998). The System of Secondary Education, Curriculum and Examinations in
Germany. CER/LSE Conference on Quality and Assessment in Secondary Education.
Germany
http://www.uis.unesco.org/DataCentre/Pages/regions.aspx
http://www.unescobkk.org/education/secondary-education/secondary-education-regional-
information-base-country-profile/

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 Unit 5

Higher Education

Written by:

Naila Naseer
(Lecturer DNFCE)
Reviewed by:
Ms. Tahira Bibi

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 Contents

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Concept and Scope of Higher education

5.3 University education in:

- USA

- UK

- Pakistan

- India

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INTRODUCTION:
There is a diversity of understanding about the concept of higher education, because
there have been a lot changes recently, including institutions changing their names and titles.
There is no simple definition of higher education. The international definition of tertiary
(post school) education divides it into two parts. Type A (Higher Education) and Type B
(Further Education). A higher education qualification at degree level takes a minimum of
three years to complete, more typically four. It has a theoretical underpinning, it is at a level
which qualifies someone to work in a professional field and it is usually taught in an
environment which also includes advanced research activity.
Shortly, Higher education mainly and generally means university level education. It
offers a number of qualifications ranging from Higher National Diplomas and Foundation
Degrees to Honors Degrees and as further step, Postgraduate programs such as Masters
Degrees and Doctorates. These are recognized throughout the world as representing
specialist expertise supported by a wide range of skills that employers find very useful.
Further education is generally includes those post graduate studies in where you can gain
your Master and Doctorate degrees.
These degrees mark the highest one can earn, though they are divided into two levels. A
master's degree, for instance, is awarded for a particular course of study beyond the
baccalaureate degree. They come in various categories, such as a Master of Arts, Master of
Science, and Master of Theology. The amount of time it takes one to earn a master's degree
depends upon the program one is enrolled in, but one should usually expect to study at least for 2
years. The second type of graduate degree, and one considered higher than a master's degree, is a
doctoral degree. These are awarded for a particular course of study beyond the master's degree.
Doctoral degrees can be professional degrees, such as the Doctor of Ministry, or academic
degrees, such as the Doctor of Philosophy. Those who earn doctorates often assume the title
'Doctor.' The amount of time one must study before earning such a degree varies greatly by field,
or the institution (Higher Education, 2014).

Objectives:
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
 Recognize the concept, scope and meaning of higher education.

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  Comprehend the bologna process in higher education.
 Examine the higher education system of UK.
 Analyze the higher education system of USA.
 Examine the higher education system of India.
 Analyze the higher education system of Pakistan.

5.1 Concept and Scope of Higher education:

Concept and scope of higher education is separately explained in the below sections for your
better understanding.
5.1.1 Concept of Higher Education:
The University of Oklahoma (2013) has defined that an institution of higher education is
a school that:
 Awards a bachelor’s degree or not less than a 2 year program that provides credit
towards a degree or,
 Provides not less than 1 year of training towards gainful employment or,
 Is a vocational program that provides training for gainful employment and has been
in existence for at least two years?
An institution of higher education is a school that must meet all three of the following
criteria:
 Admits as regular students only persons with a high school diploma or equivalent; or
admits as regular students persons who are beyond the age of compulsory school
attendance
 Public, Private, or Non-Profit
 Accredited or pre-accredited and is authorized to operate in that state.
The higher education institute may also provide quality education with academic
excellence. National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (NCIHE, 1997) elaborated
the excellence of higher education institutions may meet the international education
standards:
“We believe that the country must have higher education which, through excellence in its
diverse purposes, can justifiably claim to be world class. As institutions will increasingly

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have to operate within an international market for education, they will all be judged by
international standards (Para 1.4).
According to EWG-L (2014) the concept of higher education is diverse. It includes
higher study at different levels. These levels are as following:
Bachelor's Degree: It is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a
course or major that generally lasts three or four years. In some countries i.e. Pakistan,
bachelors degree is of two years where there is annual system, however, in semester system,
it is also comprised of four years.
Master Degree: It is an academic degree usually awarded for completion of a
postgraduate or graduate course of one to three years in duration. In the UK it is sometimes
awarded for an undergraduate course whose final year consists of higher-level courses and a
major research project. In the recent standardized European system of higher education
diplomas, it corresponds to a two-year graduate program to be entered after three years of
undergraduate studies and in preparation for either high-qualification employment or for
doctoral studies.
Doctorate Degree: It is an academic degree of the highest level. Traditionally, the
award of a doctorate implies recognition of the candidate as an equal by the university
faculty under which he or she has studied. There are essentially three types of doctorates:
research, first-professional (USA only), and honorary. Research doctorates are nearly always
awarded in recognition of academic research that is of a publishable standard (even if not
actually published) and represents at least a modest contribution to human knowledge. It is
usually assessed by submission and defense of a doctoral thesis or dissertation, though in
some cases a coherent body of published literature can be accepted instead. Honorary
doctorates are awarded for a substantial contribution to a field but this need not be academic
in character.

Activity 1.
Read carefully the above section 5.1 “Concept of Higher Education” and offer your own
definition of higher education.

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5.1.2 Scope of Higher Education:
Higher Education Commission. (2012) has elaborated the scope of higher education
as following:
The scope for higher education in Pakistan is relatively high than other developing
countries. The institutions in Pakistan are among the best in the world. Since the introduction
of Higher Education Commission (HEC), the numbers of PhD’s have increased a
considerable amount in the last 6-8years. There is no lack of good teachers or good
institutions in Pakistan; in order to really strengthen our educational sector there is need to
correct our political system. This is the only area which is lacking and needs improvement.
In United States of America and United Kingdom, the scope of higher education is
very high as there is a stable higher education system in their country. These countries follow
a set of rules and regulations. That’s why the scope of higher education expands the
boundaries of their lands and attracts the International learners. Overall, the scope of higher
education is following:
 It promotes economic and social development.
 It increases income growth of a country collectively.
 It contributes to labour productivity.
 Higher education can give leaders the confidence, flexibility, breadth of knowledge,
and technical skills needed to confront effectively the economic and political realities
of the 21st century.
 It also generates cadres of well-trained teachers for all levels of the education system.
 It offers a wide range of quality options for study and bolsters social mobility and
helps the talented to fulfill their potential.
 Higher education is absolutely necessary for training scientists, engineers, and others
to help invent, adopt, and operate modern technology in all sectors. Insofar as
scientists in developing countries are inspired to define and address local problems,
they are likely to contribute to appropriate solutions in such vital areas as
environmental protection, the prevention and treatment of illness, industrial
expansion, and infrastructure provision.

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Activity 2.
1. Make a group of your class fellows, read the heading 5.1.2 and highlight the scope of
higher education in your own words. Why we need higher education in Pakistan?
2. Ask two educational experts about the scope of higher education in Pakistan? Give
your own reflection on the present status of higher education in Pakistan.

5.1.3 Bologna Process in Higher Education:

A Bologna Process aims to create the European higher education area by harmonizing
academic degree standards and quality assurance standards throughout Europe for each
faculty and its development by the end of 2010. The objectives are the introduction of
undergraduate and postgraduate levels in all countries, with first degrees no shorter than 3
years; a European Credit Transfer System; the elimination of remaining obstacles to the
mobility of students and teachers. The name comes because the process was proposed at the
University of Bologna with the signing, in 1999, of the Bologna declaration by ministers of
education from 29 European countries in the Italian city of Bologna. This was opened up to
other countries, and further governmental meetings have been held in Prague (2001), Berlin
(2003) and Bergen (2005). In May 1998 the ministers in charge of higher education of
France, Italy, the United Kingdom and Germany signed the so-called Sorbonne
Declaration on the harmonisation of the architecture of the European Higher Education
System at the Sorbonne University in Paris. Other European countries later subscribed to the
Declaration.
The Sorbonne Declaration focused on;
 A progressive convergence of the overall framework of degrees and cycles in
an open European area for higher education
 A common degree level system for undergraduates (Bachelor's degree) and
graduates (Master's and doctoral degree).
 Enhancing and facilitating student and teacher mobility (students should
spend at least one semester abroad); removing obstacles for mobility and
improving recognition of degrees and academic qualifications.
In June 1999, 29 European ministers in charge of higher education met in Bologna to lay
the basis for establishing a European Higher Education Area by 2010 and promoting the

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European system of higher education world-wide. In the Bologna Declaration, the ministers
affirmed their intention to:
 adopt a system of easily readable and comparable degrees
 adopt a system with two main cycles (undergraduate/graduate)
 establish a system of credits (such as ECTS)
 promote mobility by overcoming obstacles
 promote European co-operation in quality assurance
 promote European dimensions in higher education
Convinced that the establishment of the European Higher Education Area would require
constant support, supervision and adaptation to continuously evolving needs, the ministers
decided to meet again in two years time. As it was planned, two years after the Bologna
Declaration, the ministers in charge of higher education of 33 European signatory countries
met in Prague in May 2001 to follow up the Bologna Process and to set directions and
priorities for the following years.
5.1.3.1 Framework of Bologna:
The basic framework adopted is of three levels test of higher education qualification:
Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctoral degrees. In most cases, these will take 3, 2, and 3 years
respectively to complete, but the framework is moving to defining qualifications in terms of
learning outcomes and the length in years is in no way set in stone. These levels are closer to
the current model in the UK, Ireland (as well as the US) than that in most of Continental
Europe, where the model often is based on the magister or diploma. In any case, program
length tends to vary from country to country, and less often between institutions within a
country.
Activity 3.
Read the section 5.1.3 in detail. Go to the internet and explore more about bologna process in
higher education. Make your own report regarding feasibility of bologna process in higher
education to the developing countries.

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5.2 University Education in Comparative Perspectives:
The below section will give you better understanding and knowledge of different higher
education systems of different countries of the world. This description includes higher education
systems of USA, UK, India and Pakistan.

5.2.1 United States of America (USA):

Investopedia (2014) explains “Higher Education Act of 1965 – HEA”:
A law designed to strengthen the educational resources of the colleges and universities of
the United States and to provide financial assistance to post-secondary students. The HEA, as it
is known, increased federal money given to post-secondary institutions, developed scholarship
programs, provided low-interest loans to students, and founded a National Teachers Corps. Part
of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society domestic agenda, the Act was signed into law on
November 8, 1965.
The Higher Education Act of 1965 included six titles:
Title I – Provides funding for extension and continuing education programs.
Title II – Allocates money to enhance library collections.
Title III – Provisions for strengthening developing institutions.
Title IV – Provides student assistance through scholarships, low-interest loans, and work
study Programs.
Title V – Provisions for improving the quality of teaching.
Title VI – Provisions for improving undergraduate instruction.
The Higher Education Act of 1965 has undergone multiple reauthorizations and
amendments, including the addition of new title initiatives.

5.2.1.1 The U.S. Higher Education System: Levels of Study:

Study in the USA (2014) has explained the US higher education system as following:
5.2.1.1.1 First Level: Undergraduate:
Student, who is attending a college or university and has not earned a bachelor’s degree,
is studying at the undergraduate level. It typically takes about four years to earn a bachelor’s
degree. One can either begin his/her studies in pursuit of a bachelor’s degree at a community
college or a four-year university or college.

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 The first two years of study students are generally required to take a wide variety of
classes in different subjects, commonly known as prerequisite courses: literature, science, the
social sciences, the arts, history, and so forth. This is so to give a general knowledge and
foundation of a variety of subjects prior to focusing on a specific field of study. Many students
choose to study at a community college in order to complete the first two years of prerequisite
courses. They will earn an Associate of Arts (AA) transfer degree and then transfer to a four-year
university or college. A “major” is the specific field of study in which students’ degree is
focused. For example, if someone’s major is journalism, they will earn a Bachelor of Arts in
Journalism. In this regard, students are required to take a certain number of courses in this field
in order to meet the degree requirements of their major. Students must choose their major at the
beginning of their third year of school.
A very unique characteristic of the American higher education system is that students can
change their major multiple times if they choose. It is extremely common for American students
to switch majors at some point in their undergraduate studies. Often, students discover a different
field that they excel in or enjoy. The American education system is very flexible. Switching
majors may result in more courses, which means more time and money.
5.2.1.1.2 Second Level: Graduate in Pursuit of a Master’s Degree:
Presently, a college or university graduate with a bachelor’s degree may want to seriously
think about graduate study in order to enter certain professions or advance their career. This
degree is usually mandatory for higher-level positions in library science, engineering, behavioral
health and education. Furthermore, international students from some countries are only permitted
to study abroad at a graduate level. A graduate program is usually a division of a university or
college. To gain admission, students need to take the GRE (graduate record examination).
Certain master’s programs require specific tests, such as the LSAT for law school, the GRE or
GMAT for business school, and the MCAT for medical school. Graduate programs in pursuit of
a master’s degree typically take one to two years to complete. For example, the MBA (master of
business administration) is an extremely popular degree program that takes about two years.
Other master’s programs, such as journalism, only take one year. The majority of a master’s
program is spent in classroom study and a graduate student must prepare a long research paper
called a “master’s thesis” or complete a “master’s project.”
5.2.1.1.3 Third Level: Graduate in Pursuit of a Doctorate Degree:

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 Many graduate schools consider the attainment of a master’s degree the first step towards
earning a PhD (doctorate). But at other schools, students may prepare directly for a doctorate
without also earning a master’s degree. It may take three years or more to earn a PhD degree. For
international students, it may take as long as five or six years. For the first two years of the
program most doctoral candidates enroll in classes and seminars. At least another year is spent
conducting firsthand research and writing a thesis or dissertation. This paper must contain views,
designs, or researches that have not been previously published. A doctoral dissertation is a
discussion and summary of the current scholarship on a given topic. Most U.S. universities
awarding doctorates also require their candidates to have a reading knowledge of two foreign
languages, to spend a required length of time “in residence,” to pass a qualifying examination
that officially admits candidates to the PhD program, and to pass an oral examination on the
same topic as the dissertation.

5.2.1.2 Types of U.S. Higher Education:

 State College or University:
A state school is supported and run by a state or local government. Each of the 50 U.S.
states operates at least one state university and possibly several state colleges. Many of these
public universities schools have the name of the state, or the actual word “State” in their names:
for example, Washington State University and the University of Michigan.
 Private College or University:
These schools are privately run as opposed to being run by a branch of the government.
Tuition will usually be higher than state schools. Often, private U.S. universities and colleges are
smaller in size than state schools.
Religiously affiliated universities and colleges are private schools. Nearly all these
schools welcome students of all religions and beliefs. Yet, there are a percentage of schools that
prefer to admit students who hold similar religious beliefs as those in which the school was
founded.
 Community College:
Community colleges are two-year colleges that award an associate’s degrees
(transferable), as well as certifications. There are many types of associate degrees, but the most
important distinguishing factor is whether or not the degree is transferable. Usually, there will be

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two primary degree tracks: one for academic transfer and the other prepares students to enter the
workforce straightaway. University transfer degrees are generally associate of arts or associate of
science. Not likely to be transferrable are the associate of applied science degrees and certificates
of completion. Community college graduates most commonly transfer to four-year colleges or
universities to complete their degree. Because they can transfer the credits they earned while
attending community college, they can complete their bachelor’s degree program in two or more
additional years. Many also offer ESL or intensive English language programs, which will
prepare students for university-level courses.
 Institute of Technology:
An institute of technology is a school that provides at least four years of study in science and
technology. Some have graduate programs, while others offer short-term course

5.2.1.3 Characteristics of the U.S. Higher Education System:

 Classroom Environment:
Classes range from large lectures with several hundred students to smaller classes and
seminars (discussion classes) with only a few students. The American university classroom
atmosphere is very dynamic. Students are expected to share their opinion, argue their point,
participate in class discussions and give presentations. International students find this one of the
most surprising aspects of the American education system.
Each week professors usually assign textbook and other readings. Students are expected
to keep up-to-date with the required readings and homework so they can participate in class
discussions and understand the lectures. Certain degree programs also require students to spend
time in the laboratory.
Professors issue grades for each student enrolled in the course. Grades are usually based
upon:
1. Each professor will have a unique set of class participation requirements, but students are
expected to participate in class discussions, especially in seminar classes. This is often a
very important factor in determining a student’s grade.
2. A midterm examination is usually given during class time.
3. One or more research or term papers, or laboratory reports must be submitted for
evaluation.

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 4. Possible short exams or quizzes are given. Sometimes professors give an unannounced
“pop quiz.” This doesn’t count heavily toward the grade, but is intended to inspire
students to keep up with their assignments and attendance.
5. A final examination will be held after the final class meeting.
 Credits:
Each course is worth a certain number of credits or credit hours. This number is roughly
the same as the number of hours a student spends in class for that course each week. A course is
typically worth three to five credits.
A full-time program at most schools is 12 or 15 credit hours (four or five courses per term) and a
certain number of credits must be fulfilled in order to graduate. International students are
expected to enroll in a full-time program during each term.
 Transfers:
If a student enrolls at a new university before finishing a degree, generally most credits
earned at the first school can be used to complete a degree at the new university. This means a
student can transfer to another university and still graduate within a reasonable time.

Activity 3.
Discuss US Higher Education system with your class fellows and write down different
types of U.S. higher education system.
Visit AIOU’s central library/nearest library, read some stuff on US higher education and
write down characteristics of U.S. higher education system.

5.2.1.4 American Institutions of Higher Education:

Fulbright Commission (2014) has elaborated different types and nature of higher
education institutions in USA.
1. Undergraduate Study:
Community and Junior Colleges: provide a two-year course beyond high school or secondary
school. Courses are either “Terminal”, leading to employment, or “Academic”, preparing the
student for transfer to a four-year college or university where he/she will complete his/her
education. Graduates of junior colleges are usually awarded an Associate in Arts (A.A.) or
Associate in Sciences (A.S.) degree.

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 A Technical Institute: offers a two- or three-year course of training for a semi-
professional occupation, such as that of a dental, engineering or medical technician.
 Terminal Occupational Education: offers one to three years of study beyond secondary
level intended to prepare the student for immediate employment. Technical programs,
also known as “Vocational” and “Organized Occupational” studies, do not prepare a
student to continue higher education at a regular four-year college or university.
 Liberal Arts College or University: offers a university education combining natural and
social sciences as well as humanistic studies. The term “college” is often used where
undergraduate study is concerned. The college may be part of a university which also has
graduate and professional schools, or it may be an independent institution offering a
Bachelor’s degree program, with little if any instruction at the graduate level. (Thus
Harvard College is the undergraduate division of Harvard University; Vassar College,
Amherst College and Sarah Lawrence College are examples of independent colleges, also
called liberal arts colleges. The academic status of an independent liberal arts college
may be just as high as a college which is part of a university. Fine Arts and Music are
often taught in the colleges and universities described above, but may also be available in
specialized academies, schools and conservatories.
 The Bachelor’s Degree: Four years of undergraduate study lead to a Bachelor’s degree
in Liberal Arts or in Science, a B.A. or B.S. degree, and qualify the graduate to apply for
admission to a graduate school. The Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) or Bachelor of Science
(B.S.) degree is awarded on successful completion of a specified number of courses or
units and the full degree requirement is usually stated as being 120 credits (about 4O
courses) for institutions operating on a semester system, and 180 credits for a quarterly
calendar. A Bachelor’s degree program is designed to last four years, the first year being
called “Freshman Year”, the second “Sophomore”, the third “Junior”, and the fourth
“Senior”. Courses in the first two years are referred to as “lower division” courses and in
the last two years as “upper division” courses. Many institutions have experimented with
a wide variety of amendments to the structure of their degrees in recent years.
Nevertheless, the original pattern usually survives in some form and consists of:
1. General basic courses sometimes called “core courses “or “distribution requirements,”
which must be taken by all students, usually during their first two years. These comprise

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 about a third of the degree and they include subjects such as English, a foreign language,
a natural science, social science and mathematics.
2. Courses, in which a student wishes to “major”, i.e. specialize, which are mostly taken in
the last two years and usually amount to a quarter or more of the total degree
requirements.
3. “Elective courses” which the student chooses from any field.
4. Students from other countries do not necessarily enter an American college or university
as freshmen (first-year students). They may be admitted by the college at a higher level or
receive advanced standing, mainly through placement tests. Each college or university in
the United States determines for itself the level of entry for each student. Students may
sometimes complete a Bachelor’s degree in less than four years by (a) receiving credits
for pre-college work (i.e. the European Baccalaureate) or (b) taking courses during the
summer.

2. Graduate Study:
Graduate and Professional Schools: Provide post-university study leading to the Master’s or
doctoral degree.
 The Master’s Degree:
The M.A., M.S., M.B.A. and other professional Master’s degrees require a minimum of one
academic year. More often 18 months or two years are needed. The Master’s degree usually
requires a minimum of about 30 credits up to a maximum of 60 credits, and an average grade of
“B.”
 The Doctorate Degree:
The Doctorate Degree covers many fields of specialization and requires a minimum of three
to four years of study beyond the Bachelor’s degree; two to four years of study after the Master’s
degree. Most graduate schools do not require that a student fulfill the specific requirements for
the Master’s degree before becoming a candidate for the Doctor’s degree, although many
students find it desirable to do so. Doctorates in Education, Science and Law are sometimes
labeled Ed.D., Sc.D., Jur.D., but most doctorates are known as Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy)
degrees.
To obtain a Ph.D. degree or other doctorate the university generally requires that a student:

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 1. Earn a certain number of credits in a required distribution of courses.
2. Maintain an average grade of B.
3. Pass a qualifying comprehensive examination after completion of the required
courses.
4. Pass examinations in one or more foreign languages.
5. Present and defend a thesis which is the result of original research.
6. Pass an oral examination.
For detailed information about American degrees, consult individual university catalogs
or subject reference books in the Advising Center.

3. Non-Degree Students:
Students wishing to take courses without enrolling for a degree may apply to register as
“special students”. Colleges and universities are increasingly reluctant to accept “special
students”, unless they are enrolled for a degree in some other institution and are seeking
instruction which is not available in the other institution. Non-degree students do not have access
to all the facilities that degree students are able to use, such as limited access to library and
computer facilities, and often there is a limitation on the number of credits they can take.

4. Professional Training:
Training for many professions may only be taken as postgraduate study. Thus a law degree
takes three years after completion of a four-year Bachelor’s degree; medicine takes four years
after a Bachelor’s degree, and social work. In other professional fields such as dentistry,
veterinary medicine and architecture, four years of general college work is usually required
before admission to the four-year professional program.

5. Accreditation:
If one decides to study in the United States, one should always choose an institution which is
“accredited.” An institution is accredited provided that its program of study, professors, and
academic facilities meet the minimum standards established by an agency recognized by the
Council on Postsecondary Accreditation and by the U.S. Department of Education. Accreditation
by a regional agency, such as the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools

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or the New England Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, applies to the institution as
a whole and may be awarded for up to four different levels: Associate degree; Bachelor’s degree;
Master’s degree and Doctorate. Accreditation by a professional agency applies only to the
relevant school or department; e.g., engineering schools are accredited by the Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology. Foreign students should not enroll in degree courses in
institutions or departments which are not accredited.

6. The Credit System:

American degrees, both undergraduate and graduate, are earned on the basis of the number of
courses successfully taken. Each course earns “credits” or “units”, which are known as credit
hours, semester hours (for schools on the semester system), quarter hours (for schools on the
quarter system) or merely hours or credits. The number of credits earned by each course relates
to the number of hours of classroom work involved, but does not necessarily correspond exactly.
For instance, a course meeting three times a week for an hour (actually 50 minutes) each time
may be expected to give a student three hours credit for the semester or term. On the other hand,
an intensive seminar may meet once a week for two hours and also be a three-credit course. Two
or three laboratory periods are usually considered to be equivalent to one class “hour”. The
undergraduate student program, known as an “academic load”, is normally 15-17 units a
semester, or 12 to 15 units a quarter. The graduate student’s normal load is 9-12 units.

7. The Grading System:

Students are graded on course work completed, and most colleges and universities use letter
grades as follows: A being excellent or outstanding; B means above average; C, average; D,
below average; and F, failing. Roughly, the following percentage values and point scales are
applicable:
An undergraduate student must maintain a C or 2.00 averages in general and a B or 3.00
averages in his or her major field in order to receive a degree.
Some schools may also use the “Pass/Fail” grading system in which there are only two possible
grades. The student either passes and receives credit for the course or fails and receives no credit.
Many schools combine both the “Pass/Fail Option” with the conventional grading system. In this

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case, a student may take a certain number of courses for a Pass or Fail grade, and his other
courses using the conventional A-F grading system.
Activity 3.
1. Read the above section and make a detailed summary on American higher education
institutions.

5.2.2 UK:
Walsh (2012) has elaborated the UK’s Higher education (HE) system which primarily
describes post-18 learning that takes place at universities, as well as other colleges and
institutions that award academic degrees, professional qualifications and Continuing Professional
Development (CPD) modules. Whilst HE is the common name in the UK and Ireland, it is also
known as post-secondary, tertiary and third level education. The right of access to higher
education is enshrined in both UN and European human rights conventions.

5.2.2.1 Structure of UK’s Higher Education System:

Kaplan (2014) explained UK education system as following:
 School and AS/A Level:
It is compulsory for every child in the UK to receive full-time education at school
between the ages of 5 and 16. After reaching 16, students can choose to continue their secondary
education for a further two years, during which they usually study A-levels. It is common for
students to study three or four A-levels that will be relevant to their chosen subject area at
university. A-levels are necessary for all British students who want to study in higher education
institutions.
 UK Higher Education: Undergraduate Degree:
Most students enter higher education at the age of 18 to study an undergraduate degree. It
usually takes three years for students in the UK to gain their bachelor’s degree (four years in
Scotland). In 2009 university fees rose to a maximum of £9,000 per year for British students,
while fees for international students usually cost between £10,000 and £30,000 per year,
depending on the course and the subject they study. Undergraduate courses allow students to
develop academic and – in some cases – work-related skills. British education focuses heavily on

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developing writing and analytical skills. Foundation certificate and diploma courses prepare
international students for an undergraduate degree.
 UK Higher Education: Postgraduate Degree:
Once students have obtained their undergraduate degree, they can apply for a
postgraduate degree. The most common master’s degrees in the UK usually last for one year.
However, some PhD qualifications can take up to seven years to complete. A British master’s
degree requires intensive study, with research and critical thinking being a very important part of
every postgraduate course. Apart from their classes, students will spend a significant part of their
time researching their specialist subject area. Postgraduates are usually assessed through written
assignments and tests. Some postgraduate degrees require dissertation modules at the end of their
course. The Institution of Engineering and Technology (2014, Para 1-8) has given description of
UK’s academic year as following:
Most UK universities follow the same educational timetable as the UK's schools with the
school year beginning in September or October and finishing in June or July. Often universities
also follow the idea of having three terms a year, beginning in September/October, January and
May. Some universities have moved towards the American concept of two "semesters" a year
however, starting in September/October and January. Whichever university students choose to
approach though, they will find the majority of courses begin in the autumn months. Once
students have decided that the UK is the right choice for them, they then have to choose from the
multitude of educational options. Below is an idea of the choices available to students and what
they involve:
1. Foundation courses:
In addition to the main types of qualifications, some colleges and universities run special
foundation courses, commonly known as 'Year 0' programs, targeted at students who wish to
enter specific subject areas such as science and engineering, but who do not possess the relevant
entry qualifications.
2. Diplomas and HNDs:
Two year Higher National Diploma (HND) or Diploma of Higher Education courses are both
popular qualifications in their own right, however some students choose to top up these
qualifications into a degree often by staying on for an extra year.

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 3. Bachelor / undergraduate degrees:
These are three year degree courses leading to awards such as Bachelor of Arts (BA) and
Bachelor of Science (BSc). These are more often than not undergraduate (or 'first degree')
courses.
4. Master's/postgraduate degrees:
Master's degrees are four year degree courses, often sandwich courses involving one year in
industry or abroad, etc. You can also get a master's degree by doing a one year course after
completing an undergraduate degree. These are classed as postgraduate degrees.
The MBA (Master of Business Administration) is the world's most popular postgraduate degree,
and the UK produces the highest number of MBAs outside North America.
5. Doctorates:
Another type of master's degree is the MRes, (Master in Research) which is designed to
prepare students for doctoral research. A doctorate is the next (and highest) qualification you can
reach in the UK, usually taking three to four years to complete. Intake for these courses is
normally from those with a very good first degree or more commonly from those with a master's
degree

5.2.2.2 Higher Education Commission of UK:

Bridgman (2014, p.14) states that ‘’the Higher Education Commission of UK is an
independent body made up of leaders figures from the education sector, the business community,
and three major political parties. Established in demand from Parliamentarians for a more
informed and reflective disclosure on higher education issues, the Higher Education Commission
examines higher education policy, holds evidence-based inquiries and produces written reports
with recommendations from policy makers’’.
Activity 5
1. Read carefully the UK’s Higher Education System and discuss in detail UK’s higher
education system with your class mates. Make a note on the important points and relate
it with the USA’s Higher Education system.

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  Comparison of Higher Education Systems of USA and UK:
International Student (2016) has elaborated the following comparison in the higher education
systems of USA and UK:

America Britain

Length of BA: 4 years BA: 3 years

Time MA: 2 years MA: 1 year
PhD: 5-7 years or longer PhD: 3 years

Academic Most schools use the semester system, Most also use a semester system,
Term but some use a trimester or quarter but some use trimester or quarter
system. Most schools start in the mid to systems. The start and end of an
late August and end in May. academic year varies by university.

University Universities are often divided into University acts an umbrella

Organization schools by subject, but these schools do organization for the different
not typically have a lot of autonomy colleges. Colleges are fairly
from the university. independent of one another.

Style of More varied, liberal arts, study outside Take only classes in your college.
Education your major.

Depth vs. Breadth Depth

Breadth

Homework Constant reading and writing General assignments or no

assignments assignments throughout the
semester

Cost High Moderate

Grades Based on overall performance on all Based mostly on the final exam

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 America Britain

assignments

Athletics Important social activity; athletic Intramural sports; generally no

scholarships available. athletic scholarships available.

Living Dormitories with roommate. Off-campus Dormitories without roommate

Situation housing occasionally available. generally. Off-campus housing
generally available.

Types of Associates, Bachelors, Masters, PhD, Higher National Diploma,

Degrees variety of vocational and professional Certificate of Higher Education,
degrees. Diploma of Higher Education,
Foundation Degree, Bachelors,
Masters, PhD, variety of
professional and vocational
degrees. Postgraduate degrees
divided into taught and research
degrees.

Activity 6.
1. Read the above section 5.2.2.3 and make an analysis on contrasts regarding UK’s and
USA’s higher education system.

