Natt?

FIRST BOOK

IN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
t

e
rg
er BY

G. P. QUACKENBOS, A.M.,
66
AN ENGLISH
PRINCIPAL OF " THE COLLEGIŽTİ BÖNLOčk, N. 8.4 ÁTTÚOR OF
GRAMMAR, " " FIRST ŠESSONS IN COMPOSTTIÓN MADVANCED COURSE
OF COMPOSITION AND BUTTORIO " " * YAJURAL PHILOSOPHY,"
“ ILLUSTRATED SCHOOLHISTORY OF THE UNITED
STATES," PRIMARY HISTORY OF THE
UNITEN ETABYS,'. ET

NEW YORK :
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
443 & 445 BROADWAY .
1868 .
1- 61
 THE TOY YORK
PUBLIC LIBCAGY
65459
ASTOR , LINOX AND
TILD N FOUNDATIONS .
R 1914
L

By the same Author :

AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR : 12mo, pp . 288.
FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION : In which the Principles of the Art are developed
în connection with the Principles of Grammar. 12mo, pp. 182.
ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC : A Series of Practical
Lessons on the Origin, History, and Peculiarities of the English Language, Punctuation ,
Taste, the Pleasures of the Imagination, Figures, Style and its Essential Properties,
Criticism and the various Departments of Prose and Poetical Composition : Illustrated
with copious Exercises. 12mo, pp. 450.
PRIMARY HISTORY OŘTIT UNITED- states : Made exsi ai interesting for Begin
sploadedlyilustrated, pp-ind
ners. Child's Quarto,
ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES : Embracing a full
Account of the Aborigines, Biographical Hatices of Distinguished Men, numerous Maps,
Plans of Battle-fields,andPictorigi Illustčations. 1kno, PP.473.
A NATURAL PHILOSOPHY: Embracing the mostrecent Discoveries in Physics. Adapted
to use with or without Apparatus, aut accompanied withPractical Exercises and 335
Illustrations. 12mo, pp. 450

Entered , according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, by

G. P. QUACKENBOS,
In the Clerk's Omce of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of
New York ,
 PREFACE .

THIS “ First Book in Grammar” has been prepared to meet

the wants of young beginners in that branch, as well as those who
need a brief summary of the subject. To awaken their interest, to
teach them to think, to enable them to understand as they learn ,
to lead them from step to step in the most natural way, and to give
a direct practical application to every abstract principle, have been
the leading objects of the author. He has endeavored to condense
in a small space and an attractive form all that is of prime import
ance ; and, while it is desirable that every pupil should follow this
course with a more comprehensive one, it is believed that those
who master what is here presented will obtain a very fair view of
the language. The teacher's convenience has been consulted
throughout. The Lessons ago short and easy, and illustrated with
Exercises that will impresstheraon the mind.
The system here embodiedis the same(in a simplified form ) as
that which has been so generally commended in the author's larger
Grammar. The Exercises, however, whether in etymology, parsing,
analysis, or false syntax, are different ; so that those who advance
from this to the larger work will not be obliged to go over the
same field a second time, but will find that the two books form a
consistent and well graded whole. It is hoped that those who have
made the author's " First Lessons in Composition ” and “ Advanced
Course of Composition and Rhetoric ” their text-books on the syn
thesis of our language, may find his Grammars equally useful in
connection with its analysis.
New YORK, March 19, 1864.
 CONTENTS .

PAGE PAGE
Sentences, 5 The Verb , . 52
Words, Letters, Spelling, . 6 Classes of Verbs, . 53
Vowels and Consonants, 7 Voice ,Mood ,
Diphthongs, Triphthongs, 9 Tenses of the Indicative, 55
The Use of Words, 10 The Potential Mood , 56
The Parts of Speech, 11 The Subjunctive Mood, 57
The Noun, 11 Person and Number of Verbs, 58
Classes of Nouns, 12 The Infinitive Mood , 59
Person, . 13 Participles, 60
Number, 14 Conjugation of the Verb, 61
Formation of the Plural, . 15 Indicative Mood of BE, 61
Irregular Plural, 17 Potential Mood of BE, · 63
Plural of Foreign Nouns, 18 The Infinitive, how used, 64
Plural of Compound Nouns, 19 Subjunctive Mood, &c., of BE,

的
Gender, . 20 Construction of Participles, 67
Formation of Feminines, 22 Conjugation of the Active Voice, 68
Subject and Object, : 24 Remarks on Active Voice, . 70
Case, 25 Coajógation of thePassive Voice, 71
Declension of Nouns, 26 The Progressive Form, 74
Formation of the Possessive, 270 verbs distinguished as Regular
The Pronoun, 27***end Irregular, 76
Classes of Pronouns, . og Thylo'a Simple Irregular Verbs, 78
Personal Pronouns , 28. The Detective Verbs, 82
Declension of the Personals, 84
294 The Adverb ,
Compound Personal Pronouns, 30 Conjunctive Adverbs, 86
Rules for Substantives, 30 Comparison of Adverbs, 87
Apposition , 33 | The Preposition, 89
Relative Pronouns, 35 The Conjunction, . 92
Simple Relatives, how applied, 36 The Interjection , 94
Construction of Relatives, 37 The Rules of Syntax, 95

Compound Relatives, 38 Ellipsis, 97

Interrogative Pronouns, 40 Sentences Classified, 98
Adjective Pronouns, .
41 Subject and Predicate, 99
Declension of Adj. Pronouns, 42 Principal Parts of Sentences, 102
The Article, 44 Clauses, 104
Adjectives and their Classes, 46 Forms of Analysis, 105
Degrees of Comparison, 48 Correction of False Syntas, 109
Comparison of Adjectives, 49 | Rules for Capitals, 118
Irregular Comparison, • 51 | Punctuation , 119
 FIRST BOOK IN GRAMMAR ..

LESSON I.

Weeds grow rapidly .

Repeat the above words. What do they form ?
A Sentence.
Why do we use this sentence ?
To express a thought.
Of what is the sentence made up ?
Of three words, each the sign of an idea.
What do these words tell us ?
Weeds tells us what is spoken about.
Grow tells us what the weeds do.
Rapidly tells us how the weeds grow.
What do we use, then , to express our thoughts ?
Sentences .
Of what are sentences made up ?
Of Words, which are the signs of ideas.
EXERCISE .

Complete these sentences by supplying words to tell what is

spoken about : killed Goliath. cross the ocean.
fly swiftly. will stain the fingers. smell
sweet . build houses. keep us warm. bark.
Complete these sentences by telling what horses do : Horses
oats. Horses carts. Horses water. Horses
grass. Horses flies. Horses in the fields.
Horses their masters. Horses races.
6 WORDS, LETTERS, SPELLING .

LESSON II .
What is a Word ?
A Word is the sign of an idea. The word ice is a
sign that stands for frozen water .
Of what is a word, when written, made up ?
Of Letters. The word ice is made up of three
letters.
What does every letter stand for ?
A sound of the voice used in speaking.
How many letters are there in English ?
Twenty-six : a, b, c, d , e, f, g, h , i, j, k, l, m, n,
0, P, q, r , s, t, u, V, W, X, Y, 2.
What do these letters form ?
The Alphabet.
What is Spelling ?
Spelling is putting letters together correctly, to
form words.
EXERCISE .

Spell the following words :—Business; separate ; prairie ;

independence ; believe ; peaceable; sympathize ; heroes ;
possessor ; cemetery ; receive ; outrageous ; monkeys ; ery
sipelas; scimitar ; seminary ; maintenance ; Springfield ;
Pyrenees ; Mississippi; Cincinnati.

LESSON III .
Pronounce the word car. Pronounce carpet. Pronounce carpet
ing. What difference may be observed in pronouncing these words ?
Car is pronounced with one impulse of the voice.
Car-pet requires two impulses ; car-pet-ing, three.
What do we call that which is pronounced with one impulse of
the voice ?
A Syllable.
 SYLLABLES . 7

How many syllables, then, in car ? In carpet ? In carpeting ?

Mention a word of one syllable ; of two syllables ; of three ;
of four.
What is a word of one syllable called ?
A Monosyllable ; as, he.
What is a word of two syllables called ?
A Dissyllable ; as, he-ro.
What is a word of three syllables called ?
A Trisyllable ; as, he ro-ic.
What is a word of more than three syllables called ?
A Polysyllable ; as, he-ro-i-cal, he-ro-i-cal-ly.
Name the four classes, then , into which words are divided , with
reference to their number of syllables. How many syllables does
each of these contain ?
EXERCISE .

Divide each word into its syllables ; tell whether it is a

monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable : - a ;
an ; and ; hand ; handy ; unhandy ; handy-work ; repre
hensible ; Virginia ; service ; serviceable ; ploughs; min
eralogy ; pretend ; history ; noticed ; noticing ; talked.

LESSON IV .

How many letters in the English alphabet ? How are these

divided ?
Into two classes, Vowels and Consonants.
What is a Vowel ?
A Vowel is a letter that can be uttered freely,
without interruption from the tongue or lips; as, a , e.
What is a Consonant ?
A Consonant is a letter that can not be uttered
freely, but is more or less interrupted by the tongue
or lips ; as, b, f. Try to sound these letters.
8 VOWELS, CONSONANTS .

How many and which of the letters are always vowels ?

Five ; a, e, i, o, u.
How many and which of the letters are always consonants ?
Nineteen ; b, c, d , f, g , h , j, k , l, m, n, p , q , r , s, t,
V, X , 2.
Are w and y vowels or consonants ?
W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel
sounded in the same syllable; as in wet, swing, re
ward , yet, un -yoke. In all other cases, they are vowels ;
as in new, owe, by, rye, new -ly.
EXERCISE .

Pronounce each word ; tell whether it is a monosyllable,

dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable. Name each letter ;
tellwhether it is a vowel or consonant: -- Baby ; why ; awfully.;
mysteriously ; showed ; drying ; joke ; knowingly ; zero ;
viewed ; whortleberry ; gown ; waxen ; unwrap.

LESSON V.
Name the vowels.
A, e, i, o, u,—and w and y, when they do not pre
cede a vowel sounded in the same syllable.
How many vowels are sometimes combined in one syllable ?
Two, or even three.
What is a Diphthong ?
A Diphthong is a combination of two vowels in
one syllable ; as, ea in eat, oi in oil.
What is a Triphthong ?
A Triphthong is a combination of three vowels in
one syllable ; as, eau in beau, ove in owed.
What is a Final Letter ?
A Final Letter is one that ends a word ; as, t in hat.
 A REVIEW . 9

What is a Silent Letter ?

A Silent Letter is one not sounded . E is silent in
ice, g in gnaw , l in walk, w in wrong.
EXERCISE .

Point out the vowels, diphthongs, triphthongs, final letters,

and silent letters :-Receive ; chalk ; plough ; wreathe ;
knowledge ; gnat ; eye-brow ; beautiful ; hour ; juice ;
numbness; castle ; awe-struck ; ewe-lamb; two-tongued ;
sweetly ; Europe.

LESSON VI .

A REVIEW .

How many letters in the English alphabet ? Are these letters

mostly vowels or consonants ? What is 6 ? What is a ? What
is w ? What is a diphthong ? What is a triphthong ? Which
contains the greater number of vowels, a diphthong or a triphthong ?
May w occur in a diphthong ? May y occur in a triphthong ?
Which is longer, a monosyllable or a polysyllable ? How many
more syllables has a trisyllable than a dissyllable ? What is a word
of eight syllables called, like incomprehensibility ? A word of six
syllables, like incomprehensible ? Add one more syllable to a
monosyllable, and what does it become ?
What are the simplest elements of language ?
LETTERS, which stand for simple sounds of the
voice used in speaking.
In what are letters combined ?
In SYLLABLES, which represent sounds uttered by
one impulse of the voice.
In what are syllables combined ?
In words, which are the signs of ideas.
In what are words combined ?
In SENTENCES, which express thoughts.
1*
10 USES OF WORDS.

What does Grammar teach us ?

Grammar teaches us how to put words together in
sentences, to express thoughts correctly.
EXERCISE .

Write four trisyllables ; four monosyllables ; four poly

syllables ; four dissyllables ; four words containing diph
thongs ; four containing triphthongs ; four ending with silent
e ; four words having finaly ; four words having a final con
sonant ; four having a final vowel.

LESSON VII .

In forming sentences, what do we have to use ?

Different kinds of words, expressing different ideas.
Show this in the sentence, But see ! he is walking slowly under
the shady trees.
We use the word trees as the name of certain
objects.
We use shady to describe trees, to tell what kind
of trees is meant.
We use the to point out some particular trees.
We use he for the person's name ; in stead of
James or John is walking, we say he is walking.
We use is walking to affirm an action, to tell what
he is doing .
We use under to show the relation between is
walking and trees ; not over the trees, or from the
trees, but under the trees.
We use slowly to tell how he is walking.
We use see ! to call attention .
We use but to connect the sentence with something
going before.
 PARTS OF SPEECH. 11

How many different classes of words have we thus found ?

Nine, each performing a different office.
What are these nine classes of words called ?
PARTS OF SPEECH.

EXERCISE .

Give the names of all the trees that you can think of ; as,
herlock, beech, pine, &c.
Give all the words you can think of that will describe the
trees ; as, shady trees, tall trees, spreading trees, &c.
Give all the words you can think of that will tell what he
is doing under the shady trees ; he is walking, he is running,
he is reading, &c.
Give all the words you can think of that will tell how he
is walking ; he is walking slowly, gracefully, quickly, &c.

LESSON VIII .

How many parts of speech are there ?

Nine .
Name them .
Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Ad
verbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
What is the first part of speech ?
The Noun.
What is a Noun ?
A Noun is a word used as a name.
Give examples.
The names of persons are nouns ; as, Adam , Vic
toria , General Taylor, Dr. Benjamin Franklin .
The names of countries, cities, towns, rivers,moun
tains, &c., are nouns , as, Scotland, New York, Mis
souri River, Rocky Mountains, Atlantic Ocean.
12 THE NOUN.

The names of things that can be seen, heard, felt,

smelled, and tasted, are nouns ; as, men, thunder,
heat, roses, sugar.
The names of things that are not seen, &c., but
simply thought of, are nouns ; as, art, death, happi
ness, patience, genius.
What is your name ? What part of speech is it ? Mention
four nouns, the names of persons; mention four, the names of
countries ; mention four, the names of things you can see ; mention
four, the names of things you can not see.
EXERCISE .

Supply as many appropriate nouns as you can think of,

in place of each dash : Farmers raise are sold
by dry -goods merchants . We can buy in market .
Hunters ten shoot are made of wood. Every
one has heard of such great men as . The fisherman
caught some

LESSON IX .

How many parts of speech are there ? Name them. Which

is the first ? What is a noun ? What are all names ?

How many kinds of nouns are there ?

Two, Common and Proper.
What is a Common Noun ?
A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to
all objects of the same kind ; as, boy, country, island ,
dog.
What is a Proper Noun ?
A Proper Noun is the name of an individual ob
ject, which can not be applied to all others of the
same kind ; as, Richard, Peru, Ireland, Carlo.
 KINDS OF NOUNS. 13

What kind of nouns are the names of nations ?

The names of nations are proper nouns ; as, the
Germans.
How must proper nouns always commence ?
With capital letters. See the above examples.
EXERCISE .
Complete these sentences by supplying nouns of the class
indicated :-The Amazon is the longest river in ( proper
noun).—Columbus found America inhabited by ( proper) .
Grocers sell (six common nouns).— Cain killed ( proper ), his
(common ), and was punished for his (common ).— The garden
was bright with ( six common nouns) and other flowers. In
the Bible we read about ( four proper nouns) and other good
(common ).— Joseph had a ( common) of many colors.

LESSON X.

How many classes of nouns are there ? Name and define them.
I, James, promise to go.
James, do you promise to go ?
James promised to go.
How is James represented in these three sentences ?
In the first sentence, James is represented as speak
ing ; in the second, as spoken to ; in the third, as
spoken of.
In parsing, how do we distinguish the noun James in these
sentences ?
In the first sentence, we say that James is in the
first person ; in the second sentence, it is in the second
person ; in the third sentence, in the thirdpersoni
How many persons, then, are there ?
Three ; the First, the Second , and the Third .
2
14 PERSON .

What do these three persons denote ?

The First Person denotes that which speaks; the
Second Person, that which is spoken to ; the Third
Person, that which is spoken of.
Does a noun show its person by its form ?
No ; its form is the same in all three persons.
In what person are most nouns that occur in sentences ?
In the third person, because they denote things.
that are spoken of.
EXERCISE .
Select the nouns. Tell their class and person. [Thus :
Boy is a common noun, in the second person . Labor is a
common noun, in the third person .) Toil on, brave boy ;
for labor conquers all things.- Alexander Hamilton was shot
in a duel by Aaron Burr. – We moderns have many im
provements that our forefathers did not possess. — Rejoice,
O young man , in thy youth.-1, Pharaoh, dreamed a dream.
- Thank Roger Bacon, ye old men, that ye can see, for he
invented spectacles.

LESSON XI .
What property have we just found that nouns possess ? How
many persons are there ? What do they denote ?
One year .
Two years ; five years ; ten years ; a thousand years.
What is to be observed in these expressions ?
When one is spoken of, the word year is used ;
when more than one, the form changes to years.
In parsing, how do we distinguish year and years ?
We say that year is in the singular number, and
years is in the plural number.
How many numbers are there ?
Two, the Singular and the Plural.
 NUMBER . 15

What do they denote ?

The Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than
one.

Does a noun show its number by its form ?

Generally ; most nouns change their form in the
plural. Thus :
Singular. Year, potato, man, child,
Plural. Years ; potatoes ; men ; children .

EXERCISE

Select the nouns. Tell their class, person , and number.

[ Thus :-Kings is a common noun, in the third person, plural
number. Rome is a proper noun, in the third person, singu
lar number.] Seven kings ruled Rome.-A sheep will yield
about three pounds of wool every year.--Homer, Virgil, and
Milton, are the three great epic poets. — Lift up your heads,
ye everlasting gates. - Moses wrote the first five books of
the Bible .-- Deer are still found in the Adirondack Moun
tains.

LESSON XII .

How many properties have we thus far found nouns to possess ?

How many persons are there ? Name them . How many numbers
are there ? Name them. How many consonants are there ? Name
them . How many vowels are there ? Name them .
How do most nouns form their plural ?
Most nouns form their plural by adding s to the
singular: as, hat, hats ; dwarf, dwarfs ; cuckoo,
cuckoos ; Cato, the Catos.
What nouns form their plural by adding es ?
Nouns ending as follows form their plural by
adding es :
1. In ch not sounded like k ; as, torch, torches.
16 FORMATION OF

2. In s and sh : as, gas, gases ; gash, gashes.

3. In x and z : as, tax, taxes ; waltz, waltzes.
4. In i, o, or u, preceded by a consonant : as,
alkali, alkalies ; cargo, cargoes ; gnu, gnues.
Do any nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant take s alone,
to form the plural ?
A few : as, canto, cantos; grotto, grottos ; halo,
halos ; portico, porticos; solo, solos ; tyro, tyros.
How do common nouns ending in y form the plural ?
1. If final y is preceded by a vowel, they simply
add s ; as, valley, valleys.
2. If final y is preceded by a consonant, they change
it to ies ; as, fly, flies.
Name fifteen nouns ending in f and fe, that change these letters
to ves in the plural.
Beef, beeves ; leaf, leaves ; sheaf, sheaves ; thief,
thieves ; loaf, loaves ; calf, calves ; half, halves ; elf,
elves ; self, selves ; shelf, shelves ; wolf, wolves ; life,
lives; knife, knives ; wife, wives; wharf, wharves or
wharfs.
EXERCISE .

