For Patsy, my lovely wife,

and her amazing Spanglish

—Michael Strumpf

For Heather and Russell Douglas

and Dariel Walsh
—Auriel Douglas
If I had my choice of weapons with you, sir,
I’d choose grammar!
—Lady for a Day (1933)

I know you believe you understand what you think

I said, but I am not sure you realize that what you heard
is not what I meant.
—Anonymous
 Contents

Preface

Part I. The Parts of Speech

1: Nouns
Types of Nouns
Properties of Nouns
Gender
Number
Person
Case
Some Other Things You Should Know About Nouns

2: Verbs
Action Verbs and Linking Verbs
Verb Phrases
Characteristics of Verbs
Number
Person
Voice
Mood
Tense
Subject-Verb Agreement
Conjugation
Objects and Complements of Verbs
Some Other Things You Should Know About Verbs

3: Adjectives
Types of Adjectives
Degrees of Comparison
Positioning the Adjective
Some Other Things to Remember About Adjectives
Determiners

4: Adverbs
 Categories of Adverbs
Degrees of Comparison
Positioning the Adverb
The Truth About Adverbs and Adjectives
Some Other Things to Remember About Adverbs

5: Verbals
Participles
Gerunds
Infinitives
Perfect Forms: A Last Point About Verbals

6: Pronouns
Types of Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Reciprocal Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns
Agreement Between Pronouns and Antecedents
Some Other Things You Should Know About Pronouns

7: Prepositions
Partners of Prepositions
Prepositional Phrases
Some Things You Should Know About Prepositions

8: Conjunctions
Coordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions
Some Other Things to Remember About Conjunctions

9: Interjections
Punctuation of Interjections

Part II. Dissecting the Sentence

10: Subjects & Predicates

Subjects and Predicates Defined
11: Sentence Types & Structures
Sentence Types
Word Order
Declarative Word Orders
Interrogative Word Orders
Imperative Word Orders
Exclamatory Word Orders
Some Other Things to Remember About Sentence Structures

12: Compound & Complex Sentences

Simple Sentences
Introduction to Clauses
Compound Sentences
Complex Sentences
Relative Clauses
Adverbial Clauses
Nominal Clauses
Some Other Things You Should Know About Compound & Complex Sentences

Part III. Spelling, Vocabulary, & Punctuation

13: Spelling
Spelling Rules
Heteronyms, Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs
Other Confusing Word Pairs

14: Vocabulary
Definition Distinctions
Word Origins
Misused Vocabulary
Peculiar Words and Phrases
Some Other Things You Should Know About Vocabulary

15: Punctuation
History of Punctuation
Rules of Punctuation
The Period
The Comma
The Colon
The Semicolon
The Apostrophe
The Question Mark
The Exclamation Point
 Parentheses
Brackets
The Hyphen
The Dash
Quotation Marks
Some Other Things You Should Know About Punctuation

Bibliography
About the Authors
Acknowledgments
Glossary
Index
 Preface

Communication is the essence of the human experience. Despite the ease with which the average
person thinks, speaks, and writes complicated ideas on a daily basis, the process of communication is
extraordinarily complex, and the distinctly human ability to weave sounds, gestures, and expressions
into meaningful units that communicate our thoughts and feelings to our fellow humans is at least
worthy of note, if not awe and admiration.
Why then, if the process is so complex, are humans able to communicate so easily and
effortlessly? The complete answer to that question is quite beyond the scope of this book and even
beyond the limits of modern science. A topic that is within our grasp and the one that this book will
tackle is the regular system of rules that we use to weave sounds into the meaningful units with which
we express our thoughts and ideas, creating language. We call this system grammar.
In a simple sense, grammar is the study of words and the ways words work together. It is a sort
of invisible hand that guides us as we put words together into sentences. Any person who is able to
communicate using a particular language has knowledge of the grammar of that language, even if his
or her knowledge is unconscious. Grammar is pervasive.
We study grammar so that we may speak and write in a clearer and more effective manner. The
unconscious knowledge of grammar that every communicator possesses may be sufficient for simple
language use, but those who wish to communicate artfully and well will seek the greater depth of
understanding and proficiency that the study of grammar provides.
For over twenty-five years, Moorpark College in Moorpark, California, sponsored The National
Grammar Hot Line to aid students of English grammar in their quest for knowledge. The service was
free. During the Hot Line’s existence, thousands of callers telephoned with questions about the
English language and its use. For more than a quarter of a century, I, Michael Strumpf, as an English
teacher at Moorpark College, fielded questions from congressmen, governors, ambassadors, editors,
writers, teachers, attorneys, students, copywriters, journalists, housewives, secretaries, vice
presidents, and, yes, even calls from the White House. People from just about any occupation and
walk of life called to ask a question that puzzled or stumped them:

“Where do I put this comma?”

“What case should this pronoun be in?”

“How do I form the possessive of ‘Dickens’?”

This book combines the most insightful and revealing of the calls to The National Grammar Hot

Line with a scholarly discussion of grammar. We begin with the parts of speech in the first third of the
book, move on to the creation of sentences in the second third, and end with a discussion of spelling,
vocabulary, and punctuation in the final third. In each chapter, you will find a discussion of a
vocabulary, and punctuation in the final third. In each chapter, you will find a discussion of a
particular topic in grammar, interspersed with Hot Line questions and answers that I feel will
strengthen your understanding of the topic. Though The Grammar Bible is a reference book, it has, I
hope, been written with a sense of style and a sense of humor. Grammar should be a topic that you
enjoy as well as one that you understand.

Happy learning!
Part I

The Parts of Speech

 1

Nouns

Nouns are naming words. They name people, places, things, and ideas.

Imagine a world without names. Imagine, for a moment, the horror and absurdity of ordering a simple
meal without naming words. “I’ll take one of those things with the two soft, round things on the
outside and one of those brown mushy things on the inside, and it’s got some red stuff and some
yellow stuff and some round, green things on it.” Oh, you must mean a hamburger! You see, I couldn’t
even get through this ridiculous scenario without using a couple of generic naming words, such as
stuff or things. What’s in a name? Sometimes, a name is everything.
The word noun comes from the Latin word nomen, meaning “name.” Nouns are names of
people, places, things, and ideas. Anything we can imagine has a name. If someone discovers a
person, place, thing, or idea without a name, you can be sure that steps will be taken to remedy that
situation.
Any nutritious sentence is chock full of nouns. In the examples below, each of the bold words is
a noun.

My friend Buddy has a Ph.D. in physics.

The squirrel stole nuts from the chipmunk.

My dog watches television in the evenings.

The purpose of this exam is to scare the life out of you.

The weight of gold is measured in karats.

A Test to Determine Whether a Word Is a Noun

Q. “Is there a litmus test to determine whether a word is a noun?”

A. While there is no surefire way to determine whether a word is a noun in every situation, some
people find it helpful to apply the following technique in puzzling it out. This procedure works for
all nouns except names of specific people, places, or things, also known as proper nouns.
There are three words in the English language called articles: a, an, and the. If in doubt about
 whether a word is a noun, just place an article before it. If the combination makes sense on its
own, the word is a noun. Test the word joy: the joy. Joy is a noun. Test pride: the pride. Pride is
a noun. Try exultation: an exultation. Exultation is a noun. See, it works. All three of these
article-noun combinations sound correct.
Conversely, the test differentiates other parts of speech from nouns. What happens when we
apply the test to the adjective ugly: an ugly. The combination does not make sense, so we know
that ugly is not a noun. The rambunctious doesn’t make sense either, so rambunctious can’t be a
noun. Apply the test to the verb eat: an eat. The test verifies that eat is not a noun.
Beware of those sentences in which the noun is described by adjectives. For example, in the
sentence “The large, round apple lay on the table,” the article the comes before the word large.
The sentence makes perfect sense although large is still an adjective. Even though the article may
not directly precede a noun, its presence in a sentence indicates that there is a noun nearby. To
find the noun, we test the words that follow the article. First, test large: the large. The
combination does not make sense. Next, test round: the round. This combination doesn’t make
sense either. Then, test apple: the apple. Eureka! We’ve found the noun.

Types of Nouns

In English, nouns are classified as either common or proper.

1. Common nouns are general nouns: magnet, gargoyle, angel, orchid, subway, persimmon,
petticoat. Common nouns do not begin with capital letters unless they start sentences.
2. Proper nouns are nouns that refer to specific people, places, or things: Dmitri, Sisley, Scarlett
O’Hara, Little Orphan Annie, Rutherford B. Hayes, Marlon Brando, Ichabod Crane, Zaire,
Denmark, Alcatraz. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters.

Capitalizing Proper Nouns

If you are unsure whether or not a noun is proper and should be capitalized, check these rules.
Always capitalize

names of specific people: Clark Gable, Emily Dickinson, Napoleon.

names of specific places or regions: Yosemite, Los Angeles, France, Jupiter, the Milky Way,
Wrigley Field, Chicago.
names of specific agencies, organizations, or bodies: Supreme Court, Red Cross, Greenpeace,
National Science Foundation, Bureau of Public Works, Daughters of the American Revolution.
names of historical events, periods, and documents: the Middle Ages, D-day, the Magna Carta.
names of days, months, holidays, and special days of observance: Monday, January,
Thanksgiving, Mother’s Day.
titles of rank or respect before a name: Lord Nelson, President Truman, Mrs. Robinson.
the principal words in titles of books, magazines, articles, plays, movies, songs, or pieces of art:
 The Last Supper, A Tale of Two Cities, The New Yorker, The Foreigner. Articles (a, an, the),
conjunctions, and prepositions are not typically capitalized unless they begin the title.
words which show family relationship when they are used as names and when they are used with
names: Grandma, Mother, Aunt, Uncle Jon, Cousin Mark.
words referring to deities or holy books: Krishna, God, Allah, the Koran, the Talmud, the Bible.

Properties of Nouns

Nouns are characterized by four properties: gender, number, person, and case.

Gender

Gender refers to the classification of nouns according to sex. Many languages assign this sex or
gender to their nouns rather arbitrarily. In the Romance languages, for instance, all nouns are either
masculine or feminine. In French la ville (the city) and la lune (the moon) are both feminine, but le
village (the village) and le soleil (the sun) are masculine. Le crayon (the pencil) is masculine, but la
plume (the pen) is feminine. There is no logic to this system.
Latin and German add a third gender to this mess, the neuter gender. The German word for sun
(die Sonne) is feminine, and the word for moon (der Mond) is masculine; but the German words for
girl (das Mädchen) and woman (das Weib) are illogically neuter! Such distinctions impose the
additional task of incorporating the genders of nouns into the articles, prepositions, adjectives, and
verbs that function alongside them.
English smartly negates these confusions by employing a natural gender. Nouns that refer to
males are of the masculine gender: man, boy. Nouns that refer to females are of the feminine gender:
woman, girl. Nouns that could refer to males or females are of the common gender: animal, child.
Nouns that refer to sexless objects are of the neuter gender: toy, apple. The meaning and usage of the
noun should reveal its gender. This system makes sense. Most nouns are of the neuter or common
genders. The issue of gender will become more important when we reach the chapter on pronouns
(chapter 6).
It is a simple matter to identify the genders of words that are specifically either masculine or
feminine. In most cases, the gender is inherent in the meaning of the word. The noun hen refers to
females, so it is always feminine. The noun rooster refers to males, so it is always masculine. We
also differentiate between men and women, boys and girls, fathers and mothers, monks and nuns,
lords and ladies, and rams and ewes, among many others.
Other words add one of the suffixes -or, -ess, -ine, or -trix to distinguish the feminine forms
from the masculine forms. We differentiate between actors and actresses, heros and heroines, dukes
and duchesses, and executors and executrixes, among others.
Such gender distinctions are fading as society becomes more equality-minded. No one with any
sensibility has spoken of an executrix since Nixon was in office. The bottom line with most gender-
specific nouns is that sex is irrelevant, and many words once masculine now refer to both males and
females. Discriminate according to merit. Leave sex out of it!
Number

The number of a noun indicates how many people or objects it refers to. Nouns that refer to just one
of anything are singular, and nouns that refer to more than one of anything are plural. In their simplest
forms, nouns are singular. Pluralization requires changes. Let’s allow some callers to demonstrate the
rules for pluralizing nouns.

A General Pluralizing Rule

Q. “Is there a general rule for making nouns plural?” asked a menu writer.

A. Yes, of course, there is. For most nouns, add -s or -es to their singular forms. If a noun ends with a
sound that melds smoothly with s, then simply add -s.

kite→kites
bib→bibs
flag→flags
cake→cakes
field→fields
trip→trips
waiter→waiters
hunter→hunters
birthday→birthdays

If a noun ends in a sound that does not meld smoothly with s, then add -es. These
sounds, /ch/, /sh/, /s/, /x/, and /z/, are called the sibilant sounds.

wish→wishes
quiz→quizzes
mess→messes
class→classes
arch→arches
fox→foxes
fish→fishes
dish→dishes
church→churches
lunch→lunches
waltz→waltzes
box→boxes

Please note that you must double the final consonant z in the nouns fez, quiz, and whiz
before adding -es.

Plurals of Nouns Ending in y

Q. “I’m always confused about nouns ending in y. How do I make these words plural? Why didn’t
they teach all these things in elementary school?”

A. Perhaps they did, and the caller has just forgotten. But, if they didn’t, let’s straighten out the issue
now. When a noun ends in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and then add -es. In many
cases, the y will make a long /e/ sound (long e says its own name).

lady→ladies
fly→flies
city→cities
cherry→cherries
candy→candies
berry→berries
Mounty→Mounties
county→counties
enemy→enemies

When a noun ends in quy (again, the y makes a long /e/ sound), change the y to i
and then add -es.

soliloquy→soliloquies
colloquy→colloquies

When a noun ends in y preceded by a vowel, just add -s. These words use the vowel
and the y in combination to make a single vowel sound. Changing the y to i would
destroy their partnership.

boy→boys
play→plays
clay→clays
tray→trays
ploy→ploys
toy→toys
chimney→chimneys
valley→valleys
alley→alleys

Plurals of Nouns Ending in f or fe

Q. A ranger in the high Sierras was creating posters warning tourists of predators. He asked, “What
do I do to make wolf plural?”

A. As a general rule, make words ending in f or fe plural by changing the f or fe to v and adding -es.

calf→calves
 elf→elves
half→halves
knife→knives
leaf→leaves
life→lives
loaf→loaves
self→selves
shelf→shelves
thief→thieves
wife→wives
wolf→wolves

However, this rule is subject to exception. For some nouns ending in f, simply add -s.

belief→beliefs
chief→chiefs
roof→roofs
safe→safes

Other nouns ending in f can take either of the above forms. You can change the f to v
and add -es, or you can just add -s.

beef→beeves or beefs
hoof→hooves or hoofs
scarf→scarves or scarfs
wharf→wharves or wharfs
dwarf→dwarves or dwarfs

If in doubt, consult your dictionary.

Please be careful not to let this rule lead you to confuse the plural noun beliefs
with the singular verb believes.

I respect the beliefs of my astrologer.

My astrologer believes in the signs of the zodiac.

Plurals of Nouns Ending in o

Q. “How do you spell the plural of piccolo? I’m a musician, and I often write articles about music for
the local newspaper. I have been criticized in the past for spelling the plurals of instruments
incorrectly.”

A. In general, for nouns ending in an o preceded by a vowel, simply add -s.

cameo→cameos
 stereo→stereos
rodeo→rodeos
Oreo→Oreos
folio→folios
tattoo→tattoos

For nouns ending in an o preceded by a consonant, add -es.

echo→echoes
potato→potatoes
tomato→tomatoes
torpedo→torpedoes

This rule, too, is full of exceptions. For musical terms, many of which end in an o
preceded by a consonant, just add -s to form the plural.

alto→altos
piccolo→piccolos
piano→pianos
cello→cellos
contralto→contraltos
soprano→sopranos

For other words that end in an o preceded by a consonant, also add -s to form the
plural.

dynamo→dynamos
albino→albinos
silo→silos

As for these others with the consonant plus o ending, add -s or -es.

cargo→cargos or cargoes
hero→heros or heroes
zero→zeros or zeroes
tornado→tornados or tornadoes
volcano→volcanos or volcanoes
halo→halos or haloes

When in doubt, look it up.

Irregular Plurals

Q. “I’m having a heck of a time figuring out how to make some words plural. Some are easy because
they have a nice rule to tell you what to do. Then, there are some others that just change, as mouse
 changes to mice. Is there anything that I can do to learn these sorts of plurals?”

A. My sad answer has to be no. There are some nouns that form irregular plurals. They make changes
specific to their own cases. These we simply must memorize. However, most changes are changes
of vowels. Consonants are, for the most part, left alone.

foot→feet
goose→geese
mouse→mice
tooth→teeth
woman→women
man→men

There are even some nouns that do not change at all between their singular and
plural forms.

deer→deer
fish→fish*
sheep→sheep
trout→trout
moose→moose
species→species

A very small number of words include -en in their plural forms.

child→children
ox→oxen

The best way to verify that the plural form of a noun is correct is to look it up in the
dictionary.

Plurals of Foreign Origin: Latin

Q. “Is Latin really dead?” lamented an executive. “When I used the word memoranda in my office,
my secretary criticized me.”

A. Latin is certainly not dead. It is alive in English, and we use it in many of our words. Memoranda
is the Latin plural while memorandums is the English plural, but both are acceptable. Similarly,
the singular noun referendum can be made plural in the Latin way, referenda, or the American
way, referendums.
American English has co-opted many foreign words to its own devices while other words
still keep only their foreign plurals. The singular noun basis becomes bases in its plural form.
The singular noun nemesis becomes nemeses in its plural form. These Latin words just keep the
Latin plurals.
Latin is not the sole language from which modern English words have originated, and there
 are many other methods of pluralization from across the globe that you can find in English. If in
doubt of the plural form, consult your dictionary.

Plurals of Foreign Origin: More Latin

Q. The headmistress of a girls’ preparatory school asked, “How do you spell the plural form of the
word alumna on the commencement announcement?”

A. A singular female graduate is an alumna; plural female graduates are alumnae. A singular male
graduate is an alumnus; plural male graduates are alumni. These are English words that have
retained their Latin plural forms. The pronunciations of the masculine and feminine plurals are the
same. Both end with a long /i/ sound (long i sounds like eye or the i in ride).

Plurals of Compound Words

Q. Several writers called on a conference line. “We’re still not confident that we’re correctly
pluralizing compound words and words linked by hyphens,” they said. The writers were dealing
with material widely disseminated to the public through newspapers, and all owned many style
guides plus a half dozen handbooks.

A. Creating the plurals of simple compound words, such as steamboat or hatbox, is easy. Simply
apply the appropriate rule to the second half of the compound word; thus, steamboat becomes
steamboats, and hatbox becomes hatboxes.

inchworm→inchworms
chophouse→chophouses
housewife→housewives
afterthought→afterthoughts
screwdriver→screwdrivers
werewolf→werewolves

Pluralizing other compound words whose pieces are connected by hyphens, such
as mother-in-law, or whose separate words are regarded as a unit, such as court
martial, is almost as simple. Just make the most important word plural. Mother-in-law
becomes mothers-in-law, and court martial becomes courts martial. This most
important word will always be a word that can be described or modified, a noun.

chief of staff→chiefs of staff

son-in-law→sons-in-law
looker-on→lookers-on
runner-up→runners-up
brigadier general→brigadier generals
attorney general→attorneys general
daughter-in-law→daughters-in-law
 deputy sheriff→deputy sheriffs

One of the writers then asked, “What if none of the pieces of the compound word
are nouns? Like drive-in. Neither drive nor in is a noun, so we can’t really tell which
one is the main word.” The answer is to pluralize the last word of the compound.
Drive-in becomes drive-ins. The plural of play-off is play-offs, and the plural of has-
been becomes has-beens. While neither of the pieces of each of these compound
words is a noun on its own, they work to become a noun together.

Plurals of Numbers, Letters, and Abbreviations

Q. “How do I pluralize numbers? Everyone’s telling me a different way. Help! I want to be correct.”

A. These are the rules for pluralizing numerals, letters, and abbreviations:

To form the plurals of numbers written as numerals, just add -s.

My parents loved the 1950s.

I feel safest flying on 747s.

To form the plurals of single letters, add apostrophe s (’s).

Elementary school taught me the three R’s.

Watch your p’s and q’s.

Don’t forget to cross your t’s and dot your i’s.

To form the plurals of strings of multiple letters, add -s without an apostrophe (’).

I gave her three IOUs.

My daughter learned her ABCs.

To form the plurals of abbreviations with internal periods, add apostrophe s (’s).

C.P.A.’s, D.D.S.’s, M.D.’s

My brother has two Ph.D.’s.

To form the plurals of abbreviations that end with periods but that have no internal periods, add
-s before the terminal period.

eds., Nos., chs., figs.

 There are ten vols. in the complete set.

To form the plurals of abbreviations without periods, just add -s.

APPRs, MIRVs, kWs, kgs

The tunnel was twenty kms in length.

Plurals of Words Not Normally Pluralized

Q. Another caller asked, “How do I make the plural of a word that doesn’t really have a plural, like
if, and, and but in the phrase ‘ifs, ands, or buts’?”

A. Here is yet another confusing plural issue. To create the plural forms of words that do not have true
plural forms, simply add -s. As you can see in the written version of the caller’s spoken question,
the plurals of if, and, and but are ifs, ands, and buts. Here are two more examples:

Lenny will teach you the dos and don’ts of small engine repair.

How many totallys does the average teenager utter each minute?

Notice that I did not change the y to i and add -es in totally. The word is an adverb and
cannot have a true plural form. The plurality of totally involves multiple occurrences
of the word totally in a teenager’s utterances. The meaning of the sentence is clearer if
the y is left alone.

Plural of Ms.

Q. “How do you form the plural of Ms.? ” asked an editor at a women’s magazine.

A. Ms. is a title of respect attached to a woman’s name that does not imply a particular marital status.
Since Ms. lacks internal periods, add -s to form the plural, Mss. Take heed, however. Without the
capital, mss. is an abbreviation for manuscripts.

Plurals of Nouns Containing Apostrophes

Q. “How do you make a plural out of a noun containing an apostrophe?” asked a representative of
Weinstock’s Department Stores.

A. That’s easy! Your noun does not require any changes. Just say, “There are two Weinstock’s in St.
Paul.” Pluralizing other nouns with internal apostrophes is not always so easy, but that discussion
must wait until we reach the possessive case.
From My Files: Pluralizing Proper Names

At Christmas and Hanukkah time, hundreds of grammar-conscious citizens call, asking how to spell
the plurals of proper names on holiday cards. Many of the calls come from the stationery stores that
print the cards. Here are a few rules that will help the curious pluralize proper names. Please note
that, in every case, the spellings of the proper names should not change except for the addition of -s or
-es.
With proper names ending in a sound that blends well with s, simply add -s.

Brown→the Browns
Ericson→the Ericson
Hogan→the Hogans
Lindberg→the Lindbergs
Shaw→the Shaws
Whitlock→the Whitlocks

With proper nouns ending in sounds that don’t blend well with s, the sibilant sounds, add -es.

Cox→the Coxes
Douglas→the Douglases
Firch→the Firches
Jones→the Joneses
Martinez→the Martinezes
Nemetz→the Nemetzes

Do not forget that other than the addition of -s or -es, the spelling of a pluralized proper name
does not change. With names that end in y, you do not change that y to i. With names that end in f or fe,
do not change that f or fe to v. The name remains the same.

Cory→the Corys
Handy→the Handys
Montgomery→the Montgomerys

Number Issues

Number, on the surface, appears to be a simple matter. A noun is singular, or it is plural. End of story.
Oh, but you must not forget that there are exceptions to every rule and complications to any simple
situation. If you take one thing away from this book, it should be the lesson that any language worth its
salt has more twists and variations than any one person can explore in a lifetime. English is certainly
one of these.

Seemingly Singular Plurals

Some nouns that appear to be plural in form are treated singularly: news, politics, physics,
mathematics, measles, mumps, etc.
 Politics is a bloodthirsty business.

The news these days is never illuminating.

These nouns, though plural in appearance because they end in s, are generally treated as singular.
Popular usage has changed their natures so that we usually regard each of them as a single object or
idea.

Strictly Plurals
Other nouns are only used in their plural forms.

billiards
clothes
forceps
gallows
nuptials
pants
pincers
pliers
remains
riches
scissors
shears
suds
tongs
trousers

Hand me that pair of pliers.

My trousers are missing!

The garden shears sliced through the branches.

In singular forms, these nouns do not have any meaning as nouns.

Imagine each of them without the plural ending. Riches becomes an adjective, rich. Remains
becomes a verb, remain. Others are not even real words without the pluralizing s (trouser? sud?).
These nouns are plural through and through.

Collective Nouns
There is yet another class of nouns for which number can be problematic, the collective nouns.
Collective nouns, though singular in number, name a group of people or objects.

army
audience
 band
class
clergy
committee
company
congregation
corps
crowd
faculty
family
flock
herd
mob
multitude
number
team

Collectives are troublesome because they can be treated as singular or plural depending on usage. If
we regard the members of the group that the collective noun names as a unit, then the noun is singular.

The crowd shouted its approval to the mayoral candidate.

The team of mules pulls the plow through the field day after day.

The company is declaring bankruptcy.

The members of these groups are a unit, so the nouns that name them are singular.
If we regard the members of the group as separate entities, then the noun is plural.

The class turned in their research papers last Friday.

The congregation opened their hymnals.

The group voiced their opinions.

Here, the members of each group act on their own and not as a unit, so the collective noun is plural.
However, we rarely use collective nouns in a plural manner.

Animals and Collective Nouns

Q. “When our family went whale watching, one of the crew members pointed at two of the beasts and
said, ‘Look at the gam of whales.’ He explained that a gam is a group of two or more whales. Are
there similar words to describe other groups of animals?”

A. Yes, there are. Here’s a list. There are some wonderful words in it, such as a shrewdness of apes,
an exaltation of larks, and a murmurtion of starlings.

Ant colony
Ape shrewdness
Ass pace
Badger cete
Bear sloth
Bee swarm
Bird flock
Buffalo gang
Cattle herd
Coot covert
Duck plump
Elk gang
Finch charm
Fox skulk
Frog knot
Geese gaggle
Hog drift
Kitten kindle
Lark exaltation
Lion pride
Mallard sord
Meadowlark pod
Nightingale watch
Peacock muster
Pheasant nide
Quail bevy or covey
Seal trip or pod
Sheep flock
Snipe wisp
Sparrow host
Starling murmuration
Teal spring
Vermin skulk
Walrus pod
Whale gam or pod
Wildcat clowder
Wild fowl skein
Wild hog sounder
Woodcock fall

Many of these are infrequently used, but shrewd word watchers will know about
some of their curious origins. With popular use, they evolved into dictionary-defined
words. If you have an interesting one you have made up, please share it with The
 National Grammar Hot Line. Spreading the word is how American English grows.

Troublesome Plurals
The plural forms of many nouns are often misused. The following list has been excerpted from the
context of questions called in over the past twenty-five years. Each caller had used a plural
incorrectly.

SINGULAR BRITISH PLURAL AMERICAN PLURAL

abacus abaci abacuses, abaci
agendum agenda agendums, agendas, agenda
alumna (fem.) alumnae alumnae
alumnus
alumni alumni
(masc.)
apparatus apparati apparatuses, apparatus
attorney
attorneys general attorneys general
general
bacillus bacilli bacilli
beau beaux beaus, beaux
brontosaurus brontosauri brontosauruses, brontosauri
cactus cacti cacti, cactuses, cactus
campus campi campuses
caucus cauci caucuses
chief of staff chiefs of staff chiefs of staff
circus circi circuses
court martial courts martial courts martial
crisis crises crises
criterion criteria criteria, criterions
curricula
curriculum curriculums, curricula
(preferred)
domino dominos, dominoes dominoes
esophagus esophagi esophagi
eucalyptus eucalypti eucalyptuses, eucalypti
father-in-law fathers-in-law fathers-in-law
fetus feti fetuses
focus foci focuses, foci
genius genii geniuses, genii
gladioluses, gladiolus,
gladiolus gladioli
gladioli

genus genera genera, genuses

 hippopotamus hippopotami hippopotamuses,
hippopotami

medium media media, mediums

mongoose mongooses mongooses
octopus octopi octopuses, octopi
PDR PDRs PDRs
phallus phalli phalluses, phalli
podium podia podiums, podia
potato potatoes potatoes
rebus rebi rebuses
radius radii radiuses, radii
sarcophagus sarcophagi sarcophaguses, sarcophagi
spoonful spoonfuls spoonfuls
stratus strati strati
stylus styli styluses, styli
syllabus syllabi syllabuses, syllabi
taurus tauri tauri
thesis theses theses
virus viri viruses
zero zeroes zeros, zeroes

After Hours Plurals

Q. A bartender called with a question about his appetizers. He was serving scrumptious shrimp
canapés to his customers and wanted them to sound as good as they looked. The bartender knew
that one appetizer would be an hors d’oeuvre but was unsure of what form the plural of this
French word would take.