5.2.3 Pakistan:
Saeed (2007) elaborated that higher education in Pakistan starts after the completion of
grade 12. It is carried out in universities, colleges and other such institutions. The universities
and degree awarding institutions are autonomous but are characterized by their respective
provincial governments and the Higher Education Commission Pakistan. In Pakistan, the first
degree under the traditional or conventional stream is of two years, but under the new stream this

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is of four years. The degree programs in medicine and pharmacy are of five years; the duration of
first degree in agriculture and engineering is either four or five years in different universities.
Master is of two years. The duration of PhD is at least three years; and mostly routed through
M.Phil in the relevant discipline. The universities are autonomous bodies to develop their own
curricula, but HEC is fixing minimum standards for each degree program in terms of minimum
credit hours, nature and weightage of core and other courses, and mode of assessment.
Academy of Educational Planning and Management (2013, p. 17) in its annual report has
shown that there are total 139 universities providing their services in both public and private
sector of education. Out of these universities 79 (57%) are working under umbrella of public
sector, whereas 60 (43%) are working under the supervision of private sector. It is reflected as
below:

Source: Annual Report: Pakistan Education Statistics 2011-12.

The total enrolment in the universities, i.e., at post graduate stage, is 1.319 million. Out of
this enrolment 1.130 million (86%) students are enrolled in public universities, whereas, 0.189
million (14%) students are studying in private universities. It is reflected as below:

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Source: Annual Report: Pakistan Education Statistics 2011-12.

The total male enrolment in the universities is 0.677 million (51%), whereas, the female
enrolment is 0.642 million (49%). The total teachers in the universities are 70,053 out of which
54,837 (78%) are in public and 15,216 (22%) are in private sector. Pakistan Economic Survey
(2012-13) has indicated that an enrolment of 1.60 million is estimated in 2012- 13 in higher
education (universities) over 1.32 million in 2011-12. There are 139 universities with 70,053
teachers in both private and public sectors are functional during 2011-12.

5.2.3.1 Higher Education Commission:

Sarwar (2014, Para 1-5) says that higher education in Pakistan was dealt by University
Grants Commission (UGC). Since 2002 the UGC has been dissolved and an independent
institution has been established. It is named Higher education commission (HEC) of Pakistan.
HEC has achieved many milestones in a short span of time. It has revolutionized the higher
education in the country. The number of Ph.D graduates during last few years has increased.
There is also a great boom in the enrollment of students in universities.
HEC actually manages the funding and working of universities in Pakistan. HEC
affiliates and recognizes the universities which fulfill the set criteria. Both private and public
sector universities are recognized with HEC. There are about 160 universities affiliated with
HEC. HEC offers scholarships to students for studying abroad and in the country. Scholarships
are mostly offered for Doctorate programs and for M.S leading to Ph.D. These scholarships are
mostly fully funded. The students return to the country after learning from world renowned
institutes. Some universities of the country have been recently included in top universities of
Asia and world. HEC also offers its services for Research and development, indigenous and
international scholarships, and quality assurance of higher education programs etc.

5.3.3.2 Challenges in Higher Education System in Pakistan:

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 According to Qureshi (2014) following are the challenges in higher education system of
Pakistan:
1. There is gap between supply and demand.
2. Lack of budget and increase in educational demand is a big challenge.
3. Quality of curricula and shortage of trained teachers is also an important challenge.
4. Most of the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are into the number game and
expansion mode. Their focus on quality education, if anything, is rather fuzzy and misty.
5. Another challenge is to benchmark out tertiary education against internationally
recognized standards. This would require installing a well thought out Quality Assurance
System in each of our HEIs. The HEC of Pakistan had designed a Quality Assurance
System comprising eleven standards which periodically every HEI is supposed to
complete. These eleven standards or criteria had been adapted from the Accreditation
System used in the developed world. Their implementation or enforcement is rather lax.
There is no serious follow up from the HEC to collect this information and then to collate
the same to draw some conclusions to share with a wider stakeholders audience. Also, the
award of “W” category to HEIs is done in a very soft fashion. Resultantly our HEIs fail to
be on the map of world ranking of universities. Even the best- in- class in the private
sector where there had been mushroom growth had not acquired this stature.
6. The role of top leadership of HEIs is questioning. The selection of top leaders of HEIs
becomes vital. In the case of public sector universities, at least, the mode of selection and
appointment at the top leadership had been a subject of critical discussion and continues
to raise many an eyebrow.
7. The present organizational bodies as Senates and Syndicates have many weaknesses of
which the most important is an inadequate sense of governance. Inappropriate
responsibilities to their role in order to govern their academic, administrative, managerial
and financial functions are being dysfunctional.
8. Relevant people are not fully aware of their roles and responsibilities. They actually do
not know that what role they have to play and what they are doing and how effectively
they can perform their duties and what role actually they don’t have to play.

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According to Akhtar and Kalsoom (2011) has suggested the following steps to meet these
challenges:
 Adoption of quality benchmarks from some of the best universities in the world can bring
quality in education.
 Another step in this direction can be to seek international accreditation either for
individual academic programs or for the entire institution.
 The administration of public universities should be independent. Higher authorities must
monitor that the functioning of the universities is in accordance with the university
calendar.
 The syndicate should make decisions regarding university policies.
 Syndicate should appoint Vice Chancellor and he should be answerable to them.
 Only university administration should manage and be responsible for University’s affairs.
 The university administration should be fully autonomous body to make decisions.
 Faculty according to their needs and requirements should be selected by the department
under given criteria by the syndicate.
 The performance assessment criteria should be based on research, teaching and services.
 A person himself should be accountable for his/here performance and as the fundamental
organizational principle he should have full authority to take decisions within his power
without outside interference, and his responsibilities must be suited to his expertise.
 Alignment of role, responsibility and authority is necessary for effective administrative
structures implementation.
 Universities cannot work in isolation or indifferent from society. Close and respectable
relationship should be created between universities and society, market and industry.
Standards and Measures for performance should be established.
Activity 7.
1. Read the above section higher education in Pakistan and make go to the library and make
an analysis on contrasts regarding UK’s and USA’s higher education system.

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5.2.4 India:
According to University Grant Commission (2009) higher education in India starts after
passing the higher secondary education or the 12th standard. Depending on the stream, doing
graduation in India can take three to five years. Postgraduate courses are generally of two to
three years of duration. After completing post graduation, scope for doing research in various
educational institutes also remains open. As of now there are 320 Universities, of which nearly
131 are of Affiliating Universities. Besides there are deemed universities, institutions of national
importance, institutes and over 15500 colleges. Together they offer a wide range of degree and
diploma programs across the length and breadth of the country.

While universities, deemed universities and institutions of national importance are largely
autonomous institutions entitled by law to design, develop and offer programs which they
consider relevant and appropriate for the national needs, the colleges and institutes are expected
to be regulated by the universities with which they are affiliated or associated with. Give the
wide reach and variety of institutions and programs of higher education, a number of
professional, coordinative and regulatory bodies and councils have also been established to
ensure balanced and healthy growth of higher education in the country.
5.2.4.1 UGC - University Grant Commission:
The UGC, however, was formally established only in November 1956 as a statutory body of
the Government of India through an Act of Parliament for the coordination, determination and
maintenance of standards of university education in India. In order to ensure effective region-
wise coverage throughout the country, the UGC has decentralised its operations by setting up six
regional centres at Pune, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Bhopal, Guwahati and Bangalore. The head office
of the UGC is located at Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg in New Delhi, with two additional bureaus
operating from 35, Feroze Shah Road and the South Campus of University of Delhi as well.

According to Chandra (2014) higher education in India is undergoing considerable

change. With over 600 million people in India under 25 years old, the system is under
tremendous pressure to expand. India’s young population has a huge appetite for education and,
as the growth in the size of the middle classes escalates, millions are increasingly able to pay for
it. By 2020, India will have the largest tertiary-age population in the world and will have the

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second largest graduate talent pipeline globally, following China and ahead of the USA.
Government plans are in place to transform the sector over the next five years. Every aspect of
higher education is being reorganized and remodeled: funding, leadership and management,
quality assurance, accountability, relationships with industry, international collaboration, and the
way research and teaching are conducted. If these reforms succeed, the breadth and depth of the
change will be transformational.
There are three main types of tertiary institution in India: 1) universities and university-level
institutions, 2) colleges and 3) diploma-awarding institutions. These are categorized by funding
source: central government, state government and private.

Type and Number of Institution Central State Private Total

University and University Level Institutions 152 316 191 659
Colleges 669 13,024 19,930 33,023
Diploma Awarding Institutions 0 3,207 9,541 12,748
Percentage Enrollment in 2012 2.6% 38.6% 58.9% 100%
Source: ‘Higher education in India: twelfth five year plan and beyond’, Ernst and Young (2012)

If there is one overall structure which defines Indian higher education, it is the affiliated
college system. The vast bulk of students study at public and private colleges which are affiliated
to state universities. These colleges do not have their own degree awarding powers; they deliver
the courses, curricula and examinations specified and regulated by their parent state university.
The affiliated college sector is huge, enrolling over 90% of undergraduates, 70% of
postgraduates and 17% of doctoral students. Some universities have as many as 1000 colleges
affiliated to them. There are considerable challenges in regulation and quality control; and while
there are notable exceptions, many are perceived to be sub-standard. In 2012, accreditation
through the National Assessment and Accreditation Council and the National Body for
Accreditation of all universities and colleges was made mandatory. A huge exercise is underway
to accredit the two-thirds of universities and four-fifths of colleges that do not have accredited
status. State universities, therefore, through their activities, form by far the greatest element of
higher education in India. They are run and funded through their respective state governments.
There is wide variation in the amount of funding they receive, but in general, they have been

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critically underfunded over the last 20 years. State universities depend on affiliation fees paid by
the colleges for their survival. These fees, supplemented by state government funding, are
generally used to pay salaries and little else; most have poor infrastructure and conduct little
research, although pockets of excellence exist. Many state universities spend much of their time
administering the exams and admissions to their affiliated colleges. Places at state universities
are highly sought after by students. Most, but not all, state governments have legislation in place
to grant university status to private colleges, providing them with their own degree-awarding
powers and much more autonomy. This is the fastest area of growth in new universities. There
are currently 100 such private universities in India (16% of degree-awarding institutions). The
central government also has the means to grant university status to private institutions, under the
‘deemed university’ category. There are currently 129 deemed universities (20% of degree
awarding institutions). It is unclear whether or not this central role will continue, given the plans
to devolve more decision-making to the states.
Over the last two decades, central universities and Institutes of National Importance have
been the focus of central government priorities and funding. These include the IITs, IIMs and
IISERs and several national institutes in specific discipline areas. Most international
collaboration is concentrated in these institutes, many of which are research-based. They have
high prestige in India and beyond. The private sector has outpaced the state sector in tertiary
education and is rapidly expanding. The private sector will continue to be crucial in the growth
of higher education in India and already comprises 64% of the total number of institutions and
59% of tertiary enrolment across the country. Currently, private higher education universities are
growing at 40% per annum and worth $6.5 billion. Many potential private investors are waiting
in the wings.

5.2.4.2 Challenges of Higher Education in India:

These fall into four broad categories: the low quality of teaching and learning; the supply-
demand gap; uneven growth and access to opportunity; and constraints on research capacity and
innovation.

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 1. The Low Quality of Teaching and Learning:
Arguably, the greatest challenge facing higher education in India is the chronic shortage of
faculty. Various reports estimate that 30-40% of faculty positions are unfilled. Most faculties
have had no training in teaching. Other issues in teaching and learning which compound the
problems include:
i. Outdated, rigid curricula and the absence of employer engagement in course content
and skills development. Very few opportunities for interdisciplinary learning.
ii. Pedagogies and assessment are focused on input and rote learning; students have little
opportunity to develop a wider range of transversal skills, including critical thinking,
analytical reasoning, problem-solving and collaborative working.
iii. High student: teacher ratio, due to the lack of teaching staff and pressure to enroll
more students.
iv. Separation of research and teaching; lack of early stage research experience.
v. An ineffective quality assurance system and a complete lack of accountability by
institutions to the state and central government, students and other stakeholders.
This has resulted in graduates with low employability, a common feature of higher
education across south Asia, and an insufficient basis for movement to higher levels of study and
research. These problems are endemic across higher education institutions in India, including
many of the ‘top tier’ institutions, but particularly so in affiliated colleges and state universities.

2. The supply-demand Gap:

Despite an average growth rate of over 7% in the last decade, India’s GER in higher
education is very low. By some estimates, even if India succeeds in its target of 30% GER by
2020, 100 million qualified students will still not have places at university. India needs to
drastically increase the number of places at universities and enrolment through distance learning
programs. Over the last decade, the diversity of courses offered by universities and colleges has
narrowed, resulting in saturated markets for engineers, technology graduates and MBAs.

3. Uneven Growth and Access to Opportunity:

Despite efforts to spread the location of higher education institutions more evenly across the
country, there is wide variation, particularly between urban and rural areas, but also between

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states. There are still significant multi-dimensional inequalities in enrolment rates between rural
and urban populations, rich and poor, minority and mainstream communities, men and women
and people with disabilities. ‘Inclusive growth’ is a priority for reform in Indian education. With
the growth in the middle classes, Indian universities must prepare themselves for considerable
changes in student profile.

4. Constraints on Research Capacity and Innovation:

India does not have enough high quality researchers. The number of students taking PhDs
and entering research posts is very low: 4,500 PhDs are awarded per year in science and
engineering, compared to 30,000 in China and 25,000 in the US. There is systemic segregation
of teaching and research; most teaching-focused universities (the vast majority) do not provide
students with research experience or the skills which would prepare them for research careers.
Despite a growing reputation for ‘frugal innovation’, mainly driven from the private sector, the
ecosystem for innovation in Indian research institutions is weak. The causes, among others, stem
from a lack of multidisciplinary working, no development for faculty and students in areas to
stimulate innovation and few links with industry. These constraints reveal themselves in the
failure of Indian institutions to make their mark in the world global rankings.

Conclusion:
The world is changing rapidly, driven by powerful forces such as economics, politics,
demographics, religion and technology. There are enormous increases in globalization over the
past few decades that have transformed how we do business, how we live, and how our
governments function. To meet the rapid changing trends of the World, every country needs to
have skilled workforce. Higher education is the ladder through which the nations can progress
and excel progress. A well designed higher education system is the guarantee towards progress.
In the above sections, we have discussed higher education in different countries of the World.
The very common thing among all these higher education systems is that each is focused towards
training of human force. The more outstanding is the higher education system’s quality; the
smoother is the road towards prosperity.

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Exercise:
1. What do you understand by “bologna process in higher education”?
2. Write down different types of U.S. higher education system.
3. Discuss characteristics of U.S. higher education system.
4. Critically analyze the higher education system of Pakistan.
5. Read the challenges of higher education in Pakistan and offer your plan to meet these
challenges. Give solid examples
6. Critically analyze higher education system of India.
7. What are the problems in higher education system of India? Discuss
8. Discuss in detail the role of “UGC - University Grant Commission” of India in higher
education.
9. Critically examine the role of “HEC Higher Education Commission” of Pakistan in promotion
of higher education opportunities.
10. Give a detailed comparison of higher education systems of USA and UK.
11. Compare the higher education system of Pakistan and India.
12. Write an essay on American institutions of higher education.
13. Critically analyze different programs of higher education in Pakistan.
14. Discuss the salient features of Doctoral Program in the countries which are discussed in
this unit.
15. Compare and contrast Maters Program in the countries which are discussed in this unit.

REFERENCES
Academy of Educational Planning and Management. (2013). National Education Management
Information System Academy of Educational Planning and Management Ministry of
Education, Trainings & Standards in Higher Education. Government of Pakistan:
Islamabad.
Akhtar, M. M. S., & Kalsoom. T. (2011). Issues of Universities’ Governance in Pakistan. Journal
of Elementary Education Vol.22, No. 2 pp. 81-94
Bridgman, J. (2014). Higher Education Commission UK. CAN Mezzanine: London. pp.14.
Chandra, P. P. (2014). Understanding India-The Future of Higher Education and Opportunities
for International Cooperation retrieved from

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 http://www.britishcouncil.org/sites/britishcouncil.uk2/files/understanding_india_report.pdf,
Accessed on March 18, 2014.
Fulbright Commission. (2014). U.S. HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM Retrieved from
http://www.fulbright.be/study-in-the-us/graduate-studies/us-higher-education-system/
Accessed on May 15, 2014.
Higher Education Commission. (2012). Scope of Higher Education System in Pakistan.
Retrieved from http://talibmag.com/scope-of-higher-education-in-
pakistan/#sthash.vas63Dzt.dpuf. Accessed on January 11, 2016.
Higher Education. (2014). Higher Education. Retrieved from
http://www.wg.aegee.org/ewg/higheredu.htm, Accessed on May 15, 2014.
International Student. (2016). UK vs. USA Education System. Retrieved from
http://www.internationalstudent.com/study-abroad/guide/uk-usa-education-system/.
Accessed on March12, 2016.
Investopedia. (2014). Higher Education Act of 1965–HEA. Retrieved from
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/higher-education-act-of-1965-hea.asp, Accessed on
May 12, 2014
Kaplan (2014) International UK Higher Education system. Retrieved from
http://www.kic.org.uk/pathways/study-uk/education-uk/uk-education-system/, Accessed on
May 12, 2014
NCIHE. (1997). Higher Education Excellence. Retrieved from
http://www.open.ac.uk/cheri/documents/excellence_in_tl_litrev.pdf, Accessed on May 12,
2014
Pakistan Economic Survey. (2013). Chapter 10: Education. Retrieved from
http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_13/10-Education.pdf, 129-144. Accessed on
March 12, 2014.
Qureshi, D. Z. I. (2014). Higher education institutions and leadership challenges. Retrieved from
http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2014/08/15/city/lahore/higher-education-institutions-
and-leadership-challenges/ Accessed on May 31, 2016.
Saeed, M. (2007). Changing Structures of the Higher Education Systems: The Increasing
Complexity of Underlying Forces. Bulletin of Education & Research:, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.
43-57

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Sarwar, U. (2014). Education System in Pakistan. Retrieved from
http://www.bookhut.net/education-system-in-pakistan/ ,Accessed on March 12, 2014.
Study in the USA. (2014). Understanding the American Education System. Retrieved from
http://studyusa.com/en/a/58/understanding-the-american-education-system, Accessed on
May 15, 2014.
The Institution of Engineering and Technology (2014) The UK higher education system
Retrieved from http://www.theiet.org/students/studying-engineering/uk-universities/uk-
hes.cfmThe UK academic year, Accessed on May 12, 2014
The Institution of Engineering and Technology (2014) The UK higher education system.
Retrieved from http://www.theiet.org/students/studying-engineering/uk-universities/uk-
hes.cfm, Accessed on March 12, 2014.
The University of Oklahoma OUTREACH. (2013). National Resource Center for Youth
Services Education Training Voucher. Retrieved from
http://www.nrcyd.ou.edu/etv/defining-institutions, Accessed on May 12, 2014
The University of Oklahoma. (2013). Education Training Voucher. Retrieved from
http://www.nrcyd.ou.edu/etv/defining-institutions. Accessed on May 12, 2014.
University Grant Commission, UGC. (2009). Higher Education System & Institutes of National
Importance. Retrieved from http://www.newindigo.eu/india/info/highereducation.html,
Accessed on March 19, 2014.
Walsh, C. (2012). What’s the difference between higher education and further education?
Retrieved from http://lcp.org.uk/index.php/2012/03/whats-difference-between-higher-
education-further-education/, Accessed on May 15, 2014

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 Unit No. 6

Teacher Education

LEVEL (B.ED 4 YEARS)

Written by:
Naila Naseer
Reviewed by:
Dr. Muhammad Ajmal Chaudhary

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 Contents

1. Concept and Scope of Teacher Education

2. Teacher education in comparative perspective:

 USA

 UK

 Pakistan

 India

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INTRODUCTION:
Teachers are the greatest assets of any education system. They stand in the interface of
the transmission of knowledge, skills and values. They are accepted as the backbone of education
system. Teacher quality is therefore crucial and has been globally accepted to be significantly
associated with the quality of education in general and students’ learning outcomes in particular.

With the drastic social, political and economic developments in the world, the school and
teaching learning process has also been changed because of demanding relationship of teacher
and pupils. This changing scenario demands teacher to play diversified role and derived a new
view of the process of teacher education and training. As stated by NCTE (National Council of
Teacher Education, 1998) in Quality Concerns in Secondary Teacher Education, The teacher is
the most important element in any educational program. It is the teacher who is mainly
responsible for implementation of the educational process at any stage. This shows that it is
imperative to invest in the preparation of teachers, so that the future of a nation is secure. The
importance of competent teachers to the nation‘s school system can in no way be
overemphasized.

In educational system, being the essential part, the teacher training is regarded as a
continuous process, which begins with pre-service training to in-service training. Teacher
training maintains the view that a teacher must remain a learner during the scope of his/her
service. Basically, teacher education is closely attached with society and is formed by the
philosophy, traditions, constitutional goals and culture of a country and all these not only provide
a base for teacher training systems but also present the perspective within which teacher
education programs need to be developed. The National Curriculum Framework (2005) places
demands and expectations on the teacher, which need to be addressed by both initial and
continuing teacher education. So, professional training of teachers is considered as one of the
main imperative factors to improve learners’ learning. Keeping this in view many developing
developed countries give importance to improve the teacher education practices. Sequentially to
build up competent teachers they put cognizant attempts to set up and sustain quality teacher
education institutions (Dawn News, 2013).

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Objectives:
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
1. Explain the concept of teacher education.
2. Discuss the nature of teacher education.
3. Enumerate the comparative perspective of teacher education.
4. Describe the scope of teacher education in UK.
5. Analyze the context of teacher education in USA.
6. Discuss the teacher education programs in Pakistan.
7. Explain the context of teacher education in the India.

6.1 Concept of Teacher Education:

The concept of teacher education is very broad. According to Perraton (2010) it generally
includes four elements: improving the general educational background of the trainee teachers;
increasing their knowledge and understanding of the subjects they are to teach; pedagogy and
understanding of children and learning; and the development of practical skills and competences.
The balance between these four elements varies widely. According to UNESCO (2005) teacher
education “addresses environmental, social, and economic contexts to create locally relevant and
culturally appropriate teacher education programs for both pre-service and in-service teachers.”
Farrant (1990) explained the concept of teacher education that “teacher education consists of all
formal and informal policies, activities and experiences that equip prospective teachers with
knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors required to perform their duties effectively and
efficiently in the classroom, school and wider community”.
Khan (2011) highlights that teacher education is a sub sector of education with its distinct
pre service and in service forms. It has been designed to equip prospective and in service
teachers with information, knowledge and pedagogical skills to help develop their abilities and
positively reform attitudes and behavior towards the profession of education. The underlying
concept is to facilitate the transfer of cognitive, affective and psychomotor knowledge to students
along with building their character and personalities. The process of formal teacher education
can help the prospective teachers minimize the troubles of independent learning, economize the
teaching time through proper planning and save their students from the wastages of hit and trial.
Appropriately rendered teacher education, provides ample opportunities to prospective teachers

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to understand the nature of teaching process; to benefit from the theories and contributions of
educational philosophers; to interlink theory with practice; to envisage responsibilities of a
teacher; to comprehend the practical implications of pedagogical strategies; and to discover that
to be a student teacher is much more than learning by heart the philosophies and theories of
learning.
Zaki (1999, pp 29-30) said that “the real purpose of teacher preparation programs had
been to develop in each student teacher the proficiency level of general education and personal
culture, the expertise to utilize available resources in an optimum manner, the ability to teach and
educate others, the awareness of principles which underlie good human relations and a sense of
responsibility to contribute both by teaching and by example to social, cultural, and economic
progress”. The purpose of teacher education is best fulfilled when teacher preparation programs
necessarily include: a) General Studies b) Study of the main elements of Philosophy,
Psychology, Sociology (as applied to education), the history of education, comparative
education, modern pedagogy, school administration and methods of teaching various subjects. c)
Studies related to students’ intended field of teaching d) Practice in teaching, assessing learning
and in conducting co curricular activities under the guidance of fully qualified teachers. e)
Research and experimentation in teaching, promoted through the provision of research facilities
as an essential component of teacher education. So the key purpose of teacher education is to
equip prospective teachers with suitable attitudes, appropriate abilities, skills and techniques
required to make them effective and efficient professionals. Through different theoretical and
practical activities, they are helped to understand the philosophical, psychological, and
sociological basis of teaching. It involves the study of classical and modern educational theories
and philosophies to broaden their horizons of knowledge; putting into practice the principles of
learning deducted from different theories and philosophies; learning innovative and effective
instructional techniques accommodating individual differences and varied needs of students; and
comprehending summative and formative assessment and evaluation processes.
Activity 1.
1. Discuss in detail the concept of teacher education with your tutor in tutorial meetings.
2. What do you conceive by the concept of teacher education? Make a group and discuss in
your class during workshop.
6.2 Scope of Teacher Education:

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The scope of teacher education can be understood in the following ways:
1. Teacher education at different levels of education
2. Triangular basis of teacher education
3. Aspects of teacher education

6.2.1 Teacher Education at different levels of Education:

Teacher education reaches teachers at all levels of education, namely Preprimary,
Primary, Elementary, Secondary, Higher Secondary and the Tertiary. The needs and
requirements of students and education vary at each level. Hence level and stage-specific teacher
preparation is essential. Teacher education also helps in the development of teaching skills in
teachers of professional institutions. The teachers in professional institutions have only the
theoretical and practical knowledge of their respective subjects. They require specialized teacher
training inputs to deal with students entering their professions. Teacher education also reaches
special education and physical education. Thus where there are teachers, there would be teacher
education. The knowledge base is adequately specialized and diversified across stages, in order
to develop effective processes of preparing entrant teachers for the functions which a teacher is
expected to perform at each stage.

6.2.2 Triangular Basis of Teacher Education:

Construction of the relevant knowledge base for each stage of education requires a high
degree of academic and intellectual understanding of matter related to teacher education at each
stage. This involves selection of theoretical knowledge from disciplines cognate to education,
namely, psychology, sociology and philosophy, and converting it into forms suitable for teacher
education. Teacher education derives its content from the disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology
and Psychology. These disciplines provide the base for better understanding and application of
teacher education. The Philosophical basis provides insights to the student teachers about the
implications of- the various schools of philosophy, ancient and modern philosophical thoughts,
educational thoughts of philosophical thinkers on education and its various aspects such as
curriculum construction and discipline. The Sociological basis helps the student teachers to
understand the role of society and its dynamics in the educational system of a nation and the
world at large. It encompasses the ideals that influence national and international scenes. The

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Psychological basis helps the student teachers develop insights into students’ psychological
make-up. This enables the student teachers to understand their self, their students and the
learning situations such that they are able to provide meaningful and relevant learning
experiences to their students.

6.2.3 Aspects of Teacher Education

Teacher education is concerned with the aspects such as:
Who (Teacher Educator)
Whom (Student teacher)
What (Content) and
How (Teaching Strategy)
Teacher education is dependent upon the quality of teacher educators. The quality of
pedagogical inputs in teacher education programs and their effective utilization for the purpose
of preparing prospective teachers depend largely on the professional competence of teacher
educators and the ways in which it is utilized for strengthening the teacher education program.
Teacher education, thus, first deals with the preparation of effective teacher educators. Teacher
education reaches out to the student teachers by providing the relevant knowledge, attitude and
skills to function effectively in their teaching profession. It serves to equip the student teachers
with the conceptual and theoretical framework within which they can understand the intricacies
of the profession. It aims at creating the necessary attitude in student teachers towards the
stakeholders of the profession, so that they approach the challenges posed by the environment in
a very positive manner. It empowers the student teachers with the skills (teaching and soft skills)
that would enable them to carry on the functions in the most efficient and effective manner.
Teacher education therefore pays attention to its content matter.
Activity 2.
1. Ask your teacher to elaborate on the scope of teacher education.
2. Go to the library and read the material on “the triangular basis of teacher education”, then
write down your understanding of this concept.

6.3 Teacher Education in Comparative Perspective:

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 Dear students, teacher education in comparative perspective is discussed as following:

6.3.1 USA:
U.S. State Department (2014) has elaborated that FAST TRAIN (The Foreign Affairs
Spouses Teacher Training Program) began in 1990 as collaboration between the U.S.
Department of State's Office of Overseas Schools, the State of Virginia's Department of
Education, and George Mason University. The collaboration stemmed from an interest in
training Foreign Service family members to become qualified candidates for teaching positions
in international schools. Since 1990, over 1200 participants have completed the FAST TRAIN
Program and are now teaching worldwide. While FAST TRAIN still maintains a formal
relationship with the U.S. Department of State's Office of Overseas Schools, the program has
now expanded and is open to all applicants who would like to teach abroad.

 Teacher Licensure & M.Ed. Programs:

This program is designed for those who have a bachelor's degree, want a teaching credential, and
are interested in teaching overseas. FAST TRAIN Programs offers two licensure options:
English as a Second Language Education (K-12): Upon completion of licensure
coursework (18-21 credits), and an international teaching internship (6 credits), participants
receive a Post-Graduate Professional Teacher License from the Commonwealth of Virginia. This
teaching license has reciprocity in 47 states and is often a required credential to teach in
international schools.
Master’s in Education: Curriculum & Instruction: focusing on their licensure area
(ESL or Elementary Education). Each master’s degree program provides teachers with additional
skills beyond initial licensure to make them competitive for international teaching positions. All
coursework leading to the licensure and M.Ed. is offered in online or intensive summer hybrid
programs. Students can complete the two-year program from anywhere in the world, with a brief
summer residency at George Mason’s campus in Fairfax, Virginia.

 Advanced Programs for International Educators:

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 FAST TRAIN Programs also has degree programs available for individuals who already hold
a teaching credential and want to expand their marketability to international schools. The
program offers Certificate and Master’s Degrees in Advanced IB Studies or Special
Education. The International Baccalaureate (IB) program is designed to provide teachers with the
skills, qualifications, and dispositions to work in IB schools worldwide. The Special Education
program is designed to provide educators, counselors, and parents with the skills needed to
support special needs students who access the general curriculum in international schools. Both
programs offer an entirely online certificate program or an online and summer hybrid master’s
degree.
Activity 3.
1. Make a group of your class and discuss the salient features of teacher education system of
USA.

6.3.2 UK:
To teach in the UK one has to gain qualified teacher status (QTS). It is obtained on an
initial teacher training (ITT) program which takes approximately one year to complete. On
completing the course, assuming that the students meet the standards, they will be awarded QTS
and become newly qualified teachers (NQT) ready to undertake their induction year. The main
route into teaching in England is through an initial teacher training (ITT) course; this can be
either school or university led. Applications for most teacher training programs in England and
Wales are made through UCAS Teacher Training in the Autumn prior to starting training. If
someone wants to teach primary or early years he/she will also need a grade C or equivalent in
GCSE science. If anyone wants to teach at secondary or post-compulsory level, his/her degree
should be in, or relevant to, the subject he/she wants to teach (Graduate Prospects, 2014).
Geändert (2014) says that the training of primary and secondary school teachers is the
same: teachers must hold a first degree and a Postgraduate Certificate of Education awarded by a
university or college of higher education. Alternatively, they must hold a Bachelor of Education
(B.Ed) Degree and have a Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) which can be obtained after
successful completion of an approved course of initial teacher training (ITT). The main types of
ITT courses are the one-year Postgraduate Certificate of Education course or the B.Ed course
which normally lasts for four years. An important institute offering teacher training is

150
the Institute of Education at the University of London. It provides amongst other things
Postgraduate Certificates of Education in a wide range of areas. Graduate Prospects (2014) has
elaborated the UK’s teacher training in more detail. All candidates for postgraduate initial
teacher training need to have a degree (2.2 or above) and at least a grade C in English and Maths
GCSE, or demonstrate that they have reached an equivalent standard.