Spell and define the plural. [Thus : --1-0-6-8, more than

one shoe.] Shoe ; rat ; wren ; arch ; monarch ; beech ;
kiss; blush ; box ; topaz ; alkali; pine ; halo ; crash ; to.
mato ; bamboo ; trio ; grotto ; echo ; cry ; boy ; sty ;
mercy ; play ; canopy ; eye ; ray ; leaf ; pen -knife (like
knife) ; hoof ; sea-calf ( like calf ) ; muff; life; knee ; ewe .

LESSON XIII .

How do most nouns form their plural ? What nouns take es to

form their plural ? How do nouns in y form their plural ? Name
the nouns that form their plural in ves.
 THE PLURAL NUMBER . 17

Name some nouns quite irregular in their plural.

The following nouns are quite irregular :
Sing. Plu . Sing. Plu , Sing. Plu .
Child, children. Louse, lice. Ox, oxen ,

Foot, feet. Mouse, mice. Tooth, teeth .

Goose, geese. Man, men, Woman, women .
What compounds of these words form their plural similarly ?
Compounds in which these words stand last, form
their plural similarly : as, grandchild, grandchildren ;
fireman, firemen .
Give some nouns that take both a regular and an irregular
plural.
Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular
plural, with different meanings :
Singular. Regular Plural. Irregular Plural.
Brother, brothers (of a family), brethren (of a society ).
Die, dies ( stamps for coining ), dice ( cubes for gaming ).
Genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits).
Head, heads (parts of the body), head (of cattle ).
Pea, peas (distinct grains), pease (taken in bulk ).
Penny, pennies (distinct coins), pence (a sum of money ).
Sail, sails (pieces of canvas ), sail ( vessels ).
Give some nouns that have the same form in both numbers.
The following nouns are alike in both numbers :
alms, bellows, cannon , deer, means, sheep, swine, and
the compounds of the word fish, as codfish, &c.
EXERCISE .
Spell and define the plural:40x ; ox- fly ; mouse ; dor
mouse ; man ; waterman ; washerwoman ; Frenchman ;
gooseberry ; tooth-pick ; eye-tooth ; cànnon ; fallow - deer ;
sheep ; wharf; sword - fish ; handful; step -father.
Spell the singular : - Moneys ; enemies ; keys; fleas;
thieves ; heroes ; tyros ; Neros ; alms; dice ; bellows;
18 FORMATION OF

Irish women ; sheep ; black -fish ; Germans; waltzes; leaves ;

pence ; volleys; genii ; piano-fortes; brothers-in - law .

LESSON XIV .
How do foreign words introduced into English without change
form their plural ?
Some keep their foreign plural; some take the
regular English plural; some take both.
How do foreign nouns ending in a form their foreign plural ?
Foreign nouns in a change a to ce ; as, vertebra,
vertebrce .
How do foreign nouns in us form their foreign plural ?
Foreign nouns in us change us to i ; as,
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Alumnus, alumni. Nucleus, nuclei , R.*
Focus, foci. Radius, radii, R.
Magus, magi. Sarcophagus, sarcophagi, R.
How do foreign nouns in is form their foreign plural ?
Foreign nouns in is change is to es ; as,
Axis, axes. Hypothesis, hypotheses.
Basis, bases. Oasis, oases .

Crisis, crises. Parenthesis, parentheses.

How do foreign nouns in um and on form their plural ?
Foreign nouns in um and on change um and on to
a ; as,
Animalculum , animalcula . Erratum , errata .
Aquarium , aquaria, R. Gymnasium , gymnasia, R.
Automaton, automata, R. Herbarium , herbaria , R.
Criterion, criteria, R. Medium , media, ' R.
Datum , data. Memorandum , memoranda, R.
Encomium, encomia , R. Phenomenon, phenomena.
* R. means that the noun takes also the regular English plural; nucleus,
nuclei or nucleuses.
 THE PLURAL NUMBER . 19

Give the plural of some more foreign nouns.

Appendix, appendices, R .; beau,beaux, R.; cherub,
cherubim , R.; seraph, seraphim , R.
EXERCISE .

Supply the proper plural :-Napoleon made his [brothers

or brethren ?] kings. — The gambler must have lis [dies or
dice ?].- We need [geniuses or genii ?] at the head of affairs.
-Weak [heads or head ?] often go with strong bodies.
Twenty [heads or head ?] of cattle bave just passed.
I owe you eight ( pennies or pence ?], but have only three
[ pennies or pencel] in my pocket.-Thirty (sails or sail ?]
swept up the bay, with all their (sails or sail ?] set. - Buy a
bushel of [ peas or pease ?].— Two [peas or pease ?] produce
two hundred.—Good [geniuses or genii ?] guard theo !-- [Dies
or dice ?] are used in coining.

LESSON XV .
What are the different classes of words called ? How many
parts of speech are there ? What is the first part of speech ?
What properties have we thus far found nouns to possess ? How
do most nouns form their plural ?
How do some compounds form their plural ?
The following compounds vary both words that
compose them :
Man -servant, men -servants . Woman -servant, women -servants.
Man - singer, men-singers. Woman -singer, women -singers.
Man -child , men -children . / Knight-templar, knights-templars.
Are there any nouns not found in both numbers ?
Yes ; some nouns have no plural, and some no
singular.
Mention some nouns that have no plural.
Many names of virtues, vices, arts, sciences, dis
20 GENDER .

eases, and articles sold by weight, have no plural ; as,

patience, idleness, architecture, music, gout, lard .
Mention some nouns that have no singular.
Some nouns have no singular ; as,
Aborigines Bitters Goods Suds
Annals Cattle Headquarters Tidings
Ashes Clothes Riches Victuals
Billiards Fireworks Spectacles Wages

EXERCISE .

Mention sixforeign nouns in the singular number; six in

the plural.
Correct the errors. Then select the nouns ; tell their class,
person, and number : -Goliath, the giant of Gath, was nearly
ten foot high.—The phenomenons of the air are wonderful.
-Where are the bellowses ?-Pharaoh put the man -children
of the Hebrews to death . - The cannons roared as the sail
were unfurled . - Water is full of animalculums. — Cherubims
and seraphims raise their songs.

LESSON XVI .
Lion, Lioness.
Boy, Girl.
Man -singer, Woman -singer.
Compare the words in the first column with those in the second .
What is to be observed ?
The former denote males; the latter, females.
In parsing, how do we distinguish lion and lioness ?
We say that lion is of the masculine gender, and
lioness is of the feminine gender.
Here, then, is a new property that some nouns possess ; what
is it called ?
Gender.
 MASCULINE AND FEMININE . 21

How many genders are there ?

Two, the Masculine and the Feminine.
What do they denote ?
The Masculine Gender denotes males ; the Feminine,
females.
What is the gender of a noun that denotes either male or
female,-as
, neighbor ?
Such a noun is masculine or feminine ; we say
briefly that it is of common gender.
Do all nouns have gender ?
No. Things without life are neither male nor
female. Hence their names have no gender.
EXERCISE .

Mention the nouns, their class, person , number, and gender

when they have it. [Thus :-Daniel Webster is a proper
noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gen
der. New Hampshire is a proper noun, in the third person,
singular number. Neighbors is a common noun, in the third
person, plural number, common gender.]
Daniel Webster was born in New Hampshire. — Love
your neighbors.-- The birds of tropical regions generally
have beautiful plumage. - Men of Switzerland, remember
William Tell.-Sponges are obtained by divers in the Medi
terranean Sea.

LESSON XVII .
How many genders are there ? Name and define them . What
nouns have gender, and what nouns have none ? What nouns are
said to be of common gender ?
When is a common noun said to be personified ?
When it is used as the name of a person.
“ Sorrow sits veiling her eyes." Here Sorrow is
22 OBJECTS PERSONIFIED .

represented as doing something that only a person

can do, and it is therefore said to be personified .
Does the name of an object personified have gender ?
Yes. Fierce and mighty objects (as War, Time)
are personified as males, and their names become
masculine. Gentle and beautiful objects ( as Hope,
Evening) are personified as females, and their names
become feminine.
How must the name of an object personified commence ?
With a capital letter.
EXERCISE .
Parse the nouns. [ Thus :-Hope is a common noun per
sonified, in the third person, singular number, feminine
gender.] Hope whispers her fair promises in the ears of
youth . - Anger plunges the dagger in his brother's heart.
Henry Clay was born in Virginia . - Peace and Plenty go
smiling through the land.—With his remorseless scythe,
Time mows down the nations.—Justice, with bandagedeyes,
holds her impartial balance.-Humility is the meek-eyed
daughter of Religion .-- Sweet Charity, of thee I sing.

LESSON XVIII .

Have all masculine nouns corresponding feminines ?

Not all, but some have: as, lion , lioness ; boy,
girl.
In how many ways are feminines distinguished from their cor
responding masculines ?
In three ways :
I. By adding ess, ine, ina, ix, or a to the mascu
line, with or without change ; as,
 GENDER . 23

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.

Abbot, abbess. Hero, heroine.
Actor, actress . Paul, Pauline.
Count, countess. Czar, czarina.
Duke, duchess. Administrator, administratris .
Emperor, empresa. Executor, executrix .
God, goddess. Sultan, sultana .
Marquis, marchioness. Louis, Louisa.

II. By using an entirely different word ; as,

Mas. Fem . Mas. Fem . Mas. Fem .
Beau, belle. Father, mother Master, mistress.
Boy, girl. Gander, goose. Nephew , niece.
Brother, sister. Hart, roe . Ram , ewe .

Buck , doe. Horse , mare . Son , daughter.

Bull, cow. King, queen. Stag, hind .
Drake, duck . Lord , lady. Steer, heifer.
Earl, countess. Man , woman . Uncle, aunt.

III. By prefixing words that denote the sex to

nouns of the common gender ; as,
Man -servant, maid -servant. Cock -sparrow , hen -sparrow.
ſ female -de- He-goat, she-goat.
Male-descendant, scendant. Buck -rabbit, doe- rabbit.

EXERCISE .

Give the feminine:-Lion ; tailor; Jew ; shepherd ; arch

duke; marquis ; Augustus ; Cornelius ; earl; school-boy ;
ram ; step -father ; brother-in-law ; man -singer; male-ser
vant ; king ; stag ; school -master.
Give the masculine :-- Tigress; poetess ; priestess ; Jo
sephine; Henrietta ; Julia ; heifer ; doe ; granddaughter ;
heiress ; gentlewoman ; roe ; landlady ; duck ; godmother ;
baroness; czarina ; executrix.
Mention six masculine nouns ; six feminincs ; six nouns
of common gender ; six nouns that have no gender.
24 SUBJECT, OBJECT.

LESSON XIX .

What is a Sentence ?
A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as
makes complete sense ; as, “ Bees make honey.”
What must every sentence contain ?
Every sentence must contain a verb, which affirms
some action or state.
What is meant by the Subject of a verb ?
The Subject of a verb is that of which the action
or state is affirmed .
What is meant by the Object of a verb ?
The Object of a verb is that on which the action
expressed by the verb is exerted.
Give examples.
“ Bees make honey .” Make affirms an action, and
is a verb. Bees is its subject; honey is its object.
How can you find the subject of a verb ?
By asking a question with who or what before the
verb . The answer to the question is the subject.
Thus :- What make honey ? Answer, bees. Bees is
the subject.
How can you find the object of a verb ?
By asking a question with whom or what after the
verb . The answer to the question is the object.
Thus :-Bees make what ? Answer, honey. Honey
is the object.
What else besides verbs have objects ?
Prepositions, or words that show relations ; as, at,
about, after, before, by, for, from , in , into, of, over,
to, with, without.
 CASE. 25

Give examples.
At home ; home is the object of the preposition at.
For Jacob's son ; son is the object of the preposition
for.
EXERCISE .

Select the verbs ; tell the subject of each, and its object if
it has one . Select the prepositions and their objects :-- Don
Quixote was written by Cervantes in prison.-Necessity
quickens invention . — Coaches made their way into England
in the fifteenth century.Without doubt, the ancients never
used forks. - Malice seldom wants a mark . - Quicksilver is
another name for mercury . - Indians traversed the whole
continent, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.

LESSON XX .

What properties have we found nouns to possess ? What other

property has the noun, to distinguish the relation of subject, ob
ject, &c. ?
Case.
How many cases are there ?
Three; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the
Objective.
When is a noun in the Nominative Case ?
A noun is in the Nominative Case,
I. When it is the subject of a verb ; as, 66 Bees
make honey ."
II. When it stands after a verb, and refers to the
same thing as its subject; as, “ Virgil was a Roman.”
III. When it is used independently, in an exclama
tion, address, &c.; as, “ Heavens ! what a sight! ”
“ Ye men of Athens ! " “ The sun having set, I re
turned.?' “ Our fathers, where are they ?"
3
26 DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

When is a noun in the Possessive Case ?

A noun is in the Possessive Case, when it modifies
some other noun, and implies possession, origin, or
fitness ; as, John's hat, goat's hair, men's shoes.
How may the possessive case be known ?
By the apostrophe [?].
When is a noun in the Objective Case ?
A noun is in the Objective Case, when it is the
object of a verb or preposition ; as, “ Bees make
honey .” “At home."
EXERCISE .
Parse the nouns in the last Exercise. [Thus :-
:-Don
Quixote is a proper noun, in the third person, singular num
ber, nominative case. Cervantes is a proper noun , in the
third person , singular number, masculine gender, objective
case.]

LESSON XXI .
Name the properties that belong to nouns. How many persons
are there ? Name them . How many numbers ? Name them .
How many genders ? Name them. How many cases ? Name
them . In what case is an object ? In what case is a subject ? In
what case is a noun that modifies another and implies possession ?
What meant by the a noun ?

The process of carrying it through its several

cases . Thus :
Sing. Plu . Sing. Plu . Sing. Plu.
Nom . Dog, dogs, Sky, skies, Hero, heroes,
Poss. dog's, dogs', sky's, skies', hero's, heroes',
Obj. dog ; dogs. sky ; skies. hero ; heroes.
Nom . Ox, oxen , Man, men, Julius,
Poss. ox's, oxen's, man's, men's, Julius's,
Obj. ox ; oxen . man ; men. Julius.
 FORMATION OF THE CASES. 27

What do you observe respecting the objective case of these

nouns ?
It is like the nominative.
How is the possessive singular formed ?
By appending an apostrophe and s [ 's ] to the
nominative singular.
How is the possessive plural formed ?
By appending ' s to the nominative plural unless it
already ends in s, in which case the apostrophe alone
is added.
EXERCISE .

Decline rat ; fly ; pear ; woman ; grandchild ; seraph ;

mouse ; George ; Cæsar.
Write the objective plural of sheep ; die (a stamp) ; foot ;
deer ; weak - fish ; father -in -law ; school-mistress ; vertebra ;
man-servant ; gymnasium ; crisis ; canto ; sex ; alkali ; beau ;
ally ; alley ; journey ; woman- singer.
Write the possessive singular, and then the possessive
plural of cannon ; German ; boatman ; landlady ; girl;
turkey ; step -daughter ; cherub ; goose ; fox ; Russian ; day ;
berry ; ostrich.

LESSON XXII .

Name the parts of speech ? Which of these have we been con

sidering ?
What is the second part of speech ?
The Pronoun.
What is a Pronoun ?
A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun .
Give an example.
“ Sarah asked William to lend Sarah William's
book.” This is awkward. To avoid repeating the
28 THE PRONOUN .

proper nouns, we substitute the pronouns her and

his : - “ Sarah asked William to lend her his book .”
How many classes of pronouns are there ?
There are four classes of pronouns ; Personal,
Relative, Interrogative, and Adjective.
What properties belong to pronouns ?
The same as to nouns,-person , number, gender
if they denote things with life, and case.
EXERCISE .

Supply nouns in the nominative case ; select the objects :

often carry off chickens. Large empty into the
sea. have to encounter many perils. are made
of iron. In the ocean are many
Supply nouns in the objective case ; select the subjects :
Carpenters make Traders bring from Africa .
Earthquakes destroy many - By reading men

improve their The Laplanders keep of reindeer

about their

LESSON XXIII .

What is the second part of speech ? How many classes of pro

nouns are there ? Name them.
What is a Personal Pronoun ?
A Personal Pronoun is one that simply represents
a noun and determines its person, without introducing
any other idea respecting it.
Name the simple personal pronouns.
The simple personal pronouns are,
I, first person, masculine gender if a male is denoted,
feminine if a female.
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 29

Thou , second person, masculine gender if a male is

denoted, feminine if a female.
He, third person, masculine gender.
She, third person, feminine gender.
It, third person, destitute of gender.
Decline the simple personals.
The simple personals are thus declined :
FIRST PERSON . SECOND PERSON.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Nom . I, we, Thou, you , yo,
Poss. my, mine, our, ours, thy, thine, your, yours,
Obj. me ; us. thee ; you, ye.
THIRD PERSON.
Sing. Phu . Sing. Plu . Sing. Plu .
Nom. He, they, She, they, It, they,
their, ſher, their their,
Poss. his, its,
theirs, hers, theirs, theirs,
Obj. him ; them . her, them . it ; them .

EXERCISE .
State the person , number, gender when it is determined,
and case . [ Thus :-1, first, singular, nominative. Him ,
third, singular, masculine, objective.] I ; him ; thine; me ;
them ; her ; our ; its ; thee ; their ; she ; you ; mine ;
yours ; us ; his ; ye ; thy ; it ; we ; my ; ours ; theirs;
thou ; your ; he ; they ; bers.

LESSON XXIV .
Name the four classes of pronouns. What is a personal pro
noun ? Decline the simple personals.
Ilow are the compound personals formed ?
The compound personals are formed of the pos
30 THE COMPOUND PERSONALS .

sessive or objective case of the simple personals and

the word self.
Name the compound personals.
Myself, plural ourselves, ourself, 1st person.
Thyself, plural yourselves, yourself, 2d person.
Himself, plural themselves, 3d, masculine.
Herself, plural themselves, 3d, feminine.
Itself, plural themselves, 3d, no gender.
What case do the compound personals lack ?
They lack the possessive case, and have the same
form in the objective as in the nominative.
EXERCISE .
Correct ours' ; theirs’; it's ; your's ; his'n ; hern ; ourn ;
yourn ; hisself; theirselves ; itsself; theirn.
Supply the proper pronouns, and tell their person , num
ber, gender when they have it, and case : Charles said that he
had hurt 7 but do not think was much in
jured. Paul has mislaid book ; will not try to
find it for - ? George and Henry must have lost
way in the woods ; I can not find This book is
that slate is

LESSON X X V.
In parsing fully, what must be done ?
Rules must be given for the case of nouns and
pronouns.
What general term includes both nouns and pronouns ?
Substantives.
Recite Rule I., relating to the subject.
RULE I. - A substantive that is the subject of a
verb is in the nominative case ; as, " 6 Years come and
go.” “ Lovest thou me ?”
 1

RULES FOR SUBSTANTIVES . 31

Recite Rule II., relating to substantives used independently.

RULE II . — A substantive used independently is in
the nominative case .
6
Napoleon having charged, the battle was decided .” Robert,
6
do not go.” Ah ! wretched we ! " “ The bride what can I say
of her ?” Napoleon, Robert, we, and bride, are in the nominative
independent.
Recite Rule III., for the possessive case .
RULE III . - A substantive that modifies a noun
denoting a different person or thing, by implying
possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case ;
as, my hand ; Morse's telegraph ; men's shoes.
Recite Rule IV ., relating to the object.
RULE IV . - A substantive that is the object of a
verb or preposition is in the objective case ; as, Pity
us ; in Egypt.
PARSING FORMS. — Learn the following forms for
parsing nouns and personal pronouns, and applying
the above rules :

I beg you, my son, think of the consequences.

I is a simple personal pronoun, in the first person , singular num
ber, common gender, nominative case, the subject of the verb beg
Rule, A substantive that isthe subject of a verb is in the nomina
tive case.
You is a simple personal pronoun, in the second person , plural
number (used for the singular), masculine gender, objective case,
the object of the verb beg :-Rule, A substantive that is the object
of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.
My is a simple personal pronoun, in the first person , singular
number, common gender, possessive case, and modifies the noun
Son :-Rule, A substantive that modifies a noun deroting a different
person or thing, by implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the
possessive case.
32 RULES FOR SUBSTANTIVES .