A. One hors d’oeuvre becomes many hors d’oeuvres. One canapé becomes many canapés. Both
French words are pluralized in the English manner.

Time— Singular or Plural

Q. “Is the word time singular or plural?” asked an executive from an educational publishing house.
“The sentence in question is ‘Rather than continue wasting both our time, we need to set matters
straight.’ ”

A. This same question has been asked in different forms numerous times during the last twenty-five
years of the Grammar Hot Line’s existence. If the time in the sentence is actually two separate
 blocks of time, one belonging to each party, then use the plural.

Rather than continue wasting both our times, we need to set matters
straight.

If you both share a single block of time, then use the singular form.

Rather than continue wasting both our time, we need to set matters
straight.

In other words, it’s a judgment call. My personal preference is for the plural form,
times. Since the word both is used in the sentence “…both our times…,” I see two
separate blocks of time. This is but one humble opinion.
The Hot Line actually advised the executive to take a more direct approach by
eliminating the word both and using the singular form of the noun.

Rather than continue wasting our time, we need to set matters straight.

This is a sentence that anyone can utter, free from grammatical doubt or worry.

Person

The grammatical term person describes the relationship of a noun to the speaker. The person of a
noun indicates whether it names the person or persons speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. There are
three persons: first, second, and third.
The forms of nouns do not change because of the change of person. A noun such as mouse will
take the same form whether it is in the first, second, or third person. Clues as to what person a noun is
in come from the context in which it is used. Pay close attention to the verb in the sentence and any
pronouns that refer to the noun. Why these features are so important will become clear when you
complete the subsequent chapters on pronouns (chapter 6) and on verbs (chapter 2).

First Person
A noun in the first person names the person or persons speaking. Always use one of the pronouns I or
we to refer to the first person. The first person I or we may have a standard noun as an appositive. We
will deal with appositives shortly.

I, Eric, will meet you there.

We, the people, seek to form a more perfect union.

In the first example, the proper noun Eric is in the first person since it is some person named Eric
who utters or writes the sentence. In the second example, the noun people is in the first person
because there are some people who utter this sentence to express their desire for a more perfect
union.
Second Person
A noun in the second person names the person or persons spoken to.

John, please pass the salt.

Hurry up, children!

In the first example, the proper noun John is in the second person since it names the fellow toward
whom the speaker directs his or her request to pass the salt. In the second example, the noun children
is in the second person because it names the individuals to whom the speaker issues the command to
hurry.

Third Person
A noun in the third person names the person or persons spoken of.

The knight defeated the dragon.

The princess escaped from the evil wizard’s clutches.

The king was joyful at her safe return.

In the first example, the nouns knight and dragon are both in the third person. In the second example,
the nouns princess, wizard’s, and clutches are all in the third person. In the third example, the nouns
king and return are in the third person. Every third person noun names an individual or thing spoken
of. None of them names the person(s) or thing(s) speaking or spoken to.

Case

In grammar case describes the syntactical relationship of a noun or pronoun to the other words in the
sentence. Both nouns and pronouns possess this property, but we will limit our current discussion of
case to nouns. There are three cases: nominative, possessive, and objective.

Nominative Case
Nouns in the nominative case name the words that statements are made about. Nouns in the nominative
case may be subjects of sentences, or they may be subject complements (also called predicate
nominatives), nouns which follow a linking verb and describe the subject of the sentence. The subject
complement and subject must always agree in case, person, number, and gender because they refer to
the same individual.

The catcher missed the ball.

Elvis is a car salesman in Beauford, Oklahoma.

 The guitarist broke his G string.

In the first example, the noun catcher is in the nominative case. It names the subject, the person who
missed the ball. In the second example, the nouns Elvis and salesman are both in the nominative case.
The former is the subject of the sentence. The latter is a subject complement following a linking verb,
is, and renames the subject. In the third example, the noun guitarist is in the nominative case, since it
names the subject of the sentence, the person who broke the guitar string.

Objective Case
Nouns in the objective case are 1) direct objects, the targets of the actions of verbs, 2) indirect
objects, the objects that are recipients of the actions of verbs and that precede the direct objects in
sentences, or 3) words that are connected to other words in sentences, such as objects of
prepositions (see chapter 7) or objects of verbals (see chapter 5, here, here).

My dog buried her bone.

Peter gave Jill a gift.

Bill’s excuses for his behavior are irrelevant.

Giving my cat a bath is an unpleasant task.

In the first example, the noun bone is in the objective case because it is the target of the dog’s action,
the thing that was buried. Bone is a direct object.
In the second example, both Jill and gift are in the objective case. Gift is a direct object, the
target of Peter’s action because it is the thing that was given. Jill is an indirect object, since she is the
recipient of the direct object gift. Please see chapter 2 on verbs for a clear distinction between direct
and indirect objects.
In the third example, the noun behavior is in the objective case. It is the object of the preposition
for. Objects, as you might expect, are always in the objective case.
In the final example, both the nouns cat and bath are in the objective case. Bath is a direct
object, the target of the gerund giving, while cat is an indirect object, the recipient of the action of
giving. Both are objects, so both are in the objective case (see chapter 5 for information on gerunds).
There are no differences in form between nouns in the nominative and objective cases.
Understanding the differences between the two, however, will enhance your own speech and writing
and help you to use more precise English. Look for context clues to determine which case a noun is
in.
This section has introduced several new grammatical concepts without providing solid, in-depth
definitions. Direct objects, indirect objects, prepositions, verbals, and gerunds are not parts of our
current grammar vocabulary. For now, suffice it to say that they do exist and that a more detailed
discussion has been postponed for later chapters.

Possessive Case
Nouns in the possessive case show ownership. They are words which own. Nouns in the possessive
case do differ in form from nouns in the nominative and objective cases.

The pirate’s treasure was lost at sea.

The children’s toys littered the playroom floor.

The treasurer’s note has made me a little nervous.

In these three examples, the words pirate’s, children’s, and treasurer’s are all in the possessive
case. The treasure belongs to the pirate, the toys belong to the children, and the note belongs to the
treasurer.
The rules used to put a noun in the possessive case are simple. For all singular and plural nouns
that do not end in s, add apostrophe s (’s).

SINGULAR PLURAL
boy→boy’s mice→mice’s
baker→baker’s children→children’s
judge→judge’s brethren→brethren’s

Grammarians disagree over how to punctuate the possessive forms of singular nouns that end in
s. It is the Hot Line’s opinion that one should add apostrophe s (’s). Stick to the general rule when
possible.

boss→boss’s
Charles→Charles’s
Jones→Jones’s
lass→lass’s
bus→bus’s
Dickens→Dickens’s

Please see chapter 15 on punctuation for a few notable exceptions to this rule.
For plural nouns that end in s, just add an apostrophe (’).

sailors→sailors’
dogs→dogs’
girls→girls’
friends→friends’
scientists→scientists’
soldiers→soldiers’

Many of you may remember those writers who called to ask about the plurals of compound
nouns. You are wondering about how to make the possessive case forms of these words. Fortunately,
this answer is simple. If the compound noun, whether it is singular or plural, does not end in s, add
apostrophe s (’s).
 sister-in-law→sister-in-law’s
chiefs of staff→chiefs of staff’s
editor-in-chief→editor-in-chief’s

If the compound noun is plural and ends in s, just add an apostrophe (’).

has-beens→has-beens’
brigadier generals→brigadier generals’
deputy sheriffs→deputy sheriffs’

The same set of rules applies to names of organizations, companies, or political bodies that
consist of more than one word.

Supreme Court→Supreme Court’s

Planned Parenthood→Planned Parenthood’s
Johnson & Johnson→Johnson & Johnson’s

Sometimes possession is shared by several nouns. In these cases, just make the last word in the
series possessive.

America and Canada’s timber resources are dwindling.

Thomas and French’s discovery shocked the world.

Leslie and Eric’s lasagna is to die for.

These sentences all contain nouns that show joint ownership. In the first sentence, the resources
belong to America and Canada. In the second sentence, the discovery belongs to both Thomas and
French. In the third sentence, the lasagna belongs to both Eric and Leslie.
To show individual ownership, apply the possessive sign to each item in the series.

America’s and Canada’s timber resources are dwindling.

Thomas’s and French’s discoveries shocked the world.

Leslie’s and Eric’s lasagnas are to die for.

In these examples, each noun has individual ownership of resources, of a discovery, or of a lasagna.
These things are not shared.
Many English teachers advise against applying the possessive case to inanimate objects.
Possession is a privilege limited to living things. It does not make sense for a car or a house or a
bicycle to own anything in the way that the possessive case expresses ownership. The type of
possession allowed inanimate objects is typically expressed by a phrase beginning with of.

the roof of the house not the house’s roof

the hood of the car not the car’s hood

 the tire of the bike not the bike’s tire

Like many grammar issues, however, this one requires a judgment call. Through popular usage,
some nouns that name inanimate objects have acquired the rights to their possessive case forms.

my mind’s eye
two weeks’ notice
a moment’s delay
the sun’s rays
a week’s vacation
the Season’s Greetings

At times creative license may grant you the right to make use of an inanimate object in a possessive
form. Think hard. Work carefully. You will make the right decision.

A Possessive Error

Q. “Announcing the Opening of Ventura Counties Largest Bookstore.” This pathetic announcement
was sent to most of the residents in the general Ventura area. Several callers wondered about the
grammatical correctness of this advertisement.

A. There is only one Ventura County. If there were more, then one would spell them “Ventura
Counties.” However, in this single Ventura County, a bookstore, presumably the area’s largest,
belongs to the county. The noun county needs to take its possessive case form. The advertisement
should read, “Announcing the Opening of Ventura County’s Largest Bookstore.”

Uses of Nouns

Q. “Can nouns be used in different ways?” asked a curious caller.

A. Certainly, they can. Nouns can be subjects, appositives, direct objects, indirect objects, subject
complements, objects of prepositions, objects of infinitives, objects of gerunds, or objects of
participles. We even see nouns masquerading as other parts of speech, but no matter how they are
used, they are still nouns. These issues will all be discussed in full detail in subsequent chapters.
Please be patient!

Some Other Things You Should Know About Nouns

We have looked at the major classifications and properties of nouns, but there are a few more things
to note before this discussion of nouns ends.

Personification
Personification is the act of treating an inanimate object or an idea as if it had human qualities.
Accordingly, personification allows nouns that name inanimate objects to take animate characteristics
such as masculine or feminine gender.

I heard Death’s knock at my door and then felt his icy hand on my shoulder.

The sea was unkind today, refusing to share her treasures.

In the first example, the noun Death’s is proper. It is a particular name of a particular individual and
is capitalized as proper nouns should be. This noun is possessive, a property that would be denied to
a normal inanimate noun. Personification of death also gives the word an active intelligence, making
Death an individual who knocks at doors. The pronoun his provides Death with a masculine gender.
Personified, death becomes Death, an animated, willful character.
In the second example, the sea is personified. It gains the distinctly human abilities to be unkind
and to refuse to share. The feminine pronoun her gives the usually neuter sea a feminine gender. The
sea has taken on the characteristics of a selfish woman.

Heteronyms and Homonyms

Q. “Is there a name for words that have identical spellings but different pronunciations and
meanings?”

A. Yes, these words are called heteronyms. I assume you’re talking about row (means “a line” and
rhymes with slow) and row (means “a fight” and rhymes with wow) or lead (means “to conduct”
and rhymes with weed) and lead (means “a metallic element” and rhymes with red). There are
many, many others, but these should suffice to explain.
Homonyms, of course, are words that have the same sound and spelling but different
meanings. Some homonyms are: Catholic (means “of or pertaining to the Catholic church”) and
catholic (means “universal”) or Pacific (means “of or pertaining to the Pacific Ocean”) and
pacific (means “peaceful”). See chapter 13 for a comprehensive list of heteronyms and
homonyms.

Substantives

Q. A caller asked, “What is a substantive? I’ve gone back to teaching after a hiatus and was bemused
to find that my students were unfamiliar with the term.”

A. Although the term substantive is somewhat dated, the Hot Line continues to receive inquiries as to
its meaning. The updated term for substantive is nominal, and it applies to any noun or pronoun or
any word, phrase, or clause that performs the same function as a noun.

There is an olive in each martini glass.

I knew that she did not like meatloaf.

In the first example, the substantive or nominal there displaces the subject olive. More specifically,
there is a dummy element, a word that fills the place of the subject and introduces the sentence. In the
second example, the substantive or nominal clause that she did not like meatloaf functions as a
single noun. It is the direct object in the sentence, naming the thing that I knew.

Noun Phrases

Q. “Could you tell me what a noun phrase is? I’m in school preparing to become an English teacher. I
went into teaching because my mom spent most of her adult life in the teaching profession. She
always used the term noun phrase when she was explaining sentence construction.”

A. A noun phrase is a word or a group of words that consists of a single noun or noun and a number of
optional modifiers. A noun phrase lacks a subject or a predicate. Phrases do not have subjects and
predicates. Clauses do. Put those issues on hold for now, however, and take a look at these
sentences:

My shopping cart hit that expensive Mercedes.

My poor kitty has a cold.

Pigs are filthy.

In the first example, that expensive Mercedes is a noun phrase that serves as a direct object. It
names the target of the action of the verb. In the second example, my poor kitty is a noun phrase. It
serves as the subject of the sentence and names the animal that has a cold. In the third example, the
single, unmodified noun pigs is a noun phrase that serves as the subject of the sentence and names the
animals that are filthy. Even though it is composed of only one word, we still consider it a noun
phrase. Noun phrases, since they do the work of nouns, are nominals or substantives.

Appositives

The word appositive comes from two Latin words, ad, meaning “near,” and ponere, meaning “to
place.” An appositive is a word, phrase, or clause that is placed beside another word to rename,
explain, or enhance it. The appositive is a substantive or nominal set off by commas from the word
which it identifies. We say that the appositive is used in apposition with the other word.

The king, my brother, has been murdered.

We spotted Tom Hanks, the movie star, at the cafe yesterday.

In the first example, the noun brother is used in apposition with the subject king. The appositive
renames or describes the subject king by specifying which king the sentence is about.
In the second example, the noun star is used in apposition with the proper noun Tom Hanks, a
direct object. The appositive clarifies the proper name, telling us which Tom Hanks was seen. For all
we know, the writer could have a cousin named Tom Hanks. Remember that the appositive and the
noun to which it refers always share the same four properties—gender, number, person, and case—
since they both name the same entity.

The Value of Appositives

Q. “I’m a businessman,” the caller stated. “I find that my letters are very boring to read. Is there any
way I can improve them? Let me give you an example of my sentences: ‘I am the president of a
large corporation. The name of the corporation is the XYZ Corporation.’ ” (Names have been
changed to protect the innocent.)

A. The caller had never been taught about appositives. One of the greatest strengths of the appositive
is its ability to combine separate ideas into a single, clear sentence. With the knowledge of
appositives, the caller could have written, “I am the president of a large corporation, XYZ.” XYZ
is an appositive, renaming corporation.

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Information

When we write sentences, it sometimes becomes necessary to add pieces of information, as we just
saw in our discussion of appositives. Some of this information is essential to the complete meaning of
the sentence. Other pieces which are not essential are present in addition to the complete meaning of
the sentence and may be removed without any significant change in meaning. The essential
information is restrictive, while the nonessential information is nonrestrictive.
For example, a friend of mine from a large family uttered this sentence: “My brother Peter sent
me the chess service.” The sentence contains a piece of added information, the proper noun Peter. It
is an appositive, renaming the subject of the sentence, brother. Whether the proper noun is restrictive
or nonrestrictive depends upon the nature of the family.
If my friend has just one brother, then the information is nonrestrictive. When my friend said that
his brother had given him the present, we knew whom he was talking about since he has only one
brother. The meaning is complete without the added information.
If, on the other hand, my friend has several brothers in addition to Peter, the information is
restrictive. It indicates precisely which brother gave my friend the present. Without this information,
we could not know which brother my friend was talking about. The proper noun is then essential to
the complete meaning of the sentence.
We punctuate sentences differently to distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive
information. Nonrestrictive information is always set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

My brother, Peter, sent me the chess service.

Restrictive information is never punctuated.

My brother Peter sent me the chess service.

As our knowledge of grammar grows, we will see more examples of restrictive and nonrestrictive
information in clauses and phrases.
 2

Verbs

Verbs are words that express action, existence, or condition.

Verbs are the life of language. Because of them, our words take action and we are able to express
who we are and how we feel. Without verbs, speech and writing would be reduced to trivial naming
and static description. Verbs are beyond compare.
Some verbs express action:

We danced till three in the morning.

The rock band appreciated its drummer’s unshakable sense of time.

Other verbs indicate a condition.

Bobby is miserable after losing his dog.

This new car looks beautiful.

Still others speak of the existence of some person or thing.

Some of the buried workers are still alive.

This old car is on its last legs.

Action Verbs and Linking Verbs

We can divide verbs into two general categories: action verbs and linking verbs. The action verb, as
its name suggests, expresses action.

The boy ran home from school.

The lemmings leapt into the sea.

The words ran and leapt both express an action that some person or thing takes.
 The linking verb, sometimes known as a copulative verb, joins the subject of the sentence to
some word or words in the predicate. Perhaps the most common linking verb is be.

I am happy.

The word am, a form of the verb be, links the subject I to the subject complement happy. It indicates
the subject’s condition or existence.
A few verbs can be either action or linking verbs, depending on how they are used: feel, grow,
keep, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, stay, taste. If these verbs serve a linking purpose, they are
linking verbs. If they express action, they are action verbs.

ACTION We taste the fine wines.

LINKING The wine tastes fine.

ACTION We stay in the penthouse suite.

LINKING The crowd stays silent.

ACTION I feel some pain from the injury.

LINKING The comforter feels soft.

If you are unsure, substitute the appropriate form of the verb be. Does it fit? If the answer is
“yes,” the verb is a linking verb.

Verb Phrases

Verb phrases are composed of more than one verb.

The mayor has remained in office for three consecutive terms.

In this sentence, has remained is a verb phrase because it is composed of two verbs.

Principal or Main Verbs

In a verb phrase, the principal verb, known as the main verb in modern grammar, is the meat of the
phrase. By itself, it can express complete action, existence, or condition. In the verb phrase mentioned
previously, remained is the principal or main verb. It tells us what action the mayor has taken. The
principal or main verb is always positioned at the end of the verb phrase.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary or helping verbs are the verbs in the verb phrase that precede the principal or main verb. A
verb phrase may contain as many as four auxiliary verbs. These verbs can specify characteristics of
the principal or main verb but cannot stand alone as complete verbs. The verb has is an auxiliary verb
in the example given above. Other auxiliary verbs are be, have, do, can, may, will, shall, and must.
In a verb phrase, it is the first auxiliary verb that indicates the tense of the phrase (please stay
tuned for an in-depth discussion of tense).

I was shopping for a new pair of shoes.

John is boarding the plane as we speak.

I will arrive shortly.

In the first example, the auxiliary verb was in the verb phrase was shopping tells us that the phrase is
in the past tense. In the second example, the auxiliary verb is in the verb phrase is boarding indicates
that the phrase is in the present tense. In the third example, the auxiliary verb will in the verb phrase
will arrive indicates that the phrase is in the future tense.

From My Files: Reading and Writing Carefully

Many years ago, I wrote to President Gamal Abdel Nasser, former president of Egypt, asking him to
share his wisdom and overwhelming optimism with my junior high school students. To my delight, he
responded. Of great interest to me was the postscript to his letter. It read, “Michael, what do you think
about my sentence structure? I read the New York Times every day.”
President Nasser’s writing was impeccable. I picked up my copy of the Times and scanned the
syntax of several articles. They were identical in structure to those of President Nasser’s. Here was
another invaluable, albeit unintentional, lesson from a great man: the person who reads is a person
who writes, and the individual who reads carefully is one who writes carefully.

Characteristics of Verbs

Verbs are associated with five primary characteristics: number, person, voice, mood, and tense.
These determine what form a verb takes and how it is used in a sentence. We will look at each
characteristic in turn.

Number

The number of the verb indicates how many people, creatures, or things a verb refers to. Number
comes in just two flavors: singular and plural. A singular verb refers to only one person or thing,
while a plural verb may refer to many.

SINGULAR PLURAL.
He runs. They run.
 She is winning. They are winning.
I swim. We swim.

Person

We use the category of person to describe the perspective from which the speaker makes his or her
statements or observations. Is he or she the person speaking or spoken to, or is he or she the person or
object spoken of? There are three different persons or perspectives that the verb can take: first
person, second person, and third person.

First Person
In the first person, the speaker includes himself or herself as one who takes the action or whose
condition is described. This person is appropriate to situations where the speaker wants to describe
what he or she is doing, seeing, or feeling. The first person employs the pronouns I and we, and the
first person verbs take the forms appropriate to these pronouns.

I laugh at danger.

We were not pleased.

Second Person
In the second person, the speaker addresses the person or people around him or her. This category of
person employs the pronoun you, both the singular form (you, the individual) and the plural form
(you, a group). Again, the second person verbs must take forms appropriate to these pronouns.

You are not going to be happy when your father gets home.

All of you drove here from Phoenix in that tiny car?

Third Person
To speak in the third person is to speak or write about those around you. The third person
perspective might be that of a normal human observing his or her environment. It could also be that of
an omniscient observer, looking at the world from on high, able to see and hear everything that is
going on. The third person employs the pronouns he, she, it, and they or any third person noun. The
third person verbs must take forms appropriate to these pronouns or nouns.

She thinks of him fondly.

They caught the last train to Clarksville.

My old car may be ugly, but it runs well.

Voice

The voice of a verb indicates the strength of the subject in a sentence. It tells us whether that subject
takes action or receives action. There are two possible voices: active and passive. In the active
voice, the stronger form, the subject of the sentence takes the action of the verb.

Our army won the battle.

The subject army is strong since it takes action. This sentence uses the active voice. In the passive
voice, the weaker form, the subject is acted upon.

The battle was won by our army.

In this sentence, the subject battle is weak because it receives the action of the army. It takes no
action of its own—a battle cannot win itself—and so the sentence uses the passive voice.
Computer grammar checkers put a great emphasis on flagging and discouraging the passive
voice. The passive voice, according to these programs, is unnecessary in most cases and can weaken
your content. It is wordier than the active voice because it requires a verb phrase, vaguer than the
active voice, and, at its worst, deliberately deceptive. However, some fields, notably the sciences,
require the passive voice for description of a process. You and your grammar checker should choose
the voice appropriate for your audience.
But why depend upon grammar checkers when it is so easy to spot the difference between active
and passive voices on your own? The best way to find the passive voice is to look for the preposition
by. The action of verbs in the passive voice is usually done by one party to another.

The party was given by my best friend.

If the word by isn’t present, is it possible to insert a phrase beginning with the word by that indicates
who performed the action?

The boxing match was thrown.

or

The match was thrown by the crooked fighter.

If you can, you have found a sentence in the passive voice.

Voice Lessons

Q. A supervisor at Pacific Gas & Electric asked about a sentence he had written. He said, “‘It fell to
me to write the report.’ Is that a correct sentence?”

A. In general, grammarians prefer the active over the passive voice. It is usually better to speak of
action taken than of action received. The supervisor’s statement was in the passive voice. The
 “falling” of the report was received by him, the supervisor.
Before we pass judgment on this man’s grammar, however, we must acknowledge that the
passive voice exists for a reason. One cannot always express an idea deftly in the active voice,
and, in such situations, the passive voice is entirely appropriate. The supervisor has written that
he was the only person with the ability or inclination to write the report. Any attempt to alter the
verb to the active voice will result in a less concise sentence or in a sentence with a different
meaning. The supervisor has used the grammar that his situation demands.

Another Voice Lesson

Q. A teacher of report writing at a police academy needed to know if his sentence was correct. It
read, “What you need is not mentioned in any of the pamphlets that are requested.”

A. Please change the passive voice to the active. “None of the pamphlets mentions what you need.”

Mood

In grammar the mood of a verb does not describe its emotional state—as if a verb, a word, could feel
joy or rage. Instead, mood is a form of the verb that indicates a speaker’s attitude toward his or her
use of that verb. Like an emotion, a grammatical mood is a state of mind. To be more precise, it is the
speaker’s mental conception of the verb he or she is using. And, as opposed to the hundreds of
emotions we can feel, there are just three grammatical moods: indicative, imperative, and
subjunctive.

Indicative Mood
To use the indicative mood is to make a statement or ask a question. It is the most commonly used of
the three moods. Take a look at some examples that contain verbs in the indicative mood.

The pavement shimmered in the hot afternoon sun.

Did you see that light in the sky?

In the first example, the verb shimmered indicates what the pavement did. Here, the speaker is stating
the fact that “the pavement shimmered.” The indicative mood always involves statements, questions,
or exclamatory sentences.
In the second example, the verb phrase did see, broken by the pronoun you since the sentence is
in the form of a question, indicates what was seen in the sky. This sentence questions a fact.

Imperative Mood
Verbs in the imperative mood give commands or make requests. Any time someone is told or asked to
do something, the verb used is in the imperative mood.
 Wipe that grin off your face!

Set the VCR to begin recording at 9:30.

Please fetch me my slippers.

The first two examples are commands. The final example is a request. The verbs wipe, set, and fetch
are all in the imperative mood.
Verbs in the imperative mood are, by necessity, in the second person. A request or command is
always spoken directly to another person or other persons. The second person pronoun you is often
left out but can be put back if the speaker so desires.

Subjunctive Mood
Subjunctive mood verbs express wishes or make statements contrary to fact. They express
hypothetical or imaginary situations.

I wish I were with you.

If I had been there, none of this would have happened.

If we lived in San Francisco, we’d be much happier.

Unless we go now, we’ll be late.

The conjunction if is frequently used with the subjunctive mood, but the conjunctions though, lest,
unless, that, and till may be used as well.

If I were thinner, I’d eat more chocolate.

The verb were is in the subjunctive mood. It expresses a condition contrary to fact. Sadly, I am not as
thin as I would like to be, so I must limit my chocolate consumption.
These constructions normally come in two parts. One starts with a conjunction, such as if: if I
were thinner. This part contains the subjunctive verb and is called a subordinate clause (see chapter
12). It has a subject and a predicate but cannot stand alone and make sense. The other shows the result
of the hypothetical situation: I’d eat more chocolate. This part can stand alone.
As mentioned before, the subjunctive mood can also express a wish. I wish that I were in the
Bahamas. Oh, that I only were. In spite of some very realistic day-dreaming, my body still resides in
Southern California.
The subjunctive mood is also used to make commands.

It is necessary that he be told immediately.

The verb phrase be told is in the subjunctive mood. It is part of a subordinate clause beginning with
the conjunction that.
Other verbs are put in the subjunctive mood to express a parliamentary motion.
 I move that Mr. Bugle be permitted to keep chickens in his yard.

Be permitted is a subjunctive verb, part of a subordinate clause beginning with the conjunction that.

A Subjunctive Question

Q. A Frenchman living in the United States asked if these sentences expressed the same idea. “I’m not
sure which one says what I really mean: ‘I wish I were there’ or ‘I wish that I had been there.’”

A. The meanings of the sentences are similar but not identical. The difference involves the forms of
the verbs. Both sentences are perfect grammatically. They express wishes, so their verbs are in
the subjunctive mood, the mood of choice when verbs express conditions contrary to fact. They
differ as to when the wish could come true. Using the first, the Frenchman would wish that he
were present at some event in the present.

I wish I were with you now.

Using the second, he would wish that he had been present at some event already
concluded.

I wish that I had been there three days ago.

The meanings are similar. The time frames are different.

Tense

Every verb has a place in time. The action or state of being may be immediate, in the here and now. It
may have happened some time ago. Or it may not have happened yet. We talk of the placement of a
verb in time, its tense, as being in the past, present, or future.

Present Tense
In the present, you are reading this very sentence. The verb phrase are reading is in the present tense.
The present tense includes only those actions or states of being that exist in the immediate moment.
Perhaps you are also considering a trip to the kitchen, thinking, “I am hungry.” The verb am is in the
present tense.
Past Tense
In the not too distant past, you read a sentence that starts several lines above this one. The verb read,
pronounced with a short e, is in the past tense. In the more distant past, you wisely purchased this
book from the local bookstore. The verb purchased is also in the past tense. The past tense includes
any action or state of being that we could find between the dawn of time and a split second before the
present.
Future Tense
In the near future, you will finish this page. The verb phrase will finish is in the future tense. In the
more distant future you will finish this book and will recommend it to all of your friends. The verb
phrases will finish and will recommend are also in the future tense. The future tense encompasses all
actions or states of being we might encounter between the briefest of moments after the present and
the end of time.
A verb in the future tense is, by necessity, in the form of a verb phrase. Because there are no
future tense forms for single verbs, grammar demands that we use one of the auxiliaries shall or will
with a principal or main verb in a verb phrase to create the future tense.