6.3.2.1 University-led Training:

Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE)
It is offered at a range of institutions, eligibility criteria in PGCE are generally competitive
but less so for shortage subjects. A PGCE takes one year to complete full time and two years part
time. It focuses on developing your teaching skills, so students are expected to have a good
understanding of the chosen subject, usually to degree level, before students start training. If
students’ degree subject does not link closely to the subject they intend to teach, they may be
offered a subject knowledge enhancement course as a part of their application, for some
secondary level subject areas.

6.3.2.2 School-led Training:

Opportunities for school-led training include:
 School Direct, salaried or unsalaried; and
 School-centered initial teacher training (SCITT).
i. School Direct:
The School Direct Training Program allows schools to recruit and train trainees on the
job. Most School Direct courses lead to a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) and/or
Masters-level credits. There is an expectation, but not a guarantee, of employment within the
training school at the end of the program. The program lasts for one year and has two routes for
high-quality graduates who are interested in doing their training in the classroom:
 Unsalaried graduates may be eligible for a scholarship/bursary of up to £25,000 to
support them during their training;
 For salaried persons, this route is employment based, for graduates with at least three
years' work experience. However, some schools may accept applications with less work
experience, especially in math, physics, chemistry, languages and computing.

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 ii. School-Centered Initial Teacher Training (SCITT):
SCITT courses are delivered by groups of schools and training providers so the majority of
the training is in the classroom. Trainees have one 'base' school and go on to gain QTS.
Usually, courses last from September to June, and particularly suit applicants who already have a
lot of school experience as they are based in schools from the beginning. This practical teacher
training is often written and taught by current, experienced teachers in local groups of schools
and colleges. Many SCITT courses also include a PGCE/Masters credits.

6.3.2.3 Other Routes:

Teach First:
The Teach First (England and Wales) charity aims to address educational disadvantages by
training exceptional teachers to teach in challenging schools. The two-year scheme offers a
Leadership Development Program and management skills training for well-qualified graduates.
Students are awarded a PGCE and QTS during this two-year period while working in the
classroom and earning a salary. Most Teach First roles are in secondary schools but there are
some primary school options available.
Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL/TESOL):
Although not an official route into becoming a teacher, the TEFL qualification is an
increasingly popular choice for graduates to gain teaching experience while travelling the world.
TEFL courses give training to teach English to students, either in the UK or abroad, whose native
language isn't English. Teaching is carried out in the student's own country, in primary and
secondary schools, commercial language schools, further education institutions and private
companies.
Early Years Teacher Training (EYTT):
Early years refers to children from birth to age five. Early years’ teacher status (EYTS) has
recently been awarded equivalent standing to QTS. Graduates can apply for university-led early
years’ programs on either a 12 month full-time course, or a part-time course while employed in
the sector. There is also an assessment only route for experienced graduates who can already
demonstrate all of the teaching standards. Applications are made directly to the training provider.

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 Teacher Training in the Post-compulsory Sector:
One can apply for a PGCE specializing in the further education (FE) sector. Some further
education (FE) institutions will appoint FE teachers with no teaching qualification provided to
students to begin a qualification once teaching. Applications are made directly to the institution.
Qualified teachers in the FE sector are awarded qualified teacher learning and skills (QTLS)
status. QTLS is equivalent to QTS so it can be possible in some circumstances to go on to teach
in maintained schools and teachers would not be required to undertake an NQT year.
Researchers in Schools:
A London-based, salaried, teacher training program “Researchers in Schools” is school
centered, available in non-selective state schools. This two-year program is for researchers who
are nearing completion, or who have completed a Doctorate including Maths and Physics and
other shortage subjects. Most national curriculum subjects are available on the program, with the
possibility of enhanced salaries of up to £40,000 a year for shortage subjects. One can apply
throughout the year, but the first deadline for autumn assessment centers is in September.
Independent Schools:
Most head teachers in the independent sector prefer teachers to have QTS but this is not
compulsory. Applicants with experience of teaching a shortage subject may be offered a post
similar to the salaried School Direct route. Alternatively, one could apply for a graduate assistant
role in a subject such as sport, drama, music or pastoral support with a view to progressing to
teacher training. Applications are made direct to the school or institution one is interested in
joining.
Academies:
Some academies and groups of academies are recruiting graduates to train as teachers;
increasingly this is through the School Direct Program. There are other routes for experienced
teachers from overseas or the European Union.
Activity 4.
1. Make a chart and enlist the salient features of teacher education system of USA and UK.
Make comparison of both countries and highlight similarities and contrasts of both
countries’ teacher education system.

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6.3.3 Pakistan:
The history of teacher education in Pakistan starts with the establishment of the country.
However, this area has been facing various challenges such as lack of consistent policy,
inconsistency in curriculum, low resources, lack of quality teachers, low quality of teaching
process, lack of standard, etc. Today, a range of public and private institutions are engaged in
preparing school teachers. In Pakistan, like many other countries, public institutions are the main
source for developing teachers through pre-service and in-service programs. However, many
studies have raised the question on the quality of delivery mechanism of the institutions while
forwarding recommendations for improvement.
Historically, different reforms have been brought to improve the condition of teacher
education in the country. Currently, teacher education in Pakistan is passing through a transition
as an innovation has been initiated by the Government of Pakistan with the support of USAID
through their Pre-Service Teachers Education Program (STEP) project. This reform is attempted
in order to improve the quality of teacher education by including different innovations.
In this regard, a new curriculum has been developed for pre-service programs such as a
two-year Associate Degree in Education (ADE) and a four-year B.Ed (Hons). Effort has been
made to design the curriculum keeping in view the modern educational principle along with the
contextual relevancy. These programs are gradually replacing the previous pre-service and in-
service programs such as Primary Teacher Certificate (PTC), Certificate in Teaching (CT) and
the one-year B.Ed program. In addition, an effort is being made for the accreditation and
standardization of teacher training institutions through this initiative.
The ADE and B.Ed program has been initiated in some colleges and will be gradually
implemented in remaining colleges throughout the country in the coming years. In addition, to
attract the best mind towards the teaching profession a stipend is also offered to student-teachers
for providing them financial support (Dawn News, 2013).
 Teacher Education Programs Offered in Pakistan:
Following teacher education programs are indicated by Mirza (2007, p.7), some of which
are now offered in Pakistan and some are replaced with new initiatives:

1. CT (Certificate in Teaching)
2. CT Agro Tech

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 3. B.Ed (Bachelor of Education)
4. B.Ed Elementary
5. B.Ed Secondary
6. Postgraduate Diploma in Special Education
7. BA/B.Sc B.Ed (Current Degree)
8. Associate Degree in Education
9. BFA B.ED (Concurrent 1 Degree)
10. BSED
11. B.Ed Hons (4 Years Program)
12. M.A. Education (Secondary)
13. M.A. Education (Elementary)
14. M.A. Education Early Childhood Education
15. Master in Educational Research and Assessment
16. Master in Technology Education (MTE)
17. Master in Business Education (MBE)
18. Master of Education in Science
19. Master of Science Education
20. M.A. Islamic Education
21. M.Ed Special Education
22. M.A. B.Ed (Concurrent Degree)
23. M.Sc B.Ed (Concurrent Degree)
24. M.A. Special Education
25. M.A. Physical Education
26. M.A. Educational Leadership and Management Studies
27. Master of English Language Teaching and Linguistics
28. Masters in English Language Teaching
29. Diploma in Montessori Education
30. M.Phil Education
31. PhD in Education

 ADE/B.Ed (Hons.) Programs:

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 Akbar, Akhtar, Hussain and Siddiqui (2013, p. 95) explained that teachers for the primary
schools are trained, and must have passed Secondary School examination. In recent years
government has introduced B.Ed (Hons) and ADE programs with increased duration to make
teacher education more efficient, effective and compatible with international trends. Curriculum
for B.Ed (Hons) and ADE by HEC (2012) emphasizes on competence of teacher in the content
areas as well as in pedagogy in order to ensure achievement of expected student learning
outcomes.

The focus of new program is to prepare prospective teachers for more learner-centered
environment, and use activity based teaching in the classroom. It is important for prospective
teacher to gain adequate insight into the activity based teaching strategies through their learning
at teacher training institutions and observation of teacher educators’ practices in the classroom.
Effective implementation of new program requires that the teacher educators become role
models for the prospective teachers because they have to carry out the innovations into the
classroom culture. It is recognized that in any pre-service program, it is ultimately the teacher
educators who contribute directly to the development of the appropriate teaching behaviors in the
prospective teachers.

Following is the structure of ADE/B.Ed (Hons.) Programs given by HEC (2012):

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 Source: HEC (2012)
 Rationale for ADE/B.Ed (Hons.) Programs:
Higher Education Commission (2012, p. xxvii) has highlighted the need for these teacher
training programs that in order to make teaching a profession of choice through implementing
B.Ed. (12+4) program developed in 2006, it is imperative to revise the current curriculum to
improve the teacher development program further. A teacher in the classroom needs to be
competent in the content areas as well as in teaching strategies in order to ensure expected
student learning outcomes. As in any profession teachers should be provided the opportunity to

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practice teaching through interacting with the school and community. In the clinical model of
developing teachers as professionals, it is important for that prospective teacher to gain adequate
insight into the ground realities of school and classrooms through their attachments in schools
and communities. This rich experience of practice enables prospective teachers to bring a
positive attitude in classroom teaching and understanding a plurality of cultures.

Lahore College for Women University (2013) has highlighted that the Associate Degree
in Education (ADE) for in-service teachers is designed for practicing teachers to enhance their
content and pedagogical knowledge and skills. Although most of the universities and degree
awarding institutions (DAIs) across Pakistan have successfully introduced the Associate Degree
in Education for pre-service teachers, 300,000 practicing teachers in elementary schools remain
inadequately prepared or under-qualified. Furthermore, beginning in 2018, the career progression
opportunities for most of these in-service teachers will be closed as the ADE or B.Ed. degrees
will be mandatory for induction and promotion. Therefore, it is critical to open new avenues for
professional development and career advancement for practicing teachers. The vision of bringing
about a country-wide qualitative change in education can only become a reality if these large
numbers of elementary level teachers are initiated into the newly envisaged education system.
The ADE for In-service Teachers is an important step in realizing this vision.

 Master in Education (M.Ed):

Those who further want to specialize in the subject of education undergo one year/ one
and a half year course called Master in Education (M.Ed). This course is conducted by the
Colleges of Education and in the Institutes of Education in the Universities. Teachers also do
M.Phil and Ph.D in Education from the universities. Those who possess M.Ed or M.Phil teach in
the Colleges of Education. At the University level PhDs are employed to train teachers.
Allama Iqbal Open University has started teacher training courses through its distance
education system for those students who cannot afford to attend formal regular courses in the
teacher training institutions. National Education policy (1998-2011) provides for modernizing
the courses in teachers training. Accordingly, the duration and period of training at all levels of
training is being increased, including better salaries for the teachers.

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  Suggestions for Improvement in ADE and B.Ed:
There are areas that need serious considerations for the effectiveness and sustainability of the
new reform initiatives.
1. Firstly, the new developed curriculum is based on the modern educational principles.
Teachers are provided a course outline with the expectation that they will explore the
teaching learning material for classroom instructions. However, it was observed that
some of the teachers are struggling with identifying teaching resources due to the
unavailability of the reference books and lack of Internet facility in their
colleges/institutions. This situation may affect the teaching-learning process of the ADE
courses. Hence there is a need to provide the reference books and Internet facility to the
faculty members in order to make the teaching-learning process smooth.
2. Second, Internet is considered as one of the important sources for identifying teaching-
learning material. However, it was observed that some of the faculty members are not
literate in computers and Internet. So they are facing challenges in accessing the
teaching-learning resources that are available on the Internet or in soft version. Therefore,
the faculty members of colleges need to be helped in acquiring workable computer and
Internet skills.
3. Third, the new curriculum demands new teaching strategies such as collaborative, inquiry
and activity-based teaching approach. However, a majority of the faculty in the teacher
institutions are not oriented with the teaching strategies demanded by the ADE and B.Ed
program. Therefore, the professional development of the faculty at teacher training
institutions should be given priority along with the curriculum development.
4. Furthermore, there is a sense of uncertainty about the sustainability of the new initiatives
after completion of the Pre-STEP project. Many educational initiatives in the past died
away with closure of the projects. Therefore there is a dire need to develop a clear road
map for the continuity and sustainability of reforms.
5. It was also observed that some school teachers are being deputed in teacher education
colleges due to lack of adequate number of teachers in there. Due to the different
approach of pedagogy and andragogy, these teachers treat the prospective teacher like
children, which de-motivates them. Thus when the school teachers are deputed in
colleges they should be oriented with the andragogy of teaching an adult.

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 6. Finally, a sense of insecurity can be observed among the student-teachers about their job
prospects after the completion of their ADE or B.Ed honors. How will they stand apart
from the teacher who has done one year B.Ed and other courses, is a question to ponder
upon. A clear policy is required about job opportunities for the prospective teachers so
that they can focus their studies.
7. These issues need to be addressed in order to sustain and maintain the quality of the new
reforms. A vigilant plan and sincere implementation will, of course, be helpful in
transforming the teacher education practices in the country.
8. In short, the importance of quality teacher education cannot be overlooked for improving
the quality of teaching-learning in the school. The new educational innovation will,
definitely, lead to improve teacher education practices in Pakistan. However, there is a
dire need to look reflectively at how to sustain the initiatives and make it productive
(Dawn News, 2013).

 Accreditation for Quality Assurance of Teacher Education Programs:

Following is the process of accreditation and quality assurance in teacher education
programs in Pakistan:
National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE):
NACTE (2015) has elaborated that the Higher Education Commission has setup an accreditation
authority, National Accreditation Council for Teacher Education (NACTE).
NACTE will look after the matter regarding the accreditation of institutions and their
departments, faculties and disciplines by giving them appropriate ratings and define the
organization's objectives, functions and duties to be performed. It will periodically evaluate,
scrutinize and monitor the standards followed in different Universities, Degree Awarding
Institutions and their affiliated colleges offering education degree programs.
Scope
(1) All the existing teacher education degree programs shall be within the jurisdiction of the
Council. Any new program in teacher education shall also be referred to the Council for
the grant of accreditation.
(2) The accreditation will be for specific degree programs and not institutions.

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 (3) Accreditation shall be mandatory for all relevant academic programs offered by public
and private sector institutions.
(4) The Council shall assist and advise teacher education institutions in planning their
academic and professional programs.
(5) The Council shall support the intellectual development of prospective teachers (students)
interested in pursuing the teaching profession and provide professional assistance to the
concerned organizations.
(6) The Council shall consider the following aspects using set criterion for granting
accreditation of degree programs in teacher education subjects: -
Overall scope of the program:
i. Curricula/syllabi matching with the level of degree program.
ii. The requisite infrastructure.
iii. The faculty- number and qualifications.
iv. Level of compatibility with international standards and trends.
v. Level of skills to be developed by the program.
vi. Student support services.
vii. The library facilities.
viii. Internship/practice teaching facilities.
ix. Facilitate for student activities and other amenities.
x. Financial assistance/loan etc.
xi. Level of job placement of graduates.
xii. Level of market needs fulfillment

Functions of NACTE:
The following shall be the functions of the Council:
i. To study and develop policies and processes for accreditation of teacher education
programs leading to a degree or a post graduate diploma.
ii. To lay down criteria on which teacher education degree programs shall be assessed and
equated.
iii. To inspect teacher education institutions for ascertaining whether those institutions are
functioning in accordance with the provision of relevant universities’ regulations.

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 iv. To approve a list of auditors for different fields to participate in the process of
accreditation of teacher education programs.
v. To constitute an Accreditation Inspection Committee (AIC) to evaluate and audit process
from the list of auditors. The said committee will send its recommendations to the
Council for making decision. The selection criteria for such auditors will be made by the
Council.
vi. To propose, consider and approve the policies and procedures for accreditation.
vii. To consider and make decision on any appeal with regard to accreditation
viii. To publish a list of ranking of teacher education programs.
ix. To promote intellectual development and understanding of subject areas that impact
accreditation related activities in the teaching profession.
x. To collect, collate, index, publish, and disseminate information and research findings on
teaching profession and to support the teacher education institutions for quality
assurance.
xi. To prepare guidelines and procedures to train program auditors and guide them how to
assist the institutions in planning their academic programs for accreditation purpose and
future progress.
xii. To prepare annual report on the activities of the Council and submit it to the Chairperson
HEC.
Process of Accreditation:
Teacher education programs being offered or to be initiated in future within the
jurisdiction of the Council will receive accreditation from the Council under the following
procedure: -
 Any institution planning to offer a teacher education course/program may apply to the
Chairperson, NACTE.
 The application must contain/attach following information:
o Title of the course
o Duration of the course
o Level of the training
o Minimum eligibility qualification etc.

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 o The scheme of studies i.e. course outlines with suggested readings and credit
hours for each course.
o Staff with their qualifications (academic and professional)
o Books and journals available in the library
o Other facilities available in the institution i.e. laboratories, playgrounds,
equipment, etc.
o Buildings and infrastructure.
o Other programs being run.

 Accreditation Inspection Committee formed under clause (4) of 11 above may assess
each case and make its recommendations to the Council for further consideration and
approval.
 Principal/Chairman/Head of an institution can lodge a written appeal to the Controlling
Authority if there is a rejection to the grant of accreditation to a program.
 The Controlling Authority will form an Appeal Committee comprising the following:-
o The Chairman Council
o Dean, Faculty of Education of a university (other than the appellant’s university) to
be nominated by the Chairperson, HEC.
o One member of the Council to be nominated by the Chairperson, HEC from the list of
the Council members)
o A senior teacher educator/head of an accredited teacher education institution to be
nominated by the Chairperson, HEC.
 The Committee will review the appeal and send its recommendations/comments to the
Controlling Authority for decision.

 Problems in Teacher Education in Pakistan:

AEPAM (2009) data indicates that professional preparation of teachers in Pakistan, in
general is not adequately standardized. This data revealed that out of 659963 teachers’ workforce
in the government schools of the country, only 234783 teachers, i.e. 36 % of the total had B. Ed
degree, 61826 teachers or 10 % were with M. Ed degrees, whereas 353493 or 52 % had
extremely rudimentary training of PTC/CT levels and the rest were untrained, working mostly in

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the rural areas. The overall quality of the teachers is abysmally low. Primary school teachers’
certification programs, PTC/CT had been no more than the relics of the 19th century. These had
neither provided adequate communication skills and instructional competencies, nor delivered
in-depth content knowledge, reflective thinking or reasoning to make the trainees effective and
confident teachers. Instead the pedagogical skills taught had been fostering rote learning, and
reproduction of textual knowledge. Both PTC and CT programs were considered by all
educationists as highly inadequate by all professional benchmarks to meet the teaching
requirements of 21st century. Presence of a big majority of sub standard teachers is the situation
nearly throughout the country. Teacher education institutions in all the cities including Peshawar
have some critical deficiencies, which are hampering their effectiveness. A study conducted by
UNESCO (2006) reported that the quality of education provided in the government schools of
Pakistan had been poor due to:
 Low levels of teacher competence,
 Lack of classroom-based support for teachers,
 Lack of systems to assess student-learning outcomes,
 Uneven supervision,
 Insufficient resources for critical teaching and learning materials,
 Weak sector governance and management.

Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development (APIED1997)
highlighted some problems in teacher education in Pakistan as:
 Short duration of teacher education programs
 Minimal interaction of trainee teachers at schools
 Outmoded methods of teaching and evaluation at colleges
 Shortage of audio visual aids and other educational equipment in teacher training
institutions/colleges
 Deficiency of supplementary reading material/professional magazines/ research journals
 Lack of co ordination among teacher education institutions;
 Absence of incentives for prospective teachers
 Theoretical teacher education,
 Lack of accountability,
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  Lack of incentives,
 Little hope for a career track,
 Dearth of motivation
 Failure of the system (led by the government institutions)
UNESCO (2006) conducted a study on teacher education in Pakistan, and observed that
the level of students’ achievements depicted the quality of the education system that educates the
students in general and that of the teachers teaching the students in particular.

Activity 5.
1. Read the above section and discuss with your teacher about the feasibility of ADE and B.Ed
4 Years programs of Pakistan.
2. Sit in a group of your colleagues and sort out the solutions for the problems in teacher
education in Pakistan?

6.3.4 India:
NCTE-Teachers Education (2015) states that teacher training course in India is designed for
aspiring teachers to learn interactive and better ways of teaching to make a subject interesting.
Teaching methods have to be different for different age groups, for instance primary level
teaching is a lot different from secondary or college level. The educational requirement for a
primary and secondary teacher is also different. People who wish to teach primary school should
minimum pass higher secondary examination with 50% marks whereas for teaching at secondary
school, one needs to be postgraduate in the subject one wishes to teach.
There are several schools and colleges in India which cater to teacher training schools in
India and these offer teaching courses for different levels. Teacher education in India is
institution based, along with internship programs in real classroom settings.
Teacher education curriculum has faced severe criticism over the years, as its general too
technical and obsolete which is not applicable in contemporary Indian school and society.
Because of this drastic changes are required to bring a big change to the curriculum. These
changes are slow but can be seen as International teaching agencies with a more advanced
teaching curriculum is helping to shape better teachers in India.

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 Teacher education is provided by several Universities, affiliated colleges, private and open
Universities in India. Some of these institutions are more like an eye wash and provide
certification just by paying the fee, and this leads to rise of unqualified teachers in India. The
situation of primary teachers in India has seen a dramatic change but lot has to be done to
improve the curriculum of secondary and vocational teachers. Teachers play an import role in
shaping the future of the country and hence it’s important that a lot of attention is paid on the
quality of teachers churned out every year.
Nordic Recognition Information Centers (2006) has highlighted the following teacher
education structure in the country:

1. Diploma in Teacher Education or a Primary Teacher Certificate:

Elementary teachers are trained in Teacher Training Institutes (TTI, also called Junior Basic
Training Institutes or Primary Teacher Colleges) attached to State and university departments of
education. The course usually lasts for two years and leads to a Diploma in Teacher Education or
a Primary Teacher Certificate, P.T.C. teachers are required to hold a Bachelor’s degree in
Education or in a few instances a bachelor of Teaching.

2. The B.ED or B.T:

It requires one year of fulltime study following a Bachelor degree, normally in arts,
science, or commerce. Teachers at the upper secondary level normally are required to hold a
master’s degree in their area of teaching specialization. Four Regional Colleges of Education
offer a combined four-year integrated program leading to a Bachelor’s degree. Teachers at
colleges of education must hold a M.Ed. and a Ph.D. Studies for these are undertaken at a
number of universities. Instructors in technical and vocational schools are normally trained in
Central Training Institutes (CTIs), which offer one-year courses providing training in skills
development and principles of teaching. Graduates of these institutions are awarded an Instructor
Training Certificate. The National Council for Teacher Education is entrusted by The Central
Government with all matters concerning teacher education of India, including: quality, content
and evaluation.

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 Competence Levels obtained at Institutions Providing Teacher Education and Training

Source: Nordic Recognition Information Centers (2006)

3. Quality Assurance in Teacher Education:

 National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE):
NCTE is committed to, among other things, developing the quality of teacher education. The
role of NCTE is to unify and regularize teacher training. An Act of Parliament in 1993 gave it
statutory powers regarding recognition of teacher education institutions, staffing and teacher
education programs as well as the means to develop teacher education. About 2000 teacher
education institutions are engaged in the preparation of teachers for different school stages.
Teacher training as an integral part of the Indian education system started with the first normal
schools in India in 1856. The Indian Education Commission approved introduction of separate
teacher education programs for elementary and secondary teachers in 1882. Today, according to
NCTE, teacher education for primary education is comparable to international standards in many
states. However, the same cannot be said about the preparation of secondary, vocational and pre-

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school teachers. So internship, practice of teaching, practical activities and supplementary
educational activities as part of teacher education still need to be developed, concludes NCTE.
The National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) as a statutory body came into existence in
pursuance of the National Council for Teacher Education Act, 1993 (No.73 of 1993) in 1995.
The mandate given to NCTE includes research and training of persons for equipping them to
teach at pre-primary, primary, secondary and senior secondary stages in schools, and non-formal
education institutions, part-time education, adult education and distance (correspondence)
education courses. NCTE has headquarters in New Delhi and four Regional Committees spread
across the country. NCTE performs both institution and program accreditation. Its accreditation
process is laid down in the above-mentioned act enacted by the Indian Parliament. The process
can be summed up as follows:
1. Application for recognition submitted to the Regional Committee
2. Regional Committee decides whether the institution has adequate financial resources,
accommodation, library, qualified staff, laboratory, fulfils conditions required for
proper functioning for a course or training in teacher education
3. Recognition
4. Results published in an Official Gazette
5. Non-recognition will lead to discontinuing of the course or training in teacher
education.
If a teacher education institution is accredited by NCTE, it is automatically granted
affiliation to a university. NCTE can also withdraw accreditation from an institution. The
withdrawal is also published in an Official Gazette for general information. In this case, the
institution automatically loses its affiliation. A list of accredited programs and institutions by
NCTE is provided in http://www.nctein.org with detailed information on the duration and level
of teaching qualifications (preprimary, primary, secondary, senior secondary, etc.).
 Accreditation of Teacher Education Institutions:
Pillai (2015) says that accreditation in teacher education in India is primarily concerned
with ensuring the quality of teachers trained from institutions and their fitness or suitability to
serve the purpose expected from them.
The Methodology of Accreditation:
The three stage process for assessment and accreditation is as follows:

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 1. Preparation of the Self-appraisal Report by the teacher education institution for
submission to NAAC
2. Validation of the Self-appraisal Report by peers visiting the institution, and
3. The final decision of NAAC based on the Self-appraisal Report and the recommendations
of the team of peers.

4. UNESCO Report on Teacher Education System of India

Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development. (1990) has elaborated the
report as following:
 Background:
There are nearly 3.5 million teachers in the formal school system. Primary school teachers are
required to have ten to twelve years of general school and two years of professional education.
Secondary teachers must have a minimum of First Degree from the university and one year of
professional education. In general, there is no dearth of manpower; difficulties exist, however, in
some parts of the country. Teacher salaries are lower than salaries of other services. The
Government of India set up a commission to study all aspects of teacher preparation, including
their service conditions. Recommendations are currently pending with the Government and will
be implemented in light of the recommendations of the Pay Commission (1986) and the National
Policy of Education of 1986.
 Issues:
1. Curricula for pre-service education of teachers do not get revised often enough in
response to changing circumstances.
2. The revisions have to be reflected by nearly 100 universities and 31 state departments of
education.
3. There is a mismatch between teacher education programs and the availability of teachers
in different subjects/geographical areas and for special groups (tribal and socially-
deprived groups).
4. Shortages of teachers exist in fine arts, music and vocational areas at the secondary stage.
5. The profession is not able to attract higher caliber graduates from the universities and
Boards of Secondary Education.
6. Low salaries and poor living conditions in rural areas are considered responsible.

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 7. Time available for pre-service education of teachers is inadequate for development of
necessary attitudes and values. At the secondary level, little attention is paid to
competence in subject matter. Induction programs are not available.
8. There are several institutions and systems for in-service education of teachers, ranging
from school complexes at decentralized levels to programs designed and executed at the
central level, but co-ordination between various agencies is yet to be obtained. A self-
contained system of planning, monitoring and evaluation needs to be developed.
9. Distance education, especially through the electronic media, needs to be extended.
10. Elementary teacher education is manned by personnel educated for secondary education.
11. Separate provisions for preparation of elementary teacher educators have been provided
at only a few places.
 Future Plans:
1. Comprehensive institutions are being set up at the district level to look after the pre-
service education of teachers for elementary schools and instructors for the non-formal
and adult education programs, as well as in-service education of teachers.
2. The institution will be well staffed with proper infrastructure. An extensive system of in-
service education should be developed with institutions at the central, state and district
levels having clearly defined responsibilities for program planning, monitoring and
evaluation.
3. Distance education via electronic media communications could be heavily used to meet
the needs of large numbers of teachers. Teacher education institutions are to be
appropriately equipped to prepare teachers in the use of computers.
4. The National Council of Teacher Education will be given appropriate status and powers
to improve teacher education in the country.
Conclusion:
Comparative education is an established offshoot of general education all over the world.
Along with advanced countries like UK, and USA, at developing countries like India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and others, comparative education especially in respect with teacher education is
considered a popular educational venture. The underlying objective had been to learn about
teacher education policies and practices of other lands for continuously improving and polishing
up local teacher training systems. Apparently the teacher education system of a country grows

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out of its historical background, economic and social conditions, geographical features and
political systems; and no country is in a position to totally adopt the educational patterns of
another country as such. But lessons can be learnt, and successful teacher education practices can
be adopted to meet the needs of that country. Learning from education systems of other countries
has an essential prerequisite of thoroughly understanding and analyzing the systems prevalent
locally. Until and unless the base is fully comprehended no concrete effort can be made for its
improvement.
Once the existing and presently operating system is understood, worthwhile ventures for
comparison and improvement can be undertaken conveniently. In the present era with
advancement in technology and with unbelievably fast progression in communication; people of
different countries of the world are coming closer and closer to each other. The similarities
caused by science and technology are overpowering the differences resulting from cultural
diversities. The fact suggested by increasing resemblances is that different nations of the world,
which is considered more of a global village now, can learn a lot from each others’ experiences
to save time, energy and resources required for the ‘try and learn’ activities. The knowledge
about the successes and failures of other systems can be very awakening and beneficial in
comprehending one’s own educational problems, ascertaining the degree of backwardness or
advancement of one’s own system through analytical comparisons, particularly with those of the
economically and educationally advanced countries (Khan, 2011).

EXERCISE:
1. What do you understand by the term “Teacher Education”? Give your own definition of
teacher education.
2. Discuss in detail scope of teacher education in different countries discussed in this unit.
3. What are different aspects of teacher education? How do these relate with teacher
education system in Pakistan? Give your reflection.
4. Discuss teacher education system of developing countries i.e. India and Pakistan.
5. Discuss teacher education system of developed countries i.e. USA and UK.
6. Critically analyze strengths and weaknesses of teacher education systems of developing
and developed countries.
7. Discuss the role of NCTE in India.

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 8. Critically analyze the quality assurance and accreditation process of teacher education
programs in Pakistan.
9. Critically analyze the teacher education system of UK.
10. Elaborate the salient features of teacher education system of USA.
11. What are different teacher training programs of Pakistan?
12. Discuss the UNESCO report about teacher education system of India.
13. What are issues in teacher education systems of India and Pakistan?
14. How do you look upon the importance of comparing teacher education systems of
different countries? Reflect on it.