Son is a common noun, in the second person, singular number,

masculine gender, nominative independent :-Rule, A substantive
used independently is in the nominative case.
Consequences is a common noun, in the third person, plural
number, objective case, the object of the preposition of :-Rule, A
substantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the ob
jective case.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns and personal pronouns according to the

above models :-Cleopatra killed herself by the bite of an
asp . - The boy-oh ! where was he ?—We thought he saw
us.-Beavers build their lodge by some stream . - Day having
dawned, they were soon on their journey.—Never amuse
yourself at the expense of a friend.- I pray thee, neighbor,
let not thy passions control thy reason.

LESSON XXVI .

Repeat Rule I. Rule II. Rule III. Rule IV. In what case
is a modifying substantive that denotes possession , origin, or fitness ?
What else may a modifying noun denote ?
Besides possession, origin, and fitness, a modifying
noun may denote,
1. Time; as, “ He went last week.”
2. Direction ; as, “ He went west . "
3. Extent ; as, “ An inch wide."
4. Quantity ; as, “ It measured a bushel."
5. Value ; as, “ It cost me a dollar."
In what case are these modifying nouns, week, west, &c. ?
In the objective case .
Recite Rule V. , relating to a modifying substantive.
RULE V. - A modifying substantive, denoting
time, direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands
in the objective case without a preposition .
 RULES FOR SUBSTANTIVES . 33

PARSING FORM . -Cæsar lived nineteen centuries

ago. Goliath was nearly tenfeet high.
Centuries is a common noun, in the third person, plural num
ber, objective case , denoting time:-Rule, A modifying substantive,
denoting time, direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in
the objective case without a preposition .
Feet is a common noun, in the third person, plural number, ob
jective case , denoting extent :-Rule, A modifying substantive, &c.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns and personal pronouns according to the

models given : —The Pacific Ocean is 9000 miles long .-- I ex
pect to go home day after to -morrow .-- Can you tell us, my
young philosopher, why the magnetic needle points north ?
-Muslin a yard wide now costs forty cents a yard.—Good
wheat weighs sixty pounds to the bushel.

LESSON XXVII .
When is one substantive said to be in apposition with another ?
When one substantive is joined to another denoting
the same person or thing, to explain or add to its
meaning, it is said to be in apposition with the latter.
Give examples of nouns in apposition.
“Fulton, the inventor of steamboats ;" inventor is
in apposition with Fulton . “ The prophet Samuel ; ”
prophet is in apposition with Samuel.
In what case is a noun that is in apposition ?
In the same case as the noun with which it is in
apposition. Inventor is in the same case as Fulton ;
prophet is in the same case as Samuel.
Recite Rule VI., relating to substantives in apposition.
RULE VI.-One substantive joined to another de
noting the same person or thing, is in the same case.
2*
34 RULES FOR SUBSTANTIVES.

Recite Rule VII. , relating to a verb that has no object.

RULE VII . — A verb that has no object takes the
same case after as before it, when both words refer
to the same person or thing.
Give an example of Rule VII.
“ Kosciusko was a Pole .” Pole, coming after the
verb was, is in the same case as Kosciusko, which
stands before it,—that is, the nominative.
PARSING FORMS . - Samuel the prophet was the son
of Hannah.
Prophet is a common noun, in the third person, singular num
ber, masculine gender, nominative case, in apposition with Samuel :
-Rule, One substantive joined to another denoting the same per
son or thing, is in the same case .
Son is a common noun, in the third person, singular number,
masculine gender, nominative case after the verb was :
as :-Rule, A
verb that has no object takes the same case after as before it, when
both words refer to the same person or thing.

EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns and personal pronouns :—History teaches

us that tyrants are generally cowards. - Order is Heaven's
first law.—Linnæus, the great naturalist, was a Swede.
O Greece, my country, mother of heroes, where is thy
glory now ?-The sister of the astronomer Herschel was
herself (in apposition with sister) a successful observer of
the heavens.—Some of our modern orators think that they
surpass Demosthenes himself.-- Tasso was an Italian .

LESSON XXVIII .

How many parts of speech are there ? Name the second

What is a pronoun ? Name the different classes of pronouns
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 35

What is a personal pronoun ? Name the simple personals; the

compound personals.
What is a Relative Pronoun ?
A Relative Pronoun is one used to connect parts
of a sentence, without change of form for the differ
ent persons and numbers.
“ James, who was up early, saw the sun rise. "
Who is a relative ; it connects was up early with the
rest of the sentence.
Why are the relatives so called ?
Because they relate to some word or words going
before, called the Antecedent. James is the ante
cedent in the example just given,
How are the relative pronouns distinguished ?
As Simple and Compound.
Name the simple relatives.
The simple relatives are who, which, that, as, and
what.
Decline the simple relatives.
The plural of the simple relatives is like the singu
lar. They are declined thus :
8. & P. S. & P. S. & P. S. & P. S. & P.

Nom . Who, Which, That, As, What,

Poss. whose , whose,
Obj. whom . which. that. as. what.

EXERCISE .

Select the relatives, and the antecedent of each. Parse

the nouns and the personal pronouns :-It was Pope who
wrote, “ The proper study of mankind is man .” — Such as
are inattentive to their business will not prosper.-I who
speak, and you that listen , are alike mortal . — The dispensa
tions which seem the hardest to bear, are often those that
36 THE SIMPLE RELATIVES .

do [to] us the most good. The second king of the Plantage

net line was Richard I., whose surname was the Lion
hearted, and whom his exploits in Palestine have made
illustrious.

LESSON XXIX .

Decline the simple personal pronouns. Decline the compound

personals. Decline the simple relatives.
To what is the relative who applied ?
Who is applied to persons, and animals and things
personified : as, Men who dream ; Pleasure, who
smiles but to betray.
To what is the relative which applied ?
Which is applied to animals and things : as, Dogs
which bark ; The sun , which shines for all.
To what is the relative that applied ?
That is applied to persons, animals, and things :
as, Men that dream ; Dogs that bark ; The sun that
shines for all.
To what is the relative as applied ?
As is applied to persons, animals, and things. It is
used after such , same, as many, so many, as much, so
much : thus, Such men as dream ; As many as came.
To what is the relative what applied ?
What is applied to things, and is equivalent to
antecedent and relative ; as, “ Take what ( thatwhich ]
you wish .”
Is that always a relative pronoun ?
No, it is sometimes a conjunction ; as, “ He said
that it would rain ."
When that is a relative, who, whom , or which ,
 37
THE SIMPLE RELATIVES .

used in its place, will make sense ; “ All that [who]

wear broadcloth are not gentlemen .”
In the expressions as many as, as much as, which as is the
relative ?
The second ; the first as is an adverb.
EXERCISE .

Mention the antecedents, and correct therelatives. [ Thus:

Woman is the antecedent; it denotes a person, and therefore
the relative which, referring to it, should be changed to
who—The woman who was at the well was a Samaritan .]
The woman which was at the well was a Samaritan.
There are many books who outlive their authors. The cat,
who at first seemed startled , soon took courage. — My only
comforter was Hope, which bade me dry my tears. - Avoid
such boys who use bad language. There are few poets which
manage to make a living by their poetry.

LESSON XXX .

Does a relative show its person and number by its form ?

No ; its form does not change when its person and
number change .
How , then, can we tell the person and number of a relative ?
By looking at its antecedent, with which it agrees
in person and number. Thus :
I who ( 1st person, singular ). We who ( 1st person , plural).
Thou who (2d person , singular). You who (2d person , plural).
He who (3d person , singular ). They who (3d person, plural).
Recite Rule VIII., for the agreement of the relative.
RULE VIII . - A relative agrees with its antecedent
in person and number.
4
38 PARSING OF SIMPLE RELATIVES .

Does the relative agree with its antecedent in case ?

No ; in case it is independent of its antecedent.
Show this by an example.
“ The temple was built by Solomon , who was the
son of David." The antecedent Solomon, being the
object of the preposition by, is in the objective case ;
but the relative who, being the subject of the verb
was, is in the nominative.
In parsing a relative, how many rules must be given ?
Two : Rule VIII., for its agreement, and whatever
other rule is required, for its case.
What has the force of the compound relatives, and
is parsed like them, as shown in the next lesson.
EXERCISE .

Parse the relative pronouns in the last two Exercises.

[Thus: -It was Pope who wrote, “ The proper study of
mankind is man . Who is a simple relative pronoun, and
has Pope for its antecedent, with which it agrees in the
third person, singular number - Rule, A relative agrees with
its antecedent in person and number ; in the nominative
case, the subject of the verb wrote-Rule, A substantive that
is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case.]

LESSON XXXI .

How many kinds of relatives are there ? Name the simple

relatives.
Name the compound relative pronouns.
Whoever, whosoever, applied only to persons.
Whichever, whichsoever, applied to persons, ani
mals, and things.
Whatever, whatsoever, applied only to things.
 THE COMPOUND RELATIVES . 39

Decline the compound relatives.

None of the compound relatives change, except
whoever and whosoever. They are alike in both num
bers, and are declined thus :
Sing, and Plural. Sing. and Plural.
Nom . Whoever, Whosoever ,
Poss. whosever, whosesoever,
Obj. whomever. whomsoever.

To what is a compound relative generally equivalent ?

Like what, a compound relative is generally equiva
lent to an antecedent and a simple relative ; as,
“Whoever ( that is, any one who] is low -spirited
should learn to skate .” “ Take whichever [ either
that] you choose. ”
How many cases do what and the compound relatives represent ?
Two cases ; one as antecedent, and the other as
relative. When these cases are different, two rules
must be given in parsing.

PARSING FORMS.- Be content with what you have.

-Bring whoever is there.
What is a simple relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent
and relative ; in the third person, singular number ; as antecedent,
in the objective case, the object of the preposition with ; as relative,
in the objective case, the object of the verb have :-Rule, A sub
stantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective
case .

Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to ante

cedent and relative, in the third person, singular number ; as ante
cedent, in the objective case, the object of the verb bring — Rule,
A substantive that is the object of a verb, &c.; as relative, in the
nominative case, the subject of the verb is - Rule, A substantive
that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case .
40 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS .

EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns and pronouns :-Accept with gratitude

whatever (two rules) is sent from Heaven . — Whomsoever
(one rule ) we find true, we trust. — Whoever ( one rule )
slanders my friend, slanders me. — Take not what (two rules)
belongs not to you . — Let her have whichever (two rules)
suits her.-- Whoever (one rule) loses, is apt to complain .

LESSON XXXII .

Name the different classes of pronouns. What is a personal

pronoun ? What is a relative pronoun ?
What is an Interrogative Pronoun ?
An Interrogative Pronoun is one used for asking
a question, in answering a question indefinitely, and
in similar indefinite expressions.
Questions.- Who did it ? Which was it ? What is truth ?
Indefinite Answers.— I know not who did it, what truth is.
Indefinite Expressions.Find out who did it, which it was.
Namo the interrogative pronouns.
The interrogatives are who, which, and what.
How are the interrogatives declined ?
Like the corresponding relatives ; see page 35.
When are who and which relatives, and when interrogatives ?
When who and which relate to an antecedent, they
are relatives ; when not, interrogatives.
When is what a relative pronoun, and when an interrogative ?
The pronoun what is a relative, when equivalent to
that which ; when not, it is an interrogative.
When a question is answered by a single word, how can you
find the case of that word ?
By supplying the words understood. Thus :
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS . 41

“ Who succeeded Jefferson ? Madison . ” That is, Madison suc

ceeded Jefferson ; Madison is in the nominative case, the subject
of succeeded understood.
“ Whom did Madison succeed ? Jefferson . ” That is, Madison
succeeded Jefferson ; Jefferson is in the objective case , the object
of succeeded understood.

PARSING FORM.- · Whom saw you ?-I would like

to know whose books these are.
Whom is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singu
lar number, objective case, the object of the verb saw : -- Rule, A
substantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the ob
jective case .
Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular
number, possessive case, and modifies the noun books :-Rule, A
substantive that modifies a noun, &c.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns and pronouns :—What is a pronoun ?

Whose son was David ? Jesse's.—Do you know whom
Elizabeth succeeded ? Yes ; Queen Mary.- Which do you
like best, arithmetic (in apposition with which) or grammar ?
-Who invented the telescope Jansen or Galileo, I do not
know which .

LESSON XXXIII .

What is a personal pronoun ? A relative pronoun ? An in .

terrogative pronoun ?
What are all pronouns not included in the above classes called ?
Adjective Pronouns.
How are Adjective Pronouns divided ?
Into three classes :
1. Demonstratives, which point out with precision
the objects to which they refer :—This, that, former,
latter, both , same.
42 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS .

2. Distributives, which represent objects as taken

separately Each , every , either, neither.
3. Indefinites, which refer to objects generally,
without specifying any in particular :-One, none,
other, another, some, all, any, such .
Are these words ever used with nouns, and not in stead of them ?
Yes ; as, this book, every person . In that case
they are adjectives.
How are the adjective pronouns declined ?
Most of the adjective pronouns do not change.
This, that, one, and other, are declined as follows.
Another is declined in the singular like other, but has
no plural.
S. P. S. P. S. P. S. P.

N. This, these, That, those, / One, ones, Other, others,

P. one's, ones', other's, others',
0. this ; these. that ; those. one ; ones. other ; others.

PARSING FORM . — They loved each other.

Each is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular num
ber, nominative case, in apposition with they :-Rule, One sub
stantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in
the same case .
Other is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular num
ber, objective case, the object of the verb loved :-Rule, The object
of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns and pronouns :-Teach me to feel an

other's woe. Demosthenes and Cicero were both great
orators ; the former was a Greek, the latter a Roman.
Some are timid, others rash ; those lose all by their hesita
tion, these by their haste . — Let us do good to one (in appo
sition with us) another (object of to).- Such as are virtuous,
are happy.
 A REVIEW . 43

LESSON XXXIV.

A REVIEW .

What is a noun ? What is a common noun ? What is a proper

noun ? Name the four properties of nouns. How many persons
are there ? How many numbers ? How many genders ? How
many cases ? What does the first person denote ? The second ?
The third ? In what person are most nouns ?
What does the singular number denote ? The plural ? How
do most nouns form their plural ? How do nouns in s form their
plural? Nouns in y ? Mention some nouns that have no plural.
Mention some that have no singular. What does the masculine
gender denote ? The feminine ?
What nouns have no gender ? In what three ways are feminine
nouns distinguished from their corresponding masculines ? What
does the nominative case denote ? The possessive ? The objective ?
Which two of these cases have the same form ? Name some of the
most common prepositions.
EXERCISE .

Give the pronoun called for : -1. Simple personal, in the

first person, singular, objective (me). 2. Simple personal,
second, plural, possessive. 3. Compound personal, third,
singular, feminine, objective. 4. A simple relative, in the
objective. 5. A compound relative, in the possessive. 6.
Compound personal, first, plural, objective. 7. Simple per
sonal, third, plural, masculine, nominative. 8. Compound
personal, third, singular, masculine, nominative.

LESSON XXXV.

A REVIEW .

What is a pronoun ? Why are pronouns used ? What proper

ties do pronouns possess ? Name the four classes of pronouns.
What is a personal pronoun ? What is a relative pronoun ? What
44 A REVIEW .

is an interrogative pronoun ? What classes are included under the

head of adjective pronouns ?
How are the compound personals formed ? What case is want
ing in the compound personals ? Which of the simple relatives are
not found in the possessive case ? What pronouns have the same
form as the simple relatives ? Name the compound relatives.
Which of the adjective pronouns are declined ? Name those
that are not declined. When do these words become adjectives ?
What does the word substantive include ? Repeat the eight Rules
Which of these relates to nouns in apposition ?
EXERCISE .
Supply pronouns of the class indicated :-(Interrogatire)
told you that Mary had hurt (compound personal) ? —The
Hottentots anoint ( compound personal) with rancid oil..
When you have read the book, put (simple personal) on the
shelf, or else give it to ( simple personal) brother.-Someof
these apples are larger than ( adjective pronoun ); (adjective
pronoun ) of them are ripe.- ( Interrogative) of you would
lay down ( simple personal) life for (simple personal) neigb
bor ?

LESSON XXXVI .
Name the parts of speech. Which is the first ? The second ?
The third ?
What are the Articles ?
The Articles are the words the and an or a, used
before other words to limit their meaning ; as, the
rose, an English rose, a white rose.
How are the two articles distinguished ?
The is called the Definite Article. It is used with
nouns in both numbers, and generally denotes a par
ticular object or objects ; as, the rose, the roses.
An, or a, is called the Indefinite Article. It is
 THE ARTICLE . 45

used with nouns in the singular only, and denotes one

object but no particular one ; as, a rose.
When must an be used as the indefinite article ?
An must be used before words commencing with
a vowel sound ; as, an ant, an umbrella , an honor.
When must a be used as the indefinite article ?
A must be used before words commencing with a
consonant sound ; as, a bird, a wonder, a year, a unit,
a humor.
Must an or a be used before words commencing with w and y ?
W and y beginning words are consonants. A must
therefore be used before words commencing with
these letters or their sounds.
Why do we say an heir, but a humor ?
H is silent in both these words. Heir, commen
cing with a vowel sound, takes an ; humor, commen
cing with a consonant sound, takes a.
Recite Rule IX., relating to the article.
RULE IX . – An Article relates to the word whose
meaning it limits.
PARSING FORM . - A friend of the people.
A is the indefinite article, and relates to friend :-Rule, An
article relates to the word whose meaning it limits.
The is the definite article, and relates to people :-Rule, An
article, &c.
EXERCISE .

Supply the proper indefinite article. Then parse the

nouns, pronouns, and articles : aunt and uncle are
not quite so near as - father and mother. I saw
hen , ewe , and wonderfully fat colt, in
meadow, by the river. We drove about for hour in
one-horse wagon, looking for house with
46 THE ADJECTIVE .

honeysuckle by the door ; but not human habitation

did we find . Here is humble and at the same time
honest man .

LESSON XXXVII .

What is the fourth part of speech ?

The Adjective.
When I say those five ripe apples, by what is the word apples
modified ?
By the words those, five, and ripe. Those tells us
which apples are meant ; five tells how many apples ;
ripe tells what kind of apples. Words like these,
joined to a noun or pronoun, are called Adjectives.
What is an Adjective ?
An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the
meaning of a substantive ; as, sweet roses, happy thou .
Is the subject to which an adjective relates ever understood ?
It is ; as when we speak of the good, the living,
meaning good men, living persons.
Into how many classes are adjectives divided ?
Adjectives are divided into four classes ; Proper,
Numeral, Pronominal, and Common.
What is a Proper Adjective ?
A Proper Adjective is one having the form of, or
derived from , a proper noun ; as, Boston crackers,
Irish melodies.
Proper adjectives commence with capitals.
What is a Numeral Adjective ?
A Numeral Adjective is one that denotes a definite
number ; as, three days, the third watch, a threefold
gain .
 THE ADJECTIVE . 47

What are the Pronominal Adjectives ?

The Pronominal Adjectives are words having the
form of certain pronouns, but used with nouns, and
not in stead of them ; as, this man , all things, every
day, what a scene.
Name the pronominal adjectives.
The pronominal adjectives are which, what, which
ever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, this, that,
these, those, former, latter, both, same, each, every,
either, neither, none, other, another, some, all, any ,
such .
What is the fourth class of adjectives ?
Common Adjectives, which embrace all not con
tained in the above classes.
What may a common adjective express ?
A common adjective may express ,
1. Quality ; as, handsome, idle, red -hot, ever -to- be -remembered .
2. Quantity ; as, much labor, money enough, a whole month.
3. Material; as, a gold crown, a golden crown, wooden pegs.
4. Time ; as, daily, weekly, annual, subsequent, everlasting.
5. Situation ; as, the above rule, the off horse, the under side
6. An indefinite number ; as, several, sundry, few , many.
EXERCISE .