Our armies will vanquish our enemies.

I shall return.

The verb phrases will vanquish and shall return are both in the future tense.

A Matter of Style

Q. A deejay asked if the sentence “James Taylor still got his friends” was correct.

A. Got is the past tense of get. If James got his friends, then he acquired them in the past. Whoever
made that statement meant to say that James Taylor still retains his friends. He should have said,
“James Taylor still has his friends.”
Of course, the deejay was playing off the song You’ve Got a Friend. Most critics and listeners
believe that the grammatically incorrect version may be a better choice of style. The power of
music is due to the personal connection it makes with listeners. Music that speaks to us speaks a
common language, a language that does not always respect the conventions of grammar. While
song writers do not need to show a blanket disregard for these conventions, they may write around
them with poetic license.

Which Tense?

Q. “Does this sentence need a present or past tense verb?” asked an attorney. “She, the deceased,
is/was a cousin of Mrs. Jones.”

A. Was is correct because the deceased no longer exists on the material plane. If the words were
reversed, “Mrs. Jones, among the living, is a cousin of the deceased,” then is would be correct
because Mrs. Jones is still here.

Past Tense Verbs in the Past, Present, or Future

Q. “Do all past tense verbs have to take place in the past?” an editorial advisor asked. Her question
caused the Hot Line to do some serious thinking.
A. The answer wasn’t as obvious as it first seemed. By using the subjunctive mood to express
something that might or could happen but has not happened, a condition contrary to fact, the action,
expressed by the past tense verb, could take place in the past, present, or future.

If I lost it all tomorrow, I simply would not care.

Lost is in the past tense, but its action occurs in the future. This was a bright question
from a very intelligent caller.

Simple, Perfect, and Progressive Forms of Verbs

In the discussion of tenses above, we talked about the three tenses in their most basic forms, the
simple forms. In their simple forms, the three tenses involve actions that merely occur at their
respective places in time. Unless otherwise specified, we assume a tense to be simple. When we
refer to the present tense, we are referring to the simple present. When we refer to the past tense, we
are referring to the simple past. And when we refer to the future tense, we are referring to the simple
future.
Sometimes, however, it becomes necessary to use the verb to imply action that ends. Here, we
need to use the perfect forms. The perfect forms of the past, present, and future tenses have fixed
ending points in terms of time.
In its perfect form (called the present perfect), the present tense expresses action or condition
that is completed in the present. To form the present perfect tense of a verb, use have or has with the
past participle of the main verb (have or has + verb + -ed).

I have completed my work.

The work is complete now, in the present. The verb phrase have completed is in the present perfect
tense.
In the perfect form of the past tense (called the past perfect), the verb expresses action or
condition that was completed before a certain time in the past. To form the past perfect tense of a
verb, use had with the past participle of the main verb (had + verb + -ed).

I had completed my work.

Here, the work was complete at some point in the past. The verb phrase had completed is in the past
perfect tense.
In the perfect form of the future tense (called the future perfect), the verb relates action that
will be completed before a certain time in the future. To form the future perfect tense of a verb, use
either shall or will and have with the past participle of the main verb (shall or will + have + verb + -
ed).

I shall have completed my work before we leave for our vacation.

The work will be complete in the future at some point before the speaker and his or her cohorts leave
for their vacation. The verb phrase shall have completed is in the future perfect tense.
 There is yet another form of tense that describes verbs whose action or condition is specifically
ongoing, the progressive form. The action or condition of verbs in a progressive tense begins at
some point in time, past, present, or future, and continues. A progressive tense verb adds a form of be
to its present participle (be + verb + -ing). Like the future perfect, the future progressive also uses
shall or will with the other pieces of the progressive tense verb.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE I am loving you.

PAST PROGRESSIVE I was loving you.
FUTURE PROGRESSIVE I shall be loving you.

Oddly enough, a tense can be both progressive and perfect. It may seem counterintuitive that a
verb can involve an ongoing action or condition that has a fixed ending point, but a little clarification
will reveal this to be true. That some event or feeling is ongoing does not imply that it will never end
or has not ended. It simply means that the action or condition persisted for a notable period of time
before it ended.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE I have been looking for you.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE I had been looking for you.
FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE I shall have been looking for you.

The “looking” in each example began, continued for a time, and then ended. Each verb is in its
respective perfect progressive tense.

From My Files: Nobody’s Perfect

Many parents are now turning to home schooling as an alternative to public education. A mother who
had given her child a grammar test called and asked, “Is am flying in the past progressive active
voice, present progressive active voice, or present progressive passive voice?” The materials she
was using had been purchased from a parochial school that aided parents who were educating their
children at home. The answer key put the verb in the past progressive active voice. Her son had
answered, “Present progressive active voice.”
The child was right. The book was wrong. Remember that the first auxiliary verb in the verb
phrase indicates the tense of the phrase. Since am is a present tense auxiliary, the phrase must be in
the present tense. Books and other printed materials sometimes contain mistakes. Nobody is perfect.
This mom was wise to call rather than to trust the answer key of the textbook blindly.

Musical Grammar

Q. A lover of musicals who was also a highly literate word sleuth called with a question about one of
her favorite productions, My Fair Lady. She realized that much of Eliza’s speech was written
deliberately in the cockney dialect but wondered how one of the girl’s responses to Professor
Higgins would have differed had it been uttered by the refined Eliza we meet at the musical’s end.
 Here is the passage in question:

HIGGINS: What does it matter what becomes of you?

ELIZA: You don’t care. I know you don’t care. You wouldn’t care if I was dead. I’m
not so much as them slippers.

A. Eliza makes her first mistake in the third sentence of her reply. The verb in the clause if I was
dead needs to be in the subjunctive mood. The sentence should read, “You wouldn’t care if I were
dead.” Eliza’s second mistake falls in the final sentence. She uses the personal pronoun them
where she needs a demonstrative pronoun, such as these (see chapter 6). “I’m not so much as
these slippers.” Of course, Professor Henry Higgins made sure that Eliza knew her grammar
before the curtain closed. Corrected, their dialogue reads as follows:

HIGGINS: What does it matter what becomes of you?

ELIZA: You don’t care. I know you don’t care. You wouldn’t care if I were dead.
I’m not so much as these slippers.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Perhaps the most commonly made mistake in constructing a sentence or clause is the failure to create
agreement between subject and verb. The subject names who or what the sentence is about (see
chapter 10 for more information). The person and number of the verb must match the person and
number of the subject noun(s) or pronoun(s). In other words, if I have a third person plural subject,
such as doctors, I must use the third person plural form of an appropriate verb, such as operate.
The doctors operate on their patient. (correct third person plural verb)
not
The doctors operates on their patient. (incorrect third person singular verb)
A plural subject requires a plural verb. A singular subject requires a singular verb. A subject in
the first person requires a verb in the first person. A subject in the second person requires a verb in
the second person. No matter what forms they come in, subject and verb must agree. In this agreement,
you will find the key to the harmonious sentence.
I see the sign. (correct first person singular verb)
not
I sees the sign. (incorrect third person singular verb)
You know better than that. (correct second person singular or plural)
not
You knows better than that. (incorrect third person singular verb)
Compound subjects are composed of several nouns or pronouns connected by and, or, either-
or, or neither-nor. Subjects connected by and almost always form a plural subject and demand a
plural verb.

Dogs and cats love to have their ears scratched.

Cream cheese and tomato are delicious on a bagel.

There are two exceptions to this rule. The first occurs when a seemingly compound and plural
subject comes to be regarded as singular through popular usage.

Bacon and eggs is my favorite breakfast.

Corned beef and cabbage is an Irish tradition.

Under other circumstances, these subjects would be plural and take a plural verb. However, people
have come to look at each set as a unit. These subjects have become singular and need singular verbs.
The other exception occurs when subjects connected by and describe a single person or thing.

The creator and champion of the sport is injured.

The cause and solution to our problem is this.

In the first sentence, the words creator and champion refer to a single person, so the verb is singular.
In the second sentence, the words cause and solution refer to a single object or issue. The verb must
also be singular.
When two singular subjects are connected by either-or or neither-nor, we regard the complete
subject as singular. It then takes a singular verb.

Either the penguin or the seal eats my tuna sandwich.

Neither Adam nor Dan takes out the trash.

When a singular subject and a plural subject are connected by either-or or neither-nor, the verb takes
the number of whichever subject is closer.

Neither the manager nor the workers were responsible for the accident.

Either the dogs or the cat is next in line for the bathtub.

In the first example, the plural subject workers is nearer to the verb, so the verb is plural. In the
second example, the singular subject cat is closer to the verb. The verb then is singular.

Deceptive Agreement

Q. A high-ranking police official received this invitation and asked, “Is this correct? ‘It is requested
that a member of your staff attend this ceremony.’ ”
A. Believe it or not, the sentence is fine. I correctly guessed that the point of controversy was the verb
in the clause that a member of your staff attend this ceremony (see chapter 12 for information
on clauses). In this special case, the singular noun member does not take a singular verb, attends.
In that-clauses such as the one mentioned above, the verb is in the subjunctive mood and must
appear in its base form. Attend is the correct base form of the verb. We will talk about base
forms of verbs shortly.

Collective Noun Agreement

Q. “How do I know whether a collective noun used as a subject takes a singular or plural verb?”

A. The number of the collective noun and the accompanying verb will depend on context. Remember
that a collective noun names a group of individuals or things. If you speak of the group as a single
entity, then use a singular verb.

The audience is listening.

The band was marching.

If for some reason you are alluding to separate individuals in the group, then use a plural verb.

The audience were listening.

The band were stumbling about the field.

To avoid criticism and confusion, use a singular verb whenever possible. Generally,
Americans use a singular verb regardless of the situation. By contrast, the British tend to use a
plural verb with a collective noun.

Mistaken Subject

Q. “ ‘One of two remaining escaped convicts were captured today’ is a sentence I’m using in a news
release,” said a prison warden. “I want to be absolutely sure of my English. Is it correct?”

A. The warden has mistaken the object of a preposition for the subject of the sentence. Of two
remaining escaped convicts is a prepositional phrase. Of is a preposition. The verb were
captured agrees with the plural object convicts. The true subject of the sentence is the singular
pronoun one. The warden needs to rewrite his sentence so that it contains a singular verb. “One of
two remaining escaped convicts was captured today.”

Conjugation
The conjugation of a verb is the complete set of verb forms inflected across tense, mood, voice,
person, and number. Since a complete conjugation table showing every possible form of a verb would
be quite unwieldy, we often limit our conjugation to the principal parts of verbs: present indicative,
past indicative, and past participle. Knowing these three forms alone, we can discern the rest.

PRESENT INDICATIVE PAST INDICATIVE PAST PARTICIPLE

awake awoke awoken
bare bared bared
bear bore borne
beat beat beaten
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
blow blew blown
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
defend defended defended
discuss discussed discussed
dive dived/dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hang* hanged hanged
hang* hung hung
hurt hurt hurt
know knew known
lay laid laid
lead led led
lean leaned leaned
leave left left
lend lent lent
lie lay lain
lose lost lost
love loved loved
make made made
mean meant meant
opine opined opined
play played played
raise raised raised
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
set set set
shake shook shaken
shine† shined shined
shine† shone shone
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
slay slew slain
speak spoke spoken
spit spat spat
spring sprang sprung
steal stole stolen
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn

swim swam swum

swing swung swung
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wear wore worn

Determining these three principal parts is not always a simple matter. Verbs can be regular or
irregular. Regular verbs form their past indicative and past participle parts in a regular way; that is, -
ed is added to their present indicative forms (also called the base). If the base of the regular verb
ends in e, just add -d. In the chart above, play and look are regular verbs.
Irregular verbs form the past indicative and past participle parts in irregular ways. There is no
easy method to use. A vowel can change. A consonant can be added. Or the form can remain the same
across all three parts (hurt-hurt-hurt). Only a good memory can account for the many forms that
irregular verbs can take.
To derive all the conjugated verb forms, we must start with the base of the verb. The base is the
present indicative form: wear, desire. Use these methods to make the inflected forms:*

The Principal Parts

The Present Indicative Forms

Every verb in the present indicative except be, a special case, derives its first and second person
singular forms and its first, second, and third person plural forms from the base, unchanged: I run,
you play, we sing, they fall. To derive the third person singular forms, add -s or -es to the base: he
looks, she grows, it makes, she goes, he tries.

The Past Indicative Forms

The past indicative forms of verbs are made by adding -ed or -d to the base forms of regular verbs
and by making the necessary changes to irregular verbs: they rode, we looked, I made, it glided.
Unfortunately, there is no formula with which to solve the irregular verb puzzle. Each form must be
committed to memory.

The Past Participle

To create the past participle, add -ed or -d to the base forms of regular verbs or make the necessary
changes to irregular verbs: broken, grown, looked, carried. There is no rule that would allow us to
create the past participles of all irregular verbs.
The Rest of the Parts

The Present Perfect Indicative Forms

The present perfect indicative pairs the past participle of the verb with either have or has: we have
played, he has carried. Use has when the subject of the verb is in the third person singular and have
in the others.

The Past Perfect Indicative Forms

The past perfect indicative consists of had followed by the past participle: you had known, they
had sipped.

The Future Indicative Forms

To form the future indicative, use either shall or will with the base of the verb: we shall change, she
will make.

The Future Perfect Indicative Forms

To form the future perfect indicative, use shall or will with have and the past participle: I shall
have tried, he will have seen.

The Imperative Forms

To create the imperative form of a verb, use its unchanged base. Look at it! Help me. Carry this
package. Of course, the polite imperative speaker would include a “please” with any request or
command.

The Present Subjunctive Forms

To create the present subjunctive form of a verb, use the unchanged base form of the verb regardless
of person or number. Such verbs appear in subordinate clauses that begin with the conjunction that:
that he attend the ceremony, that she believe my story. We also see present subjunctive verbs in
colloquial expressions such as “God save the queen.” Again, the present subjunctive verbs must be in
their base forms.

The Mythical Present Perfect Subjunctive Forms

There is no such thing as a present perfect subjunctive verb.

The Past Subjunctive Forms

The past subjunctive form of a verb, with two exceptions, is identical to the past indicative form.
We often see past subjunctive verbs in subordinate clauses that begin with if, as if, though, or as
though: (if) she loved, (if) we came. However, when the subject of such a subordinate clause is in
the first person singular or the third person singular and its verb is be, use were rather than was: (if)
I were in Boston, (if) she were here.

The Past Perfect Subjunctive Forms

The past perfect subjunctive is identical to the past perfect indicative. Use had with the past
participle: (if) you had shown, (if) he had arrived. Like the past subjunctive verbs, past perfect
subjunctive verbs often appear in subordinate clauses that begin with if, as if, though, or as though.

The Present Participle

To form the present participle, add -ing to the base form: loving, gazing, carrying, seeing. The
present participle is used in the progressive form of a verb.
On the following pages are the conjugations of a few verbs, regular and irregular: grow, look,
run, have, do, and be.
Principal Parts Questions

Many callers come to me with questions about the forms of verbs, especially their principal parts.
Here are some of the most informative.

Sink, Sank, Sunk

Q. A corporate executive and avid reader called to report this travesty from a work of popular
fiction. “I sunk down, and she sunk down.” She said, “I simply can’t believe this low level of
literacy. How could the author and the editors let it get to print?”

A. ¡Ay caramba! Such a sentence pains my eyes. Look back at the chart of principal parts. You will
find that the past indicative form of sink is sank. Sunk is the past participle and must be used in
conjunction with an auxiliary verb. The corrected quote should read, “I sank down, and she sank
down.”

Had Gone/Had Went

Q. A Dutch scriptwriter called to settle an argument she was having with her husband over whether
 had gone or had went was the correct verb form. She said, “I can’t get my stubborn American
husband to realize that had gone is the correct form of the verb. Will you settle the score?”

A. I verified that had gone was the correct choice. The true focus of their argument was over the past
perfect form of the verb go. The past perfect includes the past participle with the auxiliary had.
Gone is the past participle. Went is the past indicative. The Dutch woman won, hands down.
Holland 1, America 0.

Dive, Dived, Dove

Q. A member of the Navy SEALS was writing his memoirs. He asked, “Is it correct to say, ‘We dove
deep into the sea’?”

A. Both dived and dove are acceptable options for the past indicative form of dive. Some style
manuals warn against using dove, but many experts feel it is a sound option. Use whichever your
ears prefer. It’s a matter of style.

Hang and Hang

Q. “Were people hanged or hung for committing murder?” asked one caller with rather morbid
curiosity.

A. The verb hang has two meanings. With principal parts hang-hanged-hanged, it means “to punish
by death at the gallows.”

The law hanged the criminals at high noon.

With principal parts hang-hung-hung, it means “to suspend.”

I hung the feeder from a branch of the willow tree.

Both involve some sort of suspension, but that of the hang-hung-hung series is much
less gruesome.

Objects and Complements of Verbs

Now that we have looked at the verb in its own right, it is time to turn to the verb in relation to the
rest of the sentence. No verb works alone. There is always a subject, performing the action of the
verb or exhibiting the state or condition that the verb indicates. Even the shortest imperatives, such as
“Run!,” have a subject. It is an understood “you?” omitted for the sake of convenience. The subject,
though, is not our concern here.
In many sentences, the subject and verb alone cannot express a complete idea. The idea only
becomes whole with the help of other words. Different verbs are helped by different types of words
or phrases, but these will always follow the verb. Action verbs may take direct and indirect objects
while linking verbs take subject complements. We will deal with each in turn.

Objects of Action Verbs

The action verb takes two types of objects: direct objects and indirect Objects. The direct object
receives the action of the verb. It is the target of the verb action. The direct object answers the
questions “Whom?” or “What?”

She gave me a present.

I saw Tom at the restaurant.

Each example contains a direct object that completes the meaning of the verb. In the first example, the
direct object present tells what she gave. In the second example, the direct object Tom tells whom I
saw. Look at each sentence without its direct object.

She gave me.

I saw.

Neither expresses a complete thought. The direct objects are essential for the whole meaning to come
through.
The second type of object, the indirect object, receives and precedes the direct object in the
sentence. It answers the questions “To whom?” or “For whom?” Most indirect objects refer to
people.

She gave me the evil eye.

I made her dinner.

He gave the chair a fresh coat of paint.

The first example contains a direct object, eye, telling what was given, and an indirect object, me,
telling to whom the evil eye was given. The second example has a direct object, dinner, telling what
was made, and an indirect object, her, telling for whom the dinner was made. The third example
contains a direct object, coat, also telling what was given, and an indirect object, chair, telling to
what the fresh coat of paint was given.
Indirect objects often follow verbs of creation or giving. The action of these verbs has direction.
It may occur for someone, or it may occur so that something goes to someone else. Here are a few
examples: give, offer, pay, send, write, paint, make.
Direct objects are fairly easy to recognize. They are usually nouns and sometimes pronouns, and
they are the targets of the verb action. If there is only one object in a sentence, it is always a direct
object. If in doubt, however, ask one of the questions “What?” or “Whom?” with the action verb in the
sentence.

I sent the postcard.

I called my parents.

What did I send? The answer is “the postcard.” Whom did I call? The answer is “my parents.” They
are the direct objects.
Indirect objects can be more difficult to spot. Once you find a direct object, see if there are any
words that come between it and the verb. Since the indirect object, when present, always precedes
the direct object, it is likely that one of these words is the indirect object. After you have found a
candidate for indirect object, ask whether the sentence can be manipulated so that the word in
question follows either of the prepositions for or to.

The child gave his mother quite a scare.

She wrote me a love letter.

In the first example, we deduce that the noun scare is a direct object. There are four words between
the verb gave and the direct object. Only one of these words, mother, can be used with one of the
prepositions to or for.

The child gave quite a scare to his mother.

In the second example, three words, me, a, and love, fall between the verb wrote and the direct
object letter.

She wrote a love letter for me.

Please note that an indirect object placed in a prepositional phrase is no longer an indirect object. It
becomes the object of a preposition (see chapter 7). In the phrases to his mother and for me, the
words mother and me are not indirect objects. They are objects of prepositions.
It is also important to note that only the principal or main verb in a verb phrase takes the objects.

We have not seen that movie.

John is giving them a ride.

In the first example, the main verb seen, not the verb phrase have seen, takes an object, movie. In the
second example, the main verb giving, not the verb phrase is giving, takes an indirect object them
and a direct object ride.

Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs

Any verb that requires a direct object is known as a transitive verb.

 I trim the lawn.

The noun lawn receives the action of the verb, the trimming. The verb trim is a transitive verb.

I taught the children.

The noun children receives the action of the verb, the teaching. The verb taught is also a transitive
verb.

Verbs that do not take objects are intransitive verbs.

We shall run when we get the chance.

No word receives the action of this verb. Therefore, run is an intransitive verb.

We stayed at the Ritz.

No noun or pronoun receives the action of this verb either. It is intransitive.

Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on how they are used.

TRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE
I work the lathe in the workroom. She works at the copy shop.
Bob operates the merry-go-round. Dr. Blaum operates on her patients.
I ran the washing machine. I ran yesterday.

Do I Need a Direct Object?

Q. “I am terribly confused about the verb do and its past participle form done, ” said a fledgling
English teacher. “I consulted the dictionary, but now I’m more confused than ever. My dictionary
says that do is a transitive verb, so it requires a direct object. I would also expect the past
participle, done, to require a direct object, but people are always saying things like ‘We are
done.’ There isn’t a direct object in that sentence. What’s the story here?”

A. Do is one of those verbs that can be transitive or intransitive, depending on how it is used. In these
sentences, do is a transitive verb.

I do that every day.

You did it yesterday.

I’ll do it today.

In others, do can be intransitive.

That will do.

 We were done a long time ago.

Whether the verb takes an object depends on the writer’s needs.

Grammar is not a cut-and-dried topic. The English teacher’s dictionary was
merely offering its writers’ opinions on the nature of the verb do. To be honest, some of
the statements made in this book represent my opinions, and some of my readers may
disagree with them. While controversy will not make your studies any easier, it allows
English to be a dynamic and engaging language. Do not fear conflict. Embrace it!

Object Complements

Direct objects themselves may take complements called object complements. These are nouns,
pronouns, and adjectives that rename or describe the direct object. An object complement always
follows the direct object in the sentence.

The kids painted the wall orange.

The committee appointed him treasurer.

My kids call me DoDa.

In the first example, the adjective orange is the object complement of the direct object wall. The
complement describes the object. It indicates the color that the wall was painted. In the second
example, the noun treasurer is the object complement of the direct object him. This complement
renames the object. It indicates his new title. In the final example, the proper noun DoDa is the object
complement of the direct object me. This complement also renames the object, telling what the
speaker’s children call him.

Complements of Linking Verbs

The linking verb is followed by another type of helping element, the subject complement. Subject
complements rename or describe the subjects of sentences. In other words, they complement the
subjects.
Many of these complements are nouns, pronouns, or other nominals that rename or provide
additional information about the subject of the sentence. They always follow linking verbs. A less
contemporary term for a noun, pronoun, or other nominal used as a subject complement is predicate
nominative.

He is the boss.

Nancy is the winner.

This is she.
 My friends are they.

In the first example, the subject complement boss explains the subject he. It tells what he is. In the
second example, the subject complement winner explains the subject Nancy. It tells what Nancy is. In
the third example, the subject complement she renames the subject this. It tells who this is. In the final
example, the subject complement they identifies the subject friends. It tells who the friends are.
Other subject complements are adjectives that modify the subjects of sentences. They also
follow linking verbs. A less contemporary term for an adjective used as a subject complement is
predicate adjective.

My coworkers are friendly.

This story is exciting.

In the first example, the subject complement friendly modifies the subject coworkers. In the second
example, the subject complement exciting modifies the subject story.

A Complement Question

Q. “Can a predicate nominative and a predicate adjective be found in the same sentence?” asked a
writer.

A. They certainly can. Here is an example: “He is a house husband and quite content.” The subject of
the sentence is he. The verb is is a linking verb. The noun husband is a predicate nominative and
the adjective content is a predicate adjective. Both types of subject complements follow a single
linking verb. Contemporary grammarians view the entire phrase a house husband and quite
content as a single subject complement.

Some Other Things You Should Know About Verbs

English is a language full of complications. Like most other languages, it contains rules, distinctions,
and other peculiarities whose origins are lost to antiquity but whose influences are still felt today.
These complications, though sometimes troublesome, are part of our language, and the careful
grammarian will pay attention to them. More than a few of the complications can be found within the
realm of the verb.

Do

Expert writers and speakers have three broad uses for the auxiliary verb do and its accompanying
forms (did, does, and done). We often use do to create the emphatic forms of verbs. The emphatic
forms emphasize the action that the verb expresses by using a form of do as an auxiliary before the
principal or main verb.
 I do know the answer.

I did mail my tax forms.

She does have a right to know.

We could have written any one of these sentences in a nonemphatic form.

I know the answer.

I mailed my tax forms.

She has a right to know.

However, the emphasis on the action of the verb disappears.

Please note: only verbs in the past and present tenses can be emphatic in the manner mentioned
above. There is simply no way to construct a future tense verb that implies emphasis by using the
emphatic do.
The auxiliary verb do does not always carry emphasis. English speakers often use this word
idiomatically to ask questions.

Do you know who I am?

Does it hurt?

Did you do your homework?

We also use do with the adverb not to negate or deny the action of the verb.

I do not have a receding hairline.

It does not matter.

Brenda did not say that.

The main verb do may express completion, another idiomatic usage.

She does the crossword every day.

I did what I was told.

I have done this job.

In each of these three examples, do or one of its forms expresses a task accomplished or completed.

Shall vs. Will

Think back to the discussion of tenses. Remember that the future tenses require one of the auxiliary
verbs shall or will as part of the verb construction. The choice is not an arbitrary one. Shall and will
do serve different purposes, depending on what the speaker’s intentions are.

Shall
A speaker using shall in the second or third person obliges the subject of the sentence to complete
the action of the verb.

She shall meet us here. (third person)

Because of the shall, you can bet that she will be here at the agreed-upon time.

You shall clean your room. (second person)

This is your mother speaking. Since she has used shall, you can be sure that the statement is more
command than request.
In the first person, shall simply indicates future action without obligation.

I shall see you at the ball. (first person)

I shall accompany them to the Festival of the Harvest. (first person)

Will
A speaker using will in the first person implies a certain strength of purpose in the action of the verb.

I will pass the test. (first person)

The word will in this sentence indicates that the speaker is determined to pass that test.

I will not fail.

Because of the will, it is clear that the speaker will stand for nothing less than success.
In the second and third persons, will simply communicates future action with no special strength
of purpose.

You will love this movie. (second person)

They will follow my instructions to the letter. (third person)

May, Can, and Must

My first grade teacher would not stand for the question “Can I go to the bathroom?” Any student
unfortunate enough not to know the correct phrasing was met with an indignant reply. “I don’t know.
Can you?” The poor soul would stand flustered, possibly shifting from foot to foot, until he realized
what needed to be said. “Oh. May I go to the bathroom?”
Though this used to annoy me to no end, my teacher was passing on a valuable lesson. We must
choose our words carefully. Meaning is specific, and even subtle differences can have important
consequences. The word can is used in questions regarding ability. Can you finish your dinner? Are
you able to finish your dinner? Can you come to the dance? Are you able to come to the dance? Can I
go to the bathroom? The student’s intention was not to question his ability to use the bathroom
facilities. At that moment, he possessed an all-too-powerful capacity to complete the action.
Instead, the situation requires an auxiliary verb that involves permission. In the interrogative
mood, may is such a verb. May I be excused? Will you grant me permission to be excused? May I go
outside? Will you allow me to go outside? May I go to the bathroom? Will you give me permission to
go to the bathroom?
The word may can carry other meanings as well. In the indicative mood, it can imply
possibility. I may ask her to marry me. There is a possibility that I will ask her to marry me.
May, as part of an exclamation, can also express a wish or a hope. May all your Christmases be
white! I wish that every one of your Christmases be white. May you live long and happy. I wish you a
long and happy life.
Of course, the more direct student might have said, “I must use the bathroom.” The word must
denotes a life-or-death imperative. I must see the President. Our lives depend on my seeing the
President. I must have a new outfit. I will not survive without a new set of clothes.

Could, Might, Would, and Should

Linguists choose to categorize their auxiliary verbs. While the resulting distinctions may not make
much difference to the average English speaker, they are useful in an academic study of grammar, and
one of those categories may help us to resolve a confusing issue involving four particular auxiliary
verbs. The contemporary term for verbs in this category is modal auxiliary. These are the primary
modals.

PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE

can could
may might
will would
shall should
must had to
dare dared
need (no past tense form*)
ought to (no past tense form*)
(no present tense form†) used to

A modal auxiliary verb indicates the subject’s attitude toward the action of the verb. The modal
auxiliaries can and could indicate the subject’s ability to complete the action.

I can have those documents ready by Monday.

 She could be here as early as eight o’ clock this evening.

The modal auxiliaries may and might involve the subject’s receiving permission to complete the
action of the verb.

You may sharpen your pencil.

Might I ask you a question?

The modal auxiliaries will and would involve the subject’s intention to complete the action of the
verb.

She will move her car in the next ten minutes.

Otherwise, I would have paid you back.

The modal auxiliaries shall, should, and ought to indicate the subject’s obligation or intention to
complete the action of the verb. As an auxiliary, ought is always followed by to.

The knight shall slay the wicked beast.

I should leave now.

Bill ought to let us know his plans for the holidays.

The modal auxiliaries must and had to indicate the necessity of the subject’s completing the action of
the verb. As the past tense form of the modal auxiliary verb must, had is always followed by to.

I must get my hands on those plans.

We had to clean the pool.

As modal auxiliaries, dare, dared, and need ask questions or express the intention of the subject not
to complete the action of the verb.

Dare we ask for more gruel?

They dared not offend the Countess.

Need I say more?

The modal auxiliary used to denotes a habitual action or condition that existed only in the past. Like
ought and had, the modal auxiliary used is always followed by to.

I used to race dachshunds.

 I used to be anemic.

A modal auxiliary verb may also indicate the possibility of an event.

She may not be strong enough to speak.

I might have known that you were behind those shenanigans.

This could be the greatest night of my life.

You must have known that we were planning some kind of surprise party.

They should be here soon.

The confusing members of the modal auxiliary club are could, might, would, and should. A
moment ago, you read that each of these is the past tense form of another modal auxiliary verb. Now,
think about how you use each of these past tense forms. Does the action or being of the verb phrases
of which these modals are parts necessarily occur in the past? No, it does not. Though we classify
could, might, would, and should as past tense modal auxiliary verbs, we often use them to refer to
time in the present and future. The tense of the modal auxiliary verb does not always correspond to
the actual time spoken of in the real world.

That guy could be your brother.

I might be persuaded to change my mind.

I would leave those bear cubs alone.

You should visit the county fair this weekend.

On the other hand, we do use the modal auxiliaries in verb phrases that express action or
condition in the past.

You could have called me.

Ben might have lost his jacket.

Laura would never have agreed to that ridiculous plan.

I should have been paying better attention to the time.

If you are still feeling confused, don’t worry. This is a confusing issue. The fault lies, in part,
with the system itself. Grammar is only a model of language. Like any other model, it is useful for
summarizing and explaining, but it falls short of encompassing the system as a whole. Creating a
model that captures the language in its entirety would be like creating a life-size map of the world.
Both products are of absolutely no use.
 Take the time to reread the text and to ponder the issues. Take with you the information that
enhances your personal grasp of the language, and leave behind that which gets in the way. And, if
you can think of a better way to reconcile this dilemma or any other we might encounter, please let me
know.

Offensive English

Q. An erudite New Yorker called the Hot Line in horror and dismay about a sentence in a well-
known national magazine. “Is this really correct? ‘They treatied with us several years ago.’ Can
treaty be changed into a verb?”

A. This is just another example of the egregious modern proclivity to turn nouns into verbs. Treatied
is not a legitimate word. The noun treaty has no corresponding verb form. The sentence should
read, “They negotiated a treaty with us several years ago.” There was a cartoon in The New
Yorker that depicted a CEO saying to his secretary, “I want this letter to look important. Change
all the nouns to verbs.”
Some say English is in a sorry state, and, quite often, I find it hard to disagree with them.
People who find new ways to use words keep the language living and breathing, but the changes
must enhance, not corrupt and oversimplify. Ever since the start of the Cold War, the military has
been creeping through our televisions into our homes, and military-speak has followed right
behind into our language. Most of this double-talk sounds awful, but as it enters popular usage,
these words (or nonwords) become legitimized. Surveil, from surveillance, found its way into the
dictionaries in 1949. I’m sure that George Orwell is spinning in his grave.

A Noun Becomes a Verb

Q. “Can the word mentor be used as a verb? Can I mentor a student?”

A. Mentor is usually a noun, but usage dictates acceptance. Given time, it just might become a verb.
Of course, every mentor must have a protégé.

Contractions

English speakers are obsessed with brevity. Most of us are looking for the shortest possible way to
express a complete thought, and, to this end, we have created the contraction. Many contractions are
abbreviated versions of verb phrases in the negative form. An apostrophe (’) replaces the missing
letters. A verb phrase in the negative form includes the word not. I have not seen the new building.
Have you not seen enough?
The contraction combines the not and an auxiliary or linking verb into one word, replacing the o
in not with an apostrophe.

is not→isn’t
should not→shouldn’t
 does not→doesn’t
have not→haven’t

Please note that not every auxiliary contracts itself easily with not. Some require
special manipulation to render the resulting contraction easy-to-prononce.

will not→won’t (not willn’t)

shall not→shan’t (not shalln’t)

We also contract certain verbs with pronouns and the verb have with some
auxiliaries. The pronoun I can be contracted with the verbs am and have.

I am→I’m
I have→I’ve

The pronouns you (singular and plural), we, and they can be contracted with the verbs
are or have.

you are→you’re
we have→we’ve
they have→they’ve

The pronouns he, she, and it can be contracted with the verbs is and has.

he is→he’s
she is→she’s
it has→it’s

The auxiliary verbs might, should, could, and would are often contracted with have.

might have→might’ve
could have→could’ve
should have→should’ve
would have→would’ve

Contractions may be appropriate and expeditious in casual writing, but they are to be
avoided in more formal documents.

A Recurring Problem

Q. “My father really criticized me for using ‘reoccur.’ Is it a word?” asked a high school senior.

A. There is no such word as reoccur. The young man should have used the verb recur. I told him to
surprise his father by using it correctly the next time.
Troublesome Verbs

There are several pairs of verbs that are perpetually confused. Look at a few calls to the Hot Line that
address these pairs.

Lie and Lay

Q. “Would you like to go lay out on the beach?” a young man asked his girlfriend. The bright young
woman promptly called our number to find out if her beau was using proper English.

A. Hunky as he may be, her man has fallen victim to the widespread Lie-Lay Problem. Lie means “to
recline.” It is intransitive and never takes an object. Lay, a transitive verb, means “to set down.”
It always takes a direct object, naming the thing that is set down. Since the two of them wish to
recline on the sand, the young man should have asked her, “Would you like to go lie out on the
beach?”

Raise and Rise

Q. “Chances of rain will raise tonite.” This headline in a local newspaper bothered a young teacher
and parent, so she called the Hot Line.

A. Obviously, tonite should be spelled tonight, but, even more disturbing is the use of raise instead
of rise. Raise, a transitive verb, can only be done by someone to something.

The soldier raises the flag.

Rise, on the other hand, is an intransitive verb and can never affect something else.

The bread rises.

In the sentence the caller quoted, there is no object. Therefore, rise is the verb of
choice.
Some newspapers, tabloids in particular, bastardize the language either for space
reasons or to emphasize their editorial points. In mass media lingo, doughnut becomes
donut, borough becomes boro, and tickets become tix. These are as unacceptable as
the replacement thru is for through.

Sit and Set

Q. “Why do sit and set often get confused?” asked a bowling instructor. “I am always instructing my
students to ‘set’ a point on the alley where the ball is launched.”

A. Set is a transitive verb, meaning “to place.” It must be used with a direct object. In the caller’s
 sentence, point is a direct object. Therefore, set is the correct verb to use. However, you could
not say, “We set around all day.” Instead, you would sit around all day. Sit is an intransitive verb
meaning “to recline on the buttocks.” The word set is used dialectically like sit in some parts of
the South where folks might ask you to “set a spell.”

Bare and Bear

Q. “What’s the difference between the verbs bare and bear? ” asked a caller.

A. Bare, whose principal parts are bare, bared, and bared, means “to show,” “to open up,” or “to
disrobe.”

The sunbather bared his hairy chest to the sky.

The president bared his guilty soul to the nation.

Bear, whose principal parts are bear, bore, and borne, means “to carry.”

The old man bore his load courageously.

The child has borne her responsibilities well.

You Should of Known Better.

One of the most egregious errors any English speaker can make is to replace the auxiliary have with
the preposition of in a verb phrase.

INCORRECT I should of seen it coming.

CORRECT I should have seen it coming.

INCORRECT Bob could of stopped on the way.

CORRECT Bob could have stopped on the way.

INCORRECT They might of seen the whole thing.

CORRECT They might have seen the whole thing.

The error is a ridiculous one and easily avoidable. It occurs when a careless speaker contracts
the auxiliary have with could, might, should, or would. Speaking rapidly, he fails to enunciate the ’ve
portion of the contraction, and a grammatically messy statement comes out.
The error feeds off itself when indiscriminate listeners hear an of in a hastily spoken verb
phrase, assume it to be correct, and adopt it into their own speech and writing. Others then hear or
read the mistake, and the circle of offenders grows. Only a rigorous approach to grammar can break
this cycle.

From My Files: Prayer Grammar

Occasionally, I get a call and cannot help but smile. This sweet twelve-year-old child called to ask
about the verb lay. She explained that every night, before going to sleep, she recites this prayer:

Now I lay me down to sleep.

I pray the Lord my soul to keep.
If I should die before I wake,
I pray the Lord my soul to take.

Her seventh grade teacher had explained the difference between the verbs lie and lay that day.
The young lady asked me if lay was used correctly in the prayer. Her misgivings about its usage were
apparent. As a present indicative verb, lay means “to place.” It is also the past indicative form of the
verb lie, which means “to recline.” Her first inclination was to replace lay with lie, since the sleeper
needs to lie down in the present to go to bed.
However, notice that the verb lay takes a direct object, me. The object, in this case, is the thing
being laid down. The girl is stating that she is laying herself down. This is an odd way to describe
going to bed, but it is not an incorrect one. The prayer’s grammar is solid.
 3

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that modify nouns or pronouns.

One task of language is to paint a picture. If verbs and nouns are outlines and shapes, then adjectives
are colors and textures. Adjectives fall into a broad class of words called modifiers. A modifier is
any word that acts to describe or qualify another word in such a way that it changes the other word’s
meaning. Describing and qualifying nouns and pronouns are the primary functions of adjectives.
Here is a simple example: “I watched a movie on television.” This sentence is not terribly
informative or inspirational because it lacks adjectives. To accurately describe the wonders of
modern technology, we need to add some color: “I watched the greatest action movie of all time,
Star Wars, on my new, digitally enhanced television.” The addition of the adjectives changes what
we know of the nouns.

Types of Adjectives

There are two main flavors of adjective: descriptive and limiting.

Descriptive Adjectives

Descriptive adjectives describe the nouns and pronouns they modify. They point out color, shape,
texture, scent, or any other quality that entities named by nouns and pronouns can possess. This is the
function of the adjective with which we are the most familiar.

The hot pan burnt my fingers.

I’ll have a tall glass of lemonade.

I am thirsty.

In the first example, the adjective hot describes the noun pan. In the second example, the
adjective tall describes the noun glass. In the third example, the adjective thirsty describes the
pronoun I.
Some of the descriptive adjectives are also proper adjectives, derived from proper nouns.
Usually, the proper noun undergoes some mild change in form on its way to becoming an adjective.
The proper noun America changes into the proper adjective American. The proper noun Orwell
turns into the proper adjective Orwellian.

America had no idea what one day would be American.

Orwell imagined a bleak, Orwellian future.

Proper adjectives need to be capitalized as are the proper nouns in which they have their origins. If
you have forgotten the capitalization rules, please refer back to chapter 1.

Choosing the Correct Adjective

Q. “My boyfriend said to me, ‘That is heaven.’ Shouldn’t he have said, ‘That is heavenly’?” asked a
young woman.

A. The young lady was, indeed, correct. Heaven is a noun. It names the place in which her boyfriend
found himself. Heavenly is an adjective. It describes the feelings her boyfriend had. He should
have said, “That is heavenly.”

The Nature of Manifest

Q. “Is manifest a verb or an adjective?” inquired a historian who frequented the Hot Line.

A. Manifest can be a verb or an adjective. As an adjective, it means “evident or obvious.”

His destiny is manifest.

We discussed the manifest content of my dream.

As a verb, it means “to become obvious.”

Her happiness manifested itself in her smile.

His curiosity manifests itself in his questions.

Be aware that there is another adjective, manifestable, derived from the verb.

His guilt was manifestable because of the strong evidence.

Your unconscious desires are manifestable under the therapist’s tutelage.

Manifestable means “able to become obvious.”

Limiting Adjectives

Limiting adjectives restrict the definitions of the nouns and pronouns they modify. The demonstrative
pronouns we will see in chapter 6 sometimes function as limiting adjectives because they point out
certain objects from a group.

This dog is mine.

Which dog is mine? This dog is mine. Not that dog or that dog. That other dog over there isn’t mine
either. This dog here in front of me is mine. The demonstrative pronoun this limits the meaning of the
noun dog by identifying it with a single animal.
Most standard limiting adjectives describe quantity. These include the numbers, one, two,
three, etc., and assorted quantity words such as half, double, daily, and weekly, among others.

I found five dollars in my pocket.

I read the daily paper.

The adjective in the first example answers the question “How many dollars did I find?” The
answer is “five dollars.” The adjective five limits the meaning of the noun dollars by telling how
many were found. Because of its influence, we know that five, and not one, ten, or twenty dollars,
was found.
The adjective in the second example answers the question “What kind of paper do I read?” The
answer is “a daily paper.” The adjective daily limits the meaning of the noun paper. It tells us that the
paper is the daily kind, not the biweekly, monthly, or yearly kind.

Degrees of Comparison

The primary characteristic of the adjective is its lack of characteristics, its ease of use. Unlike nouns,
pronouns, and verbs, which trouble us with form changes and gender and number and case and
person, adjectives are a very static bunch. English, unlike almost all other languages, has smartly
decided that modifiers should not be affected by those troublesome properties. The word beautiful
remains the same whether it applies to a man or a woman, a boy or a girl, a dog or a cat, a car or a
painting. So it is with the rest of the adjectives.
The one characteristic that adjectives do possess is that of comparison. Many times, it is
necessary to express the degree of a quality that one object possesses in relation to other objects. We
can manipulate the form of an adjective to express this relationship. There are three levels of
comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.

Positive Degree

The positive degree, the adjective in its most basic form, indicates a lack of comparison. An
adjective in the positive degree expresses the pure quality of an object without making a comparison
with other objects.

The night is warm.

Anna’s dress is beautiful.

Her long hair shimmers in the moonlight.

In each example, the adjective names a quality of a single object without making any
comparison.

Comparative Degree

In the comparative degree, one object holds a greater or lesser degree of a quality than the object(s)
with which it is compared. Often, this degree compares just two objects.

This house is smaller than that one.

This painting is more beautiful than that one.

The waves today are less violent than the ones yesterday.

In the first example, one house possesses the quality of smallness to a greater degree than another
house. In the second example, one painting possesses a greater degree of beauty than another painting.
In the final example, one set of waves is seen as possessing a lesser degree of violence than another
set.
Comparison in the comparative degree is often created after the adjective by the conjunction
than. This conjunction sets up the object or objects with which the main object is compared.

I think ice cream is tastier than cake.

Beth believes that movies are less enjoyable than books.

In the first example, than sets up a comparison between ice cream and cake. The adjective tastier
modifies the noun ice cream. Ice cream possesses the quality of tastiness to a greater degree than
cake does. In the second example, than sets up a comparison between movies and books. The
adjective phrase less enjoyable modifies the noun movies. Movies possess the quality of enjoyability
to a lesser degree than books do.
That the conjunction than is absent, however, does not mean that the sentence cannot contain
adjectives in the comparative degree. Sometimes, than and the items of comparison that follow are
implied. They are so obvious that they need not be mentioned.

I like larger cars better.

In this example, the speaker claims to prefer cars that possess a greater degree of largeness over cars
that do not. We could have written the sentence in this way:

I like larger cars better than smaller cars.

As you can see, the additional information is not particularly illuminating. The sentence was fine
without it. Other sentences are constructed to create the comparison without the word than.

The juicier the burger is, the higher the calories are.

The comparative degree is exclusive. The main object of comparison is seen as distinct from the
objects to which it is compared by virtue of the different degree of its quality. It would be a mistake
to say, “I enjoy swimming more than anything.” Such a statement includes swimming in the group of
objects being compared. The comparative degree is exclusive. Swimming is enjoyed more, so it must
be separate. Such a sentence should read, “I enjoy swimming more than anything else.” The addition
of the word else separates swimming from the other objects.

Superlative Degree

The superlative degree is the highest degree of comparison for adjectives. An object modified by an
adjective in the superlative degree holds the greatest or least degree of the quality of that adjective.
No object can possess a quality to a degree higher than the superlative. This degree compares more
than two objects.

That was the most disgusting movie I have ever seen.

Theirs is the largest house in our city.

That was the saddest story I’ve ever heard.

Hers must be the least believable excuse I have ever received from a student.

In the first example, one movie possesses the most disgustingness of any movie seen by that
moviegoer. In the second example, one house possesses the most largeness of any house in the city. In
the third example, one story possesses the most sadness of any story heard by that listener. In the final
example, one excuse possesses the least believability of any excuse the speaker has ever received.
The superlative degree often carries a prepositional phrase beginning with of, among, or in, to
define the objects among which the comparison is made.

She is the most beautiful girl in the ballroom.

His story is the best of all the stories submitted.

In the first example, the preposition in begins the prepositional phrase in the ballroom. This phrase
defines the area within which the comparison of all the girls was made. Of those girls in the
ballroom, she was the most beautiful. In the second example, the preposition of begins the
prepositional phrase of the stories submitted. The phrase defines the group of stories among which
the selection of the best story was made. Of those stories, his story was the best.
The superlative degree is inclusive. It includes the main object in the total group of objects that
is compared. It is perfectly reasonable to say, “I like swimming the best of anything.” Since
swimming is a part of the group of objects compared, we do not have to use a word such as else to
create separation. Swimming is included.

Forms of Comparison

There are several ways to create the different comparison forms for adjectives. We will talk about
each of them in turn.

Suffix Comparison
Most one-syllable and a few two-syllable adjectives have forms of comparison made by the addition
of a suffix. To make the comparative form, add -er to the positive. To make the superlative form, add
-est to the positive. The positive form itself requires no change.

Degrees of Comparison By Suffix

POSITIVE He is angry.
COMPARATIVE He is angrier than she is.
SUPERLATIVE He is angriest of them all.
POSITIVE That shirt is cheap.
COMPARATIVE That shirt is cheaper than this one.
SUPERLATIVE That shirt is cheapest of them all.
POSITIVE January is rainy.
COMPARATIVE January is rainier than February.
SUPERLATIVE January is rainiest of all the months.

Please notice that it is not always a simple matter to add the suffix. Most words
require special changes to make the suffix stick. See chapter 13 for information on spelling
and suffixes.

Adverb Comparison
Other adjectives, mostly multisyllabled, require the addition of an adverb to create the forms of
comparison. An adverb, as we will see in the next chapter, is a modifier that describes a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb. The adverbs we need will precede the adjectives they modify. To create
the comparative forms, use one of the adverbs more or less. To create the superlative forms, use one
of the adverbs most or least. Again, the positive degree requires no change in form.
 Degrees Of Comparison By Adverb

POSITIVE This is bizarre.

COMPARATIVE This is more bizarre.
SUPERLATIVE This is most bizarre.
POSITIVE That is dangerous.
COMPARATIVE That is more dangerous than this.
SUPERLATIVE That is most dangerous.
POSITIVE I feel tranquil.
COMPARATIVE I feel more tranquil.
SUPERLATIVE I feel most tranquil.

There is no set rule to follow that will let you know whether your adjective needs an adverb or a
suffix to create the form of comparison. Some one-syllable words need an adverb. Some
multisyllable words may take a suffix. Your ear is the best judge. Use the version that sounds correct.
Please avoid redundancy in your forms of comparison. Never use a suffix and an adverb with a
single adjective. One car is never more cheaper than another. It is simply cheaper. One joke is not the
most funniest joke ever. It is simply the funniest. One modification of the adjective will suffice.

Forming the Comparison

Q. A high-ranking government official spouted, “We need more bolder approaches.” A member of the
press corps called to ask if the adverb more was necessary.

A. In order to determine whether more was used correctly, it would be necessary to see the
punctuation. If a comma appears between more and bolder, then each describes the noun
approaches. “We need more, bolder approaches.” The politician is asking for approaches that are
bolder and greater in frequency. His statement is correct.
Without a comma, more is redundant. The adjective bolder alone expresses the
comparative degree of bold. It is sufficient unto itself and does not require the adverb more.
Under this interpretation, the politician should have said, “We need bolder approaches.”

Much More Simple vs. Simpler

Q. A member of the Presidential cabinet spoke a few weeks ago about taking some of the frills out of
government. He stated, “Let’s make this much more simple.”

A. In the sentence, much more simple describes the pronoun this. Much is an adverb describing
more. This cabinet member chose to use the adverb more to create the comparative form of the
adjective simple. Couldn’t he have used simpler instead? The sentence then would have read,
“Let’s make this much simpler.” Either construction is grammatically correct, but the second is
 more concise and easier to comprehend.

Strict, Stricter, Strictest

Q. Often, a fine line separates the meaning of one word from another. A defense attorney called to ask
for an interpretation of a sentence from a document that was crucial to her argument. The sentence
read, “The information will be kept in stricter confidence.” She asked, “What difference does the
form of strict make to the sentence?”

A. All adjectives have three forms of comparison: the positive (strict), the comparative (stricter),
and the superlative (strictest). The use of the comparative form, stricter, creates a weak
construction. It tells us nothing about how strict the confidence is because we have nothing to
compare it to. Is the confidence stricter than that kept by a man who shares information freely with
anyone he meets on the street? If so, it may not be strict at all. Or is it stricter than the confidence
kept by a tight-lipped Pentagon general? If so, it may be quite strict.
The author’s intent probably was to indicate that the information would be put under the
tightest security. He should have used either the positive or the superlative form. The sentence
could read, “The information will be kept in the strictest confidence” or “The information will be
kept in strict confidence.” Both imply tight-lipped secrecy.

Irregular Comparison
Other adjectives have forms of comparison that defy any attempt at formulization. These forms are
irregularly compared. Their changes are case-specific, and you must memorize each in turn. Here is a
partial list:

Degrees Of Irregular Comparison

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

bad worse worst
end (no form) endmost
far farther/further farthest/furthest
fore former foremost
good/well better best
(no form) inner inmost/innermost
late later/latter latest/last
little less/lesser least
many/much more most

mid (no form) midmost

old older/elder oldest/eldest
 (no form) outer outmost/outermost
top (no form) topmost
(no form) upper upmost/uppermost

Irregular Distinctions

Q. “What is the difference between the adjectives farther and further? ” asked a sixth-grade teacher
from Pennsylvania.

A. Some readers may have noticed that a few of the irregularly compared adjectives have different
forms in the comparative and superlative degrees. One of these is the adjective far. The
adjectives in the far→farther→farthest progression refer to physical distance.

We reached the farther shore.

The adjectives in the far→further→furthest progression refer to a mental or physical

distance.

We drove the furthest distance that we could in a day. (physical

distance)

That is the furthest thing from my mind. (mental distance)

Other adjectives carry similar distinctions in their forms of comparison. The

adjectives in the old→older→oldest progression refer to age.

I am older than my sister.

The adjectives in the old→elder→eldest progression also refer to age but with the
implication of advanced age.

My eldest brother is in his eighties.

The adjectives in the late→later→latest progression refer to order in time.

The time is later than I thought.

The adjectives in the late→latter→last progression refer to a physical order in

space.

Tom took the last flight home.

Better Than Best

Q. In a recent election, one party ran an advertisement that began with the line “The Incumbent vs.
The Challenger: Who is Best?” Several callers asked if best was the correct form of comparison
to use.

A. Since there are only two people contrasted here, the incumbent and the challenger, the spin doctors
should have used the comparative form, better. “The Incumbent vs. The Challenger: Who is
Better?” Superlative forms, such as best, are reserved for situations that compare three or more
objects.

Adjectives Beyond Comparison

A number of adjectives are beyond comparison. The qualities that these adjectives express exist in
only one degree. To compare objects according to one of these qualities does not make sense since all
objects with the quality possess it to an equal degree. Here is a partial list of incomparable
adjectives:

absolute
alone
blind
circular
complete
dead
deadly
empty
fatal
final
full
eternal
incomparable
instantaneous
mortal
perfect
perpendicular
single
square
supreme
straight
total
ultimate
unique
universal
vertical
wrong

How can one line be more perpendicular than another or the most perpendicular of all lines? There is
but one degree of perpendicularity, and, to this degree, all things perpendicular are equal. In the same
way, one accident cannot be more fatal than another. Their consequences are identical. They have
both caused death. These adjectives and others like them are beyond comparison.
Please note that this incomparability applies to these adjectives under their strictest definitions.
English is a flexible language to say the least, and many people, expressing themselves in a creative
way, have uttered one of these adjectives in the comparative or superlative degree. A grief-stricken
man might say, “I have never felt more alone than I do now.” A flea market shopper, using the
adjective unique to mean “unusual or distinct,” could say, “This is the most unique lamp I have ever
seen.” These sentences contain incomparable adjectives in comparative and superlative forms. Often,
the speaker’s intention is to indicate that one object more closely approximates the perfect state
described by the adjective than another. We normal speakers are allowed this same poetic license, but
take care that each usage is a sensible one.

Less or Fewer

Q. “How can I keep less and fewer straight? I always confuse them, and I don’t understand the
difference,” stated an irritable copywriter.

A. Both words are adjectives. Less modifies nouns that name a whole or a collection but are singular
in number. Fewer modifies nouns that name a number of separate objects and are plural. For
instance, one would have less knowledge but fewer facts, less time but fewer minutes, less heat
but fewer fires, less congestion but fewer cars, less traffic but fewer accidents, and less
inclement weather but fewer storms.

Positioning the Adjective

The conscientious grammarian needs to know where to place his or her adjectives. An adjective can
either precede or follow the noun that it modifies, depending upon a number of factors which we will
now consider.

Typical Usage

Adjectives typically precede the nouns that they modify.

My tired feet need a massage.

The birds’ calls blended into a sweet song.

I appeal to your keen intellect.

In the first example, the adjective tired precedes the noun modified, feet. In the second example, the
adjective sweet precedes the noun modified, song. In the third example, the adjective keen precedes
the noun modified, intellect.

Special Usage

Some adjectives are placed after the nouns they modify for no discernible reason. This is merely the
way it is done. For instance, we speak of a notary public, a court martial, and an attorney general. The
adjective public describes the noun notary, the adjective martial describes the noun court, and the
adjective general describes the noun attorney. Typical adjective usage suggests that we say “public
notary” or “martial court” or “general attorney,” but actual usage dictates otherwise. These instances
you must learn on a case-by-case basis.

Emphatic Usage

Place the adjective after the noun modified to emphasize the qualities described by the adjective.

A man, old and wise, gave me these instructions.

Can you hear the emphasis that the alternative placement puts on the adjectives old and wise? Their
position highlights the man’s age and wisdom. The sentence could just as well read, “An old, wise
man gave me these instructions.” But such a construction removes the emphasis from the adjectives.

Usage as Object Complements

Adjectives that serve as object complements follow the direct objects that they modify.

Have you heard anything new?

I asked you to bring something blue.

We found her tiresome.

That made me hungry.

In the first example, the adjective new is the object complement of the direct object anything. In
the second example, the adjective blue is the object complement of the direct object something. In the
third example, the adjective tiresome is the object complement of the direct object her. In the fourth
example, the adjective hungry is the object complement of the direct object me.

Usage as Subject Complements

Adjectives used as subject complements must follow linking verbs and so, by necessity, follow the
nouns and pronouns that they modify.
 My feet are cold.

The cat looks frightened.

The milk smells rotten.

In the first example, the adjective cold follows the linking verb are and complements the noun feet. In
the second example, the adjective frightened follows the linking verb looks and complements the
noun cat. In the third example, the adjective rotten follows the linking verb smells and complements
the noun milk.

Some Other Things to Remember About Adjectives

Please pay careful attention to these additional adjective issues.

Nouns as Adjectives

English speakers often use nouns in such a way that they modify other nouns. In these cases, the nouns
function as adjectives.

My father built a log cabin in the woods.

The outlaw stepped through the saloon door.

Our tile roof is leaking.