References:
Akbar, R. A., Akhtar, M., Hussain, A. C., & Siddiqui, M. A. (2013). Beliefs and Practices of
Teacher Educators Teaching B.Ed (Hons) and ADE in Universities and Affiliated
Colleges in Punjab. Bulletin of Education and Research, Vol. 35, No. 2. Pp. 91-106.
Asia and the Pacific Program of Educational Innovation for Development. (1990). Innovations
and Initiatives In Teacher Education In Asia and the Pacific Region Volume 1:
Comparative Overview of Fifteen Countries. Bangkok: Thailand. Retrieved from
http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/412_35a.pdf, Accessed on June 20, 2015
Dawn News. (2013). Teacher Training: Teacher Education in Transition. Retrieved from
http://www.dawn.com/news/776648/teacher-training-teacher-education-in-transition,
Accessed on June 15, 2015
Dilshad, M., & Iqbal, H. M. (2010). Quality Indicators in Teacher Education Programs .
Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences (PJSS) Vol. 30, No. 2. Pp. 401-411
Farrant, J. S. (1990). Principles and Practices of Education: 2nd Edition. London: UK. Pp. 210-
11, 226-7
Geändert. Z. ( 2014). Teacher education in United Kingdom and Germany. Retrieved from
https://www.sprachenzentrum.hu-
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 UNIT NO. 7

SPECIAL EDUCATION

Written by: Dr. Shaista Majid

Reviewed by: Ms. Tahira Bibi

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 CONTENTS

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 The concept and Scope of special education
7.4 Special Education in:
7.4.1 Pakistan
7.4.2 United Kingdom
7.4.3 India
7.4.4 Norway
7.5 Exercise
7.6 Activity
7.7 Self Assessment Questions
7.8 Suggested Reading
7.9 References

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7.1 INTRODUCTION:
Special education is a hybrid of several disciplines particularly medicine, psychology and
education. It has been defined from many perspectives but from the educational point of view it
explains education for students with special needs (such as the physically or mentally disabled)
to address their individual differences and needs. These special needs children require
educational services different from those provided to their normal peers. The type and range of
required services depends on the nature and degree of the exceptional person by which he/she
deviates from normal learner. This deviation may be on both sides of the average range group; i.
e. higher or lower than the norm.
Special education is not limited to the school age population but it includes people of all
ages. Many disabled persons need special educational services from infancy through adulthood
to enable them to learn and adapt to their environments.
The educators have been making efforts to expand and improve services to meet the needs of all
handicapped individuals regardless of their age or the severity of their handicaps.
This unit explains the concept of special education by sketching its picture in the scenario
of legislation and practices. It highlights the efforts that had been made in different countries to
bring their disabled population up to the optimal level and enable them to be the independent
living.

7.2 Objectives
After the successful study of this unit you will be able to achieve the following
objectives:
1. Understand and realize the concept of special education.
2. Debate on the scope of special education.
3. Discuss the worldwide development of special education.
4. Describe the ways and means used in an advanced country like UK, to educate and train
the disabled population.
5. Explain the efforts of government of Pakistan in initiating and implementing the
programs for special needs children throughout the country.
6. Discuss the differences among the infrastructure of special education in India and
Norway.

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7.3 The Concept and Scope of Special Education:
Universally all children are created equally and education must be for all excluding no
one from the educational opportunities, because all children have equal right to develop and
groom for independent living.
The field of special education has been evolved over time and it is continuously changing
under the influence of several interrelated factors: societal attitudes toward disabled individuals,
relevant laws and government policies, causes and treatments of diseases, etc. Each factor can be
traced back into historical milestones.
Being a complex enterprise special education must be defined (and/or evaluated) from
many aspects. It can be viewed as a legislatively governed body because decisions about
children’s education programs are taken legally. Special education can also be seen as the part of
a school system’s operation where it requires specific teacher-pupil ratios in the classroom and
determines levels of funding for related-services personnel. Whereas from a sociopolitical
perspective, special education can be seen as a demonstration of society’s changing attitudes
about people with disabilities. All these views play an important role in defining special
education (Heward, 2010).
Special Education is defined as the specially designed instruction and material to meet
the educational requirements of the children having sensory impairments, physical handicaps,
and mental challenges. Special education has a precise definition that comes from the federal law
that established it:
The term “special education” means specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents,
to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, including:
(A) Instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals and institutions, and in
other settings; and
(B) Instruction in physical education. (20 U.S.C. §1401[29])

 Special Education as Intervention:

Special education is a purposeful intervention designed to prevent, eliminate, and/or overcome
the obstacles that might keep an individual with disabilities from learning and from full and
active participation in school and society. There are three basic types of intervention: preventive,
remedial, and compensatory as written by Heward (2010).

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1) Preventive Intervention
Preventive intervention is designed to keep potential or minor problems from becoming a
disability. Preventive intervention includes actions that stop an event from happening or that
reduce a problem or condition that has already been identified. Prevention can occur at three
levels (Simeonsson, 1994): i) Primary prevention reduce the number of new cases (incidence) of
a problem; it consists of efforts to eliminate or counteract risk factors so that a disability is never
acquired. Primary prevention efforts are aimed at all relevant persons (Sugai & Horner, 2005).
ii) Secondary prevention is aimed at reducing the number existing cases (prevalence) of an
already identified problem or condition or eliminating the effects of existing risk factors; it is
aimed at individuals exposed to or displaying specific risk factors. iii) Tertiary prevention is
intended to minimize the impact of a specific condition, to prevent the effects of a disability from
worsening; it is aimed at individuals with a disability.
2) Remedial Intervention
Remediation attempts to eliminate specific effects of a disability. In educational terms, the
purpose of remediation is to teach the person with disabilities skills for independent and
successful functioning, such as academic (reading, writing, computing), social (getting along
with others; following instructions, schedules, and other daily routines), personal (eating,
dressing, using the toilet without assistance), and/or vocational (career and job skills to prepare
secondary students for the world of work).
3) Compensatory Intervention
Compensatory interventions involve teaching special skills (the use of devices) that enable
successful functioning. This involves teaching a substitute (i.e., compensatory) skill that enables
a person to perform a task in spite of the disability.

 Special Education as Instruction

Special education can be examine in terms of who, what, how, and where of its teaching. It is
described from these perspectives as below;
Children with special educational needs: Children who are having such educational needs that
require an individually planned program of instruction. Teachers, both general education
classroom teachers and special educators (specially trained) provide the instruction related to

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each child’s individualized program of education. There are many other professionals (e.g.,
school psychologists, speech-language pathologists, physical therapists, counselors) and
paraprofessionals (e.g., classroom aides) who help provide the educational and related services
that exceptional children need. This interdisciplinary team of professionals, working together
with parents and families, bears the primary responsibility for helping exceptional children learn
despite their special needs.
Specially designed instructions: Special education can sometimes be differentiated from general
education by its curriculum. Every student with disabilities needs support in learning to access
the general education curriculum. Sometimes children with disabilities need intensive, systematic
instruction to learn skills that typically developing children acquire without instruction. The term
functional curriculum is often used to describe the knowledge and skills needed by students with
disabilities. It is designed to achieve as much success and independence as they can in daily
living, personal-social, school, community, and work settings. For example, self-help skills such
as dressing, eating, and toileting are a critically important component of the school curriculum
for many students with severe disabilities.
Methodology: Special education of children with disabilities involves the use of specialized and/
or adapted, materials and methods. A special educator uses sign language with students who are
deaf. He/she enables the child to gradually and systematically withdraw verbal and physical and
help a student learn to perform the steps of a task through differentiated nature of special
education instruction.
Placement: Special education can be identified by where it takes place. Sometimes children with
disabilities are placed in separate classrooms and separate residential and day schools when they
need specially designed environment for their teaching and learning which is not available in
regular classrooms. Similarly the children who are placed in regular setting may need and spend
a portion of each day in a resource room, where they receive individualized instruction.
So special education instructions must be provided to students with disabilities in the least
restrictive environment (LRE). There are certain types of placement options for students with
disabilities as mentioned below;
Educational
Setting Definition
Regular Classroom Students receive a majority of their education program in a regular

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 classroom and receive special education and related services outside the
regular classroom for less than 21% of the school day.
Students receive special education and related services outside the regular
Resource Classroom classroom for at least 21% but no more than 60% of the school day.
Students receive special education and related services outside the regular
Separate Classroom classroom for 61% to 100% of the school day.
Students receive special education and related services in a public or
private separate day school for students with disabilities, at public expense,
Separate School for more than 50% of the school day.
Students receive special education and related services in a public or
privately operated residential facility in which children receive care or
Residential Facility services 24 hours a day.
Students receive special education and related services in a hospital or
Homebound/hospital homebound program.
*Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Education. (2000). Twenty-second annual report to Congress on
the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (p. II-14). Washington, DC: Author.

 Features of Special Education

Special education can be provided in a number of stings such as in the classroom, at home, in
hospital and institutions. Special education provides additional services, support, programs,
specialized placements or environments. Special education is provided to qualifying students at
no cost to the parents. The range of special education support will vary based on need and
educational jurisdictions. Thus, special educationist is an important part of society’s response to
the needs of exceptional children and the rights of individuals with disabilities. Special education
is individually planned, specialized, intensive, goal-directed instruction. When practiced most
effectively and ethically, special education is also characterized by the use of research-based
teaching methods, the application of which is guided by direct and frequent measures of student
performance (Bushell & Baer, 1994; Greenwood & Maheady, 1997).
Special educators also teach in many environments not usually thought of as school. An early
childhood special educator may spend much of his time teaching parents how to work with their
infant or toddler at home. Teachers, particularly those who work with students with severe

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disabilities, often conduct community-based instruction, helping their students learn and practice
functional daily living and job skills in the actual settings where they must be used (Owens-
Johnson & Hamill, 2002).

 Effective Special Education

Special education is focused on the instructional process instead of process training. So that
special education may became better aligned with its formal definition as “specially designed
individualized or group instruction or special services or programs…to meet the unique needs of
students with disabilities” (U. S. Department of Education, 2006, p. 223). Over the past 35 years,
special education policy has shifted from “whether students with disabilities should receive a
special education” to concerns about “what constitutes a free and appropriate public education
(FAPE).” The Rowley case (Board of Education of the Henrik Hudson Central School District
vs. Rowley, 1982) indicated that a FAPE consists of “specially designed instruction” and related
services that are “individually designed to provide educational benefit.” By the educational
benefit means that schools need not provide an ideal education seeking to maximize potential but
rather a beneficial one that provides “meaningful progress” (Huefner, 1991). The meaningful
progress actually means the academic progress: “there are standards that require a measure of
academic progress” (Laski, 1997, p. 79). Thus, academic instruction became a significant marker
in judging whether a FAPE yields benefits.
In this scenario the special education can be identified through critical features of instruction to
ensure that students with high-incidence disabilities (SLD, Intellectual Disability [ID],
emotional/behavioral disorder [E/BD]) received the best possible FAPE. Christenson, Ysseldyke,
and Thurlow (1989) have listed 10 essential factors shown in the following table. These
instructional factors have been repeatedly reinforced.

 Instructional Factors for Students with Mild Disabilities

Factors
• The degree to which classroom management is effective and efficient
• The degree to which there is a sense of “positiveness” in the school
Environment
• The degree to which there is an appropriate instructional match

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• The degree to which teaching goals and teacher expectations for student performance and
success are stated clearly and are understood by the student
• The degree to which lessons are presented clearly and follow specific instructional procedures
• The degree to which instructional support is provided for the individual
Student
• The degree to which sufficient time is allocated to academics and instructional time is used
efficiently
• The degree to which the student’s opportunity to respond is high
• The degree to which the teacher actively monitors student progress and understanding
• The degree to which student performance is evaluated appropriately and frequently

 Effective Approaches for Students with Mild Disabilities

Instructional practices
• Explicit, well-structured lessons
• Tasks defined by sequenced steps
• Providing clear examples
• Direct measurement of student progress
• Clear feedback
• Repetition to mastery
• Supervised and independent practice
• Strategies to insure maintenance and generalization
• Modifications to accommodate unique learner characteristics
Grouping Arrangements
• Cooperative learning
• Flexible grouping based on need and skill
• Peer tutoring
• Collaborative teaching
Generally, it was concluded that good special education parallels good general education, but
requires a more individualized and comprehensive perspective. For example, Polloway and
Patton (1997) provided an instructional model based on three dimensions of effective practice:
management considerations, instructional practices, and evaluative and collaborative activities.

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A major difference between general and special education is the Giving Emphasis on the
individual, is the sole of effective special education. It requires judgments about the rate, amount,
and manner of presentation for a particular student, rather than a larger group of students.
Similarly, the successful learning for students with disabilities requires more feedback and more
efforts directed at maintenance and generalization of learned knowledge (Bos& Vaughn, 2002;
Mastropieri& Scruggs, 2004).

 Special Educational Needs

Children with special educational needs have learning difficulties or disabilities that make it
harder for them to learn than most children of the same age. These children may need extra or
different help from that given to other children of the same age.
Children with special educational needs may need extra help because of a range of needs, such as
in thinking and understanding, physical or sensory difficulties, emotional and behavioral
difficulties, or difficulties with speech and language or how they relate to and behave with other
people. But a few children will need extra help for some or all of their time in school.
The term 'special needs education' has come into use as a replacement for the term' special
education'. The former term was mainly understood to refer to the education of children with
disabilities that take place in special schools or institutions distinct from, and outside of, the
institutions of the regular school and university system (Faryal Khan, 1998).
The most common types of special needs include sensory handicaps, communication disabilities,
emotional and behavior disorders, learning disabilities, physical and developmental disabilities.
Students with these kinds of special needs require additional educational services such as
different approaches to teaching, the use of assistive technology, adapted teaching methodology,
equipment and curriculum, or a resource room, individualized education programming,
professional specialized in different remedial areas, home based early intervention and
hospitalized education services. With all these well-organized interventions the special needs
learners can achieve higher levels of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and their
community.
Special education teachers use different techniques to impart knowledge. The teaching methods
can include individualized instruction, problem-solving assignments, and small group work.
When students need special accommodations in order to take a test, special education teachers

184
see that appropriate ones are provided, such as having the questions read orally or lengthening
the time allowed to take the test. Special education teachers help to develop an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) for each special education student. The IEP sets personalized goals for
each student and is based on the student's individual needs and ability. Teachers work closely
with parents to inform them of their child's progress and suggest techniques to promote learning
at home. Parents are involved in the students' behavioral, social, and academic development,
helping the students develop emotionally, feel comfortable in social situations, and be aware of
socially acceptable behavior. Special education teachers communicate and work together with
parents, social workers, school psychologists, speech therapists, occupational and physical
therapists, school administrators, and other teachers.

7.4 SPECIAL EDUCATION IN:

Following is the status of special education in different countries:
7.4.1 Pakistan
Since 1947 special education in Pakistan developed as result of planning (policy) documents and
independent reports reflecting rationale for providing special services prepared at government
level. In sub-continent education of disabled was one of the mostly ignored areas, as there were
few schools opened for them. One school for visual impaired children in 1906 and other school
for the deaf children, opened in Karachi. A society called the Deaf and Dumb Welfare Society
formed by the parents of deaf children and established a school named Gung Mahal (Palace of
Deaf).

i) History of special education system in Pakistan:

In Pakistan special education was given a serious consideration in early eighties. The first
responsibility was given to Special Education and Welfare Division of the Ministry of Health. In
the same way the national policy addressed the needs of teacher’s training for teaching to
children of all types of disabilities. In addition special attention was given to other
multidisciplinary programs. When this system was evolved it includes only a few numbers of
schools for special children with a little personnel and technological resources. The basic need of
disabled children is early intervention program. In Pakistan early intervention services and home
based programs were not well established. The disabled children who got access to special

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school again face lack of provision in terms of professionals, well designed assessment
procedures, methods and materials. Similarly there was no institution for after school education
of such children more than twenty years ago. There was no policy to curtain disabled children in
schools of normal children.
According to Khatoon (2003) there were only two institutions, one for the Hearing Impaired at
Lahore and the other for the Blind at Bahawalpur working under the control of Education
department when Pakistan came into being. While some of the private organizations were
running a few institutions for the Hearing Impaired children and Visually Impaired children at
Provincial level, these institutions were then nationalized in 1975 under Martial Law Regulation
MLR-118 and given under the responsibility of Education Department.
ii) Legislation
After independence The National Commission for the first time presented the education of
special people to the government agenda in 1959. Report of Commission on National Education,
1959 reflects the responsibility taken by the Government of Pakistan to initiate to educate the
handicapped pupils for the first time in our country. The Education Policy 1972-1980 provided
the proposal in response to this initiative, and funds were allocated to special education in the
Fifth Five Year Plan (Pakistan Planning Commission, 1978). Some more budgetary provision for
special education were provided in 1980s, and the government strengthen the existing
institutions of social welfare and special education of that time during its Sixth Five Year Plan
(1983-1988) time period to achieve its aim of social welfare program (Academic Research
International, 2011).
iii) Development of Special Education System in Pakistan:
In 1985, a separate directorate was established at the federal level to run model special education
schools throughout the country (Khan, 1998).This was called Federal Directorate General of
Special Education (DGSE) and has the responsibility to administer its various provincial
corresponding parts (Ahmed, 2011).In addition the National Institute of Special Education was
established to provide in-service training to teachers of special schools (Khan, 1998).
Initially text books as school curriculum was designed under the umbrella of Directorate General
of Special Education but it does not fulfill the requirements of all levels and all types of special
needs. Therefore children stuck up due to unavailability of further guidelines.

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The education department initiated various schemes for the construction of buildings and training
of the staff and established Inspectorate of Schools for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind in 1962 later
given status of Deaf, Dumb and Blind Wing, under Deputy Director in 1968. Another step of this
planning was the establishment of the Directorate of Special Education Punjab in 1983-84 which
became independent administrative department in 2003 (Khatoon, 2003).
Bushra and Rukhsana say “there are 56 institutions run by the Directorate General of Special
Education for the educational and rehabilitation of children with special needs. 48 special
schools run by the Department of Special Education, (a separate department established by the
Government of Punjab under the direct supervision of the Chief Minister) at provincial level”
(p.35). The provincial government also recently opened 90 special schools at the district level
(Bashir, 2005).
Today a large number of special education institutions are working under the provincial
governments. Emphasis was given to provide equal access to education to children having
different types of disabilities by opening schools and centers in four types of disability areas;
visual impairment, hearing impairment, mental retardation and physical disabilities. In addition
some schools were also recently established to cater the needs of children with learning
disabilities.
Recently, the special education institutions working under the federal government have been
given to the respective provincial governments in the consequences of the implementation of
18th amendment in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Ahmed, 2011).
Some active association of disabled persons; visually impaired, hearing impaired, physically
disabled and mentally retarded, promoted the needs and requirements as a basic step for the well
fare. The role of non government organizations (NGOs) is very remarkable in Pakistan.
iv) Special Education Policies in Pakistan:
As an initial step the Directorate General of Special Education formulated a National Policy for
Special Education in 1986 and revised it in 1988 to make it more appropriate for the emerging
needs of special population. After that, a special education policy was launched in 1999.
Recently, Government of Pakistan has launched a new National Policy for Persons with
Disabilities 2002, which is dynamically being implemented. Ahmed (2011) gives the detail as
under;
National Policy for Rehabilitation of the Disabled, 1986

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The United Nations declared 1983-1992 as the Decade of the Disabled, which brought into focus
the need to formulate a national strategy to deal with the problems of the disabled of all
categories. Thus, the Ministry of Health, Special Education and Social Welfare envisaged the
National Policy for Rehabilitation of the Disabled in December 1986, and this was in fact the
first policy on special education in Pakistan.
The National Policy, 1986 was primarily concerned with issues such as organizing services for
the disabled and the implementation of programs, and paid insufficient attention to the critical
matter of the curriculum.
A review of the 1986 Policy was undertaken in 1988 that refereed to a category-based system of
special education in Pakistan. The five categories of special needs education were identified in
the policy.
According to a survey conducted in Islamabad/Rawalpindi, the distribution / percentage of the
five different disabilities were: i) Mental disability 21% , ii) Visual impairment 15% , iii)
Hearing impairment 9% , iv) Physical disability 33% , v) Multiple disability 19% , and vi) Not
classified 3%.
The National Policy for Special Education, 1999
After the National Policy for Rehabilitation of the Disabled (1986), the Government of Pakistan
formulated another policy on Special Education in 1999. The National Policy for Special
Education (1999) recognized that the process of rehabilitation for many people with disabilities
was an on-going one. It focused the need for change in public attitudes to the disabled and the
crucial role of media in highlighting the successes of persons with disabilities. The policy also
proposed some monetary concessions to be made for the disabled as well as providing them with
legislative support.
National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2002
National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2002) was the first full-fledged National Special
Education Policy to fulfill need for the education, rehabilitation and care of the disabled both by
government and by the private sector. In the policy, the provision of special facilities for the
education, training and rehabilitation of disabled persons was regarded as being of central
importance concerning the rights of a significant percentage of our population.

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The goal of the policy was the empowerment of persons with disabilities, irrespective of caste,
creed, religion, gender or other consideration for the realization of their full potential in all
spheres of life, specially social, economic, personal and political.
The policy was formulated with a background of information about the number of disabled
persons in Pakistan based upon the WHO estimates of 10% of the population and upon more
detailed information provided by Pakistan-based studies including the National Census, 1998.
The National Census Report of 1998 however indicated a low estimate of 2.49% of the total
population, based on the reported cases of persons with disabilities. The distribution of different
disabilities within the defined population of disabled persons, as indicated by the 1998 census,
provided a valuable guide for planning program Physically Handicapped (19%), Mentally
Handicapped & Insane (14%), Multiple Disability (8.21%), Visually Impaired (8.6%), Hearing
Impaired (7.40%), others, not classified but included as disability (43.33%)
Areas of Focus and Special Attention
Following are the focus areas of the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2002.
Early Intervention, Assessment and Medical Treatment
The goal of the policy was the empowerment and rehabilitation of persons with disabilities for
the realization of their full potential in all spheres of life. To achieve the goal, prevention,
detection, early intervention, guidance and counseling, etc. was proposed in the policy.
Education and Training
Pakistan has made significant progress in all related areas since the establishment of Directorate
General of Special Education (DGSE) and National Trust for the Disabled (NTD) at the federal
level in eighties. The provincial governments and NGOs joined the movement and initiated
special projects.
At the International level, the movement towards making special education an integral part of
education has been gaining acceptance. Therefore, integration and mainstreaming of children
with disability in normal system of education should be promoted at all levels. Following
measures were proposed for to achieve the goal:
Provision of special aids and equipment,
Alignment of policies between the federal, provincial and district governments at the level of
relevant ministries and departments,
Changes in curriculum in collaboration with relevant departments/agencies, and

189
 Provision of specialized aids and equipment.
The existing system of post-graduate training in special education at the university level
was planned to further strengthen. The training institutes like National Institute of Special
Education (NISE) were proposed to further strengthen their program of Teacher Training and
Research to improve special education services. Similarly, the number of training institutions
available for occupational therapy and physiotherapy were planned to increase along with
training centers for speech therapists and other relevant professionals.
Vocational Training, Employment and Rehabilitation
Vocational training, employment, and rehabilitation of disabled persons were the main focus
areas of the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2002). To achieve the target, the
policy concentrated on the use of information and assisting technology, self-employment. It was
planned to give incentives to employers for the provision of employment to disabled/special
persons.
Research and Development
Both academic and applied research was planned to encourage for the benefit for persons with
disabilities both at the federal and provincial levels. Efforts would be made to enlist the interest
and support of the universities and other organizations particularly in the areas of medicine,
social work, psychology, vocational training, engineering and technology.
Advocacy and Mass Awareness
To create a positive public attitude towards the persons with disabilities, the positive images of
the persons with disabilities was planned to highlight by the projection of their success stories
through mass media. All possible channels, at community as well as media level, are also
planned to utilize for the creation of public awareness about the nature and types of disabilities
and the need for community support for their identification as well as rehabilitation.
Sports and Recreation
Provision of appropriately designed sports and recreational facilities for children with disabilities
and adults were planned to undertake in collaboration with all public and private authorities.
Each district/local authority was expected to ensure that budgetary provisions to enable groups of
persons with disabilities to establish clubs for sports and recreation and to provide appropriate
free premises.
Design of Buildings, Parks and Public Places

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The safe and easy access of persons with disabilities in public places / buildings was planned to
ensure by introducing the codes of practice for the design of new public buildings and for the
adaptation of existing premises. For this, it was planned that designs of public buildings will be
prepared with the consultation of the Ministry of Social Welfare & Special Education, which
provided specifications for such aspects of those buildings used by persons with disabilities such
as ramps, lifts, toilets etc. Accessibility to other buildings of public use also requires special
designing to facilitate easy approach for persons with disabilities (Ahmed, 2011).
v) Training of special educators
The teacher training programs in special education opened new ways of training and
rehabilitation of disabled children in a technical way and promoted support at individual level.
The teachers’ professional training initiated at Allama Iqbal Open University for the first time in
the country. After wards many post graduate institutions and universities started degree programs
in special education; M.A, M.Ed etc.
vi) Efforts for inclusive education
Pakistan is a party of the World Conference of Education for all (UNESCO, 1990), Salamanca
Declaration (UNESCO, 1994) and the Dakar Framework for Action of Education for All
(UNICEF, 2004). The Pakistan National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2002) clearly
indicates a shift from segregated to an inclusive system of education that can improve the
literacy rate as well as the quality of education.
vii) Non Government Organizations
Several NGOs at local, provincial and federal level are working for the rehabilitation of people
with disabilities. These NGOs have been established either by individuals with disability or by
disabled associations. However, they focus on a single/particular category of disability rather
than all categories of disability.
Model special schools are run by NGOs in every large city in Pakistan. A study conducted by
Nawaz and Raza (2002) found that NGOs provide a range of services to all who need them
irrespective of gender, religion, ethnicity, race, disability or socio-cultural background. There is
active coordination among them at the local level to pool their resources. NGOs were found to be
flexible, and have great potential for starting inclusive education.

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 Exercise
Q1.Elaborate the legislative consideration of special education in Pakistan
Q2.What type of reforms can make the system more suitable for PWDs?
Q3.Analyze the special education services in Pakistan in the perspectives of educational policies
and plans.

7.4.2 UNITED KINGDUM

Children having moderate to severe learning difficulties such as hearing, speech or sight hurdles,
physical disability or autism, or maladjustment and behavior problems that get them away from
attending a mainstream school for their age group children can get special education in UK.
In UK it is compulsory for all children of age 5 to 16 years to take education. An increase of one
year has been made in this age limit of compulsory education and training from 2013 according
to the Education and Skills Act 2008.
i) The Set Up:
There are many schools that address special educational needs including both day and boarding
schools are under the control of local education authorities (LEAs).However there are few
schools specifically for special educational needs children too. Some schools are run by privately
by volunteer organizations with a grant from central government for major expenditures and
equipments.
ii) Legislation
The provision of SEN in England (and Wales) was set preliminary in the Education Act 1996
(Part 4) (ref.) and afterwards its definition was amended in the Special Educational Needs and
Disability Bill of 2001 (ref.).
The disability discrimination act 1995 legally prevented the unfair treatment of individuals,
emphasized in the provision of goods and services for them till justification with them occurred.
It was further replaced by the disability discrimination act 2005. The act of parliament of United
Kingdom, the Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 intended as an attachment to
the disability discrimination act 1995.
The act emphasize the opportunities same to normal and required' reasonable provisions' such as
schools, colleges, universities, adult education, by the statutory bodies of youth services and
local education authorities for people with disabilities.

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Under the terms of the Education Act 1996, all pupils at state funded schools have a right of
access to a broad and balanced curriculum and all local authority schools (including special
schools) are required to deliver the National Curriculum, which is sufficiently flexible to
accommodate different paces and styles of learning. While there are procedures for head teachers
of local authority schools to make temporary exceptions from the National Curriculum for
pupils, this option is rare, largely on account of the flexibility of the National Curriculum
application. The National Curriculum is being reviewed.
The law assumes that pupils with special educational needs will be educated in mainstream
schools. However, if this is not suitable to meet their needs, provision is available in ‘resourced’
schools
iii) The System of special education
Special Needs Education (SEN) is an element of school education in UK.The school work for
learning difficulties or/and disability. Special Needs Education is used as a key term which refers
to the children with disabilities or learning difficulties who find it difficult to learn or to access
education more than other children. The children may have difficulties in school work such as;
expressing themselves, managing behavior, organizing themselves, responding to adults, making
friends or sensory or physical limitations. Children with these difficulties are generally integrated
into the mainstream. The general school has professional support to groom children to with their
potentials and capabilities. Facility of special schools and home education is provided locally in
the states of UK for children with severe disability.
The countries of UK have well developed policy and provision for SEN. It includes i) learning
support teams in mainstreamed schools, ii) specialist schools offering permanent placements and
iii) pupil referral units offering temporary placements until formal exclusion or need of further
assessment. Besides school has a post of SEN Coordinator and SEN Code of Practice (2001)
which contains information on “how provision for SEN should be shaped and practice”? An
additional support as Statement of Special Educational Needs is provided that based on level of
need. Most recently “Green Paper” as a SEND published in 2011. According to this paper
current practices are being reviewed and authorized.

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iv) Provision of special education in UK:
Mainstream schools:
 Mainstream schools have the responsibility to meet the needs of children with SEN.
Every mainstream school has a designated SEN Governor and a SEN Coordinator
(SENCo). The key responsibilities of the SENCo include:
 overseeing the day to day operation of the school s SEN policy
 Liaising with and advising other teachers managing other SEN staff and learning support
assistants
 coordinating provision for pupils with SEN
 liaising with the parents/carers of pupils with SEN
 contributing to the in-service training of staff
 Liaising with external agencies such as the County Council s support services, health and
social care services and voluntary bodies.
The majority of children with SEN meet their needs in mainstream schools. The children are
provided with an Individual Education Plan (IEP) which includes short term targets for the child
and describes the support which will be provided, by both the school and home, to help achieve
these targets and the IEP is updated regularly.
Children with severe disabilities are subject to the assessment that is leading to a statement of
special educational needs. Mainstream schools provide the details in the statement and must
review the statement annually. This provides an opportunity for parents, the child, the school and
other professionals involved to assess the progress of the child that he has made, or to whether
any changes need to be made to the statement. Special education provided at Hampshire is
described here as an example of provision.
The Special Educational Needs (SEN) Policy is a key element of Hampshire County Council’s
policy framework for supporting the needs of all children and young people between the ages of
0-19.
The policy reflects the corporate priorities of the County Council:
 Hampshire safer and more secure for all
 Maximizing well-being
 Enhancing our quality of place.