Select the adjectives ; tell their class, and what they re

late to. [Thus :—No is a common adjective, and relates to
man .] Owe no man ; French politeness ; gold and silver
medals ; the former country ; five white mice ; these dili
gent scholars ; the Memphis boat ; every thirteenth soldier ;
the Monumental City ; a nut-brown maid ; several large
Scotch herrings; those never-to -be-forgotten words of the
Massachusetts patriot ; a fourfold increase ; three hundred
dollars ( take three hundred together).
48 DEGREES OF COMPARISON .

LESSON XXXVIII .
What is a final letter ? Name the vowels. Name the consonants.
“ John is tall, James is taller, but George is the tallest.” What
are we told in this sentence ?
That the quality of tallness belongs to John,
James, and George, in different degrees.
In what words are these different degrees implied ?
In the adjectives tall, taller, tallest. Hence, by
varying the form of an adjective, we may make it
express a quality in different degrees.
What is said of an adjective thus varied in form ?
It is said to be compared.
How many degrees of comparison are there ?
Three ; the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
What is the Positive Degree ?
The Positive is the degree expressed by an adjec
tive in its simplest form ; as, “ He is wise and happy.”
What is the Comparative Degree ?
The Comparative is a higher degree than some
other or others with which it is compared ; as, “ He
is wiser and happier than I. ”
What is the Superlative Degree ?
The Superlative is the highest degree of all that
are compared ; as, “ He is the wisest and happiest of
us all.”
How are the Comparative and the Superlative Degree formed ?
The Comparative Degree is formed by adding er,
and the Superlative by adding est, to the Positive ;
as, tall, taller, tallest ; tender, tenderer, tenderest.
What changes must sometimes be made in the positive, before
adding er and est ?
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 49

1. Final e must be rejected ; as, rude, rud -er,

rud - est.
2. Final y, preceded by a consonant, must be
changed to i ; as, holy, holier, holiest.
3. A final consonant, preceded by a single vowel,
must be doubled ; as, wet, wetter, wettest.
EXERCISE .

Write the three degrees of warm ; sweet (no doubling,

because two vowels precede t ); merry ; cold ; pale ; short;
hot ; pretty ; slow ; fine; cool ; fit ; plain ; silly ; vile ; flat ;
funny ; great ; handsome; dirty ; clear ; noble ; witty; wide ;
long ; fat ; quick ; rare.

LESSON XXXIX .

May all adjectives be compared ?

No. Many adjectives of one syllable are com
pared, and some of two syllables; but none of more
than two. We say prettier, prettiest ; but not peace
fuler, gloriousest.
What whole classes of adjectives are not compared ?
As a general rule, proper, numeral, and pronominal
adjectives are not compared.
What common adjectives are not compared ?
Those whose meaning does not admit of different
degrees; as, chief, daily, no.
What other way is there of expressing different degrees, besides
comparing the adjective ?
Using the adverbs more, most, less, least, &c.
Thus, we may say more pleasant in stead ofpleasanter,
most pleasant for pleasantest.
5
50 PARSING OF ADJECTIVES .

When only is an adjective said to be compared ?

When it takes er and est.
Recite Rule X., relating to the adjective.
RULE X. - An adjective relates to the substantive
whose meaning it qualifies or limits.
How may the substantive to which an adjective relates be found ?
By asking a question with who or what.
Thus :-" The elephảnt is the largest of beasts. ” Question. The
largest what of beasts ? Answer. The largest beast of beasts.
Largest relates to beast understood .
How must we parse an adjective ?
To parse an adjective, state its class ; if it can be
compared, compare it and mention its degree ; tell
what it relates to, and repeat Rule X.
PARSING FORM .- June roses are the sweetest of
flowers.
June is a proper adjective, and relates to roses :- Rule, An
adjective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or
limits.
Sweetest is a common adjective ; sweet, sweeter, sweetest ; in the
superlative degree, and relates to flowers understood :-Rule, An
adjective relates, & c.

EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives :—The

diamond is the brightest and most valuable of precious
stones.—These smugglers introduce great quantities of
Brussels lace and French brandy .-- The purer air is, the
healthier . - Few respect a tyrant, and still fewer love him.
-Kind deeds and gentle words are finer ornaments than
golden trinkets ( subject of are understood) or jewels of great
price . - Moses was the meekest of men.
 IRREGULAR COMPARISON . 51

LESSON XL .

What is an adjective ? Name and define the three degrees.

What is the regular mode of forming the comparative degree ?
The superlative ?
Compare the irregular adjectives.
Some adjectives are compared irregularly :
Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup.
Bad, evil, ill, worse , worst. Many more , most.
Good, better, best. Much , more , most.
Little, less, lesser, least. Near, nearer, nearest, next,
Late and old take two forms:
ſlater, latest. ſolder, oldest.
Late,
latter, last. elder, eldest.
Compare some adjectives that make a superlative in most.
The following make a superlative in most :
Pos. Comp. Sup.
Far, farther, farthest, farmost, farthermost.
Fore , former, foremost, first.
Hind, hinder, hindmost, hindermost.
Low, lower, lowest, lowermost.
Inner, inmost, innermost.
Outer , outmost, outermost.
Upper, upmost, uppermost.
Front, frontmost.
North, northmost, &c.
In what degree are superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, prior,
ulterior, junior, and senior ?
In the comparative degree. They have neither
positive nor superlative.
Ilow are a few compound adjectives compared ?
By varying the first of the simple words that com
pose them ; as,
Good -natured , better-natured, best-natured.
Bright-eyed, brighter-eyed, brightest -eyed.
52 THE VERB.

EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives. [ Thus :

-Superior is a common adjective, in the comparative de
gree ; positive and superlative wanting ; it belongs to view :
-Rale, An adjective, &c.] There is a superior view from
the topmost point of the cliff . — Let us have less talk and
more work . — There are few better-tempered or warmer
hearted men than my eldest brother.-In my innermost
heart, I could not help thinking my senior partner an ill
patured man . — The oldest friends are the best.

LESSON XLI .

What is the first part of speech ? The second ? The third ?

The fourth ? The fifth ?
How many ways of affirming a thing are there ?
Four. When we affirm , we may assert, exclaim ,
ask, or command. Thus :
Assertions. Carlo barks. Carlo is cross .
Exclamations. How Carlo barks ! How Carlo sleeps !
Questions. Can Carlo bark ? Has Carlo been hurt ?
Commands. Carlo, do not bark. Carlo, eat your meat.
What are words that affirm called ?
Words that affirm are called Verbs; as, barks, can
bark, &c., in the above examples.
What is a Verb ?
A Verb is a word or words used to afirm an action
or a state .
Of how many words may a verb consist ?
Of as many as four ; as, “ He might have been hurt."
What is the subject of a verb ? (See Lesson XIX .) How may
the subject of a verb be found ? Is the subject ever understood ?
 CLASSES OF VERBS . 53

It is, particularly in sentences that express a com

mand ; as, “ Carlo, do not [you] bark . ” You under
stood is the subject.
With regard to their meaning, how are verbs distinguished ?
As Transitive and Intransitive.
What is a Transitive Verb ?
A Transitive Verb is one that affirms an action
exerted on some person or thing ; as, “ Sarah broke
the bottle .” 66 The bottle is broken ." Here the
breaking is exerted on the bottle.
What is an Intransitive Verb ?
An Intransitive Verb is one that affirms a state, or
an action not exerted on any person or thing ; as,
“ Sarah is happy .” “ Sarah wept.”
May the same word be a transitive verb in one sentence, and
intransitive in another ?
It may . “ He turned his face ; ” turned is transi
tive, because it has an object, face. “He turned ; ”
turned is intransitive, because it has no object.
EXERCISE .

Select the verbs ; state whether they are transitive or in

transitive ; mention the subject of each, and, when the verb is
transitive, its object :
The Saxons sailed to Britain, effected a landing, seized
on the best parts of the island, and drove the inhabitants to
the mountáin fastnesses.-Go (thou] and sin no more.
Sink or swim, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration
[that is, whether I sink or swim].—Whatever we see, hear,
taste, touch , or smell, is called matter. – Visit the sick, help
the poor, comfort the afflicted . — Know thyself. — Bears can
can be taught to dance. — God has promised to bless children
that honor their parents.
54 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.

LESSON XLII .

How may the subject of a transitive verb be represented ?

The subject of a transitive verb may be represented
in two ways :
1. As acting “ Bees make honey .”
2. As acting upon . Honey is made by bees. ”
How are these forms of transitive verbs distinguished ?
When its subject is represented as acting, the verb
is said to be in the Active Voice.
When its subject is represented as acted upon , the
verb is said to be in the Passive Voice.
In what voice is make in the above example ? Is made ? What
verbs have no voice ?
Intransitive verbs, for their subjects can never be
represented as acted upon. Their form corresponds
with that of a transitive verb in the active voice.
Besides voice, what properties have verbs ?
Four ; Mood, Tense, Person, and Number.
What is Mood ?
Mood is that property of the verb which distin
guishes the manner in which it affirms.
How many moods are there ?
There are five moods ; the Indicative, the Poten
tial, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive.
EXERCISE .

In the last Exercise, select the verbs that have voice, and
tell what voice they are in .
Supply intransitive verbs ; point out the subject of each :
Pigeons — rapidly. Rain from the clouds. Pekin
the capital of China. The Hottentots in Africa.
Bananas in tropical regions. Most boys to play.
 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE . 55

Supply transitive verbs ; point out the subject and the ob

ject of each : Fashion many followers. Sheep
wool . Dogs their masters. Fulton steamboats.
Travellers some strange stories. the laws;
virtue.

LESSON XLIII .

What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ?

What verbs have voice ? What other properties have verbs ?
Name the moods.

What is Tense ?
Tense is that property of the verb which distin
guishes the time of what it affirms.
How many tenses has the Indicative Mood ?
The Indicative Mood has six tenses ; the Present,
the Imperfect, the Perfect, the pluperfect, the First
Future, and the Second Future.
Tell what each tense denotes, and give examples.
The Indicative Present affirms that an action is
taking place, or a state existing, at the present time;
as, I depart, I am.
The Indicative Imperfect affirms that an action
took place, or a state existed, at some past time; as,
I departed, I was .
The Indicative Perfect affirms a past action or state
as completed at the present time; as, I have departed ,
I have been .
The Indicative Pluperfect affirms a past action or
state as completed at or before some other past time ;
as, I had departed, I had been .
The Indicative First Future affirms that an action
56 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE .

is about to take place, or a state to exist ; as, I shall

depart, I shall be.
The Indicative Second Future affirms a future
action or state as about to be completed at or before
some other future time ; as, I shall have departed, I
shall have been.
Carry the verb love through these tenses of the indicative.
Pres. I love. Plu . I had loved.
Imp. I loved. 1 Fu. I shall love.
Perf. I have loved. 2 Fu. I shall have loved .
Of what tense is have the sign ? Had ? Shall ? Shall have ?
What are these words called ?
Auxiliaries.
EXERCISE .

Carry the verb walk through the tenses of the indicative

mood ; the verb touch.
Select the verbs ; tell their mood and tense :-I shall run.
I have slept. I turned and gazed. I had answered. By
Tuesday I shall have finished the book. Every night I
dream . You shall go, he shall remain. They had started.

LESSON XLIV .

What is mood ? How many moods are there ? How many

tenses in the indicative mood ? Name them.
How many tenses in the Potential Mood ?
Four ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect,
and the Pluperfect.
What tenses are wanting in the Potential Mood ?
The two futures. Future time is sometimes de
noted by the Present and the Imperfect Potential ;
 THE POTENTIAL MOOD. 57

as, “ You may go to-morrow .” “He said he would

go to -morrow ."
What do verbs in the potential mood generally imply ?
Permission, possibility, ability, necessity, deter
mination, or obligation .
Carry the verb love through the tenses of the potential.
Pres. I may, can , must, or need love.
Imp. I might, could, would, or should love.
Perf. I may, can, must, or need have loved.
Plu. I might, could, would, or should have loved .
Name the auxiliaries of the potential present. Of the potential
perfect. What is the difference between them ? Mention the
auxiliaries of the potential imperfect. Of the potential pluperfect.
What is the difference between them ?
Of what tense is may the sign ? May have ? Could ? Could
have ? Must ? Should ? Need ? Might have ? Can have ?
Should have ? Must have ? Must ? Might ?
EXERCISE .

Carry the verb walk through the tenses of the potential

mood ; the verb touch.
Select the verbs ; state whether they are transitive or in
transitive ; tell their mood and tense :—You must be silent.
-They may have returned . — He need not say a word.
Cæsar should have paused.-We can not explain all things.
- They need not have failed . — You should remember that
the best men may do wrong .

LESSON XLV.
What is the Subjunctive Mood used to express ?
1. A condition ; as, “ If thou wish it,I will remain ."
2. A supposition ; as, “ Though He slay me, yet
will I trust in Him ."
3. A wish · as, “ Ob that he were there !”
58 SUBJUNCTIVE , IMPERATIVE .

How many tenses has the Subjunctive Mood ?

Two ; the Present and the Imperfect.
Give the two subjunctive tenses of the verb love.
Sub. Pres. If I love: Sub. Imp. If I loved .
What generally precedes a verb in the subjunctive ?
If, that, though , lest, unless, or some other con
junction. But these conjunctions may be followed
by the indicative or the potential.
What does the Imperative Mood express ?
A command, an entreaty, an exhortation , or per
mission ; as, “ Do not talk. ” “ Stay till Monday.”
How many tenses has the Imperative Mood ?
But one, the Present; as, Love thou.”
What is generally the subject of a verb in the imperative ?
Thou or you understood. “ Do not ( thou ] talk . "
“Stay [you ] till Monday."
EXERCISE .

Give the subjunctive and the imperative mood of the verb

walk ; of the verb touch.
Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Select the
verbs ; tell their mood , tense, and subject :-If thou be guilty,
I will disown thee.—Oh that there were no such thing as
war [ is] !—If you loved me, I would not complain. Look
before you leap . — Have a care lest thou fall .-- Keep thy shop,
and thy shop will keep thee.

LESSON XLVI .
What properties have verbs besides mood and tense ?
Person and Number.
On what do the person and number of a verb depend ?
On the person and number of its subject.
 THE INFINITIVE MOOD . 59

Ipray ; -pray is 1st, sing ., because its subject I is 1st, sing.

Thou prayest ; -prayest is 2d, sing., because thou is 2d, sing.
He prays ;-prays is 3d, sing ., because he is 3d, sing.
We pray ; -pray is 1st, plural, because we is 1st, plural.
You pray ;-pray is 2d, plural, because you is 2d, plural.
They pray ;-— pray is 3d, plural, because they is 3d, plural.
What is a verb that has person and number called ?
A Finite Verb .
In what mood is a verb that has no person and number ?
In the Infinitive Mood.
What does the Infinitive Mood express ?
An action or state not limited to a subject.
How many tenses has the Infinitive Mood ?
Two : the Present, which expresses an uncompleted
action or state ; and the Perfect, which expresses one
that is completed .
Give these two tenses of the verb love.
Inf. Pres. To love. Inf. Perf. To have loved.
Observe that to is the sign of the infinitive.
Which of the five moods may be used in asking questions ?
The indicative and potential only ; as, “ Shall false
>>
hood triumph ? Can truth perish ?
EXERCISE .

Tell the person and number of each verb in the last

Exercise.
Select the verbs ; tell their mood and tense :- -The diligent
love to learn.—Try to do better than you ever have done.
-Senator Wilkes was to have addressed the meeting.-It
is not right to remember injuries and to forget favors.-- To
have succeeded in this would have rewarded me sufficiently.
66 'Tis not the whole of life to live,
Nor all of death to die ."
60 PARTICIPLES.

LESSON XLVII .

He thanked his host, and took his leave.

Thanking his host, he took his leave.
What difference do you observe in these sentences ?
They convey the same idea, but the first affirms
the thanking, while the second assumes it.
What is the word thanking, which assumes the action , called ?
A Participle. Participles belong to verbs.
What is a Participle ?
A Participle is a form of the verb that generally
qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive, by
assuming some action or state in connection with it.
How many participles are there ?
Three,—the Present, the Perfect, and the Com
pound Perfect ; as,
Pres. Loving Perf. Loved .
Comp. Perf. Having loved .
With what must a participle not be confounded ?
With an adjective having the same form . Both
modify substantives ; but the participle, in addition,
implies an action or state, and may govern an object
like a finite verb. Thus :
Adjectives. A travelling clerk ; an amusing story ; respected
friend ; withered flowers.
Participles.-- A clerk travelling in Georgia ; amusing us with a
story ; respected by all ; flowers withered by the heat.
Is a participle ever used without a substantive ?
Yes, and it is then said to be used independently ;
as , “Generally speaking, murder will out.”
Of what is a participle used independently often the object ?
Ofa preposition ; as, “ the art of reading well”.
 CONJUGATION OF VERBS . 61

EXERCISE .

Give the two infinitive tenses and the three participles of

the verb walk ; of the verb touch.
Select the verbs ; tell what mood and tense each is in, or
what participle it is ; mention the substantive that each par
ticiple relates to :—By writing often , we learn to write well.
-Elizabeth having died, James I. succeeded to the throne.
-Though surrounded by his guards, the tyrant, tormented by
a guilty conscience, never knows what it is to be at ease.
After learning much, we find out how little we know.-The
necessity of practising self-control is obvious.

LESSON XLVIII .

What is meant by conjugating a verb ?

Carrying it through its moods, tenses, persons, and
numbers .
How do we distinguish the persons in conjugating ?
By prefixing the pronouns 1, thou , he, in the singu
lar ; we, you, they, in the plural.
Do these words form part of the verb ?
No ; they must be parsed separately.
Go through the indicative mood of the intransitive
verb BE .

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense .
Person

Singular. Plural.
1. I am , 1. We are ,
.

2. Thou art, 2. You are,

3. He is ; 3. They are.
6
62 CONJUGATION OF THE

Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was , 1. We were,
2. Thou wast or wert, 2. You were,
3. He was ; 3. They were.
Perfect Tense.
1. I have been , 1. We have been ,
2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been,
3. He has been ; 3. They have been .
Pluperfect Tense.
1. I had been , 1. We had been ,
2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been,
3. He had been ; 3. They had been .
First Future Tense.
1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be,
3. He shall or will be ; 3. They shall or will be.
Second Future Tense.
1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been ,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been,
3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have been.

EXERCISE .

Turn each verb in italics into a participle, and by omit

ting the conjunction or subject complete the sentence. [Thus :
-The enemy ravaged the country and departed.— Changed .
The enemy, haring ravaged the country, departed .]
Cleopatra lost her kingdom and her lover, and killed
herself. — Columbus knew how to swim, and escaped with
his life. — Before you proceed too far, be sure you are right.
-If we try to injure others, we injure ourselves.—When
the rain ceased , we departed.-Gen. Taylor died, and Mil
lard Fillmore became president.
 INTRANSITIVE VERB BE . 63

LESSON XLIX .
Recite Rule XI., for the agreement of a finite verb .
RULE XI. — A verb agrees with its subject in per
son and number.
PARSING FORM.- -Time changes all things, and we
too must change.
Changes is a transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative
mood, present tense, third person , singular number, and agrees
with its subject time :-Rule, A verb agrees with its subject in per
son and number.
Must change is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood,
present tense, first person , plural number, and agrees with its sub
ject we :-Rule, A verb agrees, &c.
Give the potential mood of the verb BE .
POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.

1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can , must, or need

be, be,
2. Thou mayst,* canst, must, or 2. You may, can , must, or need
needst * be, be,
3. He may, can, must, or need 3. They may, can, must, or need
be ; be.

Imperfect Tense.
1. I might, could, would , or 1. We might, could , would, or
should be, should be,
2. Thou mightst,* couldst,* 2. You might, could, would , or
wouldst ,* or shouldst * be, should be,
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would ,
should be ; or should be.