The words log, saloon, and tile are nouns, but they function in these sentences as adjectives. Log
modifies cabin. It indicates what kind of cabin was built. Saloon modifies door. It describes what
kind of door was stepped through. Tile modifies roof. It explains what kind of roof was leaking.
Possessive case nouns frequently function as adjectives while retaining their ability to show
possession.

My sister’s car was stolen.

Bob’s painting is beautiful.

In the first example, the possessive noun sister’s modifies car. It indicates whose car was stolen. In
the second example, the possessive noun Bob’s modifies painting. It tells whose painting is beautiful.
Each of these examples shows a typical noun working at the job of an adjective.

Describing a Sales Position

Q. “Should I be called ‘Northwest Regional Manager’ or ‘Northwestern Regional Manager’?” asked

 a newly promoted executive.

A. There are several directions in which to go. Northwest is a noun. As you know, nouns can be used
as adjectives, as this noun is in the title Northwest Regional Manager. Northwestern, on the
other hand, is an adjective and can describe a noun such as manager in the title Northwestern
Regional Manager. With the same adjective, we could also use the title Northwestern Region
Manager, where Northwestern describes the noun region. Any one is acceptable. An oddity to
note: Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois, is not in the northwestern portion of the
country at all but was in the Northwest Territory when the school opened in 1851.

Overused Adjectives

Q. A troubled high school sophomore called with this to say: “My English teacher marks me down
for using certain words in my papers. If I say something is ‘nice’ or ‘funny,’ she takes points off,
and I’m ending up with too many C’s. They seem like okay words. Why is she doing this to me?”

A. This young man’s teacher and I must share a pet peeve. I am continually being irked by word
choices such as the ones this fellow has just described. Too many speakers and writers make
annoyingly uninformative adjective choices. Adjectives such as nice or cute are used in so many
different contexts that their presence tells us nothing about the nouns that they modify. I may
mention that we had a nice afternoon or that she was wearing a cute dress, but have I revealed
anything interesting? No, I have not. If I had been thinking, I would have mentioned our wonderful
afternoon and her stunning dress. Now that is information. These adjectives better communicate
the meanings desired. Some other overused adjectives are funny, good, great, and the currently
popular awesome.
Do not be overzealous in your use of adjectives either. Over-description, redundancy, and
ambiguity have ruined many a fine sentence. Be wise in your choices. Select only those adjectives
that truly add color or flavor to your words and leave the remainder of the description to context.
The prevailing literary posture, which has existed since pen was first put to paper and still
exists today, that nouns and verbs should carry the action and that the overuse of adjectives
weakens prose is one that Ernest Hemingway took seriously. To be sure that he didn’t overuse
adjectives, he often took his writings to the poet Ezra Pound for proofing. Despite his vigilance,
Hemingway couldn’t do without adjectives entirely. In fact, he used seven in the first two
sentences of his novel A Farewell to Arms.

In the late summer of that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across
the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles
and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly
moving and blue in the channels.

Another Misuse

Q. “I heard a famous defense lawyer say, ‘I need to concise this.’ Can you change an adjective into a
 verb like this?” asked a caller.

A. Concise is an adjective. It is not a verb. One cannot concise anything. The attorney could have
asked his aide to make this concise, whatever “this” was. Famous or not, the attorney gets an F in
grammar.

Determiners

Grammar is by no means cut-and-dried. As depth of understanding increases, the old, familiar ways
of approaching a topic become inadequate and the need for new principles arises. At the beginning of
the chapter, we discussed a class of adjectives called limiting adjectives. While this category is
certainly descriptive of the functions of its members, there is a more sophisticated way of viewing
these words. Modern grammarians define a class of words called determiners. A determiner is a
word that determines the reference of a noun phrase. The category of determiners includes the
articles, a, an, or the; the demonstrative pronouns, this, that, those, or these; the possessive
pronouns, such as my, her, or their; and the interrogative pronouns, such as who, which, or what;
among others (please see chapter 6 for more information on demonstrative, possessive, and
interrogative pronouns). Words of this type aid the reader or listener in determining which person,
place, thing, or idea is named by the noun phrase that the writer or speaker has written or spoken.

I sat on the porch.

This idea is not a good one.

She left her coat at the skating rink.

Which movie did you decide to see?

In the first example, the article the is a determiner that modifies the noun porch. In the second
example, the demonstrative pronoun this is a determiner that modifies the noun idea. In the third
example, the possessive pronoun her is a determiner that modifies the noun coat. In the fourth
example, the interrogative pronoun which is a determiner that modifies the noun movie.
Number or quantity words, such as one, all, third, or three-fifths, also function as determiners.
These determiners are often used in conjunction with other determiners so that two or more precede
the noun modified.

Buddy drank all the milk.

The runners have completed the first three laps.

In the first example, all and the are determiners that modify the noun milk. In the second example,
the, first, and three are determiners that modify the noun laps.
When using number words, it is important to keep the difference between cardinal numbers and
ordinal numbers in mind. Cardinal numbers are counting numbers. They express absolute number
without any implication of position. The following is a brief list of cardinal numbers:

one
five
nine
fourteen
thirty-two
seventy-eight
one hundred
one thousand
one million
one billion
one trillion
one quadrillion
one quintillion
one sextillion
one septillion
one decillion

The ordinal numbers, on the other hand, are position numbers. They correspond to the cardinal
numbers but indicate position in relation to other numbers. The ordinal numbers all carry a suffix: nd,
rd, st, or th. The following is a brief list of ordinal numbers.

first
fifth
ninth
fourteenth
thirty-second
seventy-eighth
one hundredth
one thousandth
one millionth
one billionth
one trillionth
one quadrillionth
one quintillionth
one sextillionth
one septillionth
one decillionth

When a cardinal number and an ordinal number modify the same noun, the ordinal number
always precedes the cardinal number.

The first two operations were the most difficult to watch.

 The second three innings were quite dull.

In the first example, the ordinal number first precedes the cardinal number two. Both first and two
are determiners. In the second example, the ordinal number second precedes the cardinal number
three. Both second and three are determiners. Try reading the sentences with the ordinal and
cardinal numbers reversed. They simply sound wrong.

Approaching Infinity

Q. “What is the largest counting number word that you have ever heard of?” asked an elementary
school math teacher from Phoenix, Arizona.

A. The largest word for a cardinal number or counting number that I’ve heard of is the word
googolplex. One googol is ten raised to the power of one hundred or 10100. One googolplex is 10
raised to the power of googol:

To write this number the long way, you would write a numeral 1 followed by a googol
of 0 s. Believe me, it’s not worth it. This is an inconceivably large number.

Articles

Our discussion of determiners would not be complete without mention of articles. This class has only
three members: a, an, and the. Their function is to determine the references of nouns. Traditionally,
the trio has been included among adjectives, but contemporary grammarians have begun viewing
articles as a separate part of speech and include them among the category of words called
determiners.*The function of an article, after all, is to limit, point out, or determine a noun.

Positioning Articles
In most cases, the article directly precedes the noun that it determines or modifies.

An alligator crawled from the river.

The baby cried for an hour.

A woman left the package an hour ago.

Sometimes, however, a modifier or a series of modifiers will separate the article and the noun.

A tall, dark stranger walked into the cluttered office.

The smaller version is a better bargain.

Indefinite and Definite Articles
There are two types of articles: indefinite and definite. The indefinite articles are a and an. We use a
before words that begin with consonant sounds: a house, a car, a motorcycle, a brilliant scientist.
We use an before words that begin with vowel sounds: an airplane, an umbrella, an exit, an
admirable goal. These articles are indefinite because they do not point to any noun in particular.
When we speak of “a destination,” we aren’t speaking of any destination in particular. Similarly, if
we write of “an idea,” we don’t have any specific idea in mind.
Determining which indefinite article to use is not as simple as seeing whether the following
word begins with a consonant or a vowel. The article an sometimes precedes words that begin with a
consonant but that are pronounced with an initial vowel sound: an honor, an hour. The article a
sometimes precedes words that begin with a vowel but that are pronounced with an initial consonant
sound: a unicorn, a unit. Both of these words begin with the /y/ sound in y . A few words are
pronounced with either an initial consonant or an initial vowel sound: a or an history, a or an hotel.
In these cases, choose the article that fits your pronunciation.
The definite article the, on the other hand, points to particular people, places, things, and ideas.
When we speak of “the dog,” we are referring to one dog in particular. When we say “the closet,”
there is only one closet that we could mean. We use the definite article when we are certain that the
reader or listener knows which person, place, thing, or idea the noun names.

The man you just mentioned stopped by.

The car is in the garage.

In the first example, we use the definite article the with the noun man because the individual named
by the noun has already been mentioned. In the second example, we use the definite article the with
the noun car because this particular car is so familiar to the person or people to whom the sentence is
directed that it needs no other identification.
The pronunciation of the definite article changes, depending upon the initial sound of the word
that it precedes. If the word begins with a consonant sound, the e in the is pronounced “uh”: the
(thuh) ball, the (thuh) bat. If the word begins with a vowel sound, the e makes a long vowel sound
like in sweet: the (thee) automobile, the (thee) exorcist.

An Article Question

Q. One perturbed caller commented, “If the president doesn’t know the right word, how should we
know it? As a highly educated person, shouldn’t the country’s leader know his grammar? I heard
him say ‘an historic event’ at a press conference.”

A. The caller should have kept his pants on. The president could have been correct. Historic is a
word with two pronunciations. In certain regional dialects, the h can be silent, so that the word is
pronounced “istoric,” or the h can be vocalized in standard pronunciation, so that the word begins
with a strong, breathy /h/ sound, “historic.” In the former case, the word begins with a vowel
sound, so the article needed is an. In the latter case, the word begins with a consonant sound, so
the article needed is a. I’m guessing that the president chose the former option and used the
 correct article.
Folks, the a-an distinction exists only to make our lives easier, not to confuse us. Try saying
“a inner tube” out loud. It’s awkward. Now use the correct article, an. The words flow smoothly.
We use the article that allows us to speak in an easier manner. The president selected the option
that worked the best for him.

Articles and Abbreviations

Q. Should I put a or an before our company’s abbreviation?” asked an executive secretary. “The
abbreviation is S.P.U.”

A. The rule dictates that a precedes words that begin with a consonant sound and that an precedes
words that begin with a vowel sound. The answer to the question depends on how one says the
company’s name. If each letter is pronounced, then the first sound in the letter s is a vowel sound
(the short /e/ sound in s). The article an would be appropriate: an S.P.U. If one pronounces the
three letters as a single word (spoo, perhaps), then the first sound is a consonant sound. The
article a would be appropriate: a S.P.U.

Eucharist

Q. “Should a or an be used before Eucharist? ” asked a church member.

A. Although the noun Eucharist begins with a vowel, it is pronounced with an initial consonant
sound, the /y/ sound in y. Therefore, we say, “a Eucharist.” We make the same choice with words
such as unicorn and eunuch. By the way, the term Eucharist refers to the sacrament of Holy
Communion and to the sacred elements of Holy Communion, the bread and wine, in many
Christian religions.

Adjectives, Articles, and Nouns

Q. A businessman called with an intriguing question. He asked, “What happens to an adjective when
you put an article in front of it? I was watching TV with my kids and the announcer said that they
would be broadcasting ‘a special’ shortly. Special is an adjective in the dictionary, but it was
being used like a noun on TV.”

A. This fellow’s consternation was understandable. We often see words that we associate with one
part of speech used as other parts of speech. In this case, the word special, which we typically
associate with adjectives, was being used as a noun. Its unusual function was due to the presence
of the article before it.
Each article possesses the amazing ability to transform an adjective into a noun. Place a, an,
 or the in front of an adjective and suddenly it has the effect of a noun in the sentence. We see a
Western at the movies, and we watch a special on television. We attend a spectacular at the
local civic arena, and, at baseball games, we sing of the land of the free and the home of the
brave. Doctors treat the sick, humanitarians help the poor, and Catherine the Great ruled
Russia. The words Western, special, spectacular, free, brave, sick, poor, and Great (an
epithet) are all adjectives doing the jobs of nouns, thanks to articles.

From My Files: The Evolution of Nice

Few words have gone through as many changes as the adjective nice. Through the years, nice has
meant “silly,” “simple,” “ignorant,” “foolish,” “wanton,” and even “lascivious.” Old French lent the
word to English in the thirteenth century when it meant “silly” or “simple.” It was based on the Latin
nescius, meaning “ignorant,” from nescire, “to be ignorant.” Obviously, there has been an extreme
shift since then!
At first, the English meaning was the same as the French with a shade of “stupid” or “foolish.”
In the fourteenth century, the meaning of nice changed to “wanton,” and even “indecent” or “lewd.” In
the fifteenth century, nice acquired the sense of “coy” and “shy,” but all of these meanings are now
obsolete.
In the sixteenth century came a shift in connotation to “sensitive, critical discernment,” as in “a
nice distinction” or “a nice piece of craftsmanship.” This Renaissance meaning lasted until the
eighteenth century, when it finally evolved into the modern nice, meaning “pleasing,” “agreeable,” or
“delicately discriminating.”
 4

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

Adjectives are not the only modifiers in the world of grammar. Just as nouns and pronouns sometimes
require description, so do verbs and adjectives. For this descriptive purpose, language includes
adverbs. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. As modifiers of verbs, they
indicate when, where, how, or how often an action is performed.

They’ll arrive soon. (when)

Put the flowers here. (where)

She dances awkwardly. (how)

Cynthia travels frequently. (how often)

In the first example, the adverb soon modifies the verb arrive. It tells when the arrival will occur. In
the second, the adverb here modifies the verb put. It tells where the flowers should be placed. In the
third, the adverb awkwardly modifies the verb dances. It tells how she dances. In the final example,
the adverb frequently modifies the verb travels. It tells how often Cynthia travels.
As you now know, adverbs do not modify only verbs. They also describe adjectives and other
adverbs.

Kareem Abdul Jabar is extremely tall.

Anthony sings quite exquisitely.

In the first example, the adverb extremely modifies the adjective tall. It indicates how tall Kareem
is. In the second example, the adverb quite modifies the adverb exquisitely. It indicates how
exquisite Anthony’s singing is. Incidentally, the adverb exquisitely modifies the verb sings. It tells
how Anthony sings.

An Adverb Question
Q. An editor of a dictionary was writing its foreword. He called about the sentence “The world is a
much different place from what it was fifty years ago.” The editor asked, “What do you think of
the use of much in the sentence? I think it sounds funny.”

A. I see no problem with the use of the word much. The word different is an adjective, describing
place, a noun. The word much, an adverb, modifies different, an adjective. Each of the parts of
speech is in its proper place.
The phrase much different may look or sound strange to some readers, although it is
grammatically correct. Much is an adverb and has been since the thirteenth century when it came
into being. Therefore, much can describe different. If your ears still resist, try very different or
extremely different. Both very and extremely are also adverbs, capable of modifying an
adjective such as different.

Another Adverb Question

Q. “Is interesting enough or interestingly enough correct?” asked one caller.

A. Either one will work, depending on how you use the words. Many people use the phrase
interestingly enough as an introductory expression. In this context, enough is an adverb
modifying another adverb, interestingly.

Interestingly enough, the burglars were never caught.

We can also use the phrase interesting enough in a grammatically correct

sentence.

The book was interesting enough to attract the attention of the censor.

In this context, interesting is an adjective modified by the adverb enough.

Yet Another Adverb Question

Q. One caller heard a radio personality say, “It took twenty years to evolve this highly.” He asked,
“Has the announcer used highly in the right way? I think he has, but I need some validation.”

A. The radio personality did use highly, an adverb, in the correct way. It describes the infinitive to
evolve. Since infinitives are forms of verbs, they can be modified by adverbs.
However, the sentence falls short of squeaky clean. The adverb highly is modified by the
demonstrative pronoun this. Grammar allows us to use pronouns to modify nouns or other
pronouns. An adverb requires an adverb modifier. Let’s change this to so. The announcer could
have said, “It took twenty years to evolve so highly.”

Creating Adverbs
Q. “Do I just need to add -ly to an adjective to change it into an adverb?” asked an inquiring seventh-
grader.

A. The adverbs we know the best are those ending in -ly, and most of these are based on adjectives.
We add -ly to these adjectives and the result is an adverb (adjective + -ly → adverb). Note that
for those adjectives ending in y, change the y to i before adding -ly.

angry→angrily
awkward→awkwardly
careful→carefully
clever→cleverly
crazy→crazily
magnificent→magnificently
numb→numbly
petulant→petulantly
ready→readily
sober→soberly
fanciful→fancifully
final→finally
fond→fondly
greedy→greedily
indignant→indignantly
strange→strangely
sure→surely
thoughtful→thoughtfully
truthful→truthfully
wise→wisely

However, not every adjective has an adverb counterpart. There is no word bigly based on big
and no word tinily based on tiny, but there is sillily based on silly.
Do watch out for adverbs that do not end in -ly at all. They are their own words without
origins in the world of adjectives. Here are a few examples: again, away, now, quite, seldom,
then, too, very. This list is by no means complete, and, if ever in doubt, you should consult your
dictionary. It is the definitive source for identifying parts of speech.

Adjectives Ending in -ly

Q. The same young man called back the next day and asked, “What about lovely? That’s an adjective,
isn’t it?”

A. This fellow had made another excellent point. The wary grammarian must never let his or her
guard down. There are several adjectives that end in -ly: homely, lonely, lovely, manly, womanly.
These are adjectives and adjectives only. Please note that this list is not complete.
Adjective or Adverb?

Q. A teacher at a Portland elementary school asked, “Is early an adjective or an adverb?”

A. You must be careful with the modifier early. It is both an adjective and an adverb. Here are a few
more words that can be either adjectives or adverbs: cowardly, deep, early, friendly, hard, kindly,
leisurely, lively, long, loud, only, and timely.

We stopped at Bob’s Pancake House for an early lunch, (adjective)

We rose early. (adverb)

The band played a lively tune. (adjective)

Step lively, soldiers! (adverb)

Hard vs. Hardly

Q. An English major at a Colorado college asked, “What is the difference between the words hard
and hardly? ”

A. The caller was wondering about the difference between the adverbs hard and hardly. Remember
that hard can also be an adjective. It is easy to think that hardly, the adverb form of the adjective
hard, retains the implication of rigidity or diligence of the adjective.
In fact, the definitions of the two words in question are quite different. As an adverb, hard
means “firmly or diligently.”

The novice skier fell hard.

Jennifer thought hard on the matter.

The adverb hardly usually means “barely or scarcely.”

I hardly know her.

The mirror was hardly scratched.

Hardly can be used to mean “firmly or diligently,” but the usage is rare. For this
purpose, we most often use the shorter version, hard.

Categories of Adverbs

According to what meanings they convey, adverbs can fall into one of a number of general categories.
Please note that the word lists that follow each category title are only partial ones.
Time: again, early, never, now, often, soon, then, today, tomorrow

The plane landed five minutes early.

Our ship will come in soon.

Location or direction: above, away, below, down, here, in, inside, out, there, up

The sound intensity rose above my threshold of pain.

We plan to stop here for the night.

Manner: cheerfully, cunningly, fast, quickly, right, slowly, well

The tortoise moves slowly.

The fox hunts cunningly.

Degree: almost, entirely, little, much, rather, too, very

I am almost certain that she will be there.

There are too many bagel shops in my neighborhood.

Reason: so, why

I don’t think so.

Why did she say that?

Number: first, once, second, twice, third, thrice

We were here first.

I will only say this once.

Lot

Q. A travel agent asked, “What kind of word is lot? Someone asked me, ‘Are a lot more Californians
traveling this year?’ It got me thinking, and I wanted to find out.”

A. Lot is usually a noun, meaning “a large amount,” “one’s fortune,” or “a share.”

My uncle has a lot of money.

 Accept your lot in life.

I inherited the lot on the corner.

Lot can also be used as an adverb in sentences such as the one our travel agent
offered. There, it means “very many.” In her sentence, the adjective more modifies the
noun Californians. The adverb lot modifies more.

Degrees of Comparison

Like adjectives, adverbs are a simple bunch. They do not trouble us with gender, number, person, or
case issues. These properties do not command confusing form changes in adverbs.
Adverbs do change with comparison. Like adjectives, they have three forms of comparison:
positive, comparative, and superlative. The functions and characteristics of each category are the
same as they were for the adjectives. The positive degree expresses the quality without comparison.
The comparative degree compares two verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. The superlative degree
compares three or more verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Please refer back to chapter 3 if a review is
necessary.
Adjectives and adverbs are compared by the same methods. The forms of comparison for
adverbs can be created by using a suffix or an adverb.

Adverb Comparison
Most adverbs are compared by using another adverb. Use more or less for the comparative forms and
most or least for the superlative forms.

Degrees of Comparison by Adverb

POSITIVE He behaves capriciously.

COMPARATIVE He behaves more capriciously than she.
SUPERLATIVE He behaves most capriciously.

POSITIVE They dance gracefully.

COMPARATIVE They dance more gracefully than we.
SUPERLATIVE They dance most gracefully.

POSITIVE Judy sings horribly.

COMPARATIVE Judy sings more horribly than Bob.

SUPERLATIVE Judy sings most horribly.
Suffix Comparison
There are a few adverbs that are compared by using a suffix. Use -er for the comparative forms and -
est for the superlative forms. These appear identical to their adjective counterparts, but, as adverbs,
they are different in function.

Degrees of Comparison by Suffix

POSITIVE We left early.

COMPARATIVE We left earlier than they.
SUPERLATIVE We left earliest.

POSITIVE Tom drives fast.

COMPARATIVE Tom drives faster than I.
SUPERLATIVE Tom drives fastest.

POSITIVE Betty will arrive soon.

COMPARATIVE Betty will arrive sooner than Sheila.
SUPERLATIVE Betty will arrive soonest.

Irregular Comparison
There are a number of adverbs compared irregularly. These, you must learn case by case.

Degrees of Irregular Comparison

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

badly worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
fore former foremost/first
late later latest/last
little less least
much more most
well better best

Irregular Distinctions

Q. The same Pennsylvania teacher we met in chapter 3 said, “I know that the adjective far and its
forms of comparison can also be adverbs. Do they have the same meanings as they did when they
 were adjectives?”

A. This delightful woman had brought up a great point about the forms of adverbs irregularly
compared. In some cases, adverbs in the comparative and superlative degrees can take different
forms. Which form you use depends on the meaning you want to convey.

The adverbs in the far→farther→farthest progression refer to physical distance.

I ran farther than I ever had before.

The adverbs in the far→further→furthest progression refer to a mental or

physical distance.

We cannot travel any further tonight. (physical distance)

Each day of my vacation, thoughts of work are drifting further from my

mind. (mental distance)

The adverbs in the late→later→latest progression refer to order in time.

We arrived later than usual.

The adverbs in the late→latter→last progression refer to a physical order in space.

Bob stood last in line for the concert tickets.

Adverbs Beyond Comparison

There are many adverbs that are never compared. They describe one-dimensional qualities unfit for
comparison. Here are some examples.

again
almost
back
before
by
ever
here
never
no
not
now
past
so
then
there
 thus
too
twice
very
yes

How can one event occur “more twice” than another? The concept of comparison just doesn’t make
sense when applied to these adverbs.

More Thoroughly Tested?

Q. “Can you say that one product is more thoroughly tested than another?” asked a chemist for a large
pharmaceutical company.

A. The adverb thoroughly means “completely.” Some might express concern over the logic behind
the phrase more thoroughly tested. These critics will claim that the quality expressed by this
adverb has only one degree. All things thorough are equally thorough, and all things done
thoroughly are done equally thoroughly. If Product A has been “more thoroughly” tested than
Product B, Product B was not thoroughly tested to begin with. Under this interpretation, the
chemist should change his phrasing to indicate that one product was tested thoroughly while
another was not.
However, language is a tool, and the purpose of this tool is to communicate. The phrase more
thoroughly tested communicates a very clear idea. One product has been better tested than
another. Though thoroughly is, in a rigid way, beyond comparison, the phrase more thoroughly
does not mislead. The testing of one product more closely approximates the perfect state of
thoroughness than another. The chemist may state that one product is more thoroughly tested than
another without fear of reproach.

Positioning the Adverb

Adverbs are mobile words. Where an adverb is positioned depends on what type of word it modifies
and on how the speaker wishes to communicate his or her idea. When an adverb modifies an
adjective or another adverb, the modifying adverb will precede the word modified.

We are quite happy with the new apartment.

My sister drives so recklessly.

In the first example, the adverb quite precedes the adjective that it modifies, happy. In the
second, the adverb so precedes the adverb that it modifies, recklessly.

The plot thickens when the adverb modifies a verb. These adverbs may occupy a
number of different positions within the sentence. They may directly follow the verbs
modified.

Lara aimed carefully at the target.

Jack stepped gingerly across the broken glass.

In these two examples, the adverbs carefully and gingerly follow the verbs that they
modify, aimed and stepped.
Though the adverb may follow the verb, an object or phrase can sometimes come
between the two. Here, the adverb will not directly follow the verb.

The bomb squad lifted the explosive carefully.

I watched the game intently.

In the first example, the adverb carefully modifies the verb lifted. An article, the, and a
direct object, explosive, separate carefully from the verb. In the second example, the
adverb intently modifies the verb watched. An article, the, and a direct object, game,
separate intently from the verb.
The adverb may also lie within a verb phrase although it is not a part of the verb
phrase.

The syndicate does not ordinarily give refunds.

They will definitely feel offended.

In the first example, the adverbs ordinarily and not fall inside the verb phrase that they
modify, does give. In the second example, the adverb definitely lies within the verb phrase
that it modifies, will feel.
The adverb may precede the verb. It can begin the sentence, or it can appear just after
the subject. In either case, the positioning emphasizes the quality described by the adverb.

Often, I take a nap during my lunch break.

She always arrives earlier than is necessary.

In the first example, the adverb often modifies the verb take and begins the sentence. In the second
example, the adverb always modifies the verb arrives. It falls after the subject but before the verb. In
both examples, the positions emphasize the particular qualities of the adverbs.
As a general rule, it is wise to place the adverb as near as possible to the word that it modifies.
Tightening the space between the modifier and the word modified reduces the chance of mistakenly
linking the modifier with a word it was not intended to modify. Look at how the placement of the
adverb in the following two sentences affects their meanings.

I lost almost a full pint of blood.

 I almost lost a full pint of blood.

In the first example, it appears that the adverb almost modifies the adjective full. The sentence
indicates that someone lost a little less than a full pint of blood. In the second example, the adverb
almost appears to modify the verb lost. The sentence indicates that someone came close to losing a
pint of blood but did not lose any at all. The position of the adverb has a drastic effect on the meaning
of the sentence. Be sure that your choice of placement creates the meaning you intend.

Poor Modification

Q. When a close friend’s mother passed away, the funeral home sent him some literature explaining
embalming. He shared the pamphlet with the Hot Line and asked for elucidation. A sentence in the
pamphlet read, “The consent form is required to be completed when obtaining the necessary
express authorization to embalm orally by telephone.”

A.By telephone is a prepositional phrase. It appears to modify the adverb orally. The adverb
appears to modify the infinitive to embalm. As limited as my knowledge of mortuary science is, I
am certain that one cannot embalm the body over the phone. The process is quite complex. The
adverb orally should modify the gerund phrase obtaining the necessary express authorization.
We need to move the adverb and clean up a bit of messy writing. The sentence should read, “The
consent form must be completed when orally obtaining the necessary express authorization to
embalm.”

From My Files: Colloquialisms

Language is full of irregularities. Carelessness and common usage often bring statements with serious
grammatical flaws into everyday speech. When they become common, we assume that they are
correct. Two of these, rest easy and clear-cut, have been inspirations for numerous calls to the Hot
Line. Easy and clear are both adjectives, capable of modifying nouns and pronouns only. Rest and
cut are both verbs. Each requires an adverb modifier. Rest easy becomes rest easily, and clear-cut
becomes clearly cut.
The dictionary does list clear-cut as an adjective, first used in 1855, but clearly cut and rest
easily are technically correct. However, clear-cut and rest easy are also acceptable simply because
they are in common use. Colloquial expressions such as these challenge the grammarian who must
walk a narrow line between colloquially and grammatically correct English. In school, as well as in
the professional world, colloquial English should always take a back seat to that which is
grammatically correct.

The Truth About Adverbs and Adjectives

Because they are both modifiers, it can be difficult to determine whether to use an adverb or an
adjective. The first step in making the decision is determining what you need at that point in the
sentence. Do you need a word to modify a noun or a pronoun? If so, use an adjective. Do you need a
word to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb? If so, use an adverb.
There are situations, however, where such simple problem solving is not enough. Most
adverb/adjective mistakes are made when the modifier follows the verb. Here are two tips that will
help the watchful grammarian avoid this pitfall.