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  The way the policy is implemented is further informed by the County Council’s corporate
values:
 Removing barriers to opportunity and improving choice for all
 Responding to the improvements that people say they want
 Planning for and investing in the future
 Encouraging partnerships, participation and contribution. (Special Educational Needs
(SEN) Policy 2009-2012)

In Hampshire there are services and professionals to help the special education needs children.
The details of some of these services are given below:

 Special Educational Needs Service

The SEN Service co-ordinates support for children with SEN across the whole of the
county. The education officers for SEN lead the assessment and placement teams for each
of the areas of the county for which they have lead responsibility.
 Parent Partnership Service
The Parent Partnership Service provides impartial advice, information and support to
parents/carers of children and young people with SEN. They can help by providing
information, advice and support to parents/carers at all stages of their child’s school life,
from pre-school early diagnosis through to leaving school.
 Educational Psychology Service
The work of the Educational Psychology Service is often concerned with developmental
difficulties involving learning, social, emotional, behavioral, physical or sensory needs.
The educational psychologists look at ways of helping children make progress when they
are experiencing difficulties.
 Specialist Teacher Advisory Service
This service assess children with specific special educational needs from pre-school to
post 16 and support parents and teachers with educational advice. The service aims to
help children with hearing impairment, physical disability and visual impairment to gain
greater access to the curriculum. The specialist teacher advisers visit the homes of pre-

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 school children, parent and toddler groups, playgroups, opportunity groups, nursery
groups and post 16 further education colleges.
 Primary Behavior Service
The Primary Behavior Service is a team of dedicated practitioners with extensive
experience working in Hampshire primary schools to promote children’s positive
behavior and emotional wellbeing. This is a referral based service offering outreach and
in reach support for primary children with behavioral, emotional and social development
needs.
 Hampshire Portage Service
Hampshire Portage is an educational service for pre-school children with additional
support needs and their families. The Portage model supports children with significant
developmental delay and behavioral difficulties.
 Hampshire Portage Service works in partnership with parents, carers and other
professionals such as therapists, health visitors, pediatric consultants, educational
psychologists and early years settings. This helps to ensure that everyone works towards
shared common goals. The family receives regular home visits during which activities are
planned to enable the child to learn through play and having fun.
 SEN Post 16
The SEN Post 16 team works with schools and colleges to support young people with
learning difficulties and/or disabilities. They also work with local commissioned services
to support young people with learning difficulties and/or disabilities, up to the age of 25,
to help them make the best possible transition into Adult Services.
 Parent Voice
Parent Voice is information and participation service for parents and carers of disabled
children aged 0-19 in Hampshire. They use the word “disabled” to encompass all
children and young people with a condition or impairment, whether mild, moderate or
severe, diagnosed or undiagnosed.

(v)Assessment of Educational Progress

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The Early Years Foundation Stage Profile (EYFSP) is a statutory assessment for children at the
end of the Foundation Stage (covering ages 3 – 5) and is a way of summing up each child's
development and learning at the end of the Reception year (for children aged 4-5).
All pupils are assessed at the end of each of the four Key Stages of education (ages 5-7 (Key
Stage 1), 7-11 (KS2), 11-14 (KS3) and 14-16 (KS4)). All National Curriculum subjects have
attainment targets. For Key Stages 1 to 3, end of key stage assessment is statutory. At the end of
Key Stage 1, schools are required to assess pupils via internal teacher assessment, informed by
(internally-marked) tasks and tests. At the end of Key Stage 2, pupils are assessed via a
combination of internal teacher assessment and externally marked statutory national tests.
Assessment at the end of Key Stage 3 is via internal teacher assessment only.
At Key Stage 4, pupils take externally set public examinations (the General Certificate of
Secondary Education or other examinations such as National Vocational Qualifications). Entry
Level Awards are designed for pupils with special educational needs. Foundation Learning is a
flexible program serving young people aged 14 – 19 (or up to age 24 if they have high-level
special needs) who are mainly studying at Entry Level or Level 1 of the English National
Qualifications Framework, below the lowest level of General Certificate of Secondary
Education. It leads to combinations of small qualifications and is designed to help students
progress to a positive destination such as skilled work, further learning or Apprenticeships.
Around half of the young people on Foundation Learning have special educational needs and
nearly a quarter of them receive free school meals.

vi) Inclusive Education

According to Special Educational Needs (SEN) Policy 2009-2012, “Inclusion is developed
further by recognizing that schools, preschool settings and supporting services collectively
provide for the needs of all children in the community, by:
 providing education and support for more children with special educational needs in local
maintained mainstream schools
 working with children, young people, parents/carers, head teachers, governors, education
staff, colleges and voluntary and statutory agencies, to embed inclusive practices
 ensuring that the range of maintained schools (mainstream, mainstream with resourced
provision and special schools) and pre-school settings across the county have the

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 necessary skills, capacity and confidence to provide for the full range of children and
young people with special educational needs
 identifying and addressing with other statutory and voluntary agencies any barriers to
inclusion that prevent a child or young person’s placement in a local maintained school
 matching levels of support as closely and effectively as possible to the identified needs of
children and young people and the development of inclusive provision for them
 ensuring that special schools and resourced provision in mainstream schools continue to
develop quality education for children and young people with the most severe and
complex needs and a more flexible role in making provision and providing support
services to children and staff in other settings in line with the strategy for developing the
role of special schools
 taking opportunities to improve and develop provision for children and young people
with special educational needs, through extended services cluster working, behavior
improvement partnerships, education improvement partnerships and wherever a school
reorganization, new school or major capital investment is planned”.(p.4)

vii) Early Assessment

A system is operated as early as possible in conjunction with other agencies. The services of
early identification, assessment and intervention for preschool children with special educational
needs are provided, where possible within inclusive settings, and in other agencies.
·parents are encouraged in pre-school settings and school to work together to recognize and
support children’s special educational need sat the earliest stage. It may follow the external
advice where necessary.
·ensuring that education services in liaison with other agencies, meet statutory obligations to
children with special educational needs and their families within the prescribed timescales
(Special Educational Needs (SEN) Policy 2009-2012, p. 5)

viii) Resources and Collaboration

Resources are allocated and used effectively by controlling, maintaining and improving the
overall level of resourcing for special educational needs. There is a system of monitoring and
systematically reviewing of resources to achieve the best possible match between needs and

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resources. It is ensured that the levels offending are matched to children and young people’s
needs and understood by parents/carers, schools, governors and other agencies
Emphasis is given to children with special educational needs in the development of Information
Communication Technology (ICT) to support their learning. Similarly efforts also made to
ensure that children and young people with SEN and their families take benefit from resources
(Special Educational Needs (SEN) Policy 2009-2012, p. 6).

ix) Educational Approaches

The special needs of children are usually met by step-by-step approach. Special education Code
of Practice can be used as a guide for help. As a first step local authority assesses the child’s
needs and provides solutions. The assessment request is initiated either by parents or by the
child’s school with parents’ permission. Another person like the child’s parent, a doctor, an
educational psychologist, social services and any one may help are involved in assessment
procedure. As a result of assessment a statement of SEN is formulated along with the outline of
required help. Same authority on the basis of statement decides the placement of the child either
in mainstream school or in a special school.

x) Teachers of special needs children

Teacher responsible for the education of disable children in school is called Special Educational
Needs (SEN) Teacher. The teacher provides extra support to the children and young adults
having special needs. The teacher also design and advanced program of education wherever
required to achieve learning goals. The SEN teacher may use individualized approaches to teach
physically disabled, sensory impaired, children having speech and language difficulties such as
dyslexia, having mental disability such as autism, emotional and behavior maladjustments, or
combination of these disabilities. A SEN teacher also works with gifted and talented individuals.
The individualized approaches include work from the basic step of identifying individual needs
to creating a safe, stimulation and supportive learning environment. This challenging work of
SEN teachers usually involves other than formal teaching some more specific activities such as;
• Teaching either individually or small groups,
• Developing and adapting conventional teaching methods to meet the individual needs of
pupils,

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 • Teaching Braille to the visually handicapped students and sign language and lip reading
to the hearing impaired,
• Collaborating with the classroom teacher to define appropriate activities based on
curriculum concepts,
• Opting approaches by adapting procedures suitable for the short and long term learning
difficulties,
• Working with colleagues to indentify individual pupil’s special needs,
• Liaising with other professional, such as social worker, speech and language therapists,
physiotherapists, educational psychologists,
• Liaising with parents and guardians,
• Assisting in severely disabled with personal care/medical needs,
• Administration including uploading and maintaining records on pupil’s progress,
• Planning individualized education programs,
• Attending annual reviews or reviewing statements of special educational needs,
• Behavioral management

xi) Training of SEN Teacher

The newly qualified teachers who are appointed to teach special needs children can get
postgraduate professional development in the form of certificates or diploma or masters in
special educational needs. These full and part time specialized courses are available in all types
of disabilities; visually and or hearing impaired, physically handicaps, mentally challenged,
learning disabled, autistic, gifted, etc. but a SEN teacher who is specialize in teaching pupils with
visual, hearing or multi-sensory impairment need other additional mandatory requirements such
as ability to use sign language and or Braille. Both full time and part time qualification meeting
these requirements are only provided by specific Department of Education. Other qualified
teachers can opt courses to teach disabled pupils. These courses cover general aspects of special
educational needs while other courses are more specific and focus on particular learning
difficulty such as dyslexia or autism.

xii) Teachers in Mainstreaming Schools

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A special educational needs (SEN) teacher in mainstream school can also work as a special
educational needs coordinator (SENCO). The requirement is at least two years of qualified
teaching experience and good understanding of stages of special educational needs. The head of
special educational needs department is usually a SENCO. The SENCO further appoints
assistants for learning and teaching support in the classroom called learning support assistants
(LSA) OR teaching assistants (TA). The team of LSA & TA helps the SENCO.
The SEN teachers have attain the excellence within the profession are promoted as advanced
skill teachers and remained involved in outreach work. The SENCO can also promote to
inspector status. Other positions are lecturing posts in higher education.

xiii) Early Intervention Facilities

The early education settings as given in Code of practice includes step-by-step or ‘gradual
approach’ and ‘parent partner service’. The graduated approach emphasizes that children learn
through different ways and can have different kinds/levels of special educational needs. The
approach follows the step by step provisions of intervention strategies and includes the
following:
• An individually designed learning program
• Extra help from a teacher or learning support assistant
• Individual teaching or teaching in small groups for regular short periods
• Planning an individual education plan that includes targets, reviews of progress,
The early education provides extra and different help called early year’s actions or school
actions’ before joining the routine settings of classrooms. In case when the child does not
progress the SEN teacher or SENCO seek advice from other professionals from the community
such as educational psychologists, speech and language therapist, etc. this extended help is called
‘Early Year Action Plus or School Action Plus’. Parents are included in every discussions and
decision making about the child. In this step-by-step approach there is a clear written record of
assessment, plan and progress.

xiv) Individualized Education Plan

An individualized program is provided that contains planning, teaching and reviewing tool
produced by a school. It must specify the following;

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- What special help/intervention is being given?
- How often the child will receive this help /intervention
- Who will be responsible for this education/ intervention?
- Specific short term targets / objectives to be achieved
- How and when the evaluation/progress of the child will be done
- guided plan for home
The purpose of IEP is to assist the child in making progress with learning and to help raise his
/her achievement. It also assists the staff in providing additional support for the child.

xv) Transition Plan

In special education of UK the transition plans are the part of the statement of special educational
needs. The disable child is provided by the transition plans in addition to the annual review
reports. The transition plans collect together information from parents, individual, relevant
professionals, analyzes the nature of progress, acquisition of vocational skills, students’ interests,
aptitude and samples of work. This plan intends to start planning of child’s progression from
school to work and adult life.

7.4.3 INDIA
Special need children in India have very limited access to the schools and resources. Before
independence there were a few special education schools run by NGO’s in India. These schools
only cater the needs of MRC. Even after independence mostly work for well fare of disabled was
done on charity basis. Afterwards there has been a shift in the lifestyle of people with disabilities
from charity to right.

i) National set up
Education, vocational training and rehabilitation begun to taken as right of PWDs. Initially four
institutions; National institution for the visually Handicapped, National institution for the
Hearing Handicapped, National institution for the orthopedically Handicapped, National
institution for the Mentally Handicapped at national level were set up by the Government of
India and many other services like service model, research, documentation and disseminating
information begun very soon after this set up. Initiation of District Rehabilitation Centre (DRC)

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scheme in 10 States aiming at preventive measures and comprehensive rehabilitation was a great
step that started real mechanism of manpower training.

Inclusion of section (section 4.9) in National Policy on Education (1986) was a turning point in
the history of PWDs in India because it addressed the very crucial points like education of mild
in regular schools and special schools for severe disabilities at district level. Today there are
about 37 diploma programs in the field of special education and about 3 offering the B.Ed degree
(Greenteacher. org). A statutory body ‘the Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)’ was established
that work under the ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment. It regulates the courses for the
education, training and management of PWDs. For the universalization of primary education the
District Primary Education Program (DPEP) was started wherein children with special needs are
also included by providing services like suitable teacher preparation, infrastructure facilities and
aids and appliances. In addition to government set up non-government organizations were
running more than 1000 special schools throughout major cities of India.
There are more than 2,500 schools for children with special needs in India run by the
government. There are many registered NGOs for private institutions.
ii) Private set up
The World Endeavors Special Education Volunteers Organization is very active. Volunteers of
this organization help disable children of all categories; learning challenged or physical
challenges such as vision, hearing, or speech impairments. These special education volunteers
work in providing teaching in English or general mathematics or as assisting teachers with
individualized lesson plans, organizing group activities, or sharing their skills in music, art, or
other creative outlets. The volunteers cannot be successful without patience, compassion.

iii) Policies and Plans Rights of Disabled persons/children

The India's Disability Act (1995) specifies the right of disabled children to get free education up
to the age of 18 years along with right of other provisions such as transportation, scholarships,
free uniforms; books and teaching materials. Similarly disabled children reserve the right of
education provided by non formal system of education. They also have the right of vocational
training.
Policy developments: historical review and current trends

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The following four legislations have had a significant impact on the government and the NGO
sector, of these the first three are specific to people with disabilities:
• Rehabilitation Council of India Act (1992): states that CWSN will be taught by a trained
teacher.
• Persons with Disabilities Act (1995): educational entitlement for all CWSN up to 18 years
in an appropriate environment.
• National Trust Act (1999): provide services and support to severely disabled children.

• The 86th constitutional Amendment (2007: free and compulsory education to children, up to
14 years. (Singal, 2009)
These legal mandates have also helped shape the comprehensive National Action Plan for
Inclusion in Education of the Children and Persons with Disabilities (MHRD, 2005), and the
National Policy for Persons with Disabilities in 2006 (an MSJE initiative).
Singal (2009) says that over the years, the government has launched various programs and
schemes to meet its commitments towards the education of children with disabilities. Among the
first of these efforts was the Project Integrated Education of the Disabled Children (PIED)
launched in 1987 in collaboration with UNICEF, in 10 blocks in 10 States and Union Territories
across the nation. Taking note of the outcomes and recommendations of the PIED, the Integrated
Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) scheme, which was initially launched in 1974, was
subsequently revised in 1992. This scheme was shifted from the Ministry of Welfare to the
Department of Education and greater assistance was provided to children with disabilities in
mainstream schools. The IEDC is currently operative and offers financial assistance towards the
salary of teachers, assessment and provision of aids and appliances, training of special teachers,
removal of architectural barriers, provision of instructional materials, community mobilization,
early detection and resource support (MHRD, 1992). It covers 15,000 schools and has enrolled a
total of 60,000 children (RCI, 2000).
With India becoming signatory to the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), the 1990s saw the
rapid incorporation of the term ‘inclusive education’ in various official documents, reports
published by institutions such as the NCERT and media. The background paper of a workshop
organized by the RCI stated:

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 While special education began in India with the establishment of special schools, it
was in 1960s–1970s that integrated education began to be advocated; however,
after 1994, inclusive education is strongly recommended (RCI, 2001: 2).
This focus on inclusive education is evident in the approach adopted by the District Primary
Education Program (DPEP).
Focus on Children with Special Needs (CWSN)
As Singal (2009) reports the Sarva Shiksh aAbhiyan (SSA) lists 8 priority areas of intervention
for inclusive education:
1) Survey for identification of CSWN
2) Assessment of CWSN
3) Providing assistive devices
4) Networking with NGOs/Government schemes
5) Barrier free access
6) Training of teachers on IE
7) Appointment of resource teachers
8) Curricula adaptation/textbooks/appropriate TLM

Education for All

The Government of India, in conjunction with the World Bank, created the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA), an initiative which translates to “Education for All.” SSA is not a disability-
specific program, but rather a disability-inclusive program, with specific aspects that benefit
people with disabilities.
The program seeks to open new schools in those habitations which do not have schooling
facilities and strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class
rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants.
Existing schools with inadequate teacher strength are provided with additional teachers, while
the capacity of existing teachers is being strengthened by extensive training, grants for
developing teaching-learning materials and strengthening of the academic support structure at a
cluster, block and district level. (The goal of SSA was to have Universal Education by 2010 for
children between the ages of 6-14.)

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The Right to Education Bill
According to Kohama (2012) the Government of India decided to make Amendment 21A of the
constitution, giving children between the ages of 6-14 the right to a free, appropriate and
compulsory education, into an act. In 2005, the Right to Education Act was drafted by the
Ministry of Human Resource Development.
The act specifically prohibits schools from charging any type of fee that, if not paid, would
prevent children from completing their elementary education. The exception to this rule is if
children have an intellectual disability they may be placed according to their perceived level of
education, which is definitely an anti-inclusive stance. if there is an area where children live that
does not have a school, the government will be responsible for creating a school within that area
within three years of the enactment of the Right to Education Act, or alternatively, to provide
transportation or residential facilities to an adequate school out of the area. Both the state and
central governments hold joint responsibility for carrying out the responsibilities outlined in the
Right to Education Act. The Right to Education Act was passed in 2009 and put into full effect
in 2010.

The Action Plan for Inclusion in Education of Children and Youth with Disabilities
It was extremely important that India create a bill around section 45 and 21 (A) of the
constitution, which became the Right to Education Act which was originally floated in 2005.
However, the same year, the Ministry of Human Resource Development also drafted the Action
Plan for Inclusion in Education of Children and Youth with Disabilities (IECYD). This action
plan envisions that all children with a disability will be having access to the mainstream
education. In order to facilitate this, there will be provided the adequate numbers of teachers
trained in inclusive education, and the proper physical and ideological infrastructure to facilitate
inclusion in schools.
The plan specifically looks to move from integration towards inclusion, whereas at present
children with disabilities are placed in a regular school without making any changes in the school
to accommodate and support diverse needs under the Scheme of Integrated Education for the
Disabled Children (IEDC).
A unique aspect of this plan is that it steps outside the Indian constitution and includes students
with disabilities outside of the 6-14 age range. Through Integrated Child Development Services

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(ICDS), anganwadi workers will be trained to identify children with disabilities at an early age,
so they can receive early intervention services. The IECYD also discusses accommodations for
students with a disability in universities, including a mandatory “disability coordinator” who
provides inclusion services for students with disabilities.

Reforming past schemes: The Inclusive Education of the Disabled at the Secondary Stage as
Kohama (2012) gives the details, that in 2008, the government reformed the Scheme of
Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and created the Inclusive Education of the
Disabled at the Secondary Stage (IEDSS). It went into effect on April 1st, 2009. IEDC was
reformed to take into account the resources provided for students with disabilities ages 6-14
under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.
The objective of IEDSS is to enable the disabled children who have completed eight years of
elementary education to continue their education at the secondary stage in an inclusive
environment in regular schools.

The National Policy for People with Disabilities

Kohama (2012) again says that the most recent policy specifically concerning education and
people with disabilities is the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment’s National Policy for
People with Disabilities. The National Policy for People with Disabilities utilizes Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (in English, Education for All), also created by the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment, as their main mode of implementation of the policy. This policy echoes the 2005
plan of action and 2005 (made official in 2009) bill by changing special schools in resource
centers for people with disabilities and teachers. In addition, the policy seeks to bridge the gap
between rural and urban areas by creating more District Disability and Rehabilitation Centers
(DDRCs).
iv) Training of teachers
There is currently no pre-service training offered to regular teachers’ which familiarizes them
with the education of CWSN; the focus is only on providing in-service training. Under SSA this
training is varied and ranges from 1-2 days, 3-5 days or 45-90 day orientations. There is as usual
a large inter-state variation as evident from table: 4. Analysis of the content of these training
programs highlights the very basic nature of the 1-5 days orientation, which covers merely issues

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of identification and management, but is the most preferred medium in preparing teachers. While
the number of teachers undertaking the 45-90 days foundation course has remained very low. As
of 2005 less than 0.2 percent of all SSA teachers had been through this larger program (quoted in
World Bank, 2007), raising concerns about the effectiveness of such programs impacting
pedagogical practices (Singal, p. 25).
Resource teachers
Government plans regard resource teachers as essential in facilitating the education of CWSN.
SSA (2003: 18) elaborates on their roles and responsibilities by stating that:
...(they) are specially trained teachers capable of teaching children with special
needs in all settings. Their main role is to provide remedial assistance to a child in
those content areas in which he/she is having comprehension problems in a regular
classroom. This assistance is ideally provided in a resource room. A resource
teacher also advises the general teacher on how to cope with the needs of special
children in the regular classroom.
The functions indentified for these teachers mainly focus on diagnostic issues, teaching children
with special needs either during or after school hours and also helping the regular classroom
teacher by suggesting various modifications to the curriculum and adaptations to teaching
strategies (Singal, 2009)
Training of Teachers in Inclusive Teaching Methods
Training teachers in teaching methods that include students of all ability levels, as well as
spreading awareness to teachers about the importance and benefits of inclusion, is one of the
most important parts of implementing a system of inclusive education, because the teachers are
the people on-the-ground who are going to accommodate the students. Kalyanpur writes that
there is inadequate policy dissemination around inclusion, and that many teachers know little
about policies regarding students with disabilities (Koham, 2012, p. 41).

The World Bank claims that the attitudes of general educators or educators in a mainstream
environment, towards students’ with disabilities are generally improving, probably as a result of
the various policies and schemes of the 2000s.
The Rehabilitation Council is in charge of teacher training courses. The Rehabilitation Council
of India current runs 56 long term and short term courses for16 categories of professionals run by

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various universities/institutions. 1176 professionals and 1791 personnel have been registered in
the Central Rehabilitation Register taking the total number of registered professionals and
personnel to 30,935 (MSJE, 2007).
These efforts need to be further supported. Teaching educators about the importance of inclusion
and how to run and inclusive classroom is imperative for reaching the goal of education for all.
v) Role of the Non Governmental (NGO)
A key player indentified in the SSA plans for fulfilling the vision of IE is the NGO sector. NGOs
have played a central role in the development of educational provisions for children with
disabilities across the globe and more so in developing economies, such as India. Not only has
their involvement been historically revered as bringing the concerns of this marginalized group
into the spotlight, they continue to have a significant impact on current practices. Both the IEDC
and the DPEP clearly outlined the involvement of NGOs in a range of activities encompassing
community mobilization, early detection, to the delivery of services. This focus has been
maintained under the SSA where convergence with NGOs is highly encouraged to implement the
goals of the framework for IE (SSA, 2005).
(Singal, p.30).
Data suggests that the number of NGOs involved in IE under the SSA has steadily increased
from 470 in 2004-05 to 796 in 2007-08. These organizations are identified as being important
players in:
• providing aids and appliances to CWSN
• Planning and management of inclusive education and
• Resource support
While NGOs continue to be the sole players in the delivery of special education through grants-
9
in-aids received from the government, particularly the MSJE , their involvement is being
actively sought in efforts towards changing the role of special education centers and in meeting
the goals of mainstreaming. SSA (2005) outlines three ways of facilitating these developments:
• Developing special schools as resource centers,
• Greater links between mainstream and special schools, and
• Greater overlap between training for special and general teachers.

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vi) Inclusive education
There is no organized provision of any formal education for disabled children in India. Only few
schools have tried to initiate their inclusion but still a great majority of special needs children are
out from mainstream schools. The reasons may be the segregation of these children due to
learning deficiencies, regular routines and social activities of normal children. Anusha
Balasubramanian says “children with disabilities and special needs also have the right to
education just as normal children do”. Sometimes lack of awareness and economic condition of
parents prevents them from normal setting. Efforts have been done to make inclusive schools
have to be well-equipped in all aspects to cater and deliver quality education for all children.
Various elements of education system require a bit change in them for building Inclusive
education system. Some very common factors like flexibility in curriculum, ways of independent
learning, attitudes of class mates and adequate attention from the teacher are making the
inclusive education unfair for PWDs which is leading towards failure of receiving higher
education.
An example of inclusive education in India is the Heritage School located in Kolkata. It is well-
known for its inclusive education philosophy. This school has developed need-based program for
special needs students and let them to recognize their own skills and increase peer interaction.
MeenakshiAtal, the Vice Principal of the school says, “Participation is key to academic inclusion
and we ensure that the participation of the children with special needs in all mainstream activities
happens to the best of their abilities”. Other examples are; The Heritage School, Akshar School,
Vydehi School of Excellence, Chettinad Srihari Vikasam etc. all these schools are famous in
providing individualized learning programs for special needs children.
Let us do an exercise to check the learning.

7.4.4 NORWAY
The Norwegian educational system has grow never more open and accessible. As late as in 2009,
all children became entitled to attend kindergarten, according to specific rules. Practically all
young people apply for upper secondary education and training. Norwegian working life
demands high levels of skills and knowledge, and the Ministry of Education and Research is
strongly committed to seeing as many young people as possible complete their upper secondary

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education and training and attaining the qualifications required for further studies or working
life.
The Norwegian population is generally well educated and social differences are relatively small.
Few countries spend as much on education as Norway. There is broad political consensus on the
purpose of the schools, i.e. to give children and young people an opportunity to attain a well
rounded education, personal development, knowledge and skills. Studies and surveys show that
both students and teachers report that they are content at school. This provides a sound basis for
continuing the development and improvement of our educational system (Meld. St. 18, 2010-
2011).
i) National education system
Pupils with special educational needs are generally integrated into mainstream early childhood
education and schooling, with provision for extra help in class where required. Approximately
six per cent of pupils in compulsory education are recognized as having special educational
needs. Only 0.5 per cent attends special schools (Meld. St. 18).

The National Support System for Special Education (Statped).

The general objective for Statped is to give guidance and support to those in charge of the
education in municipalities and county administrations to ensure that children, young people and
adults with major and special educational needs are secured well-advised educational and
developmental provisions. Statped consists of 13 resource centers owned by the State, and 5
units for special education, owned by local authorities, county administrations, foundations or
private organizations, where Statped buys services. These centers offer special educational
guidance and support for local authorities and county administrations.

ii) Rights
The Education Act of 17 July 1998 states that teaching shall be adapted to the abilities and
aptitudes of individual pupils at primary, lower secondary and upper secondary level.
Students who are not able to perform at satisfactorily level from teaching in ordinary classroom,
reserve a right to special education. There is no distinction between different forms of special
education in this Education Act(Meld. St. 18, 2010-2011).

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 iii) Policy
Councils for disabled persons have been established on local levels with the mandate to promote
participation and equality and they represent an important link between the authorities and the
organizations. In the 1990s a new strategy in the politics for persons with disabilities was
launched, namely to work out national plans of action that obliged all relevant ministries to carry
out clearly specified actions. Earmarked grants, stimulation grants, information, projects and user
participation followed. Also on the municipal and county levels, plans of actions were worked
out and they have on the whole contributed to more integrated and long-term solutions. The
overall strategies to overcome discrimination have been to secure the right to full participation
and equality of all citizens in an inclusive society, and to specify how these rights in some cases
require special measures to become a reality for persons with disabilities (Meld. St. 18, 2010-
2011).
iv) Educational set up
Separate special schools do not exist anymore for blind and visually impaired children. To
provide assistance and support to the blind and visually impaired children two National Resource
Centers are in function and provide assistance of adapted education in ordinary schools.
Teaching materials and courses for pupils and teachers are prepared at these centers.
v) Higher Education Provisions
There is no legal basis for the policy of equal right to education. However, according to the Act
on Universities and University Colleges of 2000, higher education institutions should provide
facilities suitable for students with special needs. According to the Act, the higher education
institutions must ensure the learning environment at the institution. The physical and mental
working environment is made fully appropriate on the basis of an overall assessment of the
health, safety and welfare requirements of the students. The design of the physical working
environment is well flourished and it ensures that premises, access roads, sanitary facilities and
technical installations are designed according to the accessibility standards and enables persons
with disabilities to study at the institution. The Act also states that “the institutions shall, to the
extent possible and reasonable, adapt study provisions for students with special needs”. The Act
did not allow reduction of the academic requirements of the individual courses (Meld. St. 18,
2010-2011).

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Facilities for students with special needs at examinations including buying PCs, renting extra
rooms, wages for secretaries and inspectors' extra hours at prolonged examinations are also
provided at these higher education institutions legally. Adult education has a large variety of
training opportunities for PWDs. Teaching to disabled adults includes vocational training and
lifelong learning. It is provided at separate centers or departments in approximately one-third of
municipalities the teaching is carried out with social and medical institutions of the locality.

vi) Teaching of Compensatory Skills

Training and certificates for visually impaired students (Braille, computer, daily-living skills,
mobility, etc.)
The pupil generally receives a certificate/diploma stating the content of the courses he/she has
taken and teaching methods used. The teacher's assessment of the pupil's achievement and
progress in skills and knowledge are stated in the certificate/diploma.
Provision of accessible text books and other educational material
Some special schools and National Resource Centers have Internet shops for educational tools
offered as CD-ROM, video, DVD, in print or Braille.
Provision of assistive technology
ICT-assisted teaching is important for disabled children. Pupils receive systematic education in
using ICT in school subjects. ICT based tools are important for the disabled in their
communication with society.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISABILITY, GENDER AND EDUCATION IN

THE NORWEGIAN CONTEXT
Norway has used strategies along three separate dimensions (education, disability and gender) in
its work towards the goal of education for all (EFA), regardless of ability and gender. Strategies
targeting specifically girls with disabilities in education have hardly occurred (Monica Dalen and
SiriWormnæs, p.4). They illustrated strategies in the following way:

 Strategies addressing equality in education

 Strategies addressing disability in society
 Strategies addressing gender equality

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  Equality in Education Regardless of ability and gender

Norway has come a long way towards gender equality in education and has to a great extent
combated discrimination of girls with disabilities. However, new and unexpected challenges in
education related to the gender issue and special needs have emerged recently (Monica Dalen
and SiriWormnæs, p.3-4).
An activity is given below to practice the theoretical information.

7.5 Exercise
Q1. Give an overview of disability estimates in India.
Q2. Differentiate between Inclusive, Integrated and Segregated Education
Q3. Discuss two most common models of disability that have been explored over the past couple of
years; social model and the medical model.
Q4. High light International Policies and Guidelines set for inclusive education worldwide.
Q5. Discuss the Legislation about CURRICULAR ISSUES AND CONCERNS.
Q6. Give an account on Changing Role of Special Schools.

7.6 ACTIVITY
Visit to a school for disabled children in your locality. Discuss the barriers in the use of
technology with the teachers and students and formulate a report on these barriers with the
suggestion to overcome them.

7.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Q1. Discuss the Issues of access and enrolment of disabled children in India, in the light of
Current educational status of children with disabilities
Q2. Explain the mechanism of Provision of aids and appliances
Q3. What are the different types of schools working in India?