* With or without e ; mayst or mayest, needst or needest, & c.

64 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE .

Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need
have been, have been ,
2. Thou mayst, canst, must, or 2. You may, can, must, or need
needst have been, have been,
3. He may, can , must, or need 3. They may, can , must, or
have been ; need have been .

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would , or
should have been, should have been,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. You might, could, would, or
or shouldst have been, should have been ,
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would ,
should have been ; .
or should have been .

EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verba :

-All men are mortal. - Hannibal was a Carthaginian . — Will
you be there ?-He need not be afraid, for he has been
faithful in performing his duty . - May you be happy !
They might have been sure that she would be there.I
must have been asleep .

LESSON L.

Has a verb in the infinitive any subject, person, or number ?

How may a verb in the infinitive be used ?
A verb in the infinitive may be used,
1. As the subject of a finite verb ; as, “ To err is
human .” The infinitive to err is the subject of the
finite verb is.
2. To limit the meaning of some other word ; as,
“ I wish to go, for it is my duty to do so ." To go
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE . 65

limits the meaning of the verb wish ; to do limits the

meaning of the noun duty.
3. An infinitive may be used independently ; as,
“ To speak plainly, I suspect you .”
In parsing, what rule must be given for the infinitive ?
RULE XII. — A verb in the infinitive is used as a
subject, or limits the meaning of some other word,
or stands independently in the sentence .
PARSING FORM.- To tell the truth , I take you to
be a rogue.
To tell is a transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood,
present tense, used independently :-Rule, A verb in the infinitive
is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or
stands independently in the sentence.
To be is an intransitive verb , in the infinitive mood, present
tense, and limits the meaning of the verb take :-Rule, A verb in
the infinitive is used as a subject, & c.

Give the subjunctive mood, the imperative, infini

tive, and participles, of the verb BE .

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense .
Singular. Plural.
1. If I be, 1. If we be,
2. If thou be, 2. If you be,
3. If he be ; 3. If they be.

Imperfect Tense.
1. If I were, 1. If we were,
2. If thou were, 2. If you were,
3. If he were ; 3. If they were.
66 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE

IMPERATIVE MOOD .

Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.

1. Be I, 1. Be we
2. Be thou or do thou be, 2. Be you or do you be,
3. Be he ; 3. Be they

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. To be. Perfect Tense. To have been .

PARTICIPLES .

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. Compound Perfect. Having been.

EXERCISE .

Parse all the words : - If I were you, I would be a better

girl. - Try [agrees with its subject you understood] to do
your duty.—Blessed be the peace -makers.-- Love all men,
hate none.—To steal is base . - To tell the truth, if you were
to fail, I should be glad . — Take care lest thou go astray.
What care I whether thou stay or go ?

LESSON LI .

When two or more verbs in the same mood and tense are con
nected, must the auxiliary be used with each ?
No ; the auxiliary is generally used with the first
only.
Give an example.
“ Cities may rise, flourish, and decay.” The first
verb alone has the auxiliary expressed. Flourish
and decay have it understood, and are in the same
mood and tense as may rise,—the potential present.
 CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES . 67

Is the auxiliary ever expressed alone, and the principal verb

understood ?
It is ; as, “ May I go ? You may .” Parsemay as
an auxiliary used for may go, in the potential mood, &c.
In parsing a participle, what rule must be given ?
RULE XIII. — Participles are used independently,
or relate to the substantives whose meaning they
qualify or limit.
PARSING FORM . - Smiling, she said, “ There is
always a satisfaction in having helped the poor."
Smiling is the present participle of the intransitive verb smile,
and relates to the pronoun she :-Rule, Participles are used inde
pendently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they qualify
or limit.
Having helped is the compound perfect participle active of the
transitive verb help, used independently as the object of the prepo
sition in :-Rule, Participles are used independently, & c.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs :-Having

rapidly marched through his province and reached the
Rubicon, Cæsar paused . - By doing good to others, we do
good to ourselves.-Climbing to the top of Mount Vesuvius
is something of an achievement.-- Printing, weaving, knit
ting, grin g , sawing, steam is our most faithful servant.
Can I help disobeying rules ? Certainly you can.

LESSON LII .

CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE .

The verb RULE , which will serve as a model of all

verbs, is conjugated as follows in the active voice :
68 ACTIVE VOICE OF THE

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I rule or do rule, 1. We rule or do rule ,
2. Thou rulest or dost rule, 2. You rule or do rule,
3. He rules or does rule ; 3. They rule or do rule .
Imperfect Tense.
1. I ruled or did rule, 1. We ruled or did rule,
2. Thou ruledst or didst rule, 2. You ruled or did rule,
3. He ruled or did rule ; 3. They ruled or did rule.
Perfect Tense.
1. I have ruled, 1. We have ruled,
2. Thou hast ruled, 2. You have ruled,
3. He has ruled ; 3. They have ruled .
Pluperfect Tense.
1. I had ruled , 1. We had ruled,
2. Thou hadst ruled, 2. You had ruled,
3. He had ruled ; 3. They had ruled .
First Future Tense.
1. I shall or will rule, 1. We shall or will rule,
2. Thou shalt or wilt rule, 2. You shall or will rule,
3. He shall or will rule ; 3. They shall or will rule.
Second Future Tense.
1. I shall or will have ruled, 1. We shall or will have ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have ruled, 2. You shall or will have ruled,
3. He shall or will have ruled ; 3. They shall or will have ruled
POTENTIAL MOOD .
Present Tense.
1. I may, can , must or need 1. We may, can, must, or need
rule, rule,
2. Thou mayst, canst, * &c., rule, 2. You may, can, &c., rule,
3. He may, can , &c., rule ; 3. They may, can , &c., rule.
* In reciting, always give all the auxiliaries - Thou mayst, canst, must,
or needst rule .
 TRANSITIVE VERB RULE . 69

Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should rule, should rule,
2. Thou mightst, &c. , rule, 2. You might, &c. , rule,
3. He might, &c. , rule ; 3. They might, & c., rule.
Perfect Tense.
1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may , can , must, or need
have ruled , have ruled,
2. Thou mayst, &c. , have ruled, 2. You may, &c., have ruled,
3. He may, &c., have ruled ; 3. They may, &c., have ruled.
Pluperfect Tense.
1. I might, &c., have ruled, 1. We might, &c., have ruled,
2. Thou mightst, &c. , have ruled, 2. You might, &c. , have ruled,
3. He might, &c., have ruled ; 3. They might, &c., have ruled.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
1. If I rule or do rule, 1. If we rule or do rule,
2. If thou rule or do rule, 2. If you rule or do rule,
3. If he rule or do rule ; 3. If they rule or do rule.
Imperfect Tense.
1. If I ruled or did rule, 1. If we ruled or did rule,
2. If thou ruled or did rule, 2. If you ruled or did rule,
3. If he ruled or did rule ; 3. If they ruled or did rule.
IMPERATIVE MOOD .
Present Tense.
1. Rule 1, 1. Rule we ,
2. Rule thou or do thou rule, 2. Rule you or do you rule,
3. Rule he ; 3. Rule they.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. To rule. Perfect Tense . To have ruled .
PARTICIPLES.
Present. Ruling. Perfect. Ruled. Comp. Perfect. Having ruled.
70 REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE VOICE .

EXERCISE . '
Give the following parts of the verb WALK :-Indic. perf.
3d sing. Subj. pres. 2d sing. Inf. perf. Impera. 2d sing.
Pot. imperf. 3d plu. Indic. 2d fu. 1st plu. Subj. imperf.
1st sing. Pres. part. Pot. pres. 2d sing. Indic. imperf.
2d plu. Indic. 1st fu. ist plu. Pot. pluperf. 3d plu.
Comp. perf. part.

LESSON LIII .

When do we use the forms of the present and imperfect in

dicative containing do and did ?
When a negation is expressed or emphasis is re
quired ; as, “ You do not love me. I do love you."
What other form is sometimes used in the third singular of the
present indicative active ?
A solemn form ending in th ,—he ruleth.
What person and number of the verb do we commonly use in
addressing a single person ?
The second person plural,-- you rule, not thou
rulest. But in prayer and poetry we say thou rulest.
What other form do we sometimes find in the imperfect in
dicative ?
In the second singular of the imperfect indicative,
st is sometimes omitted ; as, thou ruled for thou
ruledst.
Recite Rule XIV ., relating to a substantive modifying a par
ticiple.
Rule XIV. - A substantive which, in stead of
being modified by a participle, is made to modify the
latter, is put in the possessive case.
Give an example.
“ I saw John writing.” Here the noun John is
 THE PASSIVE VOICE. 71

modified by the participle writing, and is in the ob

jective case, the object of the verb sau .
“ I was surprised at John's writing so well .”
Here John's is made to modify the participle writing,
and is put in the possessive case.
Parse John's in the last example as follows:
John's is a proper noun, in the third person, singular number,
masculine gender, possessive case, and modifies the participle
writing -
: Rule, A substantive which, in stead of modifying a
participle, & c.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs :-Charles

First would not have lost his life, if he had been more
prudent.—God saveth whom He will.—To do good and to
distribute forget not.—We often shut our eyes, that we
may not see our faults. - Much depends on your studying
diligently . - Have you read of Hannibal's crossing the Alps ?

LESSON LIV .

CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE .

How are the tenses of the passive voice formed ?

By combining the perfect participle with the cor
responding tenses of the auxiliary be.
The transitive verb RULE is conjugated as follows
in the passive voice :
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I am ruled, 1. We are ruled,
2. Thou art ruled, 2. You are ruled,
3. He is ruled ; 3. They are ruled.
72 PASSIVE VOICE OF THE

Imperfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I was ruled , 1. We were ruled,
2. Thou wast or wert ruled, 2. You were ruled,
3. He was ruled ; 3. They were ruled.
Perfect Tense.
1. I have been ruled, 1. We have been ruled,
2. Thou hast been ruled , 2. You have been ruled,
3. He has been ruled ; 3. They have been ruled .

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I had been ruled, 1. We had been ruled,
2. Thou hadst been ruled, 2. You had been ruled,
3. He had been ruled ; 3. They had been ruled.

First Future Tense.

1. I shall or will be ruled, 1. We shall or will be ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled, 2. You shall or will be ruled,
3. He shall or will be ruled ; 3. They shall or will be ruled.

Second Future Tense.

1. I shall or will have been 1. We shall or will have been
ruled, ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. You shall or will have been
ruled, ruled,
3. He shall or will have been 3. They shall or will have been
ruled ; ruled.

POTENTIAL MOOD .

Present Tense.
1. I may, can, must, or need be 1. We may, can, must, or need
ruled , be ruled ,
2. Thou mayst, &c., be ruled, 2. You may , &c. , be ruled,
3. He may, &c., be ruled ; 3. They may, &c. , be ruled.
 TRANSITIVE VERB RULE . 73

Imperfect Tense .
Singular. Plural.
1. I might, could, would , or 1. We might, could, would, or
should be ruled , should be ruled ,
2. Thou mightst, &c. , be ruled, 2. You might, &c. , be ruled ,
3. He might, &c. , be ruled ; 3. They might, &c. , be ruled .
Perfect Tense.
1. I may, can , must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need
have been ruled , have been ruled,
2. Thou mayst, canst, must or 2. You may, can , must, or need
needst have been ruled, have been ruled,
3. He may, can, must, or need 3. They may, can, must, or need
have been ruled ; have been ruled .

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I might, could , would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should have been ruled, should have been ruled ,
2. Thou mightst, &c., have been 2. You might, &c., have been:
ruled, ruled,
3. He might, &c., have been 3. They might, &c., have been
ruled ; ruled .

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
1. If I be ruled, 1. If we be ruled ,
2. If thou be ruled , 2. If you be ruled,
3. If he be ruled ; 3. If they be ruled,
Imperfect Tense,
1. If I were ruled, 1. If we were ruled,
2. If thou were ruled, 2. If you were ruled,
3. If he were ruled ; 3. If they were ruled .

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense:
1. Be I ruled , 1. Be we ruled,
2. Be thou or do thou be ruled, 2. Be you or do you be ruled ,
3. Be he ruled ; 3. Be they ruled .
7
74 THE PROGRESSIVE FORM .

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. To be ruled . Perfect Tense . To have been ruled .
PARTICIPLES.
Present. Being ruled . Perfect. Ruled.
Comp. Perfect. Having been ruled.
EXERCISE .

Give the following parts of the passive voice of the verb

HELP :-Perf. part. Indic. pluperf. 2d sing. Inf. pres.
Pot. perf. 1st plu. Subj. imperf. 2d sing. Indic. pres.
3d plu. Subj. pres. 3d sing. Pot. pres. 1st sing. Indic.
2d fu. 2d plu. Impera. 2d plu. Comp. perf. part.

LESSON LV.
What distinct form do some verbs ave ?

A form implying continuance, called the Progres

sive Form .
How is the Progressive Form made ?
By combining the participle in ing with the various
parts of the auxiliary be ; as, I am ruling, I was
ruling, & c.
What verbs have no Progressive Form ?
Verbs whose simple form denotes continuance ; as,
love, remember.
Recite the Progressive Form of the verb RULE,
giving all the persons in both numbers.
PROGRESSIVE FORM .
Indicative Mood.
PRESENT. — I am ruling, thou art ruling, he is ruling, &c.
IMPERFECT.— I was ruling, thou wast or wert ruling, &c.
PERFECT.-- I have been ruling, thou hast been ruling, &c.
 THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 75

PLUPERFECT.—I had been ruling, thou hadst been ruling, & c.

FIRST FUTURE.-- I shall or will be ruling, thou shalt or wilt, & c.
SECOND FUTURE . - I shall or will have been ruling, & c.
Potential Mood .
PRESENT.— I may, can, must, or need be ruling.
IMPERFECT.-I might, could, would, or should be ruling.
PERFECT. — I may, can, must, or need have been ruling.
PLUPERFECT.- Imight, could, would, or should have been ruling.
Subjunctive Mood .
PRESENT.-If I be ruling, if thou be ruling, &c.
IMPERFECT . - If I were ruling, if thou were ruling, & c.
Imperative Mood.
PRESENT. - Be thou ruling or do thou be ruling, & c.
Infinitive Mood.
PRESENT.-- To be ruling. PERFECT. - To have been ruling.
Participles.
PRESENT. - Ruling Comp. PERFECT. - Having been ruling.

EXERCISE .

Change each verb to the corresponding part of the passive

voice and the progressiveform . [Thus :—We have received.
Passive, We have been received. Progressive Form , We
have been receiving.] He had hurried . — They will eat.
She may deceive.—To have injured . — I consider.— Thou
carriest.They may have visited . — You have pursued.
They might have read .Having explored .

LESSON LVI .
What do we mean by the Root of a verb ?
The present infinitive without the sign to ; as, rule.
76 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS .

What are the three Chief Parts of the verb ?

The root, the imperfect indicative, and the perfect
participle ; rule, ruled, ruled.
How are the imperfect indicative and the perfect participle
generally formed ?
By adding ed to the root ; as, walk, walked, walked.
What are verbs called, that form these parts thus ?
Regular Verbs. Walk is regular.
What are verbs called, that have two forms in either of these
parts, or do not make them by adding ed to the root ?
Irregular Verbs; as, arise, arose, arisen.
Is - miss, missed, missed, regular or irregular ? Blow , blew ,
blown ? Come, came, come ? Help, helped, helped ?
What changes must sometimes be made in the root of a regular
verb , before adding ed ?
1. Final e is rejected ; as, rule, rul-ed .
2. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to
¿ ; as, cry, cried.
3. The final consonant of a monosyllable, or of
any verb accented on the last syllable, is doubled : as,
pin , pinned ; omit, omitted.
Observe that final y preceded by a vowel is not changed to i ;
as, play, played.
A verb not accented on the last syllable does not double its
final consonant; as, hinder, hindered .
In parsing, when do we mention the three chief parts ?
In parsing, we state whether the verb is regular
or irregular; and, if it is irregular, we mention its
three chief parts.
PARSING FORM . — He arose and received us.
Arose is an irregular intransitive verb ; from arise, arose, arisen ;
in the indicative mood, (go on as before ).
 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS . 77

Received is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indica

tive mood, imperfect tense, &c.
EXERCISE .
Spell the three chief parts of the following verbs :- Love ;
whet ; grieve ; plant ; separate ; tarry ; stray ; cloy ; man ;
moan ; remit ; compel ; profit; tender ; offer; annul ; com
mit ; abhor ; detest ; carry ; bray ; weigh ; hoe ; refer ;
dot ; doat ; grab.

LESSON LVII .

TABLE OF SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS .

The chief parts of the principal simple irregular
verbs are presented in the following Table.
Simple verbs will serve as models for those formed
from them ; hence the latter are not given separately.
Thus overtake goes like take : overtake, overtook,
overtaken .
Some verbs, besides their irregular form , have a
regular one in ed. This is denoted in the Table by
the letter R. Recite both forms in the order given
in the table :-Build , built or builded, built or builded.
A form in italics, or a regular form represented
by an italic R, is not now in good use, though once
authorized. When there are two forms, the prefer
able one is placed first.
Each page of verbs with the Exercise at the
bottom may constitute a lesson. Remember that
the imperfect indicative must not be used for the
perfect participle, nor the perfect participle for the
imperfect indicative. After the errors in the Exer
cise are corrected, the nouns, pronouns, articles, ad
jectives, and verbs (see form on p. 76) , may be parsed.
78 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS .

Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part.

Abide, abode, abode. Build, built, R., built, R.
Arise, arose, arisen. Burn , R., burnt, R., burnt.
Awake, awoke, R. , awoke, R. Burst, burst, burst.
Be, was, been. Buy, bought, bought.
Bear bore, Cast, cast, cast .
borne.
( carry ), bare, Catch, caught, R., caught, R.
Bear
born. Chide,
ſchid , chidden ,
Bereforts, bare; } beaten,
Ichode ,
Choose, chose,
chid.
chosen .
Beat, beat, beat. Cleave (( R.,
R., clove ,

Begin,
began ,
begun.
(adhere), clave, } cleaved.

begun, Cleave Scleft, cleft,

Behold, beheld, beheld. (split), clove, cloven , R.
Bend, bent, R. , bent, R. Cling, clung, clung.
Beseech, besought, besought. Clothe, R. , clad, R. , clad.
Bet, bet, R. , bet, R. Come, came , come .

Bid, bade,bid , bidden, bid. Cost, cost, cost.

Bind, bound, bound. Creep, crept, crept.
Bite, bit, bitten, bit. Crow , crew, R., crowed .
Bleed, bled, bled. Cut, cut, cut.
Blend, R., blent, R. , blent. Dare
durst, dared .
Blow, blew, blown. ( venture ),
broke, Deal, dealt, R. , dealt , R.
Break , broken.

Breed,
brake, S
bred,
}
bred.
Dig ,
Dive,
dug, R. ,
R., dove ,
dug, R.
dived.
Bring, brought, brought. Do, did, done.

EXERCISE .

Correct the crrors in the verbs :—We have born many

hardships. — When were you borne ?—The exercises had
began . — The rain having began, he betted it would last all
day . — Has your father forbade you to swim ? -The wind
has blowed so hard that it has broke some branches off
your elm.-She bursted out laughing . – They might have
came yesterday, if they had chose. — She outdone us all.
 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS . 79

Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part.