TIP 1 Do not use an adjective immediately after an action verb. Only adverbs modify action verbs.
These sentences have been written incorrectly.

My brother walks strange. (incorrect)

Wendy writes careful. (incorrect)

Sue talks soft. (incorrect)

In each example, the author has mistakenly modified an action verb with an adjective. We need to
change the adjectives into adverbs. These sentences should appear as follows.

My brother walks strangely. (correct)

Wendy writes carefully. (correct)

Sue talks softly. (correct)

TIP 2 Beware of action verbs posing as linking verbs. Think back to our discussion of verbs. Some
action verbs, such as smell, taste, look, and appear, can be used as linking verbs. A modifier that
follows a linking verb is a subject complement. It complements or modifies the subject of the
sentence, a noun, pronoun, or other nominal, and, therefore, must be an adjective.

The ivy grew high.

The ivy grows quickly.

In the first example, the verb grew is a linking verb. The modifier that follows, a subject
complement, refers to the subject. The adjective high describes the noun ivy. It indicates how large
the ivy grows. The usage is correct.
In the second example, the verb grows is an action verb. The modifier that follows refers to the
verb and should be an adverb. Here, the adverb quickly describes the verb grows. It indicates the
manner in which the plant grows. This usage is correct as well but instills the sentence with a very
different meaning.

The Death of Adverbs

Q. One of the “A” students in my English class asked, “Are adverbs being subjugated by adjectives?”
A. I am sorry to say that, in common language, adverbs are being overrun by adjectives. Look at this
sentence written on a final essay for one of my classes: “Everyone seems to think higher of the
President now.” Higher is an adjective. It cannot modify the infinitive to think. The sentence
should read, “Everyone thinks more highly of the President now.”
Adjectives have not yet taken over, but we do need to concentrate on the proper use of
adverbs. One caller heard an actor in a commercial say, “Does your scalp itch so bad?” The
adjective bad has taken the place of an adverb. The actor should have asked if her friend’s scalp
itched badly. By the way, this caller commented that his scalp didn’t itch so badly that he’d trade
an adjective for an adverb.

Healthy, Healthier, Healthily, or Healthfully

Q. The owner of a health food store asked, “Which is correct? ‘They are eating healthy’ or ‘They are
eating healthier’?”

A. BOTH sentences are wrong. Each uses an adjective to describe the manner in which people eat. In
the first sentence, the adjective healthy, in the positive degree, modifies the verb phrase are
eating. In the second, the adjective healthier, in the comparative degree, modifies the verb phrase
are eating. Only adverbs modify verbs. The store owner can use “They are eating healthily (or
healthfully)” or “They are eating more healthily (or healthfully).” Healthily and healthfully are
adverbs. If he insists on using the adjectives, he can say, “They are eating healthy foods” or “They
are eating healthier foods.”

Quick vs. Quickly

Q. A nurse at a local medical center wanted to know if her supervising doctor knew his grammar. She
said, “Yesterday, when we were examining a patient, he said, ‘It’s happening too quick.’ Did he
speak correctly?”

A. The doctor made a common mistake. He used an adjective, quick, in place of an adverb. The
doctor should have said, “It’s happening too quickly.” The word quickly is an adverb. It modifies
the verb phrase is happening.

Drinking, Driving, and Adverbs

Q. A caller with a social conscience called to ask if the slogan for a prominent organization
contained an error in grammar. She said, “You know that line ‘Friends don’t let friends drive
drunk.’ Is “drunk” correct?”

A. The author of the saying used an adjective, drunk, to describe a verb, drive. He needs an adverb.
With perfect grammar, the slogan might read, “Friends don’t let friends drive drunkenly.”
However, some might claim that the modifier is not acting on the verb at all. Instead, it
modifies an understood but unwritten pronoun, they. If the slogan were rewritten with the missing
 words, it might read, “Friends don’t let friends drive when they are drunk.” In this sentence, the
adjective drunk is a subject complement. It complements the subject of the subordinate clause,
they. The new sentence makes for an awkward slogan, so we would quite rightly eliminate the
added words. This does not change the fact that the adjective drunk could be correct.

Key Adverb/Adjective Distinctions

There are several pairs of related adjectives and adverbs that can puzzle even the most studious
grammarian. Let’s allow a few calls to The National Grammar Hot Line to clarify the issues.

Bad vs. Badly

Q. “Do children behave bad or badly? ” asked a weary, but still grammar-conscious parent.

A. I told the caller that children behave badly and wished her well with the incorrigible youths. Her
question had hit upon an important distinction that most of us fail to make. Too many amateur
grammarians use the adjective bad to modify an action verb when they need the adverb badly.

The children behaved bad in school today. (incorrect)

In this sentence, the adjective bad modifies the action verb behaved. Modifiers of
verbs are adverbs, but the word bad is not and will never be an adverb. The sentence
should read as follows:

The children behaved badly in school today. (correct)

This sentence uses an adverb, badly, the proper part of speech, to modify a verb,
behaved.

Good vs. Well

Q. “Should I say, ‘We played well’ or ‘We played good’?” inquired a caller with a penchant for
basketball.

A. After commending her on a game well played, I informed her that she should say, “We played
well.” Good and well may be the two most misused words in the English language. Good is an
adjective. It can only modify nouns and pronouns. Well is an adverb. It can only modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs. Too many people use good, the adjective, when they need well, the
adverb.

I scored good on my spelling test. (incorrect)

The new car runs good. (incorrect)

 In each example, the adjective good modifies a verb, scored and runs, respectively.
Only adverbs modify verbs. These situations call for the adverb well.

I scored well on my spelling test. (correct)

The new car runs well. (correct)

A frequently used expression, “to feel well,” in American parlance, implies that one’s
touching ability is in excellent condition.

Real vs. Very

Q. A parent concerned about his son’s grammar called to ask, “How do I explain to my son the
difference between real and very? I don’t want him to say things like ‘I played real well,’ but I
don’t know how to explain the distinction between the words.”

A. I love it when I get calls from parents concerned about their children’s grammar. It gives me hope
for the future and a strong sense of purpose. I thanked the man for his call and gave him the words
to make the distinction. Real is an adjective meaning “actual or genuine.” Very is an adverb
meaning “quite or extremely.” It is an all too common error to use real when the situation
demands very.

I am real glad you made it. (incorrect)

The pie smells real good. (incorrect)

In these examples, the adjective real is used to modify other adjectives, glad and
good, but an adjective can only modify a noun or a pronoun. The sentences should look
like the following:

I am very glad you made it. (correct)

The pie smells very good. (correct)

In these examples, the adverb very modifies the adjectives as only an adverb can.
The adverb really is derived from the adjective real. It means “actually or truly”
but is frequently used in place of the adverb very.

I am really glad you made it. (acceptable)

The pie smells really good. (acceptable)

While this usage is not incorrect, the adverbs very and really have subtle differences
in meaning that are worthy of note. Very involves an extreme, while really involves
truth. They are similar but not the same. Be aware of the difference. Say what you
 mean!

Some Other Things to Remember About Adverbs

These are a few points to note about adverbs on your journey to becoming a grammar maven.

Other Kinds of Adverbs

Some adverbs fall into one of two special classes: interrogative adverbs and negative/affirmative
adverbs.

Interrogative Adverbs
The interrogative adverbs are used at the beginnings of sentences to ask questions. The words how,
when, where, and why are the most common of this type.

How much do you know about this insidious plot?

When do you expect the plane to arrive?

Where did she say she was going?

Why do you think that?

In the first example, the adverb how asks the question and modifies the adverb much. The question is
one of degree. The adverb how can also ask questions of manner or quality as in “How did you do
that?” or “How was the play?” In the second example, the adverb when asks the question and
modifies the verb expect. The question involves time. In the third example, the adverb where asks
the question and modifies the verb phrase did say. The question is one of location. In the final
example, the adverb why asks the question and modifies the verb phrase do think. The question
involves cause.

Negative/Affirmative Adverbs
The negative and affirmative adverbs answer questions. The negative adverbs are no and not. The
affirmative adverb is yes. The adverbs yes and no stand independently from the remainder of the
sentence and are usually set off by commas.

No, you may not pet the cheetah.

Yes, I saw the preliminary report.

No, that is not what I meant.

 Yes, Carol is joining us for dinner.

As independent elements, yes and no can express complete ideas on their own. For instance, if
someone asks me, “Do you enjoy baseball?” I can respond, “Yes,” and still express a complete idea. I
could have answered, “I enjoy baseball” or “Yes, I enjoy baseball,” but the simple, one-word, adverb
answer imparts an identical message.
The negative adverb not is often positioned between words in a verb phrase but is not a part of
the verb phrase. It is an independent adverb whose function is to switch the meaning of the verb to its
exact opposite.

Brian will not tell me where we are going.

I have not given my approval to the project.

Clarisse was not the culprit.

In the first example, the adverb not modifies the verb phrase will tell. Because of not, Brian refuses to
reveal their destination. In the second example, not modifies the verb phrase have given, and its
presence indicates that I have yet to offer any approval. In the final example, not modifies the verb
was. Clarisse’s innocence hangs on the presence of the adverb.

Independent Adverbs

Q. A fan of war movies wondered, “What part of speech is forward when the captain yells,
‘Forward, march!’ at his troops?”

A. In that command, the word forward is an adverb. English speakers have been known, on occasion,
to use single adverbs as independent exclamations. The practice is not common. The last such
utterances I heard came from a grizzled sea captain and a sergeant major in the United States
Marine Corps. The captain yelled, “Away!” and his crew set sail. The sergeant major hollered,
“Forward!” and his troops marched into the desert. The adverbs away and forward are complete
thoughts unto themselves. They are abbreviated versions of more traditionally complete sentences,
and their meanings are obvious in the contexts in which they are spoken. The sea captain is
actually telling his crew, “Sail away!”
The sergeant major is commanding his troops, “March forward!” Captains and commanders are
often people of few words and prefer the shortened or elliptical approach to speech.

Double Negatives

One of the defining characteristics of nonstandard English is the use of the double negative. In the
double negative construction, two negative words are used to make a positive. Used correctly with
the adverbs no and not, the double negative can place emphasis on an idea or a phrase.

There is no way we can not go on this trip.

Using the sentence above is equivalent to writing, “We must go on this trip.” The writer has chosen to
emphasize the fact that no way exists to prevent him and his compatriots from traveling, so he uses the
double negative. Such usage is justifiable.
However, the double negative is too often used with the intention of expressing a negative idea.
Speakers forget that one negative word expresses one negative idea and that two negative words
express a positive idea.

We can’t hardly wait for Christmas. (incorrect)

I haven’t barely started to think about the wedding. (incorrect)

In the first example, the speaker intends to say that he or she is eager for Christmas, but the double
negative formed by the two negative words can’t and hardly indicates that he or she doesn’t much
care when the holiday comes around. In the second example, the speaker wants to say that he or she
has not thought about the wedding yet, but the double negative formed by the negative words haven’t
and barely indicates that he or she has spent a great deal of time thinking over the matter. Here are the
sentences correctly written with a single negative:

We can hardly wait for Christmas. (correct)

I have barely started to think about the wedding. (correct)

Perpetuating the Double Negative

Q. The caller, a widely syndicated writer, had read a paraphrase of a quote. The original quotation
read, “They won’t never talk.” The paraphrase read, “They said that they won’t never talk.” The
columnist asked, “Should he have perpetuated the grammatical error in the original quote?”

A. This wily columnist recognized the misuse of the double negative found in both the paraphrase and
the original quotation. The double negative in the phrase won’t (will not) never talk reverses the
intended meaning of the statement. The original author meant to say that they will never talk. With
the double negative, it is certain that they will.
The columnist and I both agreed that the paraphrase should have been written with correct
grammar. If the writer wanted to quote directly and keep the error, he could have used the notation
[sic]. The presence of [sic] within a quotation indicates that a passage, sentence, phrase, or word
was written as intended, even though it may contain an error or peculiarity. The amended
paraphrase would read, “They won’t never [sic] talk.” Notice that [sic] is enclosed in brackets.
By the way, did you know that a metaphrase is a word-for-word translation while a paraphrase
is simply an interpretation and general rewording?

Adverbials

Contemporary grammarians use the term adverbial to describe sentence elements that perform the
same functions as normal adverbs.*This element commonly appears in the form of an adverb phrase,†a
noun phrase, or a prepositional phrase (see chapter 7 for more information on prepositional phrases)
and often indicates time, place, manner, or reason.

Our plane lands late Tuesday night.

We rode our bikes to the beach.

She sings quite dreadfully.

Exhausted, the triathlete collapsed a mere fifty yards from the finish line.

In the first example, the adverbial late Tuesday night, a noun phrase, modifies the verb lands. It tells
us when the plane will land. In the second example, the adverbial to the beach, a prepositional
phrase, modifies the verb rode. It indicates the place we rode our bikes to. In the third example, the
adverbial quite dreadfully, an adverb phrase, modifies the verb sings. It indicates the manner in
which she sings. In the fourth example, the adverbial exhausted, a past participle, modifies the verb
collapsed (see chapter 5 for more information on participles). It indicates the reason that the triathlete
collapsed.
When a sentence is incomplete or ungrammatical without an adverbial, we call this element an
adverbial complement.

They are in the gym.

The town lies one hundred miles north of Los Angeles.

In each example, the adverbial complement is a necessary part of the sentence. In the first example,
the adverbial complement in the gym completes the meaning of the verb are. In the second example,
the adverbial complement one hundred miles north of Los Angeles completes the meaning of the
verb lies.

Adverbs Modifying Pronouns

On occasion, we find a word that we would typically identify as an adverb functioning as an

adjective or, as contemporary grammarians would have it, a determiner to modify a pronoun.

We lost almost everything.

Hardly anyone recognizes me with this new hairstyle.

In the first example, almost, a word which we would typically call an adverb, modifies the pronoun
everything. In the second example, hardly, another word which we would typically call an adverb,
modifies the pronoun anyone.

Redundant Modifiers
Q. A very sick patient heard his doctor say, “You have a cough that’s always chronic.” The patient
asked, “Did he need to use always? It sounds unnecessary to me.”

A. The use of always is redundant. Both chronic and always mean “continuing or constant.” If
something is chronic, it is always present by definition. The doctor only needed to say, “You have
a chronic cough.”

From My Files: Too Many Adverbs

Author Woolcott Gibbs once complained, “Writers always use too damn many adverbs. On one page
recently, I found eleven modifying the verb.” Woolcott went on to say that “a writer who can’t make
his context indicate the way his character is talking ought to be in another line of work.” Watch your
adverbs. Only modify those words that need modifiers (as reported in James Thurber’s The Years
with Ross).
 5

Verbals

Verbals are forms of verbs that are used as other parts of speech.

Riddle me this, dear reader: When is a verb not a verb? The answer: when it’s a verbal. The verbal
is a verb form used as another part of speech. It is a powerful grammatical construct that allows us to
use words derived from verbs in non-verb roles. There are three of these in English: participles,
gerunds, and infinitives.
Because they are derived from verbs, verbals retain some of the abilities of verbs. They can
carry objects or take modifiers and complements. At the same time, verbals possess abilities
unknown to the typical verb, the abilities of other parts of speech. In this way, verbals may perform
the duties of two parts of speech simultaneously.
In spite of these new powers, the verbal must give up one of the abilities of its original verb
form. No verbal can assume the role of a true verb to express action or condition in a sentence.

Participles

The first verbal we will discuss is the participle, a verb form that may be used as an adjective or an
adverbial.*There are two main classes of participle: present and past.
To form the present participle, add -ing to the base form of the verb. This form implies action
that is ongoing at the time of the action of the main verb in the sentence.

Seeing you again, I feel so nostalgic.

The seeing and the feeling of nostalgia occur simultaneously.

To create the past participle, add -ed to the base form of a regular verb or make the necessary
change to an irregular verb. This form implies action now completed but that may have been ongoing
at the time of the main verb.

He wandered from town to town, persecuted wherever he went.

Though the persecution is now over, it was in progress while the man was wandering.

How to Use a Participle

Q. An attorney representing a labor union asked, “Is conflicting the right word to use in the statement
‘There are conflicting reports’?”

A. Conflicting is a present participle. In the sentence, it describes the noun reports. The participle is
used as it should be. It functions as an adjective. The sentence is acceptable, but the author might
also have written, “There are reports which conflict.”

Verbal Rhetoric

Q. A student in my rhetoric class, having just been taught present participles, came forth with this
wonderful quotation. She said, “I’m not a human being but a human becoming.” Several other
students in the class asked me to parse the part of this beautiful sentence dealing with participles.

A. Being and becoming are present participles. They both modify the noun human. The grammar of
the sentence is impeccable. The student has a mind of quicksilver. The professor and the rest of
the class now look upon her with great respect. If only more of us could know and practice her
philosophy of personal growth….

A Financial Matter

Q. “Is compound interest the same as compounded interest?” asked a caller on the verge of opening a
new savings account.

A. The key to resolving this matter is to find the meaning of the word compound in terms of
economics. In such a context, compound is a verb. It means “to pay interest on the accrued interest
and the principal.” Compounded is the past participle form of the verb compound, so
compounded interest is interest paid on accrued interest and the principal. Compound interest is
a colloquial version of the same term. Though we recognize the meaning as economic, the
standard adjective compound has no definition in terms of finances. Interest is not simply
compound. However, brokers are not necessarily grammarians, and most will accept either term.

Placement of Participles

Participles used as adjectives have the same versatility of placement that normal adjectives do. A
participle can come directly before the noun it describes, just as a standard adjective would.

The lawyer’s closing argument was unconvincing.

Late fall sometimes brings freezing rain.

Both closing and freezing serve as standard adjectives in these two examples. The former describes
the subject argument, and the latter describes the direct object rain.
The participle can also fill in for a subject complement, completing the meaning of a linking
verb. Remember that a linking verb cannot stand on its own like an action verb. It needs a
complement to make the predicate complete.

His performance was convincing.

Her injury is debilitating.

The present participles in the above examples, convincing and debilitating, function as subject
complements, completing the meanings of the linking verbs was and is, respectively.
The previous examples were all of present participles. The following are examples of past
participles used as adjectives:

The excited puppy nearly bowled the child over.

The army used a forgotten tactic to surprise the enemy.

The children are thrilled.

In the first example, the past participle excited modifies the noun puppy. In the second example, the
past participle forgotten modifies the noun tactic. In the third example, the past participle thrilled is
a subject complement. It completes the meaning of the linking verb are and complements the subject
children.
Many past participles appear in participle phrases (which we will discuss shortly) that function
as adverbials of reason. Such phrases tell us why the action or condition of the verb is so. These
participle phrases often appear at the beginnings of sentences and are set off by commas.

Hunted to extinction, the dodo is a lost treasure.

Accustomed to luxury, the millionaire was uncomfortable in the shabby hotel.

In the first example, the past participle phrase hunted to extinction is an adverbial of reason. It
modifies the verb is and tells us why the dodo is a lost treasure. In the second example, the past
participle phrase accustomed to luxury is also an adverbial of reason. It modifies the verb was and
tells why the millionaire was uncomfortable.

Participles and Curses

Q. One caller, an enemy of bureaucracy, asked if it was proper for him to exclaim, “This damn
meeting!” during corporate powwows.

A. I’m not sure if such exclamations are proper, but they are understandable. To damn is to condemn.
To grant the verb damn the modifying powers of an adjective, we need its past participle form,
damned. For grammar’s sake, a sharper expression is “This damned meeting!” However, a curse
is colloquial by nature, and the use of damn as an adjective is common enough.
I too find that most meetings are damnable. Don’t forget to say the n. This surprising
 pronunciation introduces us to the phlegmphlegmatic syndrome. In phlegm, the g is silent. In
phlegmatic, the g is pronounced. There are no grammar laws, only guidelines. Keep your ears
open for exceptions and your mind open to change.

Participle Phrases

The astute reader will remember that several of the above-mentioned participles were included in
phrases. These phrases, which include a participle as well as its objects, complements, and
modifiers, are called participle phrases.

Modifiers in Participle Phrases

First, we turn to the modifiers of participles. A modifier, as you know, is any word that acts to
describe or qualify another word in such a way that it changes the meaning of that other word.
Adjectives modify or describe nouns. Adverbs modify or describe verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs. Participles may be modified by adverbs or adverbials.

Flying into the storm, Superman risked life and limb.

This sentence contains the present participle phrase flying into the storm, which modifies the verb
risked. The entire phrase functions as an adverbial, telling where Superman risked life and limb. The
prepositional phrase into the storm, an adverbial, modifies the present participle flying and
indicates where Superman flew.
Here is a second example of a modified participle:

We came upon a lost child weeping uncontrollably.

The present participle phrase weeping uncontrollably modifies the noun child. It describes the state
of the child. The adverb uncontrollably modifies the present participle weeping. It tells how the
child wept.

A Misused Modifier

Q. “Here’s a beauty I discovered in a history textbook,” said a physician and close friend. “Allenby’s
troops included 200 rangers mounted on camels and D. H. Lawrence.”

A. Poor D. H. Lawrence! No poet has the material fiber to carry so many rangers through the desert.
It’s sheer brutality! The sentence contains an odd past participle phrase, mounted on camels and
D. H. Lawrence. The fault lies with the prepositional phrase on camels and D. H. Lawrence. It
modifies the participle as an adverbial would, telling where the rangers were mounted. D. H.
Lawrence appears to be an object of the preposition on, so both he and the camels would have
carried rangers. The author intended to include D. H. Lawrence among the rangers on the camels.
I believe a bit of rearrangement is in order. The sentence should read, “Allenby’s troops included
D. H. Lawrence and 200 rangers mounted on camels.”
Objects and Complements in Participle Phrases
Next, we look at the objects and complements of participles. Remember that the participle retains
some of the abilities of its ancestor, the verb. The participle can take an object or precede a subject
complement, just as a verb can.
The following examples illustrate the objects of participles:

Tipping his hat, the stranger went on his merry way.

Giving her the message, the boy felt a weight lift from his shoulders.

In the first example, the present participle phrase tipping his hat is an adverbial that modifies
the verb went. It tells how the stranger went on his merry way. The present participle tipping takes a
direct object, hat. It indicates what the stranger tipped.
In the second example, the present participle phrase giving her the message is an adverbial that
modifies the verb felt. It tells why the boy felt the weight lift. The present participle giving takes an
indirect object, her, and a direct object, message. Message tells what was given, and her indicates
to whom it was given.
The following are examples of participles used with subject complements:

Being the king, he would never allow his subjects to go hungry.

Feeling strong, the runner fell into a rapid pace.

The first example contains the present participle phrase being the king that modifies the verb
phrase would allow. It tells why he would never allow his subjects to go hungry. The phrase contains
a subject complement, king, which completes the meaning of the present participle being. *
In the second example, the present participle phrase feeling strong modifies the verb fell. It
tells why the runner fell into a rapid pace. The phrase contains a subject complement, strong, which
completes the meaning of the present participle feeling.
Subject complements in participle phrases always complete the meanings of participle forms of
linking verbs. In these examples, being is the present participle form of the linking verb be, and
feeling is the present participle form of the linking verb feel. Depending upon its usage, the verb feel
can be either an action or a linking verb.

Participles Long Past

Q. The owner of a very well-known eastern seaboard restaurant asked, “On my menu, should I write
‘ice tea’?”

A. Colloquially, “ice tea” is acceptable. Grammatically, it needs some work. Many have commented
that the drink is not ice tea, but iced tea. Iced is the past participle of the verb ice.†This example
illustrates a wide variety of verbal misdemeanors. Power steering should be powered steering,
although “power steering” first appeared in print in 1932, possibly before it appeared in cars.
Link sausages should actually be called linked sausages, and pancakes should technically be
 panned cakes, although the noun pancake dates back to the fifteenth century. The weight of history
is against the grammarians on this one. Similarly, roast beef would become roasted beef, and ice
cream, grammatically speaking, should be iced cream. Then, of course, no bagel is complete
without a slathering of creamed cheese, although cream cheese was around in 1853.
Why, in all these examples, did Americans drop the participle ending -ed? It seems to The
National Grammar Hot Line that creamed cheese has much more pizzazz than cream cheese.
English speakers are inclined to shrink the number of words or letters it takes for them to speak or
write a statement. This penchant for brevity exists in England as well. Australia has even gotten
into the act, replacing the ol’ standard barbecue with the newfangled “barbie.”

Troublesome Phrasing

Q. A teacher called to say, “Listen to this winner written by the principal of our school: ‘Being
inclined to bark, whine, have embarrassing accidents, and noisily lick themselves, students should
not bring their dogs to class.’”

A. I’ve had some troublesome and whiney students, but none have ever barked, licked themselves, or
had embarrassing accidents. The present participle phrase being inclined to bark, whine, have
embarrassing accidents, and noisily lick themselves is an adverbial of reason that tells us why
students should not bring their dogs to class.
Any participle phrase has an implied subject. In this sentence, the structure suggests that the
implied subject of the participle phrase is the subject of the sentence, students. We know,
however, that the principal intended the implied subject of his participle phrase to be the direct
object dogs. Let’s reword the sentence so that it reads, “Students should not bring their dogs to
class, as pets are inclined to bark, whine, have embarrassing accidents, and noisily lick
themselves.”

Participles in Verb Phrases

Q. A troubled caller asked, “Is a participle used in a verb phrase still a verbal?”

A. This caller has brought us to an important distinction that must be made in the use of the participle.
Recall that a verb phrase is made up of one or more auxiliary verbs and a principal or main verb.
The participle is the principal or main verb component of the verb phrase. A participle in this
role, because it is functioning as a verb, is not a verbal. Verbals are forms of verbs that have the
functions of other parts of speech.

The winter is growing longer.

My sister has graduated from college.

In these examples, we see a present participle and a past participle, respectively, used
as main verbs in two verb phrases.
However, it is not always clear that the participle is part of a verb phrase,
 especially if it follows a linking verb. Is the participle a main verb or is it a subject
complement?

Her manner is endearing.

She is tired of your demands.

The man is running for his life.

The first two examples contain participles used as subject complements. The present
participle endearing complements the subject manner. It tells what her manner is. The
past participle tired complements the subject she. It indicates how she feels. The third
example includes a participle as part of a verb phrase. The present participle running
is the main verb in the verb phrase is running. The participle completes the verb
phrase. Though we quickly discerned the purposes of these participles, this task is not
always so easy.
Fortunately, there is a simple rule with which we can make this distinction. Any
participle that 1) follows a linking verb and that 2) describes the subject of the
sentence functions as a subject complement. A participle that 1) follows a linking
verb, but 2) denotes action, is probably the main verb in a verb phrase.

Your flowers are blooming. (main verb in verb phrase)

My house is freezing during the winter. (subject complement)

We have tried to remain calm. (main verb in verb phrase)

We were drenched after the downpour. (subject complement)

Animation and Grammar

Q. A movie critic questioned whether this sentence animates the animators. “The animators are
animating.”

A. To animate is to enliven. The present participle animating could describe the animators or it could
complete a verb phrase. In the descriptive role, animating is a subject complement. It informs us
that the animators are such captivating characters that they give life and energy to the people
around them. As a friend of several, I find the interpretation believable. However, common sense
makes the other option more likely. The participle completes the verb phrase are animating. It
expresses an action that animators perform. They animate cartoons.

The King Needs a Participle

Q. An English professor at a Midwestern university called with a question about pronunciation and
 told us, “I was shook up by some of the students in my classes.”

A. Even though “shook up” is a colloquialism, The National Grammar Hot Line was “shaken up” by
what he said. After all, the caller was the head of an English department! The word in question,
shook, is the main verb in the verb phrase is shook and is supposed to be a past participle.
However, shook is the past indicative form of shake. The sentence requires the true past
participle, shaken.
Also, it is enough simply to be shaken by students. The word up is extraneous. Incidentally,
“shook up” has been in print since 1897, nearly sixty years before Elvis Presley became “All
Shook Up.”

Dangling Participles

One of the most insidious but also the most amusing of the common grammar errors is that of the
dangling participle. As you know, participles often modify words in sentences. As it is with other
modifiers, the word that the participle modifies must be clear. When it is difficult to determine what
word a participle modifies or when there is no word that the participle can modify, we say that the
participle dangles.
As disconcerting as the dangling participle can be to those concerned with clear speech, it does
provide many amusing errors. Here are some calls to the Hot Line that illustrate the danger and the
humor of the problem.