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Q4. Discuss the magnitude of disability and elaborate policies concerning education of
children with disabilities. How much resources have been allocation for special education
in India?
Q5. How integrated education has been organized? Specify the role of NGOs in expending
the concept of integrated education.
Q6. Explain the history of development of special education in Pakistan. Khatoon highlighted
the pattern of development of special schools in Pakistan. What findings had she made on
this analysis?
Q7. Discuss the educational set up of special education in different countries of the world.
Q8. How the teachers of special children with disabilities are trained in national perspectives?
Q9. How the special education set up of Norway and England is different from Pakistan?
Q10. Elaborate main points of debates on inclusive education in international perspective.

4.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Rao, I. (2003).Inclusive Education in the Indian Context. Link:
http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/inclusive_education_indian.php
Inclusive education for children with special needs retrieved from
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-opportunities/inclusive-education-for-
children-with-special-needs/article3959638.ece

REFERENCES
Academic Research International (2011).ISSN: 2223-9553, Volume 1, Issue 2, September 2011
Copyright © 2011 SAVAP International.www.savap.org.pk

Ahmed, Saeed (2011). Academic Research International, ISSN: 2223, Volume 1, Issue 2,
September 2011, Copyright © 2011 SAVAP International. URL: www.savap.org.pk ,
www.journals.savap.org.pk
Ahmad, Saeed & Muhammad Yousaf (September 2011). SPECIAL EDUCATION IN
PAKISTAN: IN THE PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL POLICIES AND
PLANS.2011 SAVAP International. Academic Research International, Volume 1, Issue 2,
228-231.

215
Dalen, Monica and Wormnæs, Siri (2003).Short paper from Norway to the UNESCO’s
Monitoring Report for 2003 focusing on Gender. Department of Special Needs Education,
University of Oslo, Norway
Heward, W.L. (Jul 20, 2010). What is Special Education? Pearson Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall.
Government of India. (March, 2012). The Constitution of India. 1 December, 2007. Web.18
<http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf>.

Government of India. (2009). “Inclusive Education of the Disabled at the Secondary Stage
(IEDSS): Ministry of Human Resource Development. Web. 2 April, 2012.
<http://www.india.gov.in/govt/viewscheme.php?schemeid=2061>.
Government of India.(2007). “SarvaShikshaAbhiyan.”SarvaShikshaAbhiyan: a programme for
the universalization of inclusive education. Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Department of School Education & Literacy.Web. 16 March, 2012. <http://ssa.nic.in/>.

Kalyanpur, Maya (2008). Equality, Quality and Quantity: Challenges in Inclusive Education
Policy and Service Provision in India. International Journal of Inclusive Education. 12.3
(2008): Print.
Khatoon, Aqila, Ali (2003). A historical and evaluative study of special education in
Pakistan.Anunpulished doctoral Thesis, University of Karachi.
Kohama,Angela(June 2012).Inclusive Education in India: A Country in Transition. An
Undergraduate Honors Thesis Presented to the Department of International Studies at the
University of Oregon, India.
Meld. St. 18 (2010-2011) Report to the Storting (white paper) Summary 2010–2011, Learning
together, Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research.
Miles,M. (1990).Special Education in Pakistan International Journal of Disability, Development
and EducationVolume 37, Issue 2, 1990: pages 159-168.
Rao, I. (2003).Inclusive Education in the Indian Context. Link:
http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/inclusive_education_indian.php
Singal, Nidhi, Dr. (2009).Education of children with disabilities in India.“Paper commissioned
for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010, Reaching the
marginalized”.2010/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/21.

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Singal,Nidhi. Dr. (2009). Education of children with disabilities in India “Paper commissioned
for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010, Reaching the marginalized” UNESCO.
Singal,Nidhi. Dr. (2010). Education of children with disabilities in India. A background paper
prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2010. Reaching the
marginalized .
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)(2003). Examples of Inclusive Education, India.
Regional Office for South Asia.

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 Unit No. 8

Curriculum Planning and Development

Written by: Tahira Bibi

Reviewed by:
Naila Naseer

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 CONTENTS
Introduction
Objectives of the Unit
1. Curriculum Development
2. Scope of the Curriculum Development
3. Curriculum Development in Comparative Perspectives
4. Curriculum Development in United States Of America
5. Curriculum Development in United Kingdom
6. Curriculum Development in Pakistan
7. Curriculum Development in India
8. Self Assessment Questions
9. Recommended Books
10. References
11. Website Addresses

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INTRODUCTION

Ever since the term curriculum was added to educators' vocabularies, it has seemed to

convey many things to many people. To some, curriculum has denoted a specific course, while

to others it has meant the entire educational environment. As Stenhouse (1980) said that “All

educational ideas must find expression in curricula before we can tell whether they are day

dreams or contributions to practice. Many educational ideas are not found wanting because they

cannot be found at all.”

Curriculum is the crux of whole educational process. Whereas perceptions of the term may

vary, it must be recognized that curriculum encompasses more than a simple definition.

Curriculum is a key element in the educational process; its scope is extremely broad, and it

touches virtually everyone who is involved with teaching and learning.

This unit provides information on education system and curriculum developments in

countries which represent different stages of development, different philosophies and have

different ways of dealing with educational issues. The unit aims at offering insight into forms of

upbringing, schooling and enlighting in countries other than ours. A comparatives study of the

curriculum is all the more important as curriculum is at the very heart of educational endeavor

and deserves careful attention.

This unit focuses on curriculum within the context of curriculum planning as well as

comparative study of curriculum development of selected countries. In no other area has greater

emphasis been placed upon the development of curricula that are relevant in terms of student and

community needs and substantive outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit students will be able to:

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 1. Describe the curriculum planning and development in selected countries of the world.

2. Compare and contrast the systems of curriculum of the identified countries.

3. Analyze the process of curriculum development in Pakistan with other countries

4. Suggest various ideas and processes of curriculum development for adoption in our own

situation.

8.1 CURRICULUM PLANNING

A Curriculum Planning is the process whereby the arrangement of curriculum plans or

learning opportunities are created. Curriculum planning is the decision-making process about the

content and the organization of learning for which the school is responsible. Different groups of

people decide on the variety of topics and issues concerned with the educational needs of pupils.

https://www.questia.com

8.2 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Our curriculum is who we are. It reflects the diversity of the disciplines that make up our

educational institutions, the myriad pedagogical philosophies we bring to the classroom each

day, and the strengths of our education and training.

Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process. The development of

programs of study, learning and teaching resources, lesson plans and assessment of students,

and even teacher education are all based on curriculum. Curriculum and curriculum

development at first glance appear to be of chief concern to educators, governments and

parents, and both have relevance and impact on the development of communities and

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prosperity. According to De Coninck (2008), curriculum, more than ever before, is now viewed

as being at the centre of daily life and the responsibility of society as a whole.

Levin (2007) noted that curriculum documents were “a very large part of the work done

by ministries of education in creating curriculum content (para. 1).” However, over time, Levin

(2007) states that educational change is more complex, and “as governments have attempted to

make large-scale changes,” curriculum change has become “less of an activity in its own right”

and curriculum renewal has become part of a broader strategy for change in education.

Curriculum development today presents both a strategic process challenge as well as a

policy challenge. For example, should the policy aim to teach what is of value, as embodied in

subject disciplines, and for deep understanding in preparation for competing in the global

economy? Or should policy aim for a personalized curriculum that recognizes students as active

partners in their learning and develops their potential as a person? One response to the question

could be “both” (Ackerman, 2003).

8.3 CONCEPT AND SCOPE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The word Curriculum is derived from the Latin language which means a course of deeds

and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. Oliva (1997) has

explained the meaning of curriculum as the following:

 It is a course of study or a set of subjects or set of performance objectives or a program of

studies.

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  It is everything that goes on within the school, including extra-class activities, guidance,

and interpersonal relationships.

 It is everything that is planned by the school personnel.

 It is a series of experiences undergone by learners in a school.

Cunninghum defined curriculum as a tool in the hands of the artist (teachers) to mould

his material (the pupil) in accordance with his ideals (aims and objectives) in his studio (school).

The curriculum planning and development process systematically organizes what will be

taught, who will be taught, and how it will be taught. Each component affects and interacts with

other components. For example, what will be taught is affected by who is being taught (e.g., their

stage of development in age, maturity, and education). Methods of how content is taught are

affected by who is being taught, their characteristics, and the setting. In considering the above

three essential components, the following are widely held to be essential considerations in

experiential education in non-formal settings:

8.2.1 Concept of Curriculum Development

Curriculum Development is defined as the process of selecting, organizing, executing,

and evaluating learning experiences on the basis of the needs, abilities and interests of the

learners and the nature of the society or community. Curriculum development is defined as

planned, purposeful, progressive, and systematic process in order to create positive

improvements in the educational system. Every time there are changes or developments

happening around the world, the school curricula are affected. There is a need to update them in

order to address the society’s needs.

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8.2.2 Scope of Curriculum Development

Curriculum development has a broad scope because it is not only about the school, the

learners and the teachers. It is also about the development of a society in general.

In today’s knowledge economy, curriculum development plays a vital role in improving

the economy of a country. It also provides answers or solutions to the world’s pressing

conditions and problems, such as environment, politics, socio-economics, and other issues on

poverty, climate change and sustainable development.

There must be a chain of developmental process to develop a society. First, the school

curriculum particularly in higher education must be developed to preserve the country’s national

identity and to ensure its economy’s growth and stability. Thus, the president of a country must

have a clear vision for his people and for the country as well.

I believe that the country’s economy can improve the people’s way of life through

curriculum development. And in order to develop it, curriculum experts or specialists should

work hand in hand with the lawmakers (senators and congressmen), the local government

officials, such as governors, mayors, and others; the business communities and industries; and

stakeholders to set implementing rules and policies for educational reforms.

8.2.3 Essential Considerations for Curriculum Development:

1. Issue/problem/need is identified (issue  what),

2. Characteristics and needs of learners (target audience  who),

3. Changes intended for learners (intended outcomes/objectives  what the learners will be

able to do),

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 4. The important and relevant content (what),

5. Methods to accomplish intended outcomes (how),

6. Evaluation strategies for methods, content, and intended outcomes (What works?).

8.2.4 PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

The essential steps of Curriculum development is illustrated in Figure 1. It also shows the

interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development process.

Following are the phases of curriculum development:

(I) Planning,

(2) Content and Methods,

(3) Implementation, and

(4) Evaluation and Reporting.

Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not

always separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the

curriculum development team is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of

the steps to assess progress. The team learns what works and what does not and determines the

impact of the curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step logically follows the

previous. It would make no sense to design learning activities before learner outcomes and

content are described and identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined before learner

outcomes are described.

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Figure 1

The above mentioned curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These

steps are essential to successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized.

8.2.5 Essential Curriculum Planning and Development Steps Needing Emphasis

1. Needs assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be developed, but the

appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.

2. Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be the

implementers of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as full members of

the curriculum development team).

3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled curriculum

implementers are critical (the printed word cannot teach experiential group process, it

doesn't provide feedback).

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 4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for securing

human and financial support from key policy decision makers and for assessing whether

the curriculum has achieved the intended outcome.

Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps illustration:

a. Formative Evaluation

Formative provides feedback during the process of developing the curriculum, and

b. Summative Evaluation

Summative feedback answers questions about changes (impact) that have occurred in

learners because of their learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence

for what works, what does not work, and what needs to be improved.

In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep

the learner (in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the

curriculum team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be

involved in conducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem

areas are identified, gaps between what learner know and what they need to know are identified,

and the scope of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to

allocate resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.

A brief description of each of the curriculum development steps is described below. After

reviewing these descriptions, you should have a very clear idea of how the steps occur in each of

the phases and what each step includes.

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Phase I: Planning

The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps.

The steps in this phase include:

(1) Identify Issue/Problem/Need

The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or

problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to

be addressed to define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the

members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify,

the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content.

(2) Form Curriculum Development Team

Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum

development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include:

a. The roles and functions of team members,

b. A process for selecting members of the curriculum development team, and

c. Principles of collaboration and teamwork

The goal is to obtain expertise for the areas included in the scope of the curriculum

content among the team members and develop an effective team.

(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis

There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a

needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and by

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whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP -

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.

Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to

use the data and the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps

between knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs;

and identification of the characteristics of the target audience.

Phase II: Content and Methods

The content and method phase determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able

to do after participation in curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the

methods (how it will be taught). Steps include:

(1) State Intended Outcomes

Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed

and prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended

outcomes or educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able to

do as a result of participating in the curriculum activities.

This section includes:

a) A definition of intended outcomes,

b) The components of intended outcomes (condition, performance, and standards),

c) Examples of intended outcomes, and

d) An overview of learning behaviors.

(2) Select Content

The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will

make a real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point,

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the primary questions are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need

to know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors will need to be acquired and

practiced?"

The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors) and the sequence

(order) of the content are also discussed.

(3) Design Experiential Methods

After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to

help the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and its

components (i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this section.

Additional topics include the following:

1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;

2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);

3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and

4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.

Phase III: Implementation:

(1) Produce Curriculum Product:

Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of

curriculum materials begins. This section includes: 1) suggestions for finding and evaluating

existing materials; 2) evaluation criteria; and 3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.

(2) Test and Revise Curriculum:

This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of

curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided.

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(3) Recruit and Train Facilitators:

It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for

facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a

sample three-day training program.

(4) Implement Curriculum:

Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without

planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.

Phase IV: Evaluation and Reporting

(1) Design Evaluation Strategies

Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types

of evaluation, formative and summative, are used during curriculum development. Formative

evaluations are used during the needs assessment, product development, and testing steps.

Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the curriculum.

This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce valid and

reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative evaluation process

and a sample evaluation format is suggested.

(2) Reporting and Securing Resources

The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the pay off (i.e., getting the results into

the hands of people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to

key shareholders, especially funding and policy decision makers, are provided and a brief

discussion on how to secure resources for additional programming.

8.3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES

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 Educational planners and administrators as well as students of education in every nation

need to know a lot about education, its organization and management in countries other than

their own. It is beyond any shadow of doubt that the future of not only a nation, but of the entire

mankind and the civilization depend on the purpose, kind and quality of education provided to its

members as well as on developments that will affect education and will be affected by education

for the succeeding generations all over the world.

Different nations adopt different method to meet the educational challenges of today. The

study of educational system, curriculum development in other countries provides an important

key to the understanding and interpretation of major national and international issues, trends and

problems. It can also bring to light the potential strengths and weaknesses in the educational

system of the country under study.

During the last decade, various efforts have been made in each country to remodel its

education system to bring it into line with social, economic, political, and cultural change. These

educational changes are reflected in national educational policies and the curriculum framework.

In the subsequent sections, educational systems and curricula of the following countries have

been reviewed:

1. USA

2. UK

3. Pakistan

4. India

Having studied the process of curriculum development in the above mentioned countries,

you are expected to draw inferences and compare and contrast different features of this activity

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with reference to Pakistan and other countries. Let us now proceed further to study the practices

of curriculum development in these countries one by one.

8.4 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

8.4.1 Introduction:

The United States is a country located in North America bordering the Atlantic Ocean and

Pacific Ocean. Neighboring countries are Canada and Mexico. The geography of the United

States is varied with mountains in the west, broad central plain and low mountains in the east.

The government system is a constitution-based federal republic with a strong democratic

tradition. The chief of state and head of government is the President. United States has an

advanced mixed economy in which there is a variety of private freedom, combined with

centralized economic planning and government regulation.

The US has the most diversified education system in the world, with public and private schools

(‘school’ usually refers to everything from kindergarten to university) at all levels flourishing

alongside each other.

8.4.2 Education and Curriculum in the USA

Americans of all ages have an insatiable appetite for education and self-improvement, and no

society in history has educated its young more persistently or at greater expense than the US.

Around 85 per cent of students complete high school and the US also has a higher percentage of

college graduates (some 55 %) than any other country. Many American universities and other

higher education institutions are internationally renowned (the US arguably has the best

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undergraduate education system in the world) and their student bodies include thousands of

foreign students from all corners of the globe.

Full-time education is compulsory in all states and includes the children of foreign nationals

permanently or temporarily resident in the US for a minimum of one year. Formal education

comprises three levels: elementary, secondary and higher. Vocational training, adult education,

and special schools or classes also form part of the education program in most states. There are

also private schools catering for gifted and talented children, and most public schools have gifted

and talented programs.

Under the Obama administration, education has become an urgent priority driven by two clear

goals set by the president:

 By 2020, we will raise the proportion of college graduates from where it now stands

(about 41 %) so that 60 % of our population holds a two-year or four-year degree

(National Center for Public Policy and Higher Education 2008).

 We will close the achievement gap so that all students graduate from high school ready to

succeed in college and careers.

The United States has no national education system. Since education is not mentioned in

the U.S. constitution, school policy is a matter for each state to decide. The Federal government

can influence education only by the funding it offers.

At the higher education level, students have a wide range of options when they choose a college

or university. An important value in American education is equal access. At all levels, the goal

are for each learner to reach her or his potential, whatever that might be.

The first years of compulsory schooling are called elementary or primary school (just to

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confuse the issue, elementary schools are also called grade or grammar schools). Secondary

education is for children aged 12 to 18. Secondary school generally takes place in a high

school, which is often divided into junior and senior high. Junior high (also called Middle

School) is for those aged 11 to 14 and senior high is for students aged 15 to 18.

The elementary school curriculum varies with the organization and educational aims of

individual schools and local communities. Promotion from one grade to the next is based on a

student’s achievement of specified skills, although a child is required to repeat a year in

exceptional circumstances only. (Some school districts are returning to testing as a means of

determining when a child is ready to move to the next grade, in an effort to reduce reliance on

‘social promotion,’ and this is becoming yet another contentious issue.)

Elementary schools provide instruction in the fundamental skills of reading, writing and

mathematics, as well as history and geography (taught together as social studies), crafts, music,

science, art and physical education (phys education) or gym. Foreign languages, which used to

be taught at high schools only, are now being introduced during the last few years of elementary

school in some areas (although in some cities, state schools don’t offer any foreign language

teaching). Elementary students are usually given homework; however, the workload is lighter

than in many countries. The workload increases with higher grades.

Many elementary schools offer Gifted Education Programs. Those are programs that

address the needs of students for whom the regular curriculum in one or more subjects is not

challenging enough.

Secondary school students must take certain ‘core’ curriculum courses for a prescribed

number of years or terms, as determined by each state. These generally include English,

mathematics, general science, health, physical education and social studies or social sciences

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(which may include American history and government, geography, world history and social

problems). Students are streamed (tracked) in some high schools for academic subjects, where

the brightest students are put on a ‘fast track’. This means students are given the opportunity to

take enriched classes in one or more academic subject. The brightest students can also take

college level classes during the last two years of high schools. To learn more about academic

opportunities offered in secondary school.

In addition to mandatory subjects, students choose ‘electives’ (optional subjects), which

supplement their future education and career plans. Electives usually comprise around half of a

student’s work in grades 9 to 12. Students concentrate on four subjects each quarter and are

seldom ‘pushed’ beyond their capability or capacity for learning.

High schools offer a wide range of subjects from which students can choose a program

leading to college/university entrance or a career in business or industry. The courses offered

vary from school to school and are listed in school curriculum guides. Around the ninth grade,

students receive counseling as they begin to plan their careers and select subjects that are useful

in their chosen fields. Counseling continues throughout the senior high school years and into

college, particularly in junior college or the first two years of a four-year college program.

Larger schools may offer a selection of elective courses. Students planning to go on to

college or university elect courses with an emphasis on academic sciences (biology, chemistry,

physics), higher mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry and calculus), advanced English

literature, composition, social sciences and foreign languages.

Program is adopted by a high school in addition to its state-mandated curriculum. Most

colleges take AP exam results into consideration in the admissions process. Because AP

courses are intended to be the equivalent of the first year of college courses, some colleges may

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grant unit credit which enables students to graduate early. Other institutions use examinations

for placement purposes only: students are exempted from introductory course work but may not

receive credit towards a concentration, degree, or core requirement. Colleges vary in the

selection of examinations they accept and the scores they require to grant credit or placement,

with more elite institutions tending to accept fewer examinations and requiring higher scoring.

For example, some institutions accept AP scores of 4 or 5, and some accept scores of 3.

8.5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED KINDOM:

The United Kingdom is made up of England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

United Kingdom is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, and

the Irish Sea. It has a long history as a major player in international affairs. The twentieth

century saw Britain having to redefine its place in the world. At the beginning of the century it

commanded a world-wide empire as the foremost global power. Two world wars and the end of

empire diminished its role, but the UK remains a major economic and military power, with

considerable political and cultural influence around the world. The chief of state is the Queen

and the head of government is the Prime Minister.

8.5.1 EDUCATION SYSTEM IN THE UK

Across the UK there are five stages of education: early years, primary, secondary,

Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE). Education is compulsory for all children

between the ages of 5 (4 in Northern Ireland) and 16. FE is not compulsory and covers non-

advanced education which can be taken at further (including tertiary) education colleges and HE

institutions (HEIs). The fifth stage, HE, is study beyond GCE A levels and their equivalent

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which, for most full-time students, takes place in universities and other HEIs and colleges.

1. Early Years Education:

In England since September 2010, all three and four year olds are entitled to 15 hours of

free nursery education for 38 weeks of the year. Early Years education takes place in a variety of

settings including state nursery schools, nursery classes and reception classes within primary

schools, as well as settings outside the state sector such as voluntary pre-schools, privately run

nurseries or child minders. In recent years there has been a major expansion of Early Years

education and childcare. The Education Act 2002 extended the National Curriculum for England

to include the Foundation Stage which was first introduced in September 2000, and covered

children’s education from the age of 3 to the end of the reception year, when children are aged 5.

2. Primary Education:

The primary stage covers three age ranges: nursery (under 5), infant (5 to 7 or 8) (Key

Stage 1) and junior (up to 11 or 12) (Key Stage 2) but in Scotland and Northern Ireland there is

generally no distinction between infant and junior schools. In Wales, although the types of

school are the same, the Foundation Phase has brought together what was previously known as

the Early Years (from 3 to 5-year-olds) and Key Stage 1 (from 5 to 7-year-olds) of the National

Curriculum to create one phase of education for children aged between three and seven. In

England, primary schools generally cater for 4-11 year olds. Some primary schools may have a

nursery or a children’s centre attached to cater for younger children. Most public sector primary

schools take both boys and girls in mixed classes. It is usual to transfer straight to secondary

school at age 11 (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) or 12 (in Scotland), but in England

some children make the transition via middle schools catering for various age ranges between 8

and 14. Depending on their individual age ranges middle schools are classified as either primary

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or secondary.

The major goals of primary education are achieving basic literacy and numeracy

amongst all pupils, as well as establishing foundations in science, mathematics and other

subjects. Children in England and Northern Ireland are assessed at the end of Key Stage 1 and

Key Stage 2. In Wales, all learners in their final year of Foundation Phase and Key Stage 2

must be assessed through teacher assessments.

3. Secondary Education:

In England, public provision of secondary education in an area may consist of a

combination of different types of school, the pattern reflecting historical circumstance and the

policy adopted by the local authority. Comprehensive schools largely admit pupils without

reference to ability or aptitude and cater for all the children in a neighborhood, but in some areas

they co-exist with other types of schools, for example grammar schools. Academies, operating in

England, are publicly funded independent schools. Academies benefit from greater freedoms to

help innovate and raise standards. These include freedom from local authority control, the ability

to set their own pay and conditions for staff, freedom around the delivery of the curriculum and

the ability to change the lengths of terms and school days. The Academies Programme was first

introduced in March 2000 with the objective of replacing poorly performing schools. Academies

were established and driven by external sponsors, to achieve a transformation in education

performance. The Academies Programme was expanded through legislation in the Academies

Act 2010. This enables all maintained primary, secondary and special schools to apply to

become an Academy. The early focus is on schools rated outstanding by Ofsted and the first of

these new academies opened in September 2010. These schools do not have a sponsor but

instead are expected to work with underperforming schools to help raise standards.

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In Wales, secondary schools take pupils at 11 years old until statutory school age and

beyond.

Education authority secondary schools in Scotland are comprehensive in character and offer

six years of secondary education; however, in remote areas there are several two-year and

four-year secondary schools.

In Northern Ireland, post-primary education consists of 5 compulsory years and two

further years if students wish to remain in school to pursue post GCSE / Level 2 courses to

Level 3. Ministerial policy is that transfer should be on the basis of non-academic criteria,

however legally post primary schools can still admit pupils based on academic performance.

At the end of this stage of education, pupils are normally entered for a range of external

examinations. Most frequently, these are GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) in

England, Wales and Northern Ireland and Standard Grades in Scotland, although a range of other

qualifications are available. In Scotland pupils study for the National Qualifications (NQ)

Standard grade (a two-year course leading to examinations at the end of the fourth year of

secondary schooling) and NQ Higher grade, which requires at least a further year of secondary

schooling. From 1999/00 additional new NQ were introduced in Scotland to allow greater

flexibility and choice in the Scottish examination system. NQ include Intermediate 1 & 2

designed primarily for candidates in the fifth and sixth year of secondary schooling, however

these are used in some schools as an alternative to Standard Grades.

4. Further Education:

Further education may be used in a general sense to cover all non-advanced courses

taken after the period of compulsory education. It is post-compulsory education (in addition to

that received at secondary school), that is distinct from the education offered in universities

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(higher education). It may be at any level from basic skills training to higher vocational

education such as City and Guilds or Foundation Degree.

A distinction is usually made between FE and higher education (HE). HE is education at

a higher level than secondary school. This is usually provided in distinct institutions such as

universities. FE in the United Kingdom therefore includes education for people over 16, usually

excluding universities. It is primarily taught in FE colleges, work-based learning, and adult and

community learning institutions. This includes post-16 courses similar to those taught at schools

and sub-degree courses similar to those taught at higher education (HE) colleges (which also

teach degree-level courses) and at some universities.

Colleges in England that are regarded as part of the FE sector include General FE (GFE)

and tertiary colleges, Sixth form colleges, Specialist colleges (mainly colleges of agriculture and

horticulture and colleges of drama and dance) and Adult education institutes.

In addition, FE courses may be offered in the school sector, both in sixth form (16-19)

schools, or, more commonly, sixth forms within secondary schools.

In England, further education is often seen as forming one part of a wider learning and

skills sector, alongside workplace education, prison education, and other types of non-school,

non-university education and training. Since June 2009, the sector is overseen by the new

Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, although some parts (such as education and

training for 14-19 year olds) fall within the remit of the Department for Education.

5. Higher Education:

Higher education is defined as courses that are of a standard that is higher than GCE A level, the

Higher Grade of the SCE/National Qualification, GNVQ/NVQ level 3 or the Edexcel (formerly

BTEC) or SQA National Certificate/Diploma. There are three main levels of HE course:

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(i) Postgraduate courses leading to higher degrees, diplomas and certificates (including

Doctorate, Masters (research and taught), Postgraduate diplomas and certificates as well as

postgraduate certificates of education (PGCE) and professional qualifications) which usually

require a first degree as entry qualification.

(ii) Undergraduate courses which include first degrees (honours and ordinary), first degrees with

qualified teacher status, enhanced first degrees, first degrees obtained concurrently with a

diploma, and intercalated first degrees (where first degree students, usually in medicine,

dentistry or veterinary medicine, interrupt their studies to complete a one-year course of

advanced studies in a related topic).

(iii)Other undergraduate courses which include all other higher education courses, for example

SVQ or NVQ: Level 5, Diploma (HNC/D level for diploma and degree holders), HND (or

equivalent), HNC (or equivalent) and SVQ or NVQ: Level 4 and Diplomas in HE.

As a result of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, former polytechnics and some

other HEIs were designated as universities in 1992/93. Students normally attend HE courses at

HEIs, but some attend at FE colleges.

8.5.2 Curriculum Development

In the UK, Occupational Standards are used to determine the requirements of qualifications and

their supporting curriculum. Four different bodies oversee this process in the four home

countries.

1. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA)

2. The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA)

3. Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales (ACCAC)

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 4. Council for the Curriculum Examinations and Assessment (CCEA)

1. England - The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA):

The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) is committed to building a world-class

education and training framework that meets the changing needs of individuals, business and

society. We lead developments in curriculum, assessments, examinations and qualifications.

The QCA is the guardian of standards and quality across all qualifications in England and Wales.

It advises the government about all qualifications, including the school curriculum and

assessment.

In addition, QCA:

a. Manages the national Assessment system

b. Develops, regulates and monitors the national qualifications system

c. Provides national data, information, guidance and support for those involved in

education and training

d. Monitors the activity of awarding bodies.

2. Scotland - The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA):

In Scotland the SQA is both an accrediting and awarding body. It regulates the

awarding bodies in Scotland and can also award every type of Scottish

qualification except degrees.

3. Wales - Qualifications, Curriculum and Assessment Authority for Wales

(ACCAC):

The ACCAC is responsible for advising the National Assembly for Wales on all

aspects of the school curriculum, examinations, assessment and vocational

qualifications.

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 4. Northern Ireland - Council for the Curriculum Examinations and Assessment

(CCEA):

The CCEA advises the Government in Northern Ireland on what should be taught

in schools and colleges, monitors standards of qualifications and examinations,

and awards qualifications.

8.6. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE INDIA :

India, officially Republic of India, republic (2005 est pop. 1,080,264,000), 1,261,810 sq

mi (3,268,090 sq km), Asia. The second most populous country in the world, it is also sometimes

called Bharat, its ancient name. India's land frontier (c.9,500 mi/15,290 km long) stretches from

the Arabian Sea on the west to the Bay of Bengal on the east and touches Pakistan (W); China,

Nepal, and Bhutan (N); Bangladesh, which forms an enclave in the northeast; and Myanmar (E).

New Delhi is India's capital and Mumbai (formerly Bombay) its largest city.

India is a union comprised of twenty-five states and seven territories. The

Constitution provides directives regarding the development of education throughout the country.

The areas in which the respective central and state governments have domain have been

identified in the Constitution as the central list, state list and concurrent list. Until the late 1970s,

school education had been on the state list, which meant that states had the final say in the

management of their respective school systems. However, in 1976, education was transferred to

the concurrent list through a constitutional amendment, the objective being to promote

meaningful educational partnerships between the central and state governments. Today, the

central government establishes broad education policies for school curricula development and

management practices. These serve as guidelines for the states.

National policies are evolved through a mechanism of extensive consultations, in which all

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the states and union territories actively participate. Periodically, the central/state governments

appoint commissions and committees to ex-amine various aspects of education. In addition,

country-wide debate takes place on various educational issues. The recommendations of various

commissions, committees and national seminars, and the consensus that emerges during these

national debates, form the basis for India’s education policies. During the post-independence

period, a major concern of the Government of India and of the states was education as a factor

vital to national development. In this context, India’s educational reconstruction problems have

been periodically reviewed by several commissions and committees. Their deliberations,

recommendations and reports have formed the basis for the 1968 National Policy on Education

(NPE) and the National Policy on Education Resolution of 1986.