Draw , drew , drawn . Grow, grew, grown.
Dream, R.,dreamt, R., drēamt. Hang, hung, R. , hung, R.
drunk , Have, had, had.
Drink, drank, 7 drank. Hear, heard, heard.
Drive, drove, driven. Пету ,, hewed, hewn , R.
Dwell , dwelt, R. , dwelt, R. Hide,
hidden ,
hid,
Eat, ate, eat, eaten , čat. hid .
Fall, fell, fallen . Hit, hit, hit.
Feed, fed, fed . Hold, held, held.
Feel, felt, felt. Hurt, hurt , hurt .
Fight, fought, fought. Keep, kept, kept.
Find , found, found . Kneel, knelt, R. , knelt, R.
Flee, fled, fled . Knit, knit, R. , knit, R.
Fling, flung, flung Know, knew, known.
Fly, flew , flown . Lay, laid, laid .
Forbear, forbore, forborne. Lead, led, led.
forgotten, Lean, R. , leant, R., leant.
Forget, forgot, forgot. Leave, left, left.
Forgive, forgave, forgiven . Lend, lent, lent.
Forsake, forsook , forsaken . Let, let, let.
Freeze, froze, frozen . Lie ( recline), lay, lain.
Get, got, gat, got, gotten . Light, R. , lit, R., lit.
Gird, girt, R. , girt , R. Lose, lost, lost.
Give, gave, given. Make, made, made.
Go, went, gone. Mean, měant, R., měant, R.
Grind, ground, ground. Meet, met, met.

EXERCISE .

Correct :-He done it. — She has overcame every obstacle.

- They should have drawed lots. — You drunk too much , I
fear . — That horse has been overdrove. They have ate up
their oats.—Have they fell out ?—How those dogs have fit !
-I have forborn complaining.-Has he forgave you ?-You
should not have forsook your friends.—They need not have
went so soon . - Your garden is overgrowed with weeds.
80 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS .

Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part.

Mow , mowed. mown , R. Shoe, shod, shod.
Pay, paid, paid. Shoot, shot, shot.
Plead, R. , pled, R., pled . Show , showed, shown, R.
Put, put, put. shrunk ,
Shrink , Ishrunk,
shrank,
Quit, quit, R., quit , R. shrunken .
Read , rẽad, rčad. Shut, shut, shut.
Rend, rent, rent. Sing, sung, sang, sung .
Rid, rid, rid . Sink, sunk, sank, sunk .
Ride, rode, ridden ,rode. Sit, sat, sat, sitten .
Ring, rung, rang, rung. Slay, slew , slain .
Rise, rose, risen. Sleep, slept, slept.
Roast, roasted, R., roast. slidden,
Run, ran, run, run.
R., sawn .
Slide, slid ,
{ slid.
Saw ,
Say,
sawed,
said, said.
Sling, Saslang,
ltums} slung:
See, saw , seen .
Slink,
slunk, slunk .
Seek, sought, sought. slank,
Sell, sold, sold. Slit, slit, R., slit , R.
Send, sent, sent. smitten ,
set.
Smite, smote, smit.
Set, set,
Shake, shook, R., shaken . Sow, sowed, R., sown .
Shape, shaped, R., shapen.
Speak ,
spoke, spoken.
Shave, shaved, R. , shaven. spake,
Shear, sheared, shorn , R. Speed, sped, R., sped, R.
Shed , shed, shed . Spend , spent , spent .
Shine , shone, R., shone, R. Spill, R., spilt, R. , spilt .

EXERCISE .

Correct :-Has she forgave you ? -- He must have froze

his feet. — He has outgrowed the disease.-Have you heard
how Robert hurted himself ?-I knowed you had laid down.
-You must lave rid fast.— I seen him yesterday.-She has
ran herself out of breath . — They sat a trap by the river.
Have you shook the carpet ?-Your coat has shrank.
Having sang , he took his leave.—I have not spoke a word.
 SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS . 81

Root. Imperf. Perf. Part. Root. Imperf. Perf. Part.

Spin, spun, span , spun.
Swim,
swum,

Spit,
spit,
spat,
spit,
spitten.
wam },
sswung
swum .

Split, split, R., split, R. Swing, swung

swang,
Spread, spread, spread. Take, took, taken.

Spring, ( sprung, sprung .

Teach, taught, taught.
sprang, Tear, tore, torn.
Stand, stood, stood. Tell, told, told .
Stay, R., staid, R. , staid. Think, thought, thought.
Steal, stole, stolen. Thrive, throve, R. , thriven, R.
Stick, stuck , stuck . Throw, threw, thrown.
Sting, stung, stung. Thrust, thrust, thrust.
stunk , stunk. Į trodden,
Stink,
;}
{ stank
stank,
strode, stridden,
Tread,
Wake,
trod,
R. , woke,
trod.

Stride,
R. , woke.
strid, strid. Wear, wore, worn.

ſ struck, Weave, wove, R., woven , R.

Strike, struck , stricken . Wed, R., wed, R. , wed.
String, strung, strung Weep, wept, wept.
Strive, strove, striven, R. Wet, wet , R., wet , R.
Strow, strowed, strown, R. Win, won, won.

swore, Wind 1
Swear, Sworn . wound, wound .
sware, (twine),
Sweat, sweat, R., sweat, R. Work, R., wrought, R.,Wrought.
Sweep, swept, swept. Wring, wrung , wrung.
Swell, swelled, R., swollen. Write, wrote, written .

EXERCISE .

Correct : -Having came in late, they set by the door.

Cities have sprang up, as if by magic.—He must have stole
it.—Where have they swam to ? -- Who teached you ?-You
have tore your book . — He throwed me down.—Your shoes
have wore well.—They winned the match . - Have you writ
your exercise ?-Had you wrote to your mother --They
rended their garments.-I foreseen he would fail.
82 DEFECTIVE VERBS .

LESSON LVIII .
What is a Defective Verb ?
A Defective Verb is one that wants some of its
parts. The principal defective verbs are ought, be
ware, methinks, and meseems.
In what tenses does ought appear ?
Ought appears only in the present and imperfect
indicative and subjunctive. It is conjugated thus :
Pres. and Imperf. Ind . Pres. and Imperf. Subj.
1. I ought, We ought, 1. If I ought, If we ought,
2. Thou oughtest, You ought, 2. If thou ought, If you ought,
3. He ought ; They ought . 3. If he ought; If they ought.
In what tenses does beware appear ?
Beware, compounded of be and ware, is used only
in those tenses which in the verb be retain be :
Ind. First Fu . - I shall or will beware ; thou shalt or wilt, & c.
POTENTIAL Pres. - I may, can, must, or need beware.
POTENTIAL IMPERF.— I might, could, would, or should beware.
SUBJUNCTIVE PRES.—If I beware ; if thou beware, &c.
IMPERATIVE Pres., 2d person . Beware thou ; beware you.
INFINITIVE PRES .-- To beware.
In what part are methinks and meseems ?
Methinks and meseems, meaning it seems to me,
are in the indicative, present, third, singular.
In what other part are they also used ?
In the third singular of the imperfect indicative ,
methought and meseemed .
What are methinks and meseems called ?
Unipersonal Verbs, because they are used in but
one person. They never admit of a subject, and
hence in parsing no rule can be given for their agree
ment .
 A REVIEW . 83

PARSING FORMS . — Methinks you ought to beware

of such false friends.
Methinks is a unipersonal intransitive verb, in the indicative
mood, present tense, 3d person, singular number ; has no subject.
Ought is a defective intransitive verb, in the indicative mood,
present tense, second person, plural number, and agrees with its
subject you :-Rule, A verb agrees with its subject, &c.
To beware is a defective intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood;
present tense, and limits the meaning of the verb ought : -Rule, A
verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, &c.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs :

-Weought to beware of faults into which we have once
been betrayed.-Ought you not to forgive your enemies -
Methinks I hear Demosthenes thundering in the market
place.-If thou beware of flatterers, thou wilt do well.
Methought I had passed the gates of death . — Meseems a
demon watcheth thee.

LESSON LIX .
A REVIEW .

What is a verb ? What is the greatest number of words that

may form a verb ? What are may, must, and other little words
that aid in forming the tenses, called ? What is the difference be
tween a transitive and an intransitive verb ? Which of these has
voice ? When is a verb called finite ? What is mood ? What is
tense ?
Which mood has the most tenses ? Which, the next most ?
Which moods are used in asking questions ? What have you found
with respect to the subject of a verb in the imperative ? On what
do the person and number of a verb depend ? What is a participle ?
How many participles are there ? In what case must a substantive
be put, that modifies a participle ?
84 A REVIEW .

When are the forms containing do and did used ? What is the
solemn form for the third singular of the present indicative active ?
How are the tenses of the passive voice formed ? How are the
tenses of the progressive form made ? What does the progressive
form imply ? What is the difference between a regular and an
irregular verb ? What is a defective verb ?
EXERCISE .

Give the three chief parts of the following irregular

verbs, remembering that they go like the simple verbs from
which they are formed :-Unstring ; mistake; overcome ;
forbid ; overthrow ; forego ; overhear ; undersell; misgive ;
rebuild ; underlet ; remake ; overpay ; uprise ; foresee ; un
weave ; outwork ; rewrite ; understand ; acquit (regular) ;
demean ( reg .) ; unclothe (reg .) ; implead (reg .).

LESSON LX .

What is the sixth part of speech ?

The Adverb.
When I say, “ He soon became very angry, ” by what is the
verb became modified ?
By soon, which tells when he became angry.
By what is the adjective angry modified ?
By very, which tells how angry he became.
What are soon, very, and other words so used, called ?
Adverbs.
What else may an adverb modify ?
Another adverb ; as, “ He spoke very angrily."
What is an Adverb ?
An Adverb is a word expressing manner , time,
place, degree, &c., and generally used to modify a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
 ADVERBS . 85

Give examples of adverbs, arranged according to their meaning.

The following are examples of adverbs :
1. ADVERBS OF MANNER . — How ? Thus, so, well, ill, somehow,
otherwise, slowly, and most words ending in ly.
2. TIME.- When ? Then , now, already, formerly, to -day, yester
day, to -morrow , soon , early, daily, seldom , often , ever, always.
3. PLACE.- Where ? Here, there, wherever, whither, hither,
thither, whence, hence, thence, away, off, far, up, down .
4. DEGREE . — Much, little, very, exceedingly, greatly, quite,
enough, equally, scarcely, nearly, almost.
5. AFFIRMATION.— Yes, ay , certainly, truly, indeed, doubtless,
undoubtedly, amen.
6. NEGATION . — No, nay, not, nowise, nohou, never.
7. POSSIBILITY . — Perhaps, perchance, maybe, haply.
8. NUMBER . — First (which is preferable to firstly), secondly,
thirdly, &c.; once, twice, thrice.
Which class of adverbs is the largest ?
Adverbs of manner. Many of these are formed
from adjectives by adding ly ; as, rudely from rude.
EXERCISE .

Insert adverbs of manner : Do your work Jane

walks When the sun shines the birdssing
How the wind roars in March ! Speak to all
men ; do not talk How Maria sings !
Insert adverbs of time, place, or degree : Smart boys get
up Henry's dog has run ; shall he look
for it ? We can travel more rapidly than we
could . They were tired. We can find
enough to do.

LESSON LXI .
Does the same word ever appear in one sentence as an adverb,
and in another as some other part of speech ?
It does, as in the following examples :
8
86 ADVERBS.

He will start to -morrow (adv.). To-morrow (noun) may never

come.- Only (adv. ) believe. An only (adjective ) son . — Crack
(adv. ) went the mast. The mast will crack ( verb ).— ' Twas passing
(adv.) strange. Passing (participle) the door.-But (adv.) five
were there. But ( conjunction) what did you say ?
From what must adverbs be carefully distinguished ?
Adverbs must be carefully distinguished from ad
jectives. They sometimes have the same form. In
this case, if the word modifies a substantive, it is an
adjective ; but, if it modifies a verb , adjective, or ad
verb, it is an adverb . Thus :
Adjectives. - An upward flight ; clčanly habits; theabove rules ;
the first fruits; Sarah is well ; the very man ; a daily paper.
Adverbs.-- To fly upward ; to live cleanly ; look above ; he
spoke first ; Sarah reads well ; very gayly ; he goes daily.
When there are distinct forms for adverb and adjective, what
caution must be observed ?
Not to interchange them . The adjective must be
used with a substantive, and the adverb with a verb
or adjective. Thus :
A soon answer ; the now governor. Wrong, because the adverbs
800n and now are joined to nouns. Correct by substituting adjec
tives :-a speedy answer ; the present governor.
Lead is melted easier than iron . This tea is uncommon good.
Wrong, because the adjective easier is joined to the verb is melted,
and the adjective uncommon to the adjective good. Correct by
substituting adverbs :-Lead is melted more easily than iron. This
tea is uncommonly good.
What is a Conjunctive Adverb ?
A Conjunctive Adverb is one that connects parts
of a sentence ; as, “ Remain there till I come. ”
Mention some of the most common conjunctive adverbs.
Why, how , when, where, after, before, till.
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS . 87

EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; select the adverbs :

-How pure is the air at early dawn !-Start early, or your
work will get ahead of you.—Have you no mercy ? No,
none for idlers.-Sleep on now, and take your rest . - Now
is the time to repent.—The miser never has enough . - You
have not studied enough.
Correct, and give the reasons :- I hope for a soon return.
-Think of your hereafter life. - Your often lateness puts
you back.–Never behave rude. — How graceful she walks !
-John speaks more correct than most persons.—The then
mayor was present.

LESSON L XII.
What part of speech have we learned to compare ? How many
degrees of comparison are there ? What is the positive degree ?
The comparative ? The superlative ?
What besides adjectives are compared ?
A few adverbs of one and two syllables are com
pared , like adjectives, by adding er for the compara
tive, and est for the superlative. Thus :
Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup.
Late, later, latest. Early , earlier, earliest.
Fast, faster, fastest. 1 Often, oftener, oftenest .

Mention some adverbs that are compared irregularly.

The following are compared irregularly :
Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup.
Badly, ill, worse , worst, Much , more, most.
Well, better, best. Far, farther, farthest.
Little, less, least. Forth, further, furthest.
How are more and most often used ?
More and most are often used before adjectives
 88 PARSING OF ADVERBS .

and adverbs, to give them the force of the compara

tive and superlative degree ; as, more graceful, most
gracefully.
llow can we find what an adverb modifies ?
By asking a question with what. “ Is that sum
hard ? Yes ; very." Very what ? Answer , very
hard . Very modifies the adjective hard understood .
We see, then, that the word modified by an adverb
may be understood .
Is an adverb ever used without modifying any particular word ?
Yes, and it is then said to be used independently.
Give examples of adverbs used independently.
Yes and no in answers ; amen at the end of pray
ers ; forth in the expression and so forth ; first,
secondly , thirdly, &c., introducing particulars.
Recite Rule XV., for the adverb.
RULE XV . - An adverb relates to the word or
words whose meaning it modifies, or stands inde
pendently in the sentence.
How must we parse an adverb ?
To parse an adverb, compare it and state its degree,
if it can be compared ; tell what it relates to or state
that it is used independently ; if a conjunctive adverb,
tell what it connects and what it relates to ; finally,
give Rule XV .
PARSING FORM . - Yes, I shall go farther, till I
find the spot.
Yes is an adverb, used independently :-- Rule,An adverb relates
to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands inde
pendently in the sentence.
Farther is an adverb ; far, farther, farthest ; in the comparative
degree, and relates to the verb shall go :-Rule, An adverb, &c.
 THE PREPOSITION . 89

Till is a conjunctive adverb ; it connects I shall go farther

and I find the spot, and relates to the verb shull go :-Rule, An
adverb, &c.
EXERCISE .

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, verbs, and

adverbs :-Judge not too hastily.-- Compose carefully, if you
would compose correctly. — He who rises late certainly loses
the best part of the day.-The more we study, the better
we like to study. He then asked me when and where this
took place. -We have far greater facilities for education
now than formerly ; but perhaps we value them less.

LESSON LXIII .

Name the parts of speech. Which is the seventh ?

The Preposition.
When I say “ Washington marched to Princeton ," what word
shows the relation between the marching and Princeton ?
To ; not from Princeton, nor round Princeton ,
nor past Princeton, but to Princeton. The words in
italics express different relations, and are called Prepo
sitions.
What may a preposition have for its object ?
1. A noun ; as, about the room.
2. A pronoun ; as, about us.
3. An infinitive; as, about to commence.
4. A participle ; as, about commencing.
What is a Preposition ?
A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
that a substantive, infinitive, or participle bears to
some other term in the sentence.
What is an Adjunct ?
An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a prepo
90 LIST OF PREPOSITIONS .

sition, its object, and the words that modify the

latter ; as, “ Cresus was noted for his boundless
wealth ."
Mention some of the principal prepositions.
The prepositions in common use are,
a, at, despite, on , touching,
aboard, before, down, over , toward,
about, behind, during, past, towards,
above, below, ere, pending, under,
across, beneath, except, regarding, underneath ,
after, beside, excepting, respecting, until,
against, besides, for, round, unto,
along, between, from , save, up,
amid, betwixt, in, since, upon ,
amidst, beyond, into, through, versus,
among but, notwithstanding, throughout , with,
amongst, by, of, till, within,
around, concerning, off, to, without.

EXERCISE .

Supply prepositions : Alfred, the son Ethelwolf,

succeeded the crown of England the year 871 .
- his reign, England was invaded the Danes. He
had many battles them , and at last, having been
defeated several times, succeeded routing them
great slaughter. From this time his death he labored
the improvement of his subjects, and he was, &

doubt, one the best kings that ever reigned

England .

LESSON LXIV .

Are the words in the above list always prepositions ?

No ; they are prepositions only when they express
some relation, and have an object.
 PARSING OF PREPOSITIONS . 91

When used without an object, what are many of these words ?

Adverbs. “ Look above this earth ;" above is a
preposition, having earth for its object. 66 Look
above ;" here there is no object, and above is an
adverb .
How is a compound relation expressed ?
By two prepositions, which are taken together in
parsing and called a Complex Preposition ; as, from
within the house.
How does a preposition generally stand ?
Before its object. The word pre-position means
a placing before.
Does the preposition ever stand after its object ?
Yes, the relatives that and as always precede the
preposition that governs them ; as, “The world that
we live in is a world of trial.”
How can we find the former term of the relation ?
By asking a question with what before the prepo
sition . Thus :- -" In a multitude of counsellors there
is wisdom .” What in a multitude ? Answer, is in a
multitude ; the preposition in shows the relation
between the noun multitude and the verb is.
Is the former term of the relation ever understood ?
It is, as in the following sentence : “ [ Looking]
On the whole, I prefer Spring ."
Recite Rule XVI., relating to prepositions.
RULE XVI. - A preposition shows the relation
that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to
some other word or words in the sentence.

PARSING FORM. Over against Troy is the island

I spoke of
92 THE CONJUNCTION .

Over against is a complex preposition, and shows the relation

between the noun Troy, which is its object, and the verb is :-Rule,
A preposition shows the relation that a substantive, &c.
Of is a preposition , and shows the relation between the relative
pronoun that understood, which is its object, and the verb spoke :
Rule, A preposition shows the relation, &c.
EXERCISE .

Parse each word :—The boa is the largest of serpents.

Suspending itself by the tail from some tree beside a river,
it lies in wait for its prey, darting with great rapidity on
whatever living creature first comes within its reach. Wind
ing its folds around its victim, it crushes him to death by
the immense power of its muscles, despite his most violent
efforts to escape .

LESSON LXV .

Name the parts of speech. Which is the eighth ?

The Conjunction.
“ But, if you go, he and I will remain." What words are used
as connectives in this sentence ?
But is used to connect the sentence with what
goes before. If connects parts of the sentence,
you go and he and I will remain . And connects the
words he and I.
What are words thus used as connectives called ?