Running Water

Q. One caller asked, “Is this a dangling participle? ‘He left the water running.’”

A. Does this sentence truly contain an example of a dangling participle? The question gave me pause.
In a strict and narrow sense, I suppose that it does. Someone unfamiliar with English idiom might
read this sentence and notice that the participle running could modify either water or he. Is the
water running or is he running? Ignoring context, there is no way to tell. Under this interpretation,
the sentence would contain a dangling participle. Our hypersensitive critic might insist that the
sentence read, “He left the running water” or “Running, he left the water.” By placing the
participle next to the noun that it modifies, he or she will eliminate the confusion.
However, a participle dangles because it is used in a manner that obfuscates the meaning of
the sentence. No person familiar with the English language would flinch at hearing someone say,
“He left the water running.” It is obvious that the water, and not he, was running. No one
constructs sentences that read, “He left the running water” or “Running, he left the water.” Both
amended versions sound quite unnatural. Since the meaning of the original sentence is clear as
written, the participle, in this writer’s mind, does not dangle.

Parking Grammar

Q. “Don’t go into darkened parking lots unless well lighted,” reported Denver’s Channel 4. Three
 callers asked, “What does this sentence mean?”

A. This is murky thinking all around. What word does the past participle phrase well lighted modify?
It could modify the understood subject of the sentence, you, but this meaning is ridiculous. How
can the driver be well lighted? The participle could also modify the plural noun lots. Then the
sentence would indicate that you shouldn’t enter a darkened parking lot unless it is well lighted.
How can a darkened lot have light? The sentence needs serious attention. It should read, “Only
enter well lighted parking lots.”

Pit Bulls and Participles

Q. “I just wrote this sentence in a report,” said a police officer. “‘A nine-year-old girl has been
attacked by a pack of pit bulls returning home from school.’ My sergeant laughed and gave me
your number. What’s wrong with it? It tells what happened!”

A. The present participle phrase returning home from school appears to modify the noun pack. The
sentence implies that the pit bulls were returning home from school, not the girl. We can remedy
the situation by writing, “A nine-year-old girl returning home from school has been attacked by a
pack of pit bulls.”

Airline Magazines

Q. “I read funny things in airline magazines. What do you think of this: ‘He was walking off with my
attaché case filled with Las Vegas winnings’?”

A. It’s funny, all right! Filled is a past participle, but, as part of the past participle phrase filled with
Las Vegas winnings, does it describe the subject, he, or the object of a preposition, case? The
journalist should have written, “He was walking off with my attaché case which was filled with
Las Vegas winnings.”
That reminds me of the wayward husband who, sneaking home late one night, stumbles on
almost every step and makes an awful racket. His wife calls down to see if he’s all right. “Yes,”
he slurs, “but I’m carrying a case of beer.” “Well, leave it downstairs,” she says., “I can’t,” he
replies. “It’s in my stomach.”

Birthday Bash

Q. Several members of the English department called in this one. “James Dickey, poet and professor,
was a guest of honor at a surprise luncheon with a birthday cake thrown by several close friends
in the English department.”

A. Duck, James! Thrown by several close friends in the English department is a dangling
participle phrase. It sounds as if this past participle phrase modifies the noun cake. In reality,
James Dickey was a guest of honor at a luncheon thrown by his friends in the English Department.
 Dickey was honored with a birthday cake. It wasn’t thrown at him! The author should have
written, “James Dickey, poet and professor, was honored with a birthday cake at a luncheon
thrown by several of his close friends in the English department.”

Gerunds

The second type of verbal that we are to discuss is the gerund, a verb form that takes the place of a
noun in a sentence. Contemporary grammarians include gerunds under the category of
nominals.*Gerunds can function anywhere in a sentence that a standard noun can. As with the present
participle, the gerund is created by adding -ing to the base form of the verb.

Knowing is half the battle. (functions as subject complement)

His favorite pastime is sailing. (functions as subject complement)

She loves skiing. (functions as direct object)

The timid seventh-grader would not give dancing a chance. (functions as indirect
object)

The brace keeps the tree from falling. (functions as object of a preposition)

Gerund Phrases

As a verbal, the gerund retains the ability of verbs to take objects, complements, and adverb or
adverbial modifiers. As a nominal, it gains a new ability, one unavailable to the adjective/adverbial-
like participle. The gerund can also be modified by adjectives. A gerund, its objects, its
complements, and its modifiers together constitute a gerund phrase.

Use of the Gerund

Q. A caller asked, “What’s wrong here? I heard something weird on the radio. The announcer said,
‘Eating fruits decrease heart attacks.’ ”

A. The sentence contains a plural verb, decrease, that agrees with the plural noun fruits, but that noun
is not the subject of the sentence. Eating fruits, a gerund phrase, is the singular subject of the
sentence. It needs a singular verb, decreases. The announcer should have said, “Eating fruits
decreases heart attacks.”

Modifiers in Gerund Phrases

Gerunds, in a nod to their verb ancestry, retain the right to be modified. Like the participle, the gerund
may carry adverb or adverbial modifiers.
 Eating quietly can be difficult.

Traveling to the desert requires careful preparation.

The crashing of the waves lulled me to sleep.

Each of these examples is of a gerund modified by an adverb or an adverbial. The gerund phrases
eating quietly, traveling to the desert,and the crashing of the waves function as the subjects of the
sentences. The adverb quietly modifies the gerund eating. The prepositional phrase to the desert
functions as an adverbial to modify the gerund traveling. The prepositional phrase of the waves
functions as an adverbial to modify the gerund crashing*(the article the also modifies crashing).
Gerunds, like normal nouns but unlike their relatives, the participles, may also be modified by
adjectives. These modifiers may be standard adjectives, as well as possessive case nouns or
possessive pronouns used as adjectives.

Her quick thinking saved us all a lot of trouble.

Slow dancing is one of life’s greatest pleasures.

My mom’s cooking is reason enough for me to travel back to Illinois.

The first sentence contains a gerund, thinking, modified by the adjective quick and the possessive
pronoun her. Here, the possessive pronoun serves as a modifier. The second sentence contains a
gerund, dancing, modified by the adjective slow. In the final sentence, the gerund cooking is modified
by the possessive case noun mom’s.

Objects and Complements in Gerund Phrases

Gerunds may take both indirect and direct objects. As former verbs, this is their right and privilege.

Knowing your enemy is the best defense.

Telling her the secret took a big load off my chest.

The first example contains the gerund phrase knowing your enemy. It functions as the subject of
the sentence. The noun enemy is the direct object of the gerund knowing.
In the second example, the gerund phrase is telling her the secret. It is this telling of a secret
that is the subject of the sentence. The gerund telling takes both an indirect and a direct object. The
indirect object is a pronoun, her, and the direct object is a noun, secret.
Gerunds formed from linking verbs may take subject complements. Since the gerunds are based
on linking verbs in these cases, the complements are necessary for the gerunds to acquire complete
meanings. Remember that linking verbs cannot stand alone.

Being a cook is the best job I can imagine.

She cannot help looking beautiful.

In the first sentence, the subject complement cook completes the meaning of the gerund being. The
phrase being a cook is the subject of the sentence. In the second sentence, the subject complement
beautiful completes the meaning of the gerund looking. The phrase looking beautiful is the subject
complement of the subject of the sentence, she.
Notice that without these complements, the sentences would leave you hanging.

Being is the best job I can imagine.

She cannot help looking.

Lacking complements, the two sentences are incomplete and unclear in meaning.

Illegal Gerunds

Q. A philosophy teacher was confounded by a sentence she had read in a philosophical journal. She
said, “Look at this sentence: ‘Being involved with reality and improving it is important to me.’ Is
it legal to use gerunds like that?”

A. I’m sure that the sentence is legal in the eyes of the law. As much as we might need them, there are
no grammar police to punish the offenders, only watchdogs like me to advocate change. Being
involved with reality and improving it are gerund phrases used as the compound subject of the
sentence. They name that which the sentence is about. There is a problem in the sentence, but it is
not with the gerunds.
We know that subject and verb must agree in number. A singular subject needs a singular verb.
A plural subject needs a plural verb. A compound subject is plural, but this sentence has a
singular verb, is. It should read, “Being involved with reality and improving it are important to
me.” The gerunds were fine, but the verb was off.

Possession and the Gerund

Q. “My boss handed me back a report with this sentence underlined, highlighted, and circled: ‘I
approved Jim leaving.’ She said that she won’t stand for this sort of sloppy writing anymore.
What’s the problem with it? The mistake has made me kind of edgy at work.”

A. I commend the caller’s boss for her devotion to proper grammar, but maybe she should switch to
decaf. The caller’s mistake was an honest one that even the wiliest grammarian may be prone to
make. It is certainly not worth the discomfort the boss’s harsh words caused. Here, though, is the
explanation of the problem.
As we saw in the discussion above, possessive case nouns and possessive pronouns can
modify gerunds. The caller, however, has used a noun to modify a gerund without putting that noun
in the possessive case. After all, he did not approve Jim. The caller approved his leaving. The
sentence should read, “I approved Jim’s leaving.”
Here are two sentences with the same flaw:
 She hates to ignore them suffering. (incorrect)

I object to him winning that point. (incorrect)

In each sentence, the author has created an incorrect and illogical construction by
failing to use the appropriate possessive pronoun. She does not hate to ignore them;
she hates to ignore their suffering. And I do not object to him; I object to his winning.
Here are the correct constructions:

She hates to ignore their suffering. (correct)

I object to his winning that point. (correct)

In the grammatically correct versions, the modifying pronouns are possessive

pronouns.

Infinitives

We end our discussion of verbals with the most powerful of the three, the infinitive. The infinitive
combines the abilities of its relatives. Like the gerund, the infinitive can function as a nominal. And
like the participle, the infinitive can function as an adjective or an adverbial. In this way, the
infinitive is the most functional of the three verbals.
It is hard to miss an infinitive. Most are marked by a single word, the word to. To make a
complete infinitive, combine this marker, to, with the base form of the desired verb: to love, to play,
to dream. Infinitives can also make use of the present perfect verb form: to have been, to have
seen, to have given. Some special cases do exist where inclusion of the word to would create
awkward phrasing, and there we choose to omit the marker. We will talk about these in more detail
later on.
Notice that the infinitive bears a striking resemblance to the prepositional phrase. To is
sometimes a preposition, but infinitives and prepositional phrases are quite different. In order to
distinguish between the two, remember that the infinitive always consists of the word to followed by
a verb. No true verb will ever follow the preposition in a prepositional phrase.

Functions of Infinitives

The infinitive, unlike its verbal counterparts, can be used as a nominal, an adjective, or an adverbial.
We first turn to its nominal uses. As a nominal, the infinitive can fill almost any role that a standard
noun would. We can use infinitives as subjects, objects, and subject complements.

His goal is to climb Mt. Everest. (functions as subject complement)

To swim is my greatest love. (functions as subject)

 My friend Bud loves to ski. (functions as direct object)

The infinitive can go almost anywhere a noun can.

Infinitives also work well as modifiers. Some infinitives modify nouns as standard adjectives
would. They follow the nouns that they modify.

We need clean air to breathe.

There are no good movies to see.

He doesn’t have anything to lose.

In the first example, the infinitive to breathe modifies the noun air. In the second example, the
infinitive to see modifies the noun movies. In the third example, the infinitive to lose modifies the
pronoun anything.
Other infinitives function as adverbials to modify verbs and adjectives. Infinitives in this role
follow the verbs and adjectives that they modify.

We are looking to buy a car.

The man lied to save his neck.

In the first sentence, the infinitive to buy modifies the verb looking. In the second sentence, the
infinitive to save modifies the verb lied. Infinitives modifying verbs often express a purpose. They
describe the reasons behind the actions of the verbs.
The following are examples of infinitives functioning as adverbials to modify adjectives. Again,
the infinitive follows the word that it modifies.

The couple was happy to leave.

The kids were ready to go.

In most cases where an infinitive modifies an adjective, the adjective modified follows a linking
verb. This is certainly true in the examples above. The infinitive to leave indicates what the couple
was happy about. It modifies the adjective happy. The adjective follows the linking verb was. The
infinitive to go tells what the kids were ready for. It modifies the adjective ready. This adjective
follows the linking verb were.

To Make Amends

Q. “What does ‘to make amends’ mean?” asked a caller. “Isn’t amend a verb?”

A. Amend is a verb, meaning “to fix, correct, or change.” To make amends is to compensate for injury
or loss. It’s an infinitive phrase with amends as the direct object of the infinitive to make. While
amend began life as a verb, common usage has shaped the word into a noun. As a noun, amends
 means “recompense or payment.” The use of amends as the object of an infinitive is acceptable.
Please note that we always use amends in the plural form. One can never make an amend.

Infinitive Phrases

The infinitive, accompanied by objects, complements, or modifiers, is called an infinitive phrase.

I do not want to eat this food.

In this sentence, the infinitive phrase to eat this food is the direct object of the verb want.

Modifiers in Infinitive Phrases

As a verbal, an infinitive may have adverb or adverbial modifiers.

We would like you to return quickly.

I want you to come with me.

In the first example, the infinitive phrase to return quickly carries the adverb modifier quickly. In the
second example, the infinitive to come is modified by the adverbial with me.

Objects and Complements in Infinitive Phrases

Infinitives are capable of taking any objects or complements that normal verbs can. These include
direct objects, indirect objects, and subject complements.

I need to hear the broadcast.

I have to tell her the news.

No one likes to be the last person in line.

We just want to be happy.

The infinitive in the first example, to hear, takes the noun broadcast as its direct object. In the second
example, the infinitive to tell takes an indirect object, her, and a direct object, news. The infinitive in
the third example, to be, takes a subject complement, the noun person. The infinitive in the final
example, to be, also takes a subject complement, the adjective happy. Notice that the subject
complements complete the meanings of the infinitive forms of a linking verb, to be.

Infinitive Interpretation

Q. The first line of a front-page story in a large metropolitan newspaper read, “Police took away two
teenage boys to try to settle the situation.” Several readers called, wondering about the meaning of
 the sentence.

A. To try to settle the situation is an infinitive phrase. It consists of an infinitive, to try, followed
by a direct object, to settle the situation. The direct object is another infinitive phrase. It
consists of an infinitive, to settle, followed by a direct object, situation.
The statement is open to interpretation. The police might have taken the boys away so that the
boys might work together to resolve a conflict. They might also have taken the boys away as a
means to resolve a conflict. The sentence should be rewritten for clarification. Under the former
interpretation, the sentence could read, “The police took the teenage boys away so that the two of
them could settle the situation.” Under the latter interpretation, the sentence could read, “In an
attempt to settle the situation, the police took the two teenage boys into custody.”

Infinitives in Other Roles: Delayed Subjects

Q. “What’s the relationship between it and the infinitive phrase in the sentence ‘It took so long to get
there ’?” asked a caller. “My daughter said this once after a long car trip. I thought you might be
able to help me out. I’m just curious.”

A. It does my heart good to get a call from someone who is merely curious. It’s good to know that the
love of grammar is still alive in the world. One role that an infinitive can fill is that of the
delayed subject. Sentences with delayed subjects always begin with the dummy it, a dummy
element that takes the place of some word(s) in a sentence. Dummy elements were once called
expletives. The word expletive comes from the Latin explere, meaning “to fill up,” and this is
what it does. The dummy element or expletive fills the place of the subject.
In the caller’s sentence, the dummy it fills the place of the subject to get there. The true
subject, the infinitive phrase, is delayed till the end of the sentence. To verify that this is truly a
delayed subject, replace the dummy it with the infinitive phrase.

To get there took so long.

The infinitive phrase moves easily from its place at the end as a delayed subject to the
front of the sentence where it becomes a normal subject.

From My Files: Grammar Dramatics

A New York drama critic always praised the first Broadway show of the new season. He explained
that he was reluctant to stone the first cast. To stone the first cast is an infinitive phrase. Cast is the
direct object of the verb to stone. The Hot Line admires this critic’s clever play on words.

Bare Infinitives

As mentioned earlier, it is sometimes possible to omit the infinitive marker to for the sake of a more
harmonious-sounding construction. Grammarians call such infinitives without markers bare
infinitives. The English language only allows us to omit the marker in infinitives placed after certain
verbs in the active voice.
The following list of sentences illustrates a few of the verbs after which we may omit the
infinitive marker.* The verbs in italics are the verbs to note (they have been written again in
parentheses in their present indicative forms at the ends of the sentences). The words in bold are bare
infinitives. The marker to is missing in each. Read every sentence twice, first without the marker and
then with the marker restored. The bare versions are clearly preferable.

They bade us depart with all due haste. (bid)

I felt her heart beat. (feel)

We heard the birds whistle a merry tune. (hear)

Why not let him cook dinner? (let)

The guards made the crowd disperse peacefully. (make)

I saw you hide in the bushes. (see)

The detective watched him cross the street. (watch)

When these verbs are used in the passive voice, the marker to returns.

They were bade to depart with all due haste. (bid)

Her heart was felt to beat. (feel)

The birds were heard to sing a merry tune. (hear)

Most of us omit to when we encounter situations such as these without a second thought. The practice
is an inseparable part of the way we write and speak, but understanding our instincts makes us
stronger. These constructions are indeed infinitives in spite of their unusual forms.

A Misused Verbal

Q. During a sermon, a pastor opined, “I hate hurting people.” A member of the congregation called to
say, “I think there’s a more sensitive wording for this sentence. I know what the pastor meant, but
he needs to think about his grammar. What would you change?”

A. In the sentence, hurting could be a present participle. It would modify the noun people. The
pastor’s message would be that he dislikes people in pain, a troublesome statement for a holy man
to make. More likely, hurting is a gerund, part of the gerund phrase hurting people. In this case,
the pastor would be saying that he dislikes causing harm to others, a reasonable sentiment for such
a man to express. Unfortunately, the structure of the sentence does not indicate the correct
 interpretation. A better choice of grammar would be to use the infinitive to hurt in place of
hurting. The sentence would read, “I hate to hurt people.”

Split Infinitives

Perhaps the most notorious of all grammatical mistakes is the split infinitive. English teachers have
railed against this offense since time immemorial, but it is one that not even the most astute student of
grammar is immune from making. Even starship captains are guilty of this crime. In the original Star
Trek television show, Captain James T. Kirk, in his opening monologue, declares the Enterprise’s
five-year mission to be “to boldly go where no man has gone before.”
Captain Kirk has split his infinitive, to go, straight down the middle with the adverb boldly: to
boldly go. A split infinitive is any infinitive phrase construction that separates the infinitive marker to
from the verb. The most common splits occur when modifiers are misplaced: to thoroughly wash, to
loudly sing, to joyfully dance. This was Captain Kirk’s mistake.
As a general rule, the marker and the verb should be consecutive items in the infinitive phrase:
to wash thoroughly, to sing loudly, to dance joyfully. Here are a few sentences that violate the rule:

The workers need to completely redo our driveway. (incorrect)

Tell Beth to quickly come here. (incorrect)

He would like to often visit. (incorrect)

The adverb completely splits the infinitive to redo. The adverb quickly splits the infinitive to come.
And the adverb often splits the infinitive to visit. These split infinitives make for awkward
sentences. Here are the same examples with infinitives restored:

The workers need to redo our driveway completely. (correct)

Tell Beth to come here quickly. (correct)

He would like to visit often. (correct)

Without the split infinitives, the sentences are much easier to digest. Captain Kirk should have stated
his mission to be “to go boldly where no man has gone before.”
The split infinitive is not always an act of grammatical mayhem. Some well-known writers have
taken artistic license to split infinitives, but they have done so carefully and judiciously. They use
split infinitives to emphasize certain points or simply to create more poetic constructions.

From My Files: Literary Splits

“When I split an infinitive, God damn it, I split it so it stays split.”

—Raymond Chandler (1888–1959), American novelist and
 screenwriter (The Big Sleep), in a letter to his publisher.

Perfect Forms: A Last Point About Verbals

Like verbs, verbals can be expressed in perfect form. Recall that the perfect form implies action that
ends. To create the perfect form of a present participle, use having with the past participle form of the
verb. The past participle has no perfect form.

Having said his piece, the man departed. (perfect form of present participle)

Having seen the results, Bob vowed never to cook again. (perfect form of present
participle)

Having felt an earthquake, we moved to another state. (perfect form of present

participle)

In each of these examples, the present participle in perfect form is an adverbial of reason, telling why
the action of the verb was so.
To create the perfect form of a gerund, use having with the past participle of the verb.

Having seen the albino gorillas is an honor and a privilege.

Having known her gives me great satisfaction.

In the first example, the gerund having seen in the gerund phrase having seen the albino
gorillas is in the perfect form. The entire phrase serves as the subject of the sentence. In the second
example, the gerund having known in the gerund phrase having known her is in the perfect form.
This phrase also serves as the subject of the sentence.
To create the perfect form of an infinitive, use the infinitive marker to followed by have and the
past participle of the verb.

To have won the award is a great honor.

I was fortunate to have seen the forests before they were paved over.

In the first example, the infinitive to have won in the infinitive phrase to have won the award is in
the perfect form. The entire phrase is the subject of the sentence. In the second example, the infinitive
to have seen in the infinitive phrase to have seen the forests before they were paved over is in
the perfect form. The entire phrase is an adverbial, modifying the adjective fortunate.
 6

Pronouns

Pronouns take the places of nouns in sentences.

All ears crave variety. A varied array of words and sentences is candy for our brains. Repetition and
overuse are chopped livers and spoons full of castor oil. Nouns can grow especially cumbersome
when we discuss the same person, place, or thing over a period of time. The discriminating listener
cringes at hearing one noun used twice in the same sentence or even twice in consecutive sentences.
He or she would prefer that one occurrence be replaced with another word. To this end, the English
language has incorporated the pronoun.
It is impossible not to understand pronouns. Look in your dictionary and you will quickly
discover that the prefix pro- means “in place of,” “in favor of,” “supporting,” or “acting as.”
Knowing this, you will never forget the function of pronouns. They stand in for nouns.

The last time I saw Jack, I gave him a black eye.

Sally is impossible. I wish she would move away.

Instead of using Jack again, we use the pronoun him. Instead of using Sally again, we use the pronoun
she. The pronouns please our ears by eliminating repetition. Read these same examples without the
pronouns.

The last time I saw Jack, I gave Jack a black eye.

Sally is impossible. I wish Sally would move away.

They sound terrible, don’t they?

The pronoun has no identity in and of itself. Instead, it takes meaning from the context in which it
is found. This meaning usually comes from the word for which the pronoun stands, called its
antecedent. In the above examples, Jack is the antecedent of the pronoun him, and Sally is the
antecedent of the pronoun she.

George Washington picked up his waistcoat and admired its golden buttons.

Here, George Washington is the antecedent of his and waistcoat is the antecedent of its. These
antecedents put faces on the generic pronouns.
 Since pronouns take the places of nouns, they can fill any role that nouns might fill and have the
same four properties as nouns: gender, person, number, and case. Refer back to chapter 1 on nouns
for definitions of these terms. We will look at each property in greater detail as it becomes relevant to
your understanding of pronouns.

Types of Pronouns

Pronouns can be of eight different types: personal, possessive, reciprocal, reflexive,

demonstrative, interrogative, relative, and indefinite. We will look at each in turn.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns indicate a person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. Each personal pronoun refers
to a specific individual or group.

I am too tired to drive.

You saw the meteor shower last weekend.

She taught the kids to speak Japanese.

Bob saw them at the new burger joint.

The pronoun I refers to the person speaking. The pronoun you refers to the person spoken to. The
pronouns she and them refer to persons spoken about.
The following is a complete declension of the personal pronouns:

Notice that only the third person makes any distinction according to gender. The remaining
pronouns have an unknown gender. Their genders are not explicit in their forms but come from the
contexts in which the pronouns are used.
Case and Personal Pronouns
Always choose your pronouns carefully. Many unnecessary mistakes occur because speakers and
writers use a pronoun in the wrong case, substituting a nominative case pronoun for an objective case
pronoun or an objective case pronoun for a nominative case pronoun. Here are a few examples of
poor use of pronouns.

Sheila and me love to ride motorcycles. (incorrect)

Bob’s friend took a picture of Jen and he. (incorrect)

The dog chased my friend and I to the edge of its yard. (incorrect)

The first example uses the objective case form, me, but needs the nominative case form, I. The
second two examples use the nominative case forms of the pronouns, but need the objective case
forms, him and me. Here are the same sentences written correctly:

Sheila and I love to ride motorcycles. (correct)

Bob’s friend took a picture of Jen and him. (correct)

The dog chased my friend and me to the edge of its yard. (correct)

Many callers have rung the Hot Line with questions about case and personal pronouns. Here are
a few of the most informative:

A Case Question

Q. “My teacher said this isn’t okay. What do you say?” inquired a caller. “The sentence is ‘Give it to
us, you and I. ’”

A. Your teacher is correct. Us is the object of the preposition to and is in the objective case.
Therefore, the pronouns referring to us, you and I, must also be in the objective case. You is fine,
but I is the nominative case form of the first person, singular personal pronoun. The sentence
should read, “Give it to us, you and me.”

Another Case Question

Q. “Is it correct to say, ‘He opened the door for you and I’?” asked an inquisitive English student.

A. This is a terrible sentence. For you and I is a prepositional phrase. The objects of the preposition
for both need to be in the objective case. Again, you is fine, but please change I, the nominative
case form, to me, the objective case form.
Sometimes a trick is necessary to help determine the right form to use. If you are unsure of
whether to use the nominative or objective case forms of pronouns when two are used together,
 examine each one separately. Take the sentence “She opened the door for him and I.” I can tell you
that there is a mistake with a pronoun in there. To figure out which one, let’s look at each pronoun
in isolation. “She opened the door for him.” This sounds fine, so try the other. “She opened the
door for I.” Does this make your ears ring? It should. We need an objective case pronoun, not a
nominative case pronoun. Rewritten, the sentence should read, “She opened the door for him and
me.”

Yet Another Case Question

Q. A private secretary called about her telephone grammar. She asked, “Should I say, ‘This is me’ or
‘This is I’?”

A. One aspiring to literacy would say, “This is I ” or “This is she ” or “This is he.” The pronoun
following the linking verb is in each sentence is a subject complement, renaming the subject this.
Therefore, each pronoun needs to be in the nominative case form. The response “This is me” uses
a pronoun, me, in the objective case form.

Still Another Case Question

Q. A choir member called about her church’s slogan: “The Church is We.” She said, “This sounds
ridiculous. I know there’s a grammar problem in there somewhere.”

A. The slogan is perfectly correct. We is a subject complement, correctly in the nominative case
form. It renames the subject, so it must share the properties of the subject. Bravo or brava to the
grammarian who composed that slogan.

Gender and Personal Pronouns

English is a sexist language. Everyday speech is full of male-biased words such as mankind,
repairman, and chairman that blatantly disregard the places that females hold in society. The same
sexism is evident in our use of the masculine pronouns he, him, and his in language that attempts to
speak unpreferentially to males and females, while avoiding troublesome word constructions, such as
he or she.

If someone sees my dog, he should call me at once.

Here, the speaker has used the masculine pronoun he to refer to both men and women. The speaker
does not intend to imply that only men who see his lost dog should call. (There, even I have used the
masculine pronoun unfairly when I referred to “his lost dog.”) The poor soul wants anyone who sees
his dog to call, male or female. He has simply done what he was taught to do, to use the masculine
pronoun.
Is this practice fair? I think not! The sentence could have been written as follows:

If someone sees my dog, he or she should call me at once.

But this is awkward wording. Why not create a gender neutral pronoun that applies strictly to people?
(I do not think that anyone wants to fall under the heading of the neuter pronoun it.) This new neutral
pronoun might seem strange at first, but, in the end, our language would be stronger and less biased.
English also contains another gender peculiarity by which speakers simply disregard gender and
use the neuter pronoun it. This typically occurs when a speaker refers to animals or infants. Such
statements do not imply that their subjects have no normal gender, but that the gender just isn’t
important or isn’t known.

The baby sucked its thumb.

The dog tucked its tail between its legs and ran when it saw the vacuum cleaner.

The pronouns it and its are neuter pronouns. We assume that the sexes of the baby and the dog are
unknown or unimportant.

Number and Personal Pronouns

There are two points to remember about number in personal pronouns. The first is that the pronoun
you, whether it is singular or plural, always takes a plural verb.

You are late for the meeting. (correct)

You were late for the meeting. (correct)

Both are and were are plural forms of the verb be. The proper English speaker would never use the
singular forms.

You is late for the meeting. (incorrect)

You was late for the meeting. (incorrect)

These sentences are unacceptable!

The second point to remember is that the plural pronoun we can be used in a singular manner as
a royal we. Traditionally, a monarch, for reasons known only to the monarchy, will refer to himself or
herself with the pronoun we.

We will permit you to kiss the ring.

We are not amused!

Monarchs supposedly rule with God’s blessing and guidance, so maybe the monarchs are including
their deity in this royal we. Or perhaps it is an ego issue. The monarchs’ heads are swollen enough
that they look upon themselves as multiple people. The royal we sounds a bit silly, but this is how it
is done.
We can also be used as a singular pronoun in the editorial we. A journalist may refer to himself
or herself with the pronoun we to distance himself or herself from his or her writing. Please note,
however, that even though the royal and editorial wes refer to single individuals, we still use them
with plural verbs. Queen Victoria would never say, “We is not amused.”