8.6.1THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

The process of curriculum development in India lies between the two extremes of

centralization and decentralization. From time to time, the national government formulates the

National Policy on Education which includes broad guidelines regarding content and process of

education at different stages. These guidelines are further elaborated by the National Council of

Educational Re-search and Training (NCERT).

Using as its foundation the NPEs of 1968 and 1986, two curriculum initiatives have been

launched by NCERT: (a) The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School—a framework (1975); and

(b) The National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education—a framework (1988).

The curriculum framework prepared at the central level provides a broad overview of the school

curriculum, including general objectives, subject-wise objectives, suggested scheme of studies,

and guidelines for the transaction of the curriculum and the evaluation of pupil outcomes. These

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detailed curricula, syllabi and instructional materials are developed at the national level. The

NCERT has also developed the syllabi and instructional materials used in the schools run by

central organizations.

However, the states consider whether to adopt or adapt the NCERT syllabi and

instructional materials. Thus, the NCERT curriculum framework is always a suggestion rather

than prescriptive and it is not enforceable by law in the states. However, it is readily accepted by

the states because of the NCERT’s credibility and the participatory development approach it

follows. (The NCERT curriculum framework is developed on a consensus basis; all the states

and union territories are involved in the curriculum elaboration).

8.6.2The National Curriculum

The following social, cultural, political, economic and educational parameters have guided the

development of the national curriculum framework:

i. All citizens of India should have equal access to education. The specific needs of the

disadvantaged sections of the society ought to be met through the curriculum;

ii. Education regarding India’s cultural heritage needs to be imparted to students in order to

develop national identity and a spirit of togetherness;

iii. It is essential to impart knowledge of the citizens’ duties and rights, and ideals of the

Constitution of India to children;

iv. In view of the erosion of values, it is imperative through the curriculum to inculcate

moral and social values amongst students;

v. Besides national identity and unity, it is also imperative to develop international

understanding through the curriculum;

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 vi. Protection of the environment and conservation of natural resources should be major

objectives of school curriculum;

vii. In view of the increasing population of the country, it is imperative to include suitable

content relating to population education in the syllabi of different subjects;

viii. The curriculum should aim at preparing a child for life, which means that relevant

knowledge should be imparted and appropriate skills, competencies and values

developed;

ix. Education plays a significant role in national development by increasing human

resources. Therefore, the primary objective of the curriculum ought to be total

development of the child’s personality;

x. All the processes of education should be child centered, with the teacher playing the role

of a facilitator during the process of learning;

xi. The curriculum should aim at developing students’ creative potential;

xii. The curriculum should develop a scientific approach amongst students;

xiii. Work should not be considered as distinct from education. Instead , work should be

adopted as a medium for imparting education;

xiv. The process of evaluation should be continuous and comprehensive;

xv. Media and educational technology ought to be employed to make the transactions of

curriculum effective.

An important development since the National Policy on Education was formulated in

1986 has been the acceptance across the country of a common structure of education and the

introduction by most states of the 10+2+3 system. There are eight years of elementary education

(five years of primary school and three years of upper primary/middle schooling) and four years

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of secondary education (two years of general secondary and two years of higher secondary).

The education system seeks to give due recognition and importance to the social

organization, traditions, customs and value systems of the various communities, particularly

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This is supported among other ways by the

development of materials and curricula in their languages.

The main characteristics of the national curriculum, developed in accordance with the

above-mentioned principles, are described in the following sections.

1. General Education

The national curriculum envisages the first ten years of school as the period of general

education and that the diversified curriculum should be introduced at the end of general

education (i.e. at the beginning of the senior secondary stage.) This plan provides all students

with an opportunity to receive instruction in each of the curricular areas considered essential for

their overall development.

2. Undifferentiated Curricula

The national curriculum framework also envisages an un-differentiated curriculum for all

children - irrespective of sex and place of residence (i.e. urban or rural).

3. Minimum Levels of Learning

The 1986 NPE recommended the establishment of mini-mum levels of learning (MLLs) for

the various subject areas at the different school stages. In this context, a Government of India

committee (under the Chairmanship of Professor R.H. Dave) elaborated the MLL curriculum

concept that designates the competencies to be mastered by the primary level pupils in each

subject, at specific points in time. For the first five years of primary schooling, the MLL covers

the mother tongue, mathematics, social science and science. The MLL approach implies that the

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teacher’s responsibility is not confined to syllabus coverage. Rather, teachers must be

responsible for their pupils mastering designated competencies. This approach has necessitated

on-going development of MLL-based textbooks and MLL-based evaluation. It has also

introduced a higher concept of teacher accountability. Teachers are now held responsible for

pupil competency development and not merely for teaching the prescribed syllabus—as was the

previous practice.

4. Common-core Elements

The 1988 National Curriculum Framework (NCF) recommended compulsory core

curriculum elements to be taught throughout the country. Most of these core elements are aimed

at the development of national identity and a spirit of togetherness leading to national unity. The

common core elements recommended in the NCF are: the history of India’s freedom struggle;

constitutional obligations; content essential for the development of national identity; common

cultural heritage of India; democracy, secularism, socialism; gender equality; environmental

conservation; removal of social barriers; the small-family norm; and development of a scientific

approach. The core elements are not to be treated as separate subject areas. Rather, the content is

to be interwoven into the different subject areas. Here, it should be noted that, for the first

time during India’s post-independence period, conscious efforts have been made to place values

at the centre stage of curriculum.

5. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation

The NCF also considered the limitations of the existing evaluation system, which relies

mostly on one-shot, end-of-the-year impact evaluation. This annual examination measures skills

attainment and the affective domain is generally ignored (i.e. attitudes development). To remedy

this, the NCF recommended that evaluation should be treated as an integral part of the classroom

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teaching/learning process. Furthermore, evaluation, conducted periodically, should provide the

type of feedback on student achievement that enables teachers to improve their methodology, if

required.

6. Interactive Teaching

It is recognized that both the educational curriculum con-tent and process must be re-

oriented in order to bring about overall quality improvement. During the past few years,

successful attempts have been made to re-orient the educational content to current development

and demands of both society and the different disciplines. However, this initiative has not been

accompanied by a corresponding change in the modes of curriculum transaction, which re-mains

predominantly one of verbal exposition by the teacher. The expository style of teaching,

involving mostly one-way communication, puts the learner in the role of a passive recipient—a

mere object of education. This situation is not conducive to the development of creative, critical

and analytical thinking by students. An interactive teaching methodology involving continuing

dialogue between the teacher and pupils (discussion, investigation, problem-solving, etc.) could

provide an educational environment more conducive to developing certain abstract cognitive

skills.

7. The Curriculum Review

The Government of India found it necessary to appoint a National Advisory Committee

(NAC) to look into frequent complaints about the excessive burden of the curriculum on

children. The NAC submitted report findings in 1993. This report, which took note of the

widespread perception regarding the heavy load of the school curriculum, also identified the

roots of the problem: inability to distinguish between information and knowledge; society’s

competitive social ethos; the desire to catch up with developed countries; centralized curriculum

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development processes; non-participation of teachers in the various curriculum development

processes; excessive dependence on experts; incomprehensibility of textbooks; and absence of an

academic ethos in schools. The committee further determined that the academic burden

perception is tied to incomprehension, a problem which can be addressed (to some extent) by

modifying the curriculum development goals, as well as the textbook writing process and by

improving the school environment by providing the required infrastructure.

Most of the NAC recommendations were accepted by the Government. All state

governments were asked to initiate appropriate follow-up measures to implement the

recommendations of the committee, including review of curriculum and textbooks.

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005) is one of four National Curriculum

Frameworks published in 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005 by the National Council of Educational

Research and Training NCERT in India. The document provides the framework for making

syllabi, textbooks and teaching practices within the school education programs in India.

The document is divided into five areas:

 Perspective

 Learning and Knowledge

 Curriculum Areas, School Stages and Assessment

 School and Classroom Environment

 Systemic Reforms

 Mother tongue as a medium of instructions.

 free development

 availability of resources

Modern education in India is often criticized for being based on rote learning rather than

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problem solving. New Indian Express says that Indian Education system seems to be producing

zombies since in most of the school’s students seemed to be spending majority of their time in

preparing for competitive exams rather than learning or playing. Business Week criticizes the

Indian curriculum, saying it revolves around rote learning and Express India suggests that

students are focused on cramming. Preschool for Child Rights states that almost 99% of

preschools do not have any curriculum at all.

8.7 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN PAKISTAN

Pakistan inherited system of education which had been designed to produce literature

manpower to assist the colonial masters at lower levels of government and economic

administration. education was meant only for the privilege few who were supposed to govern the

masses rather than to serve them

In order to produce an efficient class of administration generalists, the main stress was on

arts. Scientific and professional education was limited.

At the time of independence, Pakistan’s 90% of population was illiterate with only a

handful of educational institutions. Only two out of 21 universities of undivided India were

situated in Pakistan. From 1947, to 1955, administration of education in Pakistan was the

responsibility of local bodies. With the introduction if one-unit scheme, education became a

provincial subject, General policy and overall coordination was handled by the national

government through the Ministry of Education. Six regional directorates of general education

and two directorates of technical education handled administration. Intermediate and secondary

educations were under the control of four Boards. Those who could afford, quality education

were available to them in privately financed schools. Most of these schools were run by

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missionary groups which meant a continuation of British influence.

The First Educational Conference in Karachi held in November 1947, produced a number

of recommendations designed to make the educational system strong and relevant to the country’

needs and aspirations. This included making Urdu the official language, curriculum revision,

diversification of courses, compulsory religious instruction and development of administrative

machinery. But little of this ambitious blue print was actually accomplished because of the

prevailing socio-political and economic conditions.

No comprehensive educational reforms were attempted prior to 1958. A few

uncoordinated changes were introduced pertaining essentially to curriculum matters in primary

and lower secondary levels. Very little attention was given to higher education. Some technical

courses were introduced in classes VI to X and a few polytechnic and home economic courses

were established. Ministry of Education attempted a comprehensive review of education in

conjunction with the preparation of six-year development plan (1952-58) but lack of finances

limited its implementation. Although the goals and objectives to any six-year development plan

and those of the first five-year plan were not achieved to any significance extent, yet many of the

ideas contained in them became parts of the later reforms. The 1959 Commission on National

Education called for an overhaul of the structure and redefinition of the philosophy of education

in the development of manpower and national character. New types of teaching institutes and

specialized centers were proposed. Curricula at different stages were to become more diversified

and technical education and research were to expand. The Commission called for changes in

administrative control of professional colleges and for lengthening the duration of changes in

administrative control of professional colleges and for lengthening the duration of courses in the

centers of excellence and special centers for gifted students with emphasis on science.

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 New instructions created during the second plan period (1960-65) included setting up a

Bureau of Education for research and data collection, pilot secondary schools with diversified

curricula, educational extension centers, agricultural and engineering universities, institutes of

education and research, text book boards, boards of technical education. The plan to reorganize

higher education and to increase the degree level beyond class XIV was frustrated due to the

hostile reactions of students. Establishment of higher secondary boards relieved the universities

and allowed them to concentrate on higher education.

New education policy 1969, and education Reforms of 1972, drew up fairly radical

proposals. There was emphasis upon the students and teachers involvement in the running of

educational institutions, recognitions of the importance of national and regional languages , a call

for setting university commission, demand for changes in the university Ordinance and in the

management of privately managed institutions. Establishment of national literacy corps was also

proposed. In short, the new Educational Policy of 1972, aimed at restricting of education from

top to bottom. However, implementation of this policy was hampered for several reasons.

Nationalization of schools and colleges resulted in an unprecedented increase in education

budget and a sharp decline in the educational standards.

Based on the recommendations of various committees, a National Bureau of

Curriculum and Syllabi and a National Textbook Board were set up in February, 1967, with in

the Ministry of Education Initially, the functions envisaged for Bureau of Curricula and Syllabi

were:

a. To ensure that the content of education is unified in all the provinces so that the

schools, colleges and universities in the provinces produce graduates of more or

less equal academic level, sharing common national outlook and aspiring to

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 common national goals:

b. To coordinate the work of the provinces in order to evolve common curricula and

syllabi;

c. To undertake comparative study of curricula;

d. To identify problems and determine areas in which research is needed; to define

research priorities and designed research project;

e. To hold consultations with subject matter specialist, teachers and other persons;

f. To hold seminars and meeting; and

g. To prepare reports and other documents.

The functions of the National Textbook Board were outlined as below:

a. To lay down a board national policy governing the preparation and production

of textbooks;

b. To review textbooks from time to see that they are in keeping with the changes

taking place from time to time;

c. To ensure that the contents of education are identical and that achievement at

different levels of education i.e. primary, secondary , etc, is more or less of

graded academic standard;

d. To produce model textbooks up to pre-university levels; and

e. To produce standard books on selected disciplines, i.e. Islamic Ideology,

Economics, civics, etc.

Before the adaption of 1973 Constitution, the National Bureau of Curriculum and

textbooks was entirely provincial subjects, where under the 1973 Constitution provision,

curriculm syllabi, planning, policy, centers of excellence, standards of education and Islamic

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education were placed on the concurrent legislatives list of Federal Government. The functions

of NBCT, as mutually agreed between the Federal and Provincial governments are as follows:

1. To assist and advise the government in the formulation and implementation of national

Policies with respect to curriculum development and evaluation and textbook production.

2. To coordinate the curriculum and textbook development activities and projects in the

provincial Bureaus and Boards;

3. To provide leadership in curriculum and textbook development in general and take

initiative and play actives role in those provinces where resources are yet to be developed;

4. To conduct research in curriculum development on different aspects of curriculum

renovation for classes I to Xii. To publish curriculum bulletins and handbooks;

5. To collect information and data regarding curriculum and text book production in other

countries and , after assessing the development in the light of curriculum research, and

disseminate same to the provincial agencies concerned;

6. To provide guidance and resource material to textbook boards and authors in the

production of textbooks, workbooks, primers and readers.

7. To evaluate textbooks for all levels against national goals, aims and objectives ,

8. To advise concerning curricula and materials for special educational needs and community

development projects;

9. To liaise with educational institutions and authorities in Pakistan and with international

agencies, such as UNESCO, I.B.E., UNICEF, I.L.O. and with curriculum development

organizations in foreign countries.

The Functions of the provincial Bureau are as follows

a. The Provincial Bureau of curriculum will be responsible for preparing initial drafts of

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 syllabi in given subjects for consideration of the National Committee concerned, and for

micro-testing the final curriculum draft;

b. The Provincial Bureau of Curriculum collaborate with the provincial Textbooks Boards in

the preparation of textbook manuscripts based on the agreed national curricula;

c. The provincial Bureaus will collaborate with the various Boards, Education Extension

centers, Teachers Training Organization and Education Equipment Centers in the

implementation of the agreed curricula.

Educational policy of 1979 placed greater emphasis upon religious education and

Pakistan Studies. It also tried to integrate the religious institutions with mainstream national

educational institutions. In order to achieve the targets of universal primary enrolment, revival of

mosques schools and maktabs was proposed. A women university was proposed to be set up in

the country to strengthen the female education.

8.7.1Curriculum Development and Revision and Reforms

The Education Commission, 1959, analyzed the situation pertaining to curriculum development

and reforms and pointed out in their report that;

a) First, it must provide adequate knowledge of subject that will be needed by every pupil for

leading a useful and happy life in a fast developing society. This should from the core of

compulsory subjects which every student must take up. Secondly, the curriculum should

include such additional subjects and training as will from a preparation for specific

vocation ad careers;

b) The process of curriculum construction and its revision in the light of evolving social and

individual interest and needs be a continuous one;

c) The curriculum should be adapted to the mental abilities of children aged five to ten related

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 to the normal situations they are faced with in everyday life. It must be so designed as to

develop the basic skills in reading, writing and arithmetic, a liking of patriotism, Teaching

methods should, as far as possible, use the Activity or Project Approach, and teachers

should show initiatives in the use of local material as teaching aids;

d) Religious education should be placed on the teaching of the national languages.

With regard to textbooks, the relevant recommendations of the Commission are produced below;

“The responsibility for drawing up syllabus and prescribing courses is normally that of the

education authorities. However, to realize the national objectives of education laid down in this

report, the Ministry of Education set up a Textbook Board. It should be a small and autonomous

body with representatives from the provinces and should work through textbooks committees

operating within the sphere of each education authority.”

The responsibility of the Textbook Board should be;

a) To frame the syllabus according to the recommendation made in this report;

b) To lay down policy for the preparation, printing and publication of textbooks.

8.7.2 Process of Curriculum Development

The process of curriculum development which is generally followed in Pakistan, with slight

variations, may be described to consist of the following stages;

(i) Determining the aims and goals of education: The first step in the process of curriculum

development pertains to determining the aims and goals of education. Guidance to the

curriculum developers is provided in this respect by the prevalent education policy,

Cabinet decision or some other policy statement by the President, Prime Minister or the

Federal Minister for Education;

(ii) Formulation of various committees by the curriculum Wing: in pursuance of the policy

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 guidelines, the curriculum Wing of Ministry of Education appoints two types of

Committees at the national level viz.

1. National Committee on Secondary Education and Primary Education each, and

2. Subject Committees at Primary and Secondary levels separately. These committees which

include teachers, subject specialists, administrators further delineate aims of education for

subsequent input;

The curriculum Wing, along with constituting the abovementioned committees also

communicates the aims and goals of education and other policy guidelines to the Curriculum

Research and Development Centers at the provincial level for appropriate action in respect of

curriculum development;

(iii) Proposals by the CRDC’s and Curriculum Bureaus: the Curriculum Research abd

Development Centers and the Bureaus of Curriculum functioning at the provincial levels

take appropriate initiative and finalize their proposals, keeping in view the overall aims of

education, local situation and their research experience etc. and send the same to the

national committee on secondary /primary education as the case may be for further

processing;

(i) Processing the National committees: having received the curricular proposals

from the provincial CRDC’s and BC’s the relevant committee i.e either the secondary or

primary level committee ascertains their suitability in the light of overall aims of

education and then with its recommendations and observations, sends the curricular

proposals to the relevant subject committee. The relevant subject committee considers the

national level reconsiders the original proposal and the subsequent recommendations and

accord final approval of the curriculum.

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 Self Assessment-Exercise

1. What are the salient features of curriculum in UK and Pakistan?

2. List the major characteristics of United States of America’s educational system.

3. What are the aims of education in USA?

4. What are the Functions of NCF in India?

5. Discuss the curriculum development process in education system of Pakistan.

6. From the comparative study of various curricula, suggest some changes in the curriculum

process of Pakistan.

REFERENCES

Bilbao, P. P., Lucido, P. I., Iringan, T. C., and R. B. Javier (2008). Curriculum development.

Philippines: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

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 Unit 9

Comparison: Distance Education System

Written by
NailaNaseer

Reviewed by:
Mamoona Ambreen

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 Contents

Introduction

Objectives

Concept and scope of Distance education system

Comparative distance education system:

- Canada

- UK

- Pakistan

- India

References

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INTRODUCTION:
The term distance education is a fairly recent one, but the concept it expresses is 150
years old. It gained formal recognition in 1982 when the four decades old International Council
for Correspondence Education (ICCE) changed its name to the International Council for
Distance Education (ICDE). This was an acceptance of the fact that distance education was no
longer primarily associated with the printed word and had successfully incorporated the use of
multi- media in the teaching- learning process.
Distance education originated in different forms and at different times to meet the needs
of different countries. The idea of Correspondence Education is said to have originated in the
19th century when institutions were established in some European countries to undertake
coaching of external students reading for a degree or otherwise. With the founding of the
International Council of Correspondence Education (ICCE) in 1938, the idea caught the attention
of educationists throughout the world. After the Second World War, the method of
correspondence education was adopted to suit the special educational needs and requirements of
countries in the Afro-Asian region. By the 1960's, it was considered a viable alternative system
to supplement the conventional system of education and gained further recognition.
Distance education has been used to meet a variety of needs at different levels of
education. Distance education is now internationally recognized and accepted as an alternative
channel for providing broader access to education in a cost-effective manner; wider and
diversified curricula and a means for continuing life-long education. Increasingly new categories
of clients are seeking better education; the young who for one reason or the other are not able to
join a college or university; adults who want to acquire a diploma or degree; professionals who
want to keep pace with technological change; persons required to discharge responsibilities for
which their formal education does not equip them; those who do not want to get uprooted from
their environment and do not want a disruption from their responsibilities at home and/or in their
offices; and those who look for education at their door step. Many of these categories may not fit
in with the normal admission criteria and find that their aspirations may not be fulfilled through
the conventional system of education.
This is also a time of convergence between the worldwide need to extend and develop
educational opportunities and the development of new communication technologies viz.
sophisticated printing methods, audio based technology, video technologies; computer based

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technologies; and satellite communication, making it possible for learners to get access to the
world's knowledge from the remotest and most inaccessible areas.

Objectives:
After reading this unit, students will be able to:
 Comprehend the concept of distance education system
 Analyze different distance education systems.
 Comprehend the distance education system of Canada.
 Examine the distance education system of Pakistan.
 Inculcate the distance education system of UK.
 Analyze distance education system of India.

9.1Concept and Scope of Distance Education System:

Following is the concept and scope of distance education:
9.1.1 Concept of Distance Education System:
Distance Education has been defined as an educational process in which a significant
proportion of the teaching is conducted by someone removed in space and/or time from the
learner. Distance Education programs have often used a combination of educational media, old
and new, varying from print to broadcasts to audio and video recordings, and included
opportunities for face to face study as well as learning from recorded material. Newby, Stepich,
Lehman and Russell (2000) define distance learning as "an organized instructional program in
which teacher and learners are physically separated (p. 210).”
According to Nikky (2010) distance learning (education) is a modern system of non- formal
education. It is imparted through correspondence or postal courses, contact, electronics media
like radio, television, video and audio cassettes etc. and other audio-visual aids.Different terms
used for distance learning are:
a) Distance Education
b) Distance Teaching
c) Open Education
d) Open Learning
e) Open School

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f) Open University
g) University of the Air
h) University without Walls
i) Tele University
j) Out of School Education
k) Correspondence Learning
l) Correspondence Teaching
m) Correspondence School
Distance education is the method of learning at one's own pace in one's own time, without the
boundaries of the formal class room and without the formal presence of the teacher. The concept
of distance learning has emerged in various advanced countries of the world.
UNESCO (2002, pp 8-10) elaborated the concept of distance education. The term open and
distance learning reflects both the fact that all or most of the teaching is conducted by someone
removed in time and space from the learner, and that the mission aims to include greater
dimensions of openness and flexibility, whether in terms of access, curriculum or other elements
of structure. The historical evolution of distance learning systems has been in four main phases.
Open and distance learning systems can usually be described as made up of a range of
components such as: the mission or goal of a particular system, programs and curricula,
teaching/learning strategies and techniques, learning material and resources, communication and
interaction, support and delivery systems, students, tutors, staff and other experts, management,
housing and equipment, and evaluation.
Sometimes open and distance learning is used for school-age children and youth that are
unable to attend ordinary schools, or to support teaching in schools, both at primary and
secondary level. However, most courses and programs are targeted at the adult population. In
developing countries in particular distance education for school equivalency is an important way
of expanding educational opportunities to the adult population. Open schools that use a variety of
media are of particular interest to high-population countries.
Teacher training is an important area where open and distance learning has made a major
contribution. This includes initial training for formal qualifications, in-service supplementary
training for formal upgrading, and continuing in-service training in particular subjects and topics.
Many examples, particularly from developing countries, show that teacher training at a distance

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may reach large groups of teachers and have profound impact on the development of national
education systems. The use of open and distance learning for teacher education is therefore a
crucial strategy when expansion or quality improvement is needed in the public education
system. A common need in many countries is to upgrade teachers’ knowledge and competence in
using new ICTs, in particular the rich instructional and information resources available on the
Web. In such cases it is also very appropriate to use the new technologies in the training program
for teachers. Both private and public providers have made important contributions to the
development of industry and trade through programs for technical and vocational education.
Core purposes include the ability to respond flexibly to the need for working adults to obtain
training, and to provide opportunities for those most disadvantaged by existing provision. The
capacity of open and distance learning to support large-scale campaigns, e.g. in the field of
HIV/AIDS education, is significant in the context of continuing education and training.
Non-formal education and community development represent other sectors where open and
distance learning is increasingly used. Programs at a distance often reach substantial numbers of
women, in societies where women lack equal opportunities for participation in conventional
forms of education and training. Open and distance learning approaches lend themselves to the
teaching of many of the complex issues of the modern world, in which input from a variety of
disciplines is necessary. Distance education at the tertiary level shows a two-fold development
pattern. On the one hand, numerous single mode open universities have emerged to absorb large
numbers of new learners, while, on the other hand, increasing numbers of traditional universities
have begun to offer their programs also through distance education. The development of new
ICTs has reinforced this trend.
Open and distance learning has the potential to generate new patterns of teaching and
learning. Strongly linked with developments in information and communication technologies, it
is close to the development of new learning needs and new patterns of information access and
application and learning. There is evidence that it can lead to innovation in mainstream
education, and may even have effects beyond the realm of education itself. Open and distance
learning therefore plays an especially decisive role in the creation of the global knowledge-based
society.
Activity 1.
Take a chart and write concept of Distance Education, then relate it with Pakistan’s situation.

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 9.1.2 Scope of Distance Education System:
Distance education has its wider scope. The scope of distance education around the world is
getting huge and massive amount of attention these days. The only reason is that these days very
little number of individuals is able to get suitable amount of education. In developing countries,
due to lack of infrastructure, suitable budget line, lack in the foundation of education process and
funds for education- all these are the basic and primary reasons that forces the individuals to be
the part of distance education. Distance education has its scope for:
1. Women
2. Adults
3. Working people
4. Youth
5. Professionals and the community at large
6. Out of school children
7. Rural population
8. Housewives
9. Economically backward sections of society
10. Drop-outs
11. Handicapped persons
12. People living in remote and inaccessible areas,

According to Spodick (1996) the scope of distance education is as following:

 Adult learning: distance education has scope for adult learning. In the past, most
distance education was focused on adult learners, especially in rural districts. The largest
use was for "short courses to help farmers and small businesses adapt to new
technologies”. This remains the most common usage worldwide. Estimates of the number
of distance learners in China range from one to two million. Other adult-oriented
programs include the entire Open University in the UK, and extensive programs from
Norway to South Africa. In recent years, complete post-secondary degree programs have
begun to appear.
 Disabled and Home-bound: Distance education has its wide scope for handicapped
population around the world. Individuals, who cannot easily travel, including senior

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 citizens and the disabled, are natural candidates for distance education. Some people also
may not be able to physically manipulate the technologies required a situation which will
worsen as technologies evolve, unless specific action is taken to reduce the problems.
Devices exist to alleviate physical barriers, and need to be incorporated in instructional
designs.
 Non-Native Language Speakers Increasing population migration has led to a growth in
the numbers of people in all areas who are non-native language speakers, and who are
unable to comprehend the classes normally on offer. Distance learning offers diversity of
programs for multilingual speakers.
Activity 2.
Discuss with your friends the scope of distance education and then note down the
discussion points and write a short essay on scope of distance education.

The following points by Nikky (2010) highlight the need, scope and importance of distance
education:
Explosion of knowledge:
There is explosion of knowledge because of rapid scientific and technological developments.
The formal system of education on account of its rigidity and high cost, finds it difficult to
incorporate new changes speedily as desired.
Population Explosion:
Unprecedented growth rate of population has resulted in the corresponding increase in students.
The formal education system serves a selected and limited number of students.
Varied Needs:
Distance learning is needed to satisfy the varied needs of varied students.
Earning while Learning:
Distance education is especially needed for those who want to learn while learning.
Desire to Improve Qualifications:
There are many people who want to improve their education qualification while they are in jobs.
Distance learning provides opportunities to such people to improve their qualifications.
Geographical Isolation:

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People may be geographical isolated because of distance or because a communication system has
not been developed.
Social Isolation:
People may be socially isolated or disadvantaged due to financial, physical, emotional or family
circumstances.
For Different Ages:
Distance learning can be used to teach people of different ages and to teach courses from a wide
range of discipline areas.
Universal Education:
Distance learning is needed to achieve the cherished goal of the nation for universalization of
education.
Democratic Aspirations:
Distance learning is needed to meet the great demand for democratization of education from
those sections of society that are neglected.
Self – Improvement:
Distance learning is needed from the point of view of self-learning and self-improvement of an
individual who, otherwise is deprived of receiving proper education.
Boon for In - Service Aspirants:
Open universities is a boon for in- service aspirants. They can improve their educational
qualifications and by doing so, they can brighten up their chances of promotion.
Easy Access:
It provides opportunities to large number of people who had previously been denied such
opportunities

9.2Comparative Distance Education System:

9.2.1 Canada:
According to Srivastava (2002) DE in Canada, like in other countries, has evolved through
broadly three phases:
1. 1889 – 1960s - Correspondence education phase
2. 1970s – 1980s - Open and Distance Education phase
3. 1990s – Onwards - Online education phase.

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 The emergence of DE in Canada is generally considered to coincide with the rise of the mail
service. It arose in Canada to provide access to education across the vast expanses of the country.
In Canada, Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario, was the first to offer correspondence
courses in 1889. The Canadian North West Mounted police was used for delivery of courses in
areas without mail service. (Sauve, 1990). In 1907 DE off campus courses were introduced by
the University of Alberta. Soon after several institutions opted for DE to serve populations living
away from major centers of learning such as: Francis Xavier University (1935) and, University
of British Columbia (1950). Such sporadic growth of distance education continued in Canada
with the adoption of DE by Memorial University in 1967 and University of Waterloo in 1968
(CADE et.al., 1999).
A major landmark in the history of DE in Canada was the establishment of Athabasca
University (AU) in 1972. AU was Canada’s first Open University and also the first autonomous
DE institution to be set up in Canada. The 1970s and 1980s saw a real spurt in the growth of DE
institutions in Canada. In 1972 another open university(OU), namely Tele-university in Quebec
and Open Learning Institute(1978) later known as Open Learning Agency, introduced distance
education programs. The momentum caught on and there were many more players in the field by
the 1990s. Today post-secondary education in Canada is provided by degree granting
institutions, called universities and by non-degree granting institutions which are referred to as
colleges, CEGEPs or institutes of technology. Universities offer bachelor’s, master’s and
doctoral degrees, whereas colleges typically offer career oriented technical training and general
education leading to diplomas or certificates.
Presently there are about 90 university level institutions in Canada and more than 200
colleges. About 70 of these grant degrees in all of their own programs. A small number grant
degrees in only one or two fields – usually theology and others do not grant degrees at all, but are
associated with universities that do (CMEC, 2002). Canadian universities are generally publicly
supported. For demographic reasons, more than half of the universities are located in the two
most heavily populated provinces. Virtually all provinces have developed various
communication media which universities are using to offer students an opportunity to study part
time through DE. In 1999-98 there were 826361 learners were enrolled in Universities, 580376
full time and 245985 part time. 494955 were enrolled in colleges, 403516 full time and 91439
part time.