Conjunctions.
What is a Conjunction ?
A Conjunction is a word used to connect words,
sentences, or parts of a sentence.
Mention some of the principal conjunctions.
The principal conjunctions are as follows:
 LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS . 93

although, either, neither, save , then,

and, even, nevertheless, seeing, though,
as, except, nor, since, unless,
because, for, notwithstanding, so , yet,
both, if, or, than , whereas,
but, lest, provided, that, whether.
Are the words in the above list always conjunctions ?
No ; several of them are also used as other parts
of speech. They are conjunctions only when they
connect. Observe the following examples :
Both ( conj.) Alexander and Cæsar were great conquerors, and
both (adj. pro.) met with an untimely end.—They say that ( conj.)
that (pro. adj.) house that (rel. pro.) we just passed is haunted.
Help such as (rel. pro.) need help.—Some savage nations, as (con
junctive adv.) I have heard, worship the sun as ( conj.) a god.
What is a Complex Conjunction ?
A Complex Conjunction is one that consists of two
or more connectives, which must be taken together
in parsing. Inasmuch as, as well as, as if, as though,
for all, are complex conjunctions.
Recite Rule XVII., relating to conjunctions.
RULE XVII. - A conjunction connects words, sen
tences, or parts of a sentence.
PARSING FORM.— Yet Jefferson, as well as Madi
son, was a Virginian .
Yet is a conjunction, and connects the sentence with what goes
before : -Rule, A conjunction connects words, sentences, or parts
of a sentence.
As well as is a complex conjunction, and connects the two
nouns Jefferson and Madison :-Rule, A conjunction connects, &c.
EXERCISE .
Parse each word :—We are told that Brutus doomed his
own sons to death ; yet he loved them asonly a father or a
94 THE INTERJECTION .

mother can love.—To injure another because he has injured

us, is both foolish and wicked .-- Astronomers can not tell
whether the other planets are inhabited or not ; but it is
commonly believed that they are. Neither fame nor wealth
can insure happiness to its possessor.

LESSON LXVI .

Name the parts of speech. Which is the ninth and last ?

The Interjection .
What is an Interjection ?
An Interjection is a word used independently of
grammatical relations, to express some strong or
sudden emotion of the mind.
Mention the principal interjections.
The following are the principal interjections, ar
ranged according to the emotions they express :
1. Exultation . Ah ! aha ! hey ! heyday ! hurrah ! huzza !
2. Sorrow . Ah ! oh ! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay !
3. Wonder. Ha ! indeed ! strange ! what! hoity -toity ! zounds !
4. Approval. Bravo ! well-done !
5. Contempt, aversion. Faugh ! fie ! fudge ! pugh ! pshaw ! tut !
6. Weariness. Heigh-ho !
7. Merriment. Ha, ha, ha ! ( an imitation of the sound of laughter).
8. Desire to drive away. Aroynt! avaunt ! begone ! off ! shoo !
9. Desire to address or salute. O, hail ! all-hail ! welcome !
10. Desire for one's welfare on leaving. Adieu ! farewell ! good-by !
11. Desire for attention . Ho ! what ho ! hallo ! ahoy ! lo ! hark !
12. Desire for silence. Hist ! whist ! hush ! mum !
13. Desire to stop or interrupt another. Avast ! hold ! soft !
14. Desire for information. Eh ? hey ?
By what point are interjections generally followed ?
By the exclamation-point ( ! ) . O, which must
 PARSING OF INTERJECTIONS. 95

always be a capital, takes no point after it. Eh and

hey, implying a question, are followed by the interroga
tion-point.
Do interjections bear grammatical relations to other words ?
They do not. They neither govern nor are gov
erned, neither agree with other words nor relate to
them. Hence no rule is needed in parsing them.
A substantive following an interjection is generally in the nomi
native independent ; as, “ Alas ! unhappy we ! ”
If a substantive in the possessive or objective case follows, it
is not governed by the interjection, but by some word understood ;
as, “ Oh my [that is, Oh my hard lot] ! ” “ Oh dear me [ pity
dear me ] ! ”
PARSING FORM . - Fie ! are you still abed ?
Fie is an interjection, implying contempt.
EXERCISE .

Parse each word :-Farewell, vain hopes ! -- Hist ! I hear

a noise. -Bravo ! such an effort deserved success.- What !
art thou really here ? Well-done !-Off ! begonel a slan
derer is beneath contempt.-0 grave, where is thy sting ?
Ah ! that deceit should steal such gentle shapes !-Alas !
the heavy day ! -Hallo ! who goes there ?

LESSON LXVII .

The seventeen Rules of Syntax that have been

given under the different parts of speech, are now
presented together for convenience of reference.
RULE I. -A substantive that is the subject of a verb is
in the nominative case.
RULE II . - A substantive used independently is in the
nominative case.
96 RULES OF SYNTAX .

RULE III.-- A substantive that modifies a noun denoting

a different person or thing, by implying possession, origin ,
or fitness, is in the possessive case.
RULE IV.-A substantive that is the object of a verb or
preposition is in the objective case.
RULE V.-A modifying substantive, denoting time, direc
tion, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the objective
case without a preposition.
RULE VI.-One substantive joined to another denoting
the same person or thing, is in the same case.
RULE VII.-A verb that has no object takes the same
case after as before it, when both words refer to the same
person or thing.
RULE VIII.-A relative agrees with its antecedent in
person and number.
RULE IX .-An article relates to the word whose mean
ing it limits.
RULE X.-An adjective relates to the substantive whose
meaning it qualifies or limits.
Rule XI. — A verb agrees with its subject in person and
number.
RULE XII. — A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject,
or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands inde
pendently in the sentence.
Rule XIII.—Participles are used independently, or re
late to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or limit.
Rule XIV.-A substantive which, in stead of being
modified by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put
in the possessive case.
RULE XV.-An adverb relates to the word or words
whose meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the
sentence.
 ELLIPSIS . 97

RULE XVI.-A preposition shows the relation that a

substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to some other
word or words in the sentence.
RULE XVII.-A conjunction connects words, sentences,
or parts of a sentence.
EXERCISE .

Parse each word :

“ Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar ;
Wait the great teacher, Death ; and God adore.
What future bliss, He gives not thee to know,
But gives that hope to be thy blessing now.
Hope springs eternal in the human breast ;
Man never is, but always to be, blessed :
The soul, uneasy and confined from home,
Rests and expatiates on a life to come.”

LESSON LXVIII .
What is Ellipsis ?
Ellipsis is the omission of words essential to the
construction, though not to the sense.
What is said of words omitted by ellipsis ?
They are said to be understood . They must be
supplied in parsing, to explain the government, agree
ment, or relation of the words expressed.
EXERCISE .

Parse each word. In the key sentences, the words under

stood are supplied within brackets :—As [it] regards harbors,
Denmark is well provided.-As far as concerns the dodo, it
has become extinct within two centuries.-Goldsmith was
more lavish of his money, when he had it, than was prudent.
--Buy no more furniture than [what] is needed.
9
98 ELLIPTICAL PARSING .

The poor (persons) are often happier than the rich . It

is base to be [ a] dishonest ( person ]. --Whose [ property ] is
this apple ? Arthur's . — Call at the doctor's [office ].– Stop
at Johnson's and buy ( for ) me some flour.---Give [to] me
your hand.—You should offer the lady your seat . — When
did he depart this life ?
He saveth [him] whom He will [save].— Whom He loveth,
He chasteneth . It is labor enables us to enjoy rest.-[ Go]
On, my gallant boys !-- Away to your places.—Some men
prize honor more than [they prize) gold . — Air is 827 times
(obj. case, according to Rule V.) lighter than water [is].–
I am going ; [I wish you) good evening. - Good -by ! success
to you ! -- Milton's poetry is more sublime than Virgil's.

LESSON LXIX .
What is a Sentence ?
A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as
makes complete sense.
As regards their meaning, how are sentences divided ?
Into four classes ; Declarative, Interrogative, Im
perative, and Exclamatory.
What is a Declarative Sentence ?
A Declarative Sentence is one that declares some
thing ; as, “ The wind blows. "
What is an Interrogative Sentence ?
An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a ques
tion ; as, “ Does the wind blow ? "
What is an Imperative Sentence ?
An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a
command , an exhortation, an entreaty, or permission,
and contains a verb in the imperative mood ; as, “Let
the wind blow ."
 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 99

What is an Exclamatory Sentence ?

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that exclaims
something ; as, “ How the wind blows ! "
With what do imperative sentences often commence ?
With the verb let.
With what do exclamatory sentences often commence ?
With the pronominal adjective what or the adverb
how ; as, “ What a fearful spectacle ! ” “ How bright
the stars are ! ”
EXERCISE .

Form fice declarative, five interrogative, five imperative,

and five exclamatory sentences, containing the following ex
pressions in order :-1. Fine fruit. 2. Facilities for travel
ling. 3. A good memory. 4. Very rapidly. 5. Brick
houses.--6. Have you studied ? 7. Who are disobliging.
8. Love of money. 9. Dark clouds. 10. Travelling so far.
-11 . Let us. 12. In peace. 13. A habit of grumbling.
14. Wet grass. 15. Stale bread.-16 . How beautiful. 17.
What a privilege. 18. To obey one's parents. 19. Pleasant
dreams. 20. A waste of time.

LESSON LXX .
What is the Grammatical Subject of a sentence ?
The Grammatical Subject is the leading word, de
noting that about which something is said .
By what is the grammatical subject sometimes modified ?
By words that limit or explain its meaning, or in
troduce some additional fact.
Of what does the Logical Subject of a sentence consist ?
The Logical Subject consists of the grammatical
subject and its modifiers. 654590
100 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

What is the Predicate of a sentence ?

The Predicate of a sentence is what remains after
the logical subject is removed .
Give examples of these definitions.
“ Seven metals were known to the ancients."
Metals is the grammatical subject. Seven modifies
it, and therefore seven metals is the logical sub
ject. Were known to the ancients is the predicate,
How can some sentences be divided ?
Into two or more parts of equal rank, having each
a subject and predicate of its own . Such parts are
called Members.
What is the difference between Compound and Simple Sen
tences ?
Sentences that can be divided into two or more
members, are called Compound Sentences. Those that
cannot be so divided, are called Simple Sentences.
" All are of the dust ." This sentence expresses one thought,
and can not be divided into two or more members. It is therefore
simple. If we join to it another member, with or without a con
junction, we make the sentence compound. Thus : - “ All are of
the dust, and all turn to dust again.”
A verb is sometimes understood in the predicate of one or more
of the members of a compound sentence ; as, Honesty is the best
policy, and temperance [is] the best physic.”
How do we distinguish compound sentences, when their mem
bers are all of the same class ?
When the members are all declarative, we call the
sentence Compound Declarative; when all interroga
tive, Compound Interrogative ; when all imperative,
Compound Imperative ; when all exclamatory, Com
pound Exclamatory.
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES . 101

What do we call a sentence whose members are of different

classes ?
A Compound Sentence with Dissimilar Members.
“ Cast thy bread upon the waters ; for thou shalt find it after
many days.” This is a compound sentence with dissimilar members.
The first member is imperative ; the second is declarative.
FORMS. - How slow yon tiny vessel ploughs the
main !
A simple exclamatory sentence. The grammatical subject is
vessel. The logical subject is yon tiny vessel. The predicate is
how slow ploughs the main.
Be just and fear not.
A compound imperative sentence. The first member is be just ;
its grammatical and logical subject is thou understood ; its predicate
is be just. The second member is and fear not, connected with the
first member by the conjunction and ; its grammatical and logical
subject is thou understood ; its predicate is fear not.
Boast not thyself of to -morrow ; for thou knowest
not what a day may bring forth.
A compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first mem
ber, boast not thyself of to -morrow , is imperative. Its grammatical
and logical subject is thou understood ; its predicate is boast not
thyself of tomorrow. The second member, for thou knowest, &c. ,
is declarative, and is connected with the first member by the con
junction for. Its grammatical and logical subject is thou ; its
predicate is knowest not what a day may bring forth.
EXERCISE .

Treat the following sentences according to the above

forms :-Great oaks from little acorns grow.–A soft answer
turneth away wrath ; but grievous words stir up anger.
Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee.—How precious
are the passing moments, and yet how few appreciate their
value !-Obey thy parents, and comply with all their wishes.
- Uneasy rests the head that wears a crown.
102 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES .

LESSON LXXI .
What sentences alone are compound ?
Such as can be divided into two or more members,
each having its own subject and predicate.
Does the introduction of a compound subject or a compound
predicate necessarily make the sentence compound ?
It does not. A sentence may contain a compound
subject or a compound predicate, and yet be simple.
A simple sentence may contain a compound subject, -- that is,
two or more grammatical subjects connected by a conjunction or
not ; as, “ Time and tide wait for no man .”
A simple sentence may contain a compound predicate, —that is,
one that has two or more parts of equal rank ; as, “ Time destroys
cities and overthrows empires."
A simple sentence may contain both a compound subject and
a compound predicate ; as, “ Adam and Eve | disobeyed God an .
forfeited Paradise. ”
How many principal parts has every sentence ?
Every simple sentence and every member of a
compound sentence has at least two principal parts,
—the grammatical subject and the leading verb.
“ The summer sun burns fiercely.” The gram
matical subject sun and the leading verb burns are
the two principal parts.
When does a third principal part appear ?
1. If the leading verb has an object, this object
constitutes a third principal part. - The summer sun
burns up the grass." Here there are three principal
parts, -sun, burns, and the object grass.
2. If the leading verb has no object, but is fol
lowed by a substantive in the nominative case, this
substantive, called the Predicate Nominative, forms
the third principal part.
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES . 103

“The sun is the great source of heat .” Here are

three principal parts,-sun, is, and the predicate
nominative source.
3. If the leading verb has no object, but is fol
lowed by an adjective belonging to the grammatical
subject, this adjective, called the Predicate Adjective,
forms the third principal part.
“ The summer sun is hot. ” Here are three princi
pal parts,--- sun , is, and the predicate adjective hot.
FORMS.- London and Paris are the largest cities
of Europe.
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subjects London and Paris, the leading verb are, and
the predicate nominative cities.
Alexander and Coesar had an untimely end ; and
Napoleon'sfate was not much better.
A compound declarative sentence. The first member is Alex
ander and Cæsar had an untimely end. The second member is and
Napoleon'sfate was not much better.
The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical
subjects Alexander and Cæsar, the leading verb had, and its object
end. The principal parts of the second member are the grammati
cal subject fate, the leading verb was, and the predicate adjective
better.
EXERCISE .

Treat the following sentences according to the above

forms :-Worth makes the man . — Homer, Virgil, and Mil
ton, are the three great epic poets. - From how many evils
do temperance and self-restraint save us ! —To die for one's
country is glorious. — Do not patience and perseverance
always triumph ? -Love produces love, and hate engenders
hate.-Be cautious ; avoid every appearance of evil.
104 CLAUSES .

LESSON LXXII .

By what may the principal parts of a sentence be modified ?

By single words, adjuncts, and clauses.
What is an Adjunct ? (See page 89. ) What is a Clause ?
A Clause is a subdivision of a sentence containing
a verb, but not expressing a complete thought.
Name the seven principal kinds of clauses.
Substantive, Relative, Participial, Adverbial, Causal,
Comparative, and Hypothetical Clauses.
What is a Substantive Clause ?
A Substantive Clause is one that performs the part
of a noun ; as, “ The fact that we must all die should
be constantly kept in mind . "
What is a Relative Clause ?
A Relative Clause is one that contains a relative
pronoun expressed or understood ; as, “ Moses is the
meekest man [ that] we read of in Scripture.”
What is a Participial Clause ?
A Participial Clause is one that contains a parti
ciple ; as, “ Figures, when well chosen , embellish dis
course.”
What is an Adverbial Clause ?
An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the part
of an adverb, generally expressing time, place, or
manner ; as, “ When Columbus discovered America ,
it was inhabited by Indians.”
What is a Causal Clause ?
A Causal Clause is one that expresses the purpose
or end for which anything is or is done ; “ Boys go
to school, to study and improve their minds."
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES . 105

What is a Comparative Clause ?

A Comparative Clause is one that contains as or
than followed by the latter of two terms compared ;
as , “ Virtue is as rare as it is admirable. ”
What is a Hypothetical Clause ?
A Hypothetical Clause is one that expresses a sup
position or something conceived as possible ; as, “ If
I were you, I would try.”
What is a Vocative Expression ?
A Vocative Expression is a substantive used inde
pendently, with its modifiers, thrown into a sentence
like an interjection, without modifying any particular
word ; as, “ Spirit of peace, still hover over us ! ”
FORMS.— ' Tis not the fairest form that holds the
purest soul.
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject it, the leading verb is, and the predicate nomi
native form . The leading verb is is modified by the adverb not.
The predicate nominative form is modified by the article the,
the adjective fairest, and the relative clause that holds the purest
soul. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject
that, the leading verb holds, and its object soul, which is modified
by the article the and the adjective purest.
Where can you go, O doubter, to find comfort ?
A simple interrogative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject you and the leading verb can go.
The leading verb can go is modified by the adverb where and the
causal clause to find comfort, consisting of the infinitive to find and
its object comfort. O doubter is a vocative expression.
We know that the eloquence of Demosthenes was
more impassioned than that of Cicero.
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject we and the leading verb know.
106 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES .

The leading verb know is modified by the substantive clause that

the eloquence, &c., connected with it by the conjunction that. The
principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject eloquence,
the leading verb was, and the predicate adjective impassioned.
The grammatical subject eloquence is modified by the article the
and the adjunct of Demosthenes.
The predicate adjective impassioned is modified by the adverb
more ;and more is itself modified by the comparative clause than
that of Cicero, connected with it by the conjunction than. The
principal parts of this comparative clause are the grammatical sub
ject that (modified by the adjunct of Cicero ), and the leading verb
was understood .

EXERCISE .

Treat the following sentences according to the above

forms :- Who shall decide when doctors disagree --Cæsar,
whose bravery has never been questioned, refused a challenge
from Mark Antony. — When you have done wrong, my
children, be not afraid to admit it.—To do good to the living
is better than to eulogize the dead . — Thousands at once
flocked to California, to try their fortunes in that favored
land . - How few who merit the world's applause, receive it !

LESSON LXXIII .
What is meant by the Base a sentence ?
The Base of a sentence is the part that expresses
the leading idea. “Who shall decide when doctors
disagree ? ” Who shall decide is the base.
What is meant by a Quotation, or Quoted Sentence ?
A word or passage taken, or represented as taken,
from some writer or speaker.
What is meant by Analyzing a sentence ?
Resolving it into its simple parts.
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES . 107

In analyzing a sentence, what must be done ?

In analyzing a sentence , state its class ; select its
principal parts ; tell by what words, adjuncts, or
clauses each is modified, and by what these modifiers
are themselves modified , resolving adjuncts into the
words that compose them , and clauses into their prin
cipal parts and modifiers. If the sentence is com
pound, treat each member in turn as just described .
FORMS OF ANALYSIS.— Intense cold produces a de
sire for sleep, which , if indulged in, results in death .
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the gram
matical subject cold, the leading verb produces, and the object desire.
The grammatical subject cold is modified by the adjective
intense.
The object desire is modified by the article a and the adjunct
for sleep, consisting of the preposition for and its object sleep. The
object sleep is modified by the relative clause which, if indulged in,
results in death .
The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject
which and the leading verb results. The subject which is modified
by the hypothetical clause if indulged in, consisting of the conjunc
tion if and the participle indulged (modified by the adverb in).
The leading verb results is modified by the adjunct in death, con
sisting of the preposition in and its object death.
If travellers tell the truth, woman is always hu
mane ; even in savage lands she is gentle and kind
to those who need her aid .
A compound declarative sentence. The first member is if
travellers tell the truth, woman is always humane. The second
member is even in savage lands she is gentle and kind to those who
reed her aid .
The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical
subject woman, the leading verb is (modified by the adverb always),
and the predicate adjective humane.
108 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES .