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 Since the 1990s, many universities and colleges have begun to explore the use of networked
learning strategies such as computer conferencing and web-based resourcing as part of regular
courses which can be taken by on or off campus based students. There has been a rapid growth in
Internet based courses. Several consortia arrangements have emerged which include Tele-
Education NB, Contact South, Atlantic Note-makers Consortium, Contact North etc. In fact
Canada is emerging as a world leader in promoting e-learning and supporting distributed
learning environments.

Activity 3.
Go to the website www.google.com and search more on strengths and issues of distance
education system in Canada.

9.2.2 UK:
British Council (2015) highlighted that in UK, in distance learning programs classes
might be conducted online via forums, instant messaging, social media, blogs and email. Some
have ‘virtual’ lectures and seminars, where students participate through webcams. Students
might also receive course materials in print or on CD. These courses are ideal for part-time
study, but they need to be disciplined to ensure them to complete all assignments and projects on
time.
A growing number of universities in the UK are offering students the chance to do some of their
course as a MOOC (Massive Open Online Course). A MOOC is an online week-by-week course,
offering you the chance to interact directly with university tutors. It's usually free to take part in a
MOOC, although you have to pay for a certificate at the end.
Mostly, students won't be able to do an entire degree as a MOOC. However, increasing
numbers of UK universities are offering students the chance to convert MOOCs into degree
credits.
Successful course takers might also get a special offer if they want to go on to enroll at the
university. Some universities also offer scholarships or part-scholarships for students who do
extremely well in their MOOC.
Open and distance learning is increasingly available in UK. The Open University, which
specializes in ‘open supported learning’, admitted its first students in 1971 and is now a major

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provider of distance learning and the UK’s largest university in terms of student numbers. Other
institutions also increasingly offer courses on this basis. Open and distance learning is
increasingly available. The Open University, which specializes in ‘open supported learning’,
offers both taught master’s and research master’s degrees.
AECT (2001) highlights that the establishment of the British Open University in the
United Kingdom in 1969 marked the beginning of the use of technology to supplement print-
based instruction through well-designed courses. Learning materials were delivered on a large
scale to students in three programs: undergraduates, postgraduates, and associate students.
Although course materials were primarily print based, they were supported by a variety of
technologies. No formal educational qualifications have been required to be admitted to the
British Open University. Courses are closely monitored and have been successfully delivered to
over 100,000 students. As a direct result of its success, the Open University model has been
adopted by many countries in both the developed and developing world. Researchers in the
United Kingdom continue to be leaders in identifying problems and proposing solutions for
practitioners in the field. The International Centre for Distance Learning, at the British Open
University, maintains the most complete holdings of literature in both research and practice of
international distance learning. Research studies, evaluation reports, course modules, books,
journal articles, and ephemeral material concerning distance education around the world are all
available through quarterly accessions lists or on line.

Activity 5.
Make two groups of your class fellows in your course workshop, and discuss the distance
education system of UK in detail. Also make a chart indicating the strengths and weaknesses of
DE system of UK.

9.2.3 Pakistan:
OGPBB (2006) highlighted that in Pakistan, main institution offering distance education
is Allama Iqbal Open University. The University, with the name of People's Open University
was established in June 1974 under an Act of the Parliament assented to on 22nd May 1974. It
was the first institution of distance education in Asia. The University was renamed as Allama
lqbal Open University (AIOU) in 1977 on the occasion of the centenary celebrations of the birth

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of the great Philosopher and National Poet Allama Muhammad lqbal. The University was
established as a distance education institution with the purpose to:-
1. Provide educational facilities to the people who cannot leave their homes and places
of job;
2. Provide facilities to the masses for their educational uplift;
3. Provide facilities for the training of teachers; and
4. Provide education to all without any discrimination.
The Philosophical foundation of the Allama lqbal Open University lies in its
"OPENNESS". This University, as a unique institution in the country, reaches the doorsteps of
those who wish to broaden their horizons of Knowledge or upgrade their occupational skills
while in conventional and formal system the students go to the University for Studies. Moreover
this is the only university of Pakistan whose Jurisdiction touches the geographical boundaries of
Pakistan.
Distance Education in Pakistan particularly suited to the female population as it provides
them an opportunity to study at home. Similarly, people living in the tribal and far-flung areas
where the formal education system has not reached as yet, also get an opportunity to be
educated. This system is flexible in terms of age, and even time.
The University develops specialized textbooks and reading material to enable the
students to study on the basis of self-learning in general education program. To help them study
at home, however, the university provides supports of radio and television programs.
University's Institute of Educational Technology produces high quality educational audio and
video-cassettes, which enable the students to study at home more effectively.
Recent innovations in the field of Information Technology are making the system of
distance Education even more effective. As more and more students get access to the Personal
Computers and learn to use the internet, teaching through Distance Education is becoming more
effective. The outreach system of the University in the form of its Regional Campuses/Centers
is the backbone of its methodology. The President of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is the
Chancellor of Allama lqbal Open University. The Federal Minister for Education is the pro-
Chancellor and the vice-Chancellor of the University is its Principal Executive and Academic
officer.

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 The University has produced hundreds of credit and non- credit courses for various
levels of learners and are sent to the students. The provision of the specially compiled
instructional material at postgraduate level is recent addition. The learning packages are not
only being used by AIOU students but also those of formal system. The University has till
recently, been concentrating on programs up to degree levels it is now increasing its programs
in the field of science and technology and at postgraduate level. The Allama lqbal Open
University, being a distance education institution, relies heavily on all varieties
of available media to reach its students in an effective manner, which include Correspondence
materials, Radio and television, Satellite transmission, Non-broadcast media, Tutorial
instruction, Face to be teaching, and Group training workshops.
Another notable DE institution is Virtual University. The Virtual University, Pakistan’s
first University based completely on modern Information and Communication Technologies,
was established by the Government as a public sector, not-for-profit institution with a clear
mission: to provide extremely affordable world class education to aspiring students all over the
country. Using free-to-air satellite television broadcasts and the Internet, the Virtual University
allows students to follow its rigorous programs regardless of their physical locations. It thus
aims at alleviating the lack of capacity in the existing universities while simultaneously tackling
the acute shortage of qualified professors in the country. By identifying the top Professors of the
country, regardless of their institutional affiliations, and requesting them to develop and deliver
hand-crafted courses, the Virtual University aims at providing the very best courses to not only
its own students but also to students of all other universities in the country. The Virtual
University of Pakistan holds a Federal Charter, making its degrees recognized and accepted all
over the country as well as overseas.

9.2.3.1 Establishment of New Distance Education Universities:

To meet the educational demand of the country, Higher Education Commission (2015, pp2-
9) highlighted that it is an estimated guess that 70% of the total candidates are registered as
private candidates in particular universities. These students do not attend any regular studies.
They start self-study for their exams before two or three months and pass examination through
memorization of some selected content of the course. It has been observed generally that
knowledge and skill level and quality of these students is not as good as those of regular students

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of universities. Furthermore, this type of practice of appearing as private candidates are not
observed anywhere in the world.
The best possible way to improve the quality of private candidates is to provide them better
education facilities through distance education. Distance education is a system of education in
which instructor and students have no face to face interactions rather they communicate with
each other through distance modes of learning like correspondence through postal mail, online
interaction through video or audio conferencing, electronic mail, etc. A degree or certificate
program is considered distance education when a substantial number of credit hours (fifty
percent or more of the courses for the program) will be delivered through distance education. In
recent times, courses in distance education are offered in blended way. It means that some
courses are offered through traditional face to face instruction where as some courses are offered
using any one mode of distance education through ICT like Internet video or audio conferencing,
electronic mail, radio, television, Internet, cable, broadband lines, fiber optics, satellite, wireless
communications devices, etc. Provision and expansion of facilities for expending population of
the country are the need of the hour. For this purpose distance education is the most effective
tool in order to provide educational facilities to maximum population in a cost effective manner.
In order to cope with the educational needs and demands of country, followings are
suggested guidelines for establishment of Directorate of Distance Education (DDE) at six
selected Universities of Pakistan to assure quality of distance education and to promote quality
higher education facilities through distance means for our private candidates inside and outside
Pakistan.
Checklist for Quality Assurance of Distance Education Programs in the Light of HEC
PC-1 for Establishment of Directorate of Distance Education at Six universities in
Pakistan:
 Does DDE has a clear and written mission statement that promises to narrow quality
gap between private and regular students and make sense towards this statement?
 Does DDE adhere the policy guidelines for distance education provided by the HEC?
 Is DDE committed to provide distance education facilities to all private candidates
without any discrimination?

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  Is DDE committed to provide quality distance education facilities to private students
so that the current status of private degree is raised in market and ultimately
improving employment opportunities for them?
 Has DDE an organized system for training its faculty members for dealing with
distance learners?
 Is faculty competent engaged in offering distance learning programs and do they have
adequate training resources, and facilities to deal with DE programs?
 Does DDE recruit highly qualified and experienced faculty for distance courses in
case of shortage of faculty at campus?
 Is the Directorate of Distance Education suitably structured to offer quality distance
learning programs?
 Does the Directorate of Distance Education sustain adequate financing to offer
quality distance learning?
 Are students provided academic advising, financial support, and instructional
materials to pursue distance learning?
 Does the DDE evaluate in routine, the quality of distance learning programs on
evidence of students’ achievement?
Challenges in Distance Education in Pakistan:
Following are the challenges in distance education system of Pakistan are highlighted by
Jalal (2015):
- Need for support staff for training and technical assistance.
- Adequate assessment of distance education classes.
- Adequate student services for DE students.
- Operating and equipment budgets.
- Faculty acceptance and
- Organizational acceptance
Pakistan, being a third world country faces additional challenges for matching Distance
Education standards with the traditional universities. These challenges can be categorized as:
1. Administrative related challenges
2. Faculty related challenges
3. Student related challenges

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Administrative related Challenges:
These include following challenges:
- High quality course content
- Availability of technology
- Delivering quality with most difficult classes
- Online admission and examination system
- Specification of educational objective
- Suitable fee
- Online class and course registration
- Online library and text book sales
- Adequate assessment of distance education classes
Faculty related Challenges:
These include following challenges:
- Training on subject and technologies
- Workload problems
- Compensation issues
- Help desk and technical support for faculty synchronous and asynchronous learning
Students related Challenges:
These include following challenges:
- Online counseling and advising services
- Campus testing center for students
- Assessment of student learning and performance
- Orientation and preparation
- Online application system
- Online tutoring services
- Student completion rate
- Reducing cheating/ unfair means
Issues in DE:
While the advance countries are tackling issues, Pakistan still faces some issues to implement
the provided lines in Distance Education system. Such as:
- Lack of technology adoption

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 - Societal recognition
- Funding
- Quality assurance of academic programs
- Management issues
- Instructional delivery method
- Relevance of education
Lack of technology adoption:
1. Cheap computer facilities and network infrastructures must be integrated with appropriate
software systems in Pakistan.
2. An advanced methodology is needed to help the instructors or administers to minimize
hesitation to adopt technology during distance education.
3. In our country adaptation of advancement technology is very costly for common man.
Societal recognition:
1. It must be realized that Distance education is an innovation that is going to be accepted
with caution by a society
2. Fear that mechanization of education could bring down the standard
Funding in DE:
1. The issue of funding continues to dominate discussions on challenges facing in Pakistan.
2. Sufficient fund must be provided by the institution running the program to make it result
oriented.
3. Distance education institutions can be categorized under specialized institutions that are
given special attention in view of their capital intensive nature
Quality assurance of academic programs:
1. The propensity of the distance education system to malpractices in homework
assignments, tests and examinations.
2. There should not be any room for complacency as the level of examination malpractice
involving staff and students was still intolerably high.
Management issues:
1. It becomes imperative for the management of distance education institutions in Pakistan
to adopt management strategies that will ensure sustainable development of distance
education.

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 2. Most of pioneer staff of distance education institutions in Pakistan are drawn from the
formal system of education.
Instructional delivery method:
1. There is a great difference between distance learning and traditional type in which
students listen to lecturers, read their textbooks and are busy with memorizing and
recalling selected topics.
2. Distance learning, since students do not have unlimited access to lecturers as in formal
tertiary institutions, instructional materials must be packaged to facilitate self-study and
easy comprehension by the learners without much assistance from their facilitators.
Relevance of Education:
1. The content of education more meaningful and the methods of delivery more cost-
effective within the context of nation building and economic development.
2. The lack of social demand for education is related to the fact that families and
communities do not value or are ambivalent about formal education. It is pointed to the
Parental disillusionment with the present education systems and expressed support for
more relevant curricula
Activity 6.
Go to the library, and read an article on distance education system of Pakistan in the perspective
of Allama Iqbal Open University.

9.2.4 India:
UNESCO (2002, p.49) highlighted India’s distance education system that the Open and
distance learning in India dates back to the 1960s. By the 1980s there were 34 universities
offering correspondence education through departments designed for that purpose. The first
single mode Open University was established in Andhra Pradesh in 1982, followed by the Indira
Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), and subsequently in Bihar, Rajasthan, and
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, West Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh (established
throughout the 1980s and 1990s). The establishment of these single mode distance education
universities was stimulated by the government’s intention to democratize education and make it
lifelong. The initiative did not discourage the expansion at the same time of correspondence

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programs in dual mode universities. The year 1995 witnessed the enrollment of 200,000 students
in open and distance learning, accounting for 3% of total higher education enrollment.
Most open and distance learning universities in India follow the model of the UK Open
University. They co-ordinate communication and collaboration through the Distance Education
Council (DEC), founded in 1992. DEC is responsible for the promotion, co-ordination, and the
maintenance of quality and standards.
A range of factors including emerging ICTs, liberalization, privatization and
globalization have amplified the demand for open and distance learning. While the government
is responsible for more than 90% of open and distance learning funding, plans are underway to
involve the private sector more closely, especially through permitting the increase of fees.
Growth of Distance Education System in India:
According to Reddy (2015) the growth of distance education system in India may be seen
at school and tertiary levels:
9.2.4.1 Distance Education in India at School Level:
India has an attractive distance education system at school level. India’s National Open
School has following objectives:
 To provide opportunities for continuing and developmental education to interested
learners, through courses and programs of general education, life enrichment modules
and vocational courses, at the school stage, and using a diversity of teaching- learning
strategies, including appropriate communication technologies.
 To provide consultancy services and to engage in model building, in close collaboration
with States and a variety of other agencies and institutions.
 To serve as an agency for effective dissemination of information related to Distance
Education and Open Learning.
 To identify and promote standards of learning in Distance Education Systems and Open
Schools which may be set up in different parts of the country, through Research and
Evaluation and to maintain standards of equivalence with the formal system, while
keeping its own distinct character.
 To exercise normative and coordinating functions while promoting standards in Distance
and Open Learning Systems in the country, and thus to make its own contribution to the
evolution of a Learning Society.

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 India made an early start in the use of radio in schools. Radio has been in use since the early
fifties as supplement to the regular curriculum. Television has been used for educational
purposes right from its introduction in 1959. A significant development in the area of educational
television in India was the launching of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)
which provided access for several villages in six states to specially prerecorded television
programs. These television lessons devoted for primary education were supplemented by face to
face instruction by teachers.
The INSAT program followed SITE and now provides educational programs to primary
school children as well as area specific programs for rural viewers in selected clusters in a few
states.
Correspondence courses at secondary level was started in 1965 when the CABE recommended
such courses with the objective of improving the academic standards of private students. The
Board of Secondary Education, Madhya Pradesh was the first to start correspondence courses in
1965. This is now referred to as the M.P. Open School. The Patrachar Vidyalaya, Delhi was
established started in 1968. The Boards of Secondary Education, Rajasthan, Orissa, Tamil Nadu
and Uttar Pradesh are the other institution offering correspondence education at secondary and
higher secondary levels.
The first open school was established in New Delhi in 1979 in order to provide distance
education to school drop outs enabling them to enroll for the secondary course (Class X). The
open school started offering senior secondary courses (class XII) in September, 1988. In
November 1989, this institution was upgraded to the' National Open School (NOS), an
autonomous institution of the Central Government with the objective of providing relevant,
continuing and developmental education to prioritized client groups as an alternative to the
formal system. The states of Punjab and Andhra Pradesh have also established Open Schools
recently. Maharashtra is in the process of establishing an Open School.
In 1985 the enrolment at the Secondary and Senior Secondary stage through
correspondence was 62,962 which was just 0.31% of the total enrolment at that stage. The
situation has improved considerably since the establishment of the National Open School which
enrolls about 50,000 students annually.

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 9.2.4.1.1 Status of Distance Education at School Level:
The Boards of Secondary Education which offer correspondence courses to students of
class 10th to 12th follow the same courses as are prescribed for these classes in the formal
schools and hold common examinations for all the students. The National Open School,
however, provides need based flexible curricula in English and Hindi to out of school students
above the age of 14. All these institutes, except Bhopal, organize personal contact programs.
Some institutes provide facilities for science students to conduct practicals at selected
laboratories.
Currently the National Open School has a cumulative active enrolment of approximately
200,000 from every State and Union Territory of the country. Most of the students are young
adults between 18-24 years of age, with a mean age between 20-21 years. Nearly 41% of
students enrolled in NOS are women and 17% belong to the Scheduled Castes (SC) and
Scheduled Tribes (ST). These categories, as well as ex-servicemen and handicapped students, are
provided fee exemptions. Roughly 80% of students of NOS study through the medium of Hindi
and the remaining through English. The National Open School also offers a few vocational and
community education courses.
The National Open School has decentralized academic and administrative
responsibilities relating to admissions, student support services and evaluation to 302 accredited
institutions throughout the country which serve as Study Centers.

9.2.4.2 Distance Education in India at Tertiary Level:

Distance Education for higher education in India was initiated in the form of Correspondence
Courses in 1962. Following are the objectives of India’s Open Universities:
 To provide an alternative cost-effective non- formal channel for tertiary education.
 To, supplement the conventional university system and to reduce the pressure on it.
 To provide "second chance" education to those who have had to discontinue their formal
education or could not join regular colleges or universities owing to social, economic and
other constraints.
 To democratize higher education by providing access to large segments of the population,
in particular the disadvantaged groups such as those living in remote and rural areas,

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 including working people, women and other adults who wish to acquire and upgrade their
knowledge and/or skills.
 To strengthen and diversify the degree, certificate and diploma courses related to
employment and necessary for building the economy of the country on the basis of its
natural and human resources.
 To provide continuing and life-long education to enrich the lives of the people.
 To provide an innovative system of university level education, which is flexible and open
in terms of methods and pace of learning, combination of courses, eligibility for
enrolment, age of entry, conduct of examination and operation of the programs with a
view to promoting learning and encouraging excellence in new fields of knowledge.

In response to the ever- increasing demand for higher education which could not be met by
the conventional system. The Delhi University established a School of Correspondence Courses
and Continuing Education in 1962. Encouraged by the success, the Education Commission
(1964-66) recommended the expansion of correspondence education for various purposes.
Consequently, the University Grants Commission (UGC) formulated guidelines for introducing
correspondence courses in Indian Universities. Three more Institutes of Correspondence Studies
were established in the late sixties. Twenty one more universities introduced correspondence
programs during the seventies. In the early eighties seven more universities started institutes of
correspondences studies. At present there are 45 universities including four deemed universities
offering correspondence programs in the country.
The establishment of the Open University in the United Kingdom, in 1969 encouraged
several countries to deliberate on the new concept and its potential in making higher education
more accessible, flexible and innovative. India was one of those countries which examined the
possibility of establishing an open university in the early seventies. This influenced a few
universities like University of Mysore and Andhra University to adopt open admission policies
in the mid-seventies by relaxing formal qualifications for entry to undergraduate and post-
graduate courses. This seemingly minor innovation provided impetus to efforts towards greater
access to higher education for larger segments of the population especially those adults who
could not complete school education.

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 Andhra Pradesh government gave a lead to the country by setting up the Andhra Pradesh
Open University (now renamed as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University) at Hyderabad in 1982.
In 1985, the Govt. of India, through an Act of Parliament established the Indira Gandhi National
Open University (IGNOU) which is responsible for determining and maintaining standards of
distance education and bringing about coordination among all distance education institutes
including the open universities all over the country in addition to functioning as University for
open learning and distance education programs.
The establishment of IGNOU at New Delhi in 1985 has proved to be a significant milestone
in the development of distance education in India. It provides a central Organization for guiding
and coordinating the activities of all distance education institutes and state open universities in
the country. It has popularized the concept of open learning system resulting in the establishment
of three more state open universities in the late eighties viz. - Kota Open University in Kota
(Rajasthan), Yashwant Rao Chavan Maharashtra Open University at Nasik (Maharashtra) and
Nalanda Open University at Patna (Bihar). States of Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka have also
established Open Universities recently.
From just a handful of students in 1962-63 the enrolment in correspondence courses rose to
about 65,000 students in 1975-76. During the last fifteen years the annual growth rate of
enrolment in open universities and the institutes of correspondence studies attached to
conventional universities has been appreciably higher than in the conventional universities and in
1990-91 it was approximately 600,000. The proportion of students enrolled in distance education
has steadily increased from 2.6% of the enrolment in higher education in 1975-76 to 11.5% in
1990-91. During 1992-93 the enrolment for distance education programs was over eight lakhs.
9.2.4.3 Status of Distance Education at Tertiary Level:
Presently there are 45 institutes of correspondence/distance education in India attached to
the formal universities including deemed universities. There are 6 open universities including
IGNOU. Karnataka and Gujarat are in the process of establishing Open Universities. These
institutions offer certificate, diploma, first degree and post-graduate degree programs of both
conventional and non-conventional types. The institutes of correspondence education have
generally adopted the eligibility conditions, syllabi and examination system of the conventional
universities.

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 The instructional system followed by the institutes of correspondence education consists
mainly of printed lessons. Though students are required to submit assignments to the institutes,
minimal feedback is given. Contact programs are organized for short durations, mostly during
summer vacations.
IGNOU and the state open universities are autonomous institutions which have devised a
variety of non-conventional courses keeping in view the job requirements and needs of the
community. Depending on the nature and requirements of courses, these universities have
relaxed entry requirements related to age, qualifications etc. These universities also provide
flexibility in the combination of courses, duration of study accumulation of credits, etc. They
make use of modern communication technologies such as radio, TV, audio and video cassettes to
supplement print material. Opportunities for face to face contact between students and teacher
are provided at the study centers during weekends and through extended contact programs.
IGNOU has so far established 16 Regional Centers and 220 Study Centers in all States and
Union Territories in the country.
The IGNOU which launched its academic programs in 1987 has made significant
progress. The University presently offers Bachelor's degree programs in 13 disciplines, a
Master's degree in Business Administration, and several diploma and certificate programs. The
annual enrolment has increased from about 4,400 in 1987 to over 70,000 in 1993. Total
enrolment now is approximately 2.2 lakhs. The three State Open Universities, namely, Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar Open University in Andhra Pradesh (BRAOU), the Kota Open University (KOU) and
the YashwantraoChavan Maharashtra Open University in Maharashtra (YCMOU) together
admitted about 65,000 students in 1992. At present the enrolment in these universities is over 1.2
lakhs.
Several new programs in employment-related areas are being developed by IGNOU.
Postgraduate Diploma in Journalism and Mass- Communication Bachelor's Degree in Nursing
and Library and Information Science are some of the new programs to be launched shortly by
IGNOU. Programs for training teachers at primary and secondary school levels are also under
development. The State Open Universities have also launched a number of relevant programs in
Electronics, Horticulture, Education and Communication besides the diploma and degree
programs in Humanities, Commerce and Social Sciences. The Institute of Correspondence
Education of the conventional universities have also been diversifying their programs. These

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institutes are presently offering a large number of diploma and certificate programs in subjects
such as Business Management, Law, Journalism, Library and Information Science, Tourism,
Hotel Management, Environmental Studies, Rural Development and Computers.

9.2.4.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of India’s Distance Education System:

Following are the strengths and weaknesses of India’s distance education system:
Strengths:
 Distance Education has provided greater access to higher education for working people,
women and persons residing in remote and inaccessible areas. 41 % of the students
studying through distance education at the tertiary level are women as compared to
32.5% in the conventional system. The proportion of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes enrolled in distance education compares favorably with their proportion in higher
education. 68% of IGNOU's enrolment is in the age group of 25 + and a majority of its
students are employed adults. The enrolment of rural students in IGNOU has more than
doubled from 5,723 in 1989 to 13,707 in 1992.
 Evidence on the effectiveness of distance education programs indicates that they
frequently show economies as compared with the conventional face to face education.
Though the initial costs of establishing open universities is more than conventional
universities, as enrolment grows per capita costs fall proportionately. It has been
estimated that the per capita cost of distance education at the tertiary level is about 25-
30% of the per capita cost of conventional university education.
 Relaxed entry qualification have enabled a large number of students with no formal
qualifications to enroll in undergraduate and professional programs offered by open
universities and correspondence institutes. It is significant that more than 25,000 students,
without school leaving qualifications, have been enrolled in IGNOU's Bachelor’s Degree
Program so far.
 IGNOU and other open universities have been successful in restructuring the
undergraduate program in accordance with UGC's guidelines to provide for multi-
disciplinary foundation courses, core courses and application oriented components.

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  Open Universities and Open Schools are introducing courses on the basis of identified
manpower needs, which has resulted in diversification of courses to cater to the
requirements of different sections of society in urban and rural areas.
 In terms of content of courses, structure and use of instructional media, open university
programs make a decisive break from the pattern followed by the conventional system.
The distance education system is learner based and enables students to learn at their own
pace and convenience at their homes or workplaces. It provides flexibility in combination
of courses which encourages inter-disciplinary studies.
 Distance education courses are modular in structure, permit accumulation of credits,
provide for multiple entry and exit and continuous evaluation and feedback.
 Distance education institutes are utilizing the physical and human resources of the
existing educational institutions to minimize their costs. Open universities have an
extensive network of regional and study centers which provide support services to
students near their place of residence.
Weaknesses:
Several weaknesses have manifested themselves in the distance education system. These include:
 The Open Universities have not yet been able to reach the rural areas and the
disadvantaged sections of society to the extent desired.
 Enrolment in open universities is still concentrated in under graduate courses in arts and
humanities.
 The functioning of the institutes of correspondence studies have not shown any
significant improvement since IGNOU was assigned the statutory responsibility for
determination and coordination of standards in the distance education and open learning
systems in the country eight years ago.
 Avenues of students’ mobility between the Open Universities and the Conventional
Universities are restricted.
 Open Universities have not been able to meet the demand for more courses in Regional
Languages.
 While the facilities of Study Centers of Open Universities are underutilized, these are
being duplicated instead of being shared.

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  The monitoring system of distance education is weak resulting in lack of feedback on
performance of counselors/tutors; utility of printed course material and audio-video
components; efficiency of continuous evaluation, etc.
 The rapid increase in enrolment in open universities has led to slippages in the delivery
system.
Activity 7.
Arrange an educational trip with your tutor to the nearest library and read some material on DE
system of India and Pakistan. Make a comparison of both countries’ DE system and write an
essay individually.

Comparisons of different Distance Education Systems:

According to AECT (2001) in the developing world, since the 1950s, the population has
doubled to over 5 billion people, most of whom want to be literate and want greater educational
opportunities for themselves and their children. The majority of this expanding population is in
Asia, where there are massive problems of poverty, illiteracy, and disease. In most developing
countries, such as Bangladesh, distance education offers the promise of a system of information
distribution through which new ideas, attitudes, and understanding might begin to ooze through
the layers of the disadvantaged environments. Drawing upon the well-known model of the
British Open University, countries such as Pakistan, India, and China have combined modem
methods of teaching with emerging technologies in order to provide low-cost instruction for
basic literacy and job training. Turkey has recently joined those nations involved in large-scale
distance learning. Only 12 years old, their distance education program has enrolled almost 1
million students and is the sixth largest distance education program in the world.
Because of the economies of size and distribution, both industrialized and developing
countries have embarked on distance education programs. In the early 1980s, record numbers of
students in developing countries have gained access to higher education through distance
education programs. In many cases, local experts are not available to develop original programs
in the language and culture of the people. For this reason, the majorities of educational programs
are either used intact from the host country or are superficially translated with very few
adaptations to the local culture. When this is done, the results are often unsuccessful. The
cultural values of the program designer become dominant, desirable, and used as the standard.

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There are many examples of programs from North America, Australia, Great Britain, and Europe
that were purchased but never used in Africa and Asia because the material was not relevant in
those countries. Because the appropriate design of instructional material is a critical element in
its effectiveness, the issue of "who designs what and for whom" is central to any discussion of
the economic, political, and cultural dangers that face distance educators using information
technologies.
There have been a variety of efforts to identify theoretical foundations for the study of
distance education. Thus far, there has been little agreement about which theoretical principles
are common to the field and even less agreement on how to proceed in conducting programmatic
research.
Universities adopt a variety of administrative structures, academic support systems,
technologies and instructional methods, for teaching at a distance. These differences in approach
are important, because they influence the level, and to some degree the kind, of resources
required to support their distance teaching programs.
Various attempts have been made to develop taxonomy of institutional structures in
distance teaching; however the most common classification is essentially bimodal. Institutions at
tertiary level are categorized on the basis of whether they teach solely at a distance, commonly
called ‘open universities’, or are ‘dual-mode’ i.e. teach students both ‘on-campus’ and ‘at a
distance’. Dual-mode institutions are by far the most common form of distance teaching
university; however the number of students they teach at a distance is usually a small proportion
of their total enrolment. One essential difference between ‘dual-mode’ and ‘open’ universities is
the autonomy which the latter exercises in relation to distance teaching.

Exercise:
1. Discuss different systems of distance education in detail.
2. Critically analyze Pakistan’s distance education system.
3. Enlist problems and issues in Pakistan’s distance education and offer solutions.
4. What are challenges faced by Pakistan’s distance education system? How can we
overcome these?
5. Discuss the checklist by HEC for distance education institutions in Pakistan.

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 6. Keeping in view the present situation of distance education in Pakistan, what will be the
future educational needs and demands?
7. Discuss the Canada’s distance education system.
8. Critically analyze India’s distance education system in detail.
9. Discuss India’s tertiary level distance education system.
10. What are the strengths and weaknesses of India’s distance education system?
11. Write a detailed note on UK’s distance education system.

References:
AECT. (2001). History of Distance Education. Retrieved from
http://www.aect.org/edtech/ed1/13/13-02.html, accessed on October 12, 2015.
British Council (2015). UK courses and qualifications delivered overseas. Retrieved from
http://www.educationuk.org/global/articles/uk-qualifications-overseas/. Accessed on
December 12, 2015.
Higher Education Commission. (2015). GUIDELINE ON QUALITY OF DISTANCE
EDUCATION FOR EXTERNAL STUDENTS AT THE HEI’S OF PAKISTAN
http://www.hec.gov.pk/InsideHEC/Divisions/QALI/QADivision/Documents/Guidelines
%20for%20DDEs.pdf, Accessed on November 1, 2015.
Jalal, H. (2015). Challenges and Issues in Distance Education of Pakistan. Retrieved from
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