The base of the first member is modified by the hypothetical

clause if travellers tell the truth. The principal parts of this clause
are the grammatical subject travellers, the leading verb tell, and the
object truth, modified by the article the.
The principal parts of the second member are the grammatical
subject she, the leading verb is, and the predicate adjectives gentle
and kind. The predicate adjectives are modified by the adjunct
to those, consisting of the preposition to and its object those, which
is itself modified by the relative clause who need her aid . The
principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject who, the
leading verb need, and the object aid, which is modified by the
possessive her .
The base of the second member is modified by the adjunct in
savage lands, consisting of the preposition in and its object lands,
which is modified by the adjective savage ; and this adjunct is itself
modified by the adverb even.
Bion used to say, “ Know thyself.”
A simple declarative sentence . The principal parts are the
grammatical subject Bion and the leading verb used.
The leading verb used is modified by the infinitive to say, which
is itself modified by the quoted sentence know thyself,
The quoted sentence know thyself is simple imperative. Its
principal parts are the grammatical subject thou understood, the
leading verb know , and the object thyself.
EXERCISE .

Analyze, according to the aboveforms, the sentences in the

Exercise under Lesson LXX., also thefollowing :-Let justice
be done, though the sky fall. — The wicked fee when no
man pursueth ; but the righteous are bold as a lion.—Were
it not for the numerous enemies that are constantly destroy
ing them, serpents would prove a serious annoyance to man.
- “ O Autumn," writes Bryant, “ why so soon depart the
hues that make thy forests glorious ?” [Here Bryant is
the grammatical subject, and writes the leading verb .)
 CORRECTION OF FALSE SYNTAX . 109

LESSON LXXIV,

FALSE SYNTAX ,

Specimens of the most common grammatical errors

are now presented for correction. Give the reasons
for each alteration , according to the models. After
correcting the sentences , analyze and parse them.
Divide into lessons of convenient length.
1. Do not put a substantive that is the subject of
a verb or is used independently, in the objective case.
MODEL.-Can you run faster than me ? Corrected : Can you
run faster than I? Me must be changed to I, the nominative case,
because it is the subject of can run understood.
Correct : - Him and me are to start to -morrow . Who dropped
that book ? Not me, but her.—Whom do you think has arrived ?
Them that are industrious generally succeed . - Few have been so
fortunate as us ?-Jane is taller than him or me. Them that have
ears to hear, let them hear.—We have no fears, thee being our
guide. — Who would have thought of its being him ?
2. Put a modifying substantive that implies pos
session, origin, or fitness, in the possessive case . See
that the apostrophe is properly used as shown on
page 27).
MODEL . - Charles' reign ; mens' lives. Corrected : Charles's
reign ; men's lives.
Correct :-St. Josephs Church ; womens' shoes; Musæus'
poems ; four months residence ; misses dresses; Rufus' father ;
All Saints Church ; three hours journey ; the marchioness jewels ;
Tacitus' works ; the childrens' books.Who's hat is that ? It is
neither his'n, her'n, nor yourn .
3. When there are several modifying substantives,
they are all in the possessive case. If they modify
different nouns, give each the sign of the possessive.
10
110 CORRECTION OF

But, if they modify the same noun, give it to the

last only.
MODEL.I have bought Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Gram
mar, and Worcester and Webster's Dictionary. Corrected : I have
bought Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, and Worcester's
and Webster's Dictionary. The possessive sign must be omitted
after Andrews', because but one grammar is referred to ; it must be
annexed to Worcester, because two dictionaries are referred to.
Correct :-Henry and George's farm are on opposite sides of the
river.-What was the name of Adam's and Eve's youngest son ?
What is the distance between White and Lee's store ?
4. Put the object of a verb or preposition in the
objective case.
MODEL . — Who can I trust ? Corrected : Whom can I trust ?
Who must be changed to whon , the objective case , because it is
the object of the verb can trust.
Correct :-He who the world adr most is not always the most
worthy of admiration. He sat behind you and I. - Who did Mr.
Ray leave his property to ?—Tell whoever you send to be careful.
Who did you say that you saw ?-Between you and I, I suspect
your friend. How many Pharaoh's have you read of ?
5. Do not introduce a preposition to govern the
object of a transitive verb .
MODEL.-Consider of my offer. Corrected : Consider my offer.
Consider being a transitive verb, the preposition must be omitted.
Correct : - I do not wish for any more.-- Do you recollect of
walking down Broadway last week ? -Different men pursue after
different objects. - She will not allow of any interference.-His ser
vants we are, to whom we obey . - There are many good men at
whom the world ridicule. Do not doubt of my desire to do you good.
6. In using the passive of such verbs as offer, alloro,
&c., be sure to make the right substantive the subject.
MODEL.Thrice was Caesar offered the crown . Corrected :
Thrice was the crown offered Cæsar. Crown, being the thing offered ,
should be made the subject.
 FALSE SYNTAX . 111

.
Correct :-He was tendered a free passage. — We are sometimes
told strange stories.The clerk is allowed a handsome salary .-
Arnold was promised £ 10,000 and the rank of brigadier-general.
They have been granted leave of absence .
7. See that a pronoun in apposition with à noun is
put in the same case as that noun.
See that a substantive following a verb without an
object is put in the same case as the substantive
before the verb.
Model . - We went to see Florence Nightingale, she who did so
much good in the Crimea. Corrected : We went to see Florence
Nightingale, her who did so much good in the Crimea. She must
be changed to her, to be in the objective case, because it is in ap
position with the objective Florence Nightingale.
Correct :- There are few bolder travellers than Livingstone, him
who explored the interior of Africa. If I were her, I would act
with more dignity.-- Have you read the life of Grace Darling, she
who saved so many ship -wrecked persons ? -We feared it was him.
-Did you suppose it to be she ? —None of us could guess whom
he would turn out to be. It was my brother you saw , not me.
8. See that a pronoun agrees in number and gender
with the substantive for which it stands.
MODEL.–As you have broken the tongs, you must get it mended.
Corrected : As you have broken the tongs, you must get them
mended. It must be changed to them , the plural number, because
tongs, the substantive for which it stands, is plural.
Correct :-Many a young man forgets the lessons that their
muther taught them . Every one should be considered innocent till
they are proved guilty . — That heifer seems to have lost his way.
Nobody knows what may befall them tomorrow.-On that occasion
each singer did their best. I have mislaid my spectacles ; help me
find it . - What do you do with your ashes ? I sell it.
9. See that a verb agrees with its subject in person
and number.
MODEL.—The distance of the fixed stars are incredible. Cor .
112 CORRECTION OF

rected : The distance of the fixed stars is incredible. Are must be

changed to is, to agree with its subject distance, in the third, singular.
Correct : - What are the news ?-Ashes mixed with salt makes
a strong cement for iron pipes.-Was you not present at the acci
dent ? -- Well, says I to myself, she dare not touch on that subject.
-Captain H., with his whole company, have arrived.—Too much
study on abstract subjects fatigue the mind.-- Three days' journey
on such roads are enough to tire any one .-- Every teacher hare
their own notions on grammar. — He may say what he choose.
Each of our public officers have their favorites . — What is oats
selling for ? -Codrus is one of the noblest kings that is mentioned
in history.The phenomena of the atmosphere is well worthy of
attention . — Many a merchant have failed to succeed from a want
of punctuality.
10. Substantives connected by and expressed or
understood are said to be taken together.
A pronoun or verb agreeing with two or more
singular substantives taken together, must be put in
the plural.
MODEL . - Milton's and Byron's poetry is entirely different in its
style. Corrected : Milton's and Byron's poetry are entirely different
in their style. Is must be changed to are, and its to their, to agree
in the plural with poetry understood (after Milton's) and poetry ex
pressed, two singular substantives taken together.
Correct :-Of what use is learning and eloquence, if it is never
turned to practical account ?-Indifference, contempt, persecution,
has too often been the fate of genius. — What advantage is rank
and wealth to such a character ? -To deny one's self and to re
lieve others is enjoined on every Christian . - Virgil's and Homer's
epic has ever commanded for itself the admiration of the world.
Hope and the consciousness of integrity has ceased to comfort me.
11. If the substantives connected by and represent
the same person or thing, put the verb and pronoun
agreeing with them in the singular; as, “ The physi
cian and surgeon on the corner has closed his office.”
 FALSE SYNTAX . 113

Correct :—Where is your friend and cousin ? I have not seen

them to-day. - Hope, and hope alone, are my support.- Religion ,
and nothing but religion, are able to console us.
12. Substantives are taken separately, 1. When
preceded by each , every, or no, whether connected by
and or not. 2. When connected by and not, if not,
as well as, but, or, or nor.
A pronoun or verb agreeing with two or more
singular substantives taken separately, must be put in
the singular.
MODEL. - James, as well as his brother, have injured themselves
by pursuing this course. Corrected : James, as well as his brother,
has injured himself by pursuing this course. Have ' injured must
be changed to has injured, and themselves to himself, to agree in
the singular with James and brother taken separately.
Currect : -Neither lead nor iron are so heavy as gold.-Not
only France, but England, have committed themselves to this
policy.-- Cæsar, as well as Pompey, met their death at the assassin's
hands. — Either the mate or the captain have lost their reckoning.
-It was Saul, and not Jonathan, that killed themselves. Each
day and each hour have their duties . - Every man, every child, are
able to do some good to their fellow creatures. -No word, no sigh,
were heard. — Simplicity, or rather folly, are stamped on his face.
13. If one of the substantives connected by or or
nor is plural, the verb or pronoun must be plural; as,
“ Neither England nor the French are satisfied.”
Correct :-Neither glory nor riches can make its possessor
happy.–Either my eyes or this type is very bad . — Neither knife
nor scissors is in its place .-- Either the horse or the cattle has been
in the garden.
14. Use that as a relative, not who or which,
1. When both persons and things are referred to ;
“Look at the artists and master-pieces that ancient
as ,
Greece produced ."
114 CORRECTION OF

66
2. When who is the antecedent ; as, Who that
hates his brother can love God ? "
3. After a superlative ; as, “ Hannibal was the
deadliest enemy that Rome ever had . ”
4. After same, all, and the adjectives very and no ;
as, “ He is the same that he always was.”
Correct :- All the wagons and drivers which were on the road,
were captured.—Tell was one of the purest patriots whom we read
of in history .-- All which glitters, is not gold . — Who who has a
feeling heart, can listen to this story unmoved ?—The least which
we have a right to expect, is your sympathy. No prince who
breathes, is happier than I.
15. Place the relative with its clause immediately
after its antecedent; as, “ Those who break the law
deserve punishment ” -not, “ Those deserve punish
ment who break the law."
Correct :-The birds are not always the sweetest singers, that
have the gayest plumage. — Those can not govern others, who can
not govern themselves.-Many are careless in selecting their friends,
who use great caution in selecting their horses.-Speeches are not
much liked by the people, that are full of learned allusions.
16. Use this and that with singular nouns only,
these and those only with plurals. Never say this here
or these ' ere, that there or those 'ere.
Correct : - These sort of people are dangerous acquaintances.
Whose is this here scissors ? - Those kind of shoes are good enough.
—That ' ere fence must come down. - Empty out that suds. — What
are these news I hear ?

17. Comparatives and superlatives must not be

further compared ; nor should the adverbs more and
most be used with them.
Correct :- The fartherest route ; a more superior position ; in a
worser condition ; the most straitest sect of our religion ; a more
clearer style ; much more better off.
 FALSE SYNTAX . 115

18. Do not compare adjectives whose meaning

precludes the idea of comparison, or use with them
more, most, less, least, so, or any adverb of degree.
Correct :-The chiefest beauty ; a delusion so universal; the
least perfect of the photographs; a more preferable office ; the
truest assertions; so infinite a number ; a more complete course ;
the freest institutions; the supremest folly.
19. In comparing two objects, use the comparative
degree ; in comparing more than two at once, the
superlative.
MODEL . — Which is the smartest of the two brothers ? Cor.
rected : Which is the smarter of the two brothers ? Smartest must
be changed to smarter, the comparative degree, because only two
objects are compared.
Correct :- Which is the greatest, a fathom or a cubit ?-Flax,
wool, and cotton, are all important staples , --particularly the latter.
-George is the youngest of my two brothers. — Which looks to you
the largest, the sun or the full moon ?
20. After the comparative degree, use other with
the latter of the terms compared, if it includes the
former, and only then .
After the superlative, use neither other nor any
with the latter term .
Thus :- " The Amazon is longer than any other river,” because
the Amazon is a river. But, “ The Amazon is longer than any
river in Europe ; ” not any other river, because the Amazon is not
a river of Europe. So, after the superlative : “ The Amazon is the
longest of all rivers ; " not of all other rivers, or of any river.
Correct :-Mercury is nearer to the sun than any of the planets.
-Samson was the strongest of any man we have ever heard of.
London is the largest of any city in Europe.—Portions of the Bible
are older than any writings extant. The whale is the largest of any
other fish . — Railroads develop a country more rapidly than any
internal improvements.
116 CORRECTION OF

21. Do not use can, which implies ability, for may,

implying permission.
Do not use am for have as the auxiliary of the
perfect indicative, or was for had in the pluperfect.
Avoid corrupt forms of the verb : such as, had have,
for had , in the pluperfect; hadn't ought, for ought
not ; had as lief, had rather, for would as lief, would
rather ; I'm a mind, for I have a mind ; arn't or
aint, for are not ; moughtn't, for might not, &c.
Correct : - I will let you go ; you can start next week.-Can I
sit down ? - Those happy days are gone.—The Irish are sprung from
the old Celtic stock . — The phantom was vanished .They are
already arrived.—I'm a mind to go ; but after all I had as lief re
main . — You hadn't ought to eat unripe fruit. - Had Blücher have
been a little later, Napoleon might have gained the battle of Water
loo.---Arn't you mistaken ?
22. The preposition for must not be used immedi.
ately before the infinitive.' " He is trying hard for
to enter college." Correct by omittingfor.
Correct :-Cicero sent his son to Athens, for to finish his educa
tion . - Many have risked their lives, for to make discoveries.
Strive for to cultivate a contented disposition ; for to possess this is
better than to roll in wealth.

23. The sign to must not be separated from the

rest of the infinitive by an adverb . “To faithfully
represent this scene is impossible." Say faithfully to
represent this scene, or to represent this scene faithfully.
Correct :-How pleasant it is to quietly sit by some river's bank !
-Try to always deserve the esteem of your teachers.—To hastily
read is generally to quite as hastily forget.
24. Omit to, the sign of the infinitive, after the
verbs hear, make, and bid (meaning order), in the
active voice ; let, in both voices ; dare (meaning ven
 FALSE SYNTAX . 115

ture), when not in the infinitive, participles, or com

pound tenses ; and see and feel, when transitive, in
the active voice. “ Hear it [to] thunder.” “ Bid
them sit down ."
Correct : - Washington soon made the enemy to evacuate Bos
ton.-He bids all to come and to drink freely of the water of life.
-We are bid relieve the unfortunate . - Bernadotte durst not to
. - Those boys were seen
risk a battle . — Just see those boys to run.-
run down the hill. — Do you feel the lancet to prick you ?
25. Do not use the preposition of between the
participle of a transitive verb and its object. Say
by erecting statues, not by erecting of statues.
When the, an or a, this, or that, is introduced
before a participle, the latter becomes a noun and is
followed by of ; as, this erecting of statues.
Correct :-Disciplining of raw recruits and making of good sol
diers out of them are no easy tasks. — The committing an error is
no excuse for defending of it. - What sense is there in this follow
ing every absurd fashion ?-Adam was not punished for the eating
an apple, but for disobeying of his Maker . — There are other forms
of charity besides the mere giving money.
26. See that a substantive modifying a participle
is in the possessive case ; as, “ Who first conceived
the idea of the moon's (not moon] being inhabited ? ”
Correct :—Who ever heard of a fat man plotting treason ?
Many savage nations have a tradition of the world having been
overflowed by a deluge. — The idea of England joining such a league
is preposterous.---There is certainly more danger of a child studying
too little than too much.

27. In expressing a negation, do not use two nega

tives in the same clause or member ; as, “ I did not
do nothing ." Change or omit one of the negatives :
“ I did not do anything," or " I did nothing."
 118 FALSE SYNTAX .

Correct :-We never saw nothing like this . - Don't say nothing
to no one. - French is not so melodious nor majestic a language a i
Spanish . — Can you not obtain permission in no way ? -Don't neve :
put off till to-morrow what can be done to -day.
28. Certain words must be followed by certain
prepositions. Thus :-Accuse of ; adapted to ; arrive
at or in ; bestow on ; confide, trust in ; different
from ; dislike to ; followed by ; rid of ; accom
panied, attended by a living object, with an inani
mate object.
Correet :-Soerates was accused with corrupting the youth.
Be careful to whom you bestow your favors. Weknow on whom
we have trusted.-A dog's -ear isquite different to a dog's ear. — Try
to rid yourselves from flatterers.-- To what place did St. Paul next
arrive ? - The king was attended with a large retinue.-Intemperance
is attended by fearful consequences.-It is a fine edition, accom
panied by illustrations.-Crime is generally followed with remorse .
--Canute was attended with his courtiers.

LESSON LXXV .
RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS ,

Begin with a capital,

I. Every sentence and every line of poetry.
II. Proper nouns, proper adjectives, and titles of
office and honor ; as, Eve, Italian, General Scott.
III. Common nouns personified in a lively manner ;
as, “ Then War waves his banner.”
IV . Appellations of the Deity, and the personal
pronouns Thou and He standing for His name.
V. The first word of a quoted sentence, not intro
duced by that or any other conjunction ; as, Thomson
says, “ Success makes villains honest. "
 PUNCTUATION . 119

3 VI. Every ncun, adjective, and verb in the titles

of books and headings of chapters.
" VII. Words that denote the leading subjects of
}
chapters, articles, or paragraphs.
VIII. The pronoun I and the interjection 0.
4
IX . Words denoting great events or eras, noted
written instruments, and extraordinary physical phe
nomena ; as, the Creation , the Aurora Borealis.
X. Letters standing for words ; as, P. O.

LESSON LXXVI .

PUNCTUATION .

Punctuation is the art of dividing written language

by points, in order that the meaning may be readily Clobo
understood .
The Punctuation -points are as follows :
PERIOD, SEMICOLON ,
INTERROGATION - POINT, ? Comma,
EXCLAMATION - POINT, ! Dash,
Colon, PARENTHESES,
BRACKETS, []
A period must be placed after every declarative and im
perative sentence, and every abbreviated word ; as, “N. Y.
stands for New York . "

An interrogation-point must be placed after every inter

rogative sentence, member, and clause ; also, after the inter
jections en and hey ; as, " Has air weight ? ”
An exclamation -point must be placed after every ex
clamatory sentence, member, clause, and expression ; also,
after every interjection but 0, eh, hey , as, “ Alas ! how sad ! ”
The colon, semicolon, and comma, are used between
120 PUNCTUATION .

parts of sentences, and denote different degrees of separa

tion , —the colon the greatest, the comma the least.
A colon is placed before an enumeration of particulars
introduced by first, secondly, &c.; also, before a quotation
referred to by the words thus, these, following, as follows.
A semicolon is generally placed between the members
of compound sentences unless very short, before an enumera
tion of particulars when the names of the objects merely
are given, and before as introducing an example,
A comma sets off adjuncts and clauses not essential to
the meaning of the sentence, when introduced between parts
that are closely connected. It is also used to set off a noun
in apposition modified by an adjunct or adjective.
A comma is also placed between very short members
of compound sentences ; also, after a logical subject ending
with a verb, or consisting of parts which are separated by
the comma ; also, before or introducing an equivalent.
A comma is also placed after each word in a series of
more than two that are the same part of speech ; or after
each pair, if the words are taken in pairs.
The dash is used to denote a break in the construction,
a transition in the sentiment, a sudden interruption, hesita
tion, or an abrupt repetition.
Parentheses are used to enclose words that explain or
modify the main proposition, when introduced between parts
that are closely connected.
Brackets are used chiefly in quoted passages, to enclose
corrections, observations, or words improperly omitted.
The Apostrophe ( ' ) denotes the possessive case of nouns,
or the omission of a letter or letters ; as, men's, o'er.
The Hyphen ( - ) connects the parts of a compound word,
or joins the syllables of a word divided at the end of a line.
Quotation -points ( " " ) enclose words quoted, or repre
sented as employed in dialogue.
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