Dummy It
The neuter pronoun it is the most malleable of the personal pronouns. It can function as the subject of
a sentence without standing for any specific noun or nouns. Contemporary grammarians refer to this
pronoun as the dummy it (one of the dummy elements).

It snowed last night.

It is cold outside.

Neither of these pronouns has a discernible antecedent. They both introduce the sentences without
referring to specific nouns.
The dummy it can also fill the place of a delayed subject. The true subject, some phrase or
clause, is delayed until the end of the sentence.

It is true that Wendy has a new job.

It took us a long time to get there.

In the first example, it stands in for the clause that Wendy has a new job. In the second example, it
stands in for the infinitive phrase to get there. To see that the clause and phrase are the true subjects,
substitute each one for the pronoun it.

That Wendy has a new job is true.

To get there took us a long time.

These versions may sound awkward, but they are grammatically correct.

The More Personal Person

Q. An insurance supervisor filling out an evaluation for one of her employees was stumped. The form
listed several traits which the worker was expected to possess. These were expressed as
“maintains the system, contributes to morale, encourages fellow workers, etc.” The supervisor
needed to add her own comments and wondered whether to write them in the third person, as the
authors of the form had, or in the second person, which would make her notes seem more
personal.

A. The National Grammar Hot Line advised her to address the employee in the second person.
Though she would be breaking with corporate tradition by establishing a more personal tone in
her report, we at the Hot Line felt that if there is one thing corporate America needs, it’s a bit of
personality. Those cold dark giants, who refer to people as resources and who spy on employees
 with closed circuit cameras and computer keystroke monitors, need to rediscover their humanity.
This story has an encouraging postscript. The supervisor called several weeks later to report
blissfully that the employee had been very pleased with the tone of the evaluation. The supervisor
had written, “You are showing more incentive with your everyday responsibilities. You need,
however, to be a little more punctual. However, your overall performance is quite acceptable.”
She informed us that this personal approach to business was to become a part of her repertoire.

Possessive Pronouns

The possessive pronouns are pronouns that show possession. The following chart lists them
according to person and number.

SINGULAR PLURAL
First Person my, mine our, ours
Second Person your, yours your, yours
Third Person his, her, hers, its their, theirs

Some possessive pronouns are used to modify nouns in the same manner as adjectives are.
Modern grammarians would say that they function as determiners. These are:

SINGULAR PLURAL
First Person my our
Second Person your your
Third Person his, her, its their

Take a look at a few examples:

My dog has fleas.

Our vacation was a disaster.

Her speech was brilliant.

Their car has a flat tire.

Each possessive pronoun limits the noun it modifies as an adjective might do. It tells whose dog,
vacation, speech, or car the speaker is talking about. Please note that the possessive pronouns are
never written with apostrophes.
Other possessive pronouns are used as personal pronouns would be, only to represent nouns,
while still showing possession. They do not modify nouns as adjectives do. These pronouns are:
mine, ours, yours, his, hers, its, and theirs.

The gold is mine.

The title is yours.
 Victory is theirs.
This shoe is his.

Each of them represents a noun possessed by someone.

mine→my gold
yours→your title
theirs→their victory
his→his shoe

Sometimes members of this second group of possessive pronouns are used after the preposition of as
double possessives.

That kid of yours has got to settle down.

This coat of mine needs to be cleaned.

That dog of theirs never stops barking.

The combination of the preposition of and a possessive pronoun (yours, mine, theirs) in each noun
phrase above doubles each instance of possession. Remember that we sometimes use phrases
beginning with of to express possession (see chapter 1).

A Possessive Question

Q. “Do I use an apostrophe s with possessive pronouns to show possession?” asked an alert high
school senior with an appetite for learning.

A. Never! Never! Never! Do not use apostrophe s (’s) with a possessive pronoun to show
possession. One of the most egregious misuses of the apostrophe is with the possessive pronoun
its. Sentences such as “This is it’s food” and “We know it’s location” are all too common. It’s is a
contraction of it is. This is not what the authors of these sentences were looking for. Please, when
you are using the possessive pronouns, especially its, do not add an apostrophe (’).

Bite Your Tongue

Q. An editor was in a quandary over whether or not to pluralize a noun in his sentence. “Here is my
sentence,” he said. “‘The Hindus were told to bite their tongue by a spiritual leader.’ Should
tongue be singular or plural?”

A. The colloquial expression “bite your tongue” only applies to one person. Many Hindus would
have to bite their tongues, for they, as a group, do not possess a single tongue that can be bitten
collectively. His sentence should read, “The Hindus were told to bite their tongues by a spiritual
leader.”
Reciprocal Pronouns

The pronoun phrases each other and one another are known as reciprocal pronouns. The action of
each member of the group that the pronoun phrase stands for affects all the other members of that
group. Thus, we use the name “reciprocal.” Use each other when the group consists of just two
people, animals, or things.

The two friends helped each other through tough times.

You and I have told each other all of our secrets.

Use one another when the group consists of more than two people, animals, or things.

The four of us will help one another out of our current predicament.

The people in my office need to learn to cooperate with one another.

The reciprocal pronouns seem quite similar to the personal pronouns. The pronouns in both sets may
stand for a person speaking, spoken of, or spoken to. Unlike a personal pronoun, however, a
reciprocal pronoun cannot be the subject of a sentence.

Reflexive Pronouns

There is another set of pronouns, the reflexive pronouns, with the same liability as the reciprocal
pronouns. No reflexive pronoun can be the subject of a sentence. The reflexive pronouns are formed
by adding either -self or -selves to the appropriate possessive pronoun:

SINGULAR PLURAL
First Person myself ourselves
Second Person yourself yourselves
Third Person himself,*herself, itself themselves*

Reflexive pronouns also lack possessive forms.

The reflexive pronouns often refer or reflect back to the subject of the sentence.

I gave myself the day off.

My parents treated themselves to a night on the town.

In the first sentence, the pronoun myself refers back to the subject I. In the second sentence, the
pronoun themselves refers back to the subject parents. In a sense, these pronouns are turning the
action of the verb back to the subject of the sentence.
The reflexive pronouns may also fill an emphatic role. Here, these pronouns place emphasis on
another noun or pronoun in the sentence.
 You yourself told me to ask for a raise.

Janet built the house herself.

In the first example, the pronoun yourself emphasizes the subject you, and in the second, the pronoun
herself emphasizes the subject Janet.
Never use a reflexive pronoun in place of a standard personal pronoun. They are correctly used
only in the reflexive or emphatic roles. The following sentences are incorrect:

John and myself repaired the copy machine. (incorrect)

Jane drove Sherry and myself to the movies. (incorrect)

They should read:

John and I repaired the copy machine. (correct)

Jane drove Sherry and me to the movies. (correct)

This problem most often occurs when someone substitutes the singular, first person reflexive pronoun
myself for one of the singular, first person personal pronouns I or me. Be careful!

A Reflexive Error

Q. “My friend said, ‘Ms. Jones and myself went to lunch.’ Is this correct?” asked a secretary.

A. Her friend has used a reflexive pronoun, myself, when she needs a singular, first person personal
pronoun in the nominative case form. A reflexive pronoun only performs a reflexive or emphatic
role and is never the subject of a sentence. Corrected, the sentence should read, “Ms. Jones and I
went to lunch.” Never, never use any of the reflexive pronouns without a reference in the same
sentence to a prior noun or pronoun.

Another Reflexive Error

Q. “I heard this mortgage company advertising on the radio. One of their lines was ‘We’re lending
money to people like yourself.’ Is that the right way to use yourself? ” asked a caller.

A. This caller’s sharp ear recognized the problematic usage of a reflexive pronoun in the
advertisement. As you already know, reflexive pronouns are only kosher in reflexive or emphatic
roles. Yourself does not refer back to or emphasize any noun in this sentence. The jingle needs a
new object for the preposition like. The radio announcer should have said, “We’re lending money
to people like you.”
Yet Another Reflexive Error

Q. “Can a legal team squabble among itself?” asked a listener to a widely publicized trial. She was
questioning the grammar of a news anchor reporting on the trial.

A. The singular it cannot hold a squabble. Only a schizophrenic team could squabble among itself.
Multiple individuals, however, can squabble among themselves. The sentence should read,
“Members of the team squabbled among themselves.” Since the reflexive pronoun themselves
refers back to the subject of the sentence, members of the team, it can function as the object of
the preposition among (see chapter 7 for information on objects of prepositions).

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns point to the nouns that they are replacing. There are just two demonstrative
pronouns: this and that. The plural form of this is these, and the plural form of that is those.

This is going to be a great year.

That was one crazy summer.

These are the only good shoes I own.

Those are the largest strawberries I have ever seen.

Uses of Demonstrative Pronouns

Use this and these to refer to objects that are nearby in space or time.

This is my ruler in my hand.

These are my crayons on my desk.

Use that and those for objects that are farther away in space and time.

That is my ruler across the room.

Those are my crayons on the other desk.

The demonstrative pronouns may also function as adjectives to modify nouns. Modern
grammarians classify demonstrative pronouns in this role as determiners.

This house is beautiful.

That dog is vicious.

Those flowers are gorgeous.

 These eggs are cracked.

These pronouns limit the nouns that they modify by telling which of the many houses, dogs, flowers,
and eggs the speaker is talking about.

A Demonstrative Question

Q. A winner of a state lottery, writing to her mom, wanted to know if she should write, “This
sweepstakes saved my life” or “These sweepstakes saved my life.”

A. According to my files, sweepstakes can be singular or plural. Therefore, she should write, “This
sweepstakes saved my life,” if she won a single sweepstakes, or “These sweepstakes saved my
life,” if she won multiple sweepstakes, the lucky devil. Her choice of pronoun would determine
whether sweepstakes is singular or plural.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are words of interrogation. They ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are
who, which, and what. Their forms stay constant across person, gender, and number, but who does
change form with case:

Nominative who
Objective whom
Possessive whose

Uses of Interrogative Pronouns

Each interrogative pronoun refers to a certain type of noun. It can refer to people or animals or things
or some combination thereof.
Who and its accompanying forms refer strictly to people. They are general in terms of reference,
referring to one or a few out of all possible people.

Who stole my car?

With whom were you dancing?

Whose book is this?

Be careful to choose the correct form of who. If the interrogative pronoun replaces the
subject, use the nominative case form:

Who stole the cookies from the cookie jar?

Who ate all of my brussels sprouts?

If the interrogative pronoun replaces the object of a verb or the object of a preposition, use the
objective case form.

Whom are we meeting?

For whom did you buy those flowers?

The interrogative pronoun which can refer to people, animals, or things, but is selective in its
questioning. It refers to one or a few out of a specified group.

Which of you broke my front window?

Which puppy should we take home?

Which car do you like best?

Each instance asks for one out of a small and select group of people, puppies, or cars.
The final interrogative pronoun what may apply to people, animals, or things. With people,
what asks for a description.

What are they?

What am I?

In context these pronouns could be used to ask questions of occupation, character, appearance, or of
any other topic that could describe a person.
With animals and things, what is general in terms of reference, similar to who. It refers to one
out of all possible animals or things.

What do you see?

What color is that?

What did they find at the bottom of the lake?

Any of the interrogative pronouns may also be used as an adjective to modify a noun.

Whose story do you believe?

What time is it?

Which blouse do you like better?

Interrogative pronouns used in this way are classified as determiners.

Notice that an interrogative pronoun will never have an antecedent. Since it asks a question,
there is no way to know which noun an interrogative pronoun refers to. The antecedent remains a
mystery until the question is answered.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns perform two functions at the same time. They take the places of nouns as normal
pronouns would, but they also connect those replaced nouns to subordinate clauses. Briefly, a
subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate, but that does not make sense
on its own. When a subordinate clause begins with a relative pronoun, we call it a relative clause or
a nominal relative clause. See chapter 12 for more information on clauses.
The relative pronouns are: who, which, that, what, when, where, and why. They do not change
form with gender, person, or number. Only who changes form with case:

Nominative who
Objective whom
Possessive whose

Here are a few examples:

The person who finds my dog will receive a reward.

The car which struck mine was stolen.

The story that we read last week was a great one.

I know what you are talking about.

They don’t know the time when they will be here.

Do you know the place where we’re going?

Tell me the reason why you left the firm.

There is also a group of compound relative pronouns formed by adding -ever or -soever to one of the
standard relatives.

whoever
whomever
whichever
whatever
whosoever
whomsoever
whosesoever
whichsoever
whatsoever
Those formed with -soever, with the exception of whatsoever, are archaic and no longer in common
use.

The prize goes to whoever reaches the finish line first.

Whoever said that did not have his or her facts straight.

You can choose whichever prize you want.

Uses of Relative Pronouns

Each relative pronoun refers to a certain type of noun—a person, place, thing, idea, or quality—or
some combination thereof.

Who and its accompanying forms refer only to people.

The adventurers who climbed that mountain are crazy.

The hikers whom we saw earlier looked tired.

I met the woman whose book won the literary award.

What refers to things, qualities, or ideas, never to people or animals.

I know what happened to your wallet.

The expert mountaineer knew what he was talking about.

Leslie guessed what Eric bought her for her birthday.

The pronoun what never has a specific antecedent; it implies its own antecedent.
When refers to times.

Do you remember the time when we filled the swimming pool with lime Jell-O?

The day when I will have my revenge is coming soon.

Where refers to places.

We returned to the place where we fell in love.

This is the spot where the UFO was sighted.

Why refers to reasons.

 No one knows the reason why he blew his top.

I cannot tell you why they behaved as they did.

That refers to people, animals, things, ideas, and qualities.

The woman that witnessed the shooting will testify tomorrow.

The explorers found the cave that hid the treasure for so many years.

The ties that bind us cannot be broken.

Which refers to animals, things, ideas, and qualities, never to people.

Rodeos, which have never been my cup of tea, are popular in this part of the
country.

The pilot told her passengers that the flight, which had been calm until then, was
about to get bumpy.

Honesty in politics, which has never been common, is scarcer than ever today.

Many budding grammarians express confusion over the usage of that and which. Strictly
speaking, they are interchangeable except that which should never refer to people. However, many
usage manuals recommend a convention for the use of these pronouns to help readers distinguish
between restrictive and nonrestrictive information in sentences. The relative pronoun that should be
used in restrictive subordinate clauses. Remember that restrictive information is essential to the
meaning of a sentence and cannot be removed without changing that meaning. The relative pronoun
which should be used in nonrestrictive subordinate clauses. Nonrestrictive information is not
essential and can be removed without significant change to the meaning of a sentence. Please
remember that nonrestrictive information must be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Kids Are People Too

Q. The assistant manager of a Midwestern ballet company was writing a press release for a
Christmas performance and faxed the Hot Line a copy. At the bottom, he had written, “How is my
grammar?” Alas, we found an error.

A. The offending sentence read, “The Nutcracker has 60 children which were chosen to perform.”
People are never which. They are always who, whom, whose, or that. The relative pronoun
which refers to animals and things. We quickly faxed back our correction, hopeful that the faulty
statement had not yet gone to press. The sentence should have read, “The Nutcracker has 60
children who were chosen to perform.”
Real Relative Pronouns vs. Relative Adverbs
Within the category of relative pronouns, grammarians make a distinction between real relative
pronouns and relative adverbs. The distinction is based on how the two types of relative pronouns
are used within relative clauses. The real relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what. We call
these the real relative pronouns because they play nominal roles, such as subject, object, or subject
complement, within the clauses of which they are parts. These are roles which we readily associate
with pronouns.

The present that we bought you was too large to wrap.

In this example, the relative pronoun that begins the relative clause that we bought you. That refers
to the subject of the sentence, present. Within the relative clause, that is the direct object of the verb
bought. It answers the question “What?” What did we buy you? We bought you that.
Relative adverbs play different roles within relative clauses. Instead of being subjects, objects,
or subject complements, they function as adverbials. Even so, they still refer back to nouns in main
clauses*and so, in a sense, replace those nouns in relative clauses. However, their adverbial role is
not one that most of us readily associate with pronouns.

This is the place where I saw her for the first time.

In the above example, the relative adverb where begins the relative clause where I saw her for the
first time. Where refers to the subject complement place in the main clause this is the place. Within
the relative clause, where is an adverbial. It indicates the place in which the writer first spotted this
woman. I spotted her where for the first time? I spotted her here for the first time. The relative adverb
where is an adverbial within the relative clause. Still, we say that where stands in for the noun
phrase the place in the relative clause, so we must acknowledge that it does have the characteristics
of a pronoun.
Here is yet another of those fuzzy grammatical issues. Grammarians want to place who, which,
that, what, where, when, and why into the same category because they all stand in for nouns. But
these grammarians also see that different pronouns have subtly different functions within relative
clauses. There is no easy solution to this dilemma, but I think that the distinction made above should
make things easier.

Relative Pronouns in Relative Clauses

Many of the subordinate clauses that relative pronouns introduce modify the antecedents of these same
relative pronouns, Contemporary grammarians refer to subordinate clauses that modify nouns,
pronouns, or other nominals as relative clauses. Relative pronouns used in relative clauses always
have antecedents.

The guy who took our tickets gave me the creeps.

We saw the plane that broke the air speed record.

In the first example, the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who took our
tickets. The relative clause describes the subject of the sentence, guy. That ticket-taker is creepy.
In the second example, the relative pronoun that introduces the relative clause that broke the
air speed record. The relative clause modifies the direct object plane in the main clause. The plane
is a record-breaker.

Relative Pronouns in Nominal Clauses

Other subordinate clauses that are introduced by relative pronouns function as nominals.
Contemporary grammarians call these clauses nominal clauses. Recall that the term nominal applies
to any noun or pronoun or any word, phrase, or clause that performs the same function as a noun.
Nominal clauses do not always begin with relative pronouns, but we may call nominal clauses that do
nominal relative clauses. We will examine the other flavors of the nominal clause in chapter 12.
We can find nominal clauses anywhere that we might find any other nominal. Relative pronouns
that introduce these clauses never have antecedents. Since the entire clause stands for a noun, there is
nothing for the pronoun to refer back to.
A nominal clause might be the subject of a sentence:

What they need is not my concern.

The relative pronoun what introduces the nominal clause what they need. The entire nominal clause
is the subject of the sentence.
A nominal clause may also be the direct object of the verb:

I know what you are talking about.

The relative pronoun what introduces the nominal clause what you are talking about. The entire
nominal clause serves as the direct object of the verb know. It answers the question “What do I
know?”
A nominal clause could be a subject complement:

This is what I set out to do.

The relative pronoun what introduces the nominal clause what I set out to do. The nominal clause
follows a linking verb, is, and complements the subject, this. (Do you remember what kind of pronoun
this is?)
A nominal clause can also be the object of a preposition:

We need to talk about what we should do next.

Here, the relative pronoun what introduces the nominal clause what we should do next. The entire
nominal clause is the object of the preposition about.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns have no specific antecedents. They do not point to any one person, place, animal,
or thing. Instead, these pronouns stand for an individual or group in a general or indefinite way. The
indefinite pronouns are:

all
another
any
both
each
either
few
many
neither
nobody
none
nothing
one
other
some
such

There are also a number of compound indefinite pronouns:

anybody
anyone
anything
everybody
everyone
everything
somebody
someone
something

Here are a few examples of indefinite pronouns in use:

That is all she wrote.

Did somebody say something?

Few shall return from the perilous quest.

Everything she has said is true.

Number and Case of Indefinite Pronouns

The forms of the indefinite pronouns stay the same while gender and person may change. With number
and case, however, these pronouns become difficult.
Number
Some indefinite pronouns are only singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,
everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, somebody, someone, something.

Each is responsible for his or her own books.

Nobody knows where my dog has gone.

Some are only plural: both, few, many, several.

Many have heard this story before.

Few survive an attack of the Ebola virus.

Others may be singular or plural: all, any, none, some, such.

Such is life. (singular)

Such are the ways of the world. (plural)

None is as happy as I am for the both of you. (singular)

None are expected to return from the dangerous mission. (plural)

Still other indefinite pronouns have different singular and plural forms:

one→ones
other→others

One needs to wear comfortable shoes on long trips.

Others from my hometown did not fare so well when the floods came.

Be careful that the pronoun you choose has the number appropriate to your sentence.

Everybody

Q. “What is wrong with the sentence ‘Everybody are not happy’?” asked an exchange student,
perfecting her English.

A. The sentence contains a number problem. The pronoun everybody is singular, but here it is used
with a plural verb. The sentence should read, “Everybody is not happy,” meaning that there are
some who are unhappy. To see that the pronoun is singular, think of it as two separate words.
“Every body is not happy.” Body is a singular noun, is it not? Therefore, everybody must be a
singular pronoun.
None

Q. “I just answered a call for help by saying, ‘None are available,’” said a dispatcher on his cellular
phone. “Should I have said, ‘None is available’?”

A. The dispatcher was wondering whether the indefinite pronoun none is singular or plural. None is
a condensation of the pronoun phrase no one. Since one is a singular pronoun, the phrase no one
is also singular. One might conclude that none is singular as well, but such a conclusion would be
incorrect. The truth of the matter is that none can be singular or plural. Remember that usage
determines grammar. Over time, English speakers have begun to use this pronoun in a plural
manner, so our present grammar allows it to be a plural pronoun. The dispatcher may use
whichever version of the sentence he chooses.

Case
All indefinite pronouns take the same forms in both the nominative and objective cases. Only some of
the indefinite pronouns, however, have possessive forms. These are formed in the same way as the
possessive forms of nouns are. Add apostrophe s (’s) to the nominative/objective form. They are:
another’s, anybody’s, anyone’s, everybody’s, everyone’s, nobody’s, one’s, and somebody’s.

What happened here is anybody’s guess.

Everyone’s mood was lifted when the sky cleared and the sun came out.

Indefinite Pronouns Used as Determiners

Any of the indefinite pronouns except none may function as an adjective to modify a noun. Indefinite
pronouns that function in this way are classified as determiners.

Neither student can solve the calculus problem.

Any person who dislikes camping is a fool.

Many ships went down in the storm.

Instead of the pronoun none, use no when circumstances demand a negative adjective.

No explorer has ever found the lost city of Atlantis.

I will drink no wine before its time.

Indefinite Pronoun Phrases

Sometimes a group of words can function as a single indefinite pronoun: any one, each one, every
one, no one, some one. These are called indefinite pronoun phrases.
 No one heard our cries for help.

Any one of you could be the murderer.

When we use the adverb else with a pronoun phrase or compound pronoun, the entire word
group can function as a single indefinite pronoun. Technically, these are noun phrases.

Someone else needs to accompany him to the store.

No one else’s car is as fast as yours.

I will not accept anyone else’s help.

In these examples, the phrases someone else, no one else’s, and anyone else’s all function as
indefinite pronouns. The apostrophe s (’s) is added to else to create the possessive form.

Agreement Between Pronouns and Antecedents

The word antecedent comes from two Latin words, ante, meaning “before,” and cedo, meaning
“go.” The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun refers back to. It frequently appears before the
pronoun in the sentence. Because antecedent and pronoun have such a strong connection, it is essential
that they agree in person, number, and gender.

Person Agreement

Just as pronoun and antecedent must agree in gender, so must they agree in person. A person or object
spoken of requires a third person pronoun. A person spoken to requires a second person pronoun.*A
person speaking requires a first person pronoun. Most of the time creating this agreement is quite
simple.
Take extra care when using pronouns that refer to indefinite pronoun antecedents in the third
person. Many people mistakenly use a second person pronoun as in the following:

If anyone would like to come with us, you should get ready now. (incorrect)

The sentence should look like this:

If anyone would like to come with us, he or she should get ready now. (correct)

Number Agreement

Pronouns and their antecedents should always agree in number. A singular antecedent needs a singular
pronoun. A plural antecedent needs a plural pronoun. Here are a few special cases that you should
watch out for:
Indefinite Pronoun Used as Antecedents
Be careful with pronouns whose antecedents are indefinite pronouns. Some indefinite pronouns are
plural. Some are singular. Some are both plural and singular. Some take different forms, depending on
their usage. The number of the pronoun should always match the number of its antecedent. Take
another look at the section on indefinite pronouns if you have any questions .

Compound Antecedents Connected by AND

Compound antecedents connected by and almost always require a plural pronoun.

My mother and father took their time getting here.

Bill and I need our morning coffee.

My sister and brothers spent all their money on my present.

There is an exception to this rule. If singular antecedents connected by and all refer to one
person, animal, or thing, the referring pronoun is singular.

The king and conqueror looked over his kingdom.

Though the antecedent is compound, both items refer to a single man. The referring pronoun needs to
be singular.

Compound Antecedents Connected by OR, EITHER-OR, or NEITHER-NOR

It can be unclear what to do when the compound antecedents of a pronoun are connected by or,
either-or, or neither-nor. These two rules should clear things up:

RULE 1 If the antecedents connected by these four conjunctions are all singular, then they are treated
separately and the pronoun that refers to them is singular.

Either the cat or the dog left its mark on my new sofa.

Neither John nor Bill agreed to tell his story to the reporters.

RULE 2 If the antecedents connected by these four conjunctions differ in number, then the pronoun
should agree with the nearest of the antecedents.

Neither the father nor his sons knew their way out of the deep dark forest.

Neither my brothers nor my sister knows her manners.

Antecedents Plural in Form but Singular in Manner

Some nouns take plural form, but are used in a singular manner and need a singular pronoun. Many of
these nouns express weight or quantity.

Ten miles takes its toll on even the seasoned runner.

That fifty dollars should be returned to its rightful owner.

In the first example, the singular pronoun its refers to the seemingly plural pronoun miles. In this case,
however, we see a single bundle of ten miles rather than ten separate miles. In the second example,
the singular pronoun its refers to the seemingly plural noun dollars. However, we view the fifty
dollars as a group, not fifty individual dollars, and so use a singular pronoun.

Collective Nouns Used as Antecedents

A pronoun that refers to a collective noun may be singular or plural, depending on how we view the
members of the collective noun. If the members act together as a unit, then the pronoun is singular.

The marching band took its time warming up.

The singular pronoun its refers to the collective noun band. Here, we look at the band as a single unit
and use a singular pronoun, its.
If the members of the collective noun act separately, as individuals, we use a plural pronoun.

The band tuned their instruments for several minutes.

Here, the plural pronoun their refers to the collective noun band. We see each of the band members
acting separately, so we use a plural pronoun.

Antecedents Modified by Adjectives with Special Implications

If a singular antecedent is modified by two or more adjectives that imply different types or varieties
of that antecedent, the referring pronoun is plural.

Szechwan and Cantonese food are different in their use of spice.

The plural pronoun their refers to the seemingly singular antecedent food. However, the modifiers
Szechwan and Cantonese imply different types of food, so we need a plural pronoun. The sentence
could have been written as follows:

Szechwan food and Cantonese food are different in their use of spice.

A Number Problem

Q. “Why do so many Americans play God with pronouns, changing singular to plural at will?” asked
an irate caller from Great Britain.
A. This call focused on one of the most common language errors in the United States. The National
Grammar Hot Line receives questions about pronouns and number almost every day. People have
problems with the numbers of pronouns for all sorts of reasons. They may be careless or ignorant
or distracted by more important matters. In any case, be sure that your pronouns agree with their
antecedents in number.
Actually, it is the lack of a gender-neutral pronoun that is responsible for much of the
confusion. Not wanting to use the masculine gender and unwilling to refer to a coworker as “it,”
many turn to the plural, but gender-neutral, pronoun they as a substitute for a singular noun. These
befuddled souls realize that they are still talking about single individuals, so they match their
plural pronouns with singular verbs. This will not do. Where is our gender-neutral pronoun?

Another Number Problem

Q. A social worker was concerned about this sentence she was using in a letter. She asked, “How
does this sound to you? ‘Do you know someone who lives alone and who worries about their
life?’”

A. I answered, “It sounds to me as if you have a problem with number.” The National Grammar Hot
Line knows a lot of people who live alone, but wishes there were more who were worried about
their use of language. Someone, a singular indefinite pronoun, cannot worry about their life. He or
she can worry about his or her own life, and that should be burden enough. Why borrow trouble?
The sentence should read, “Do you know someone who lives alone and worries about his or her
life?”

Yet Another Number Problem

Q. Right on the heels of the question above came this one from a neighborhood watch group. “We
want to put this sentence in a flier. ‘If you know somebody who has broken the law, you should
report them.’ What do you think?”

A. Here is another number problem. The indefinite pronoun somebody is singular. You cannot report
them, plural. You may report him or her, and it’s your civic duty to do so. The flier should read,
“If you know somebody who has broken the law, you should report him or her.”

Gender Agreement

The grammatical concept of gender refers to the classification of words according to sex. English
uses a natural gender by which words that involve females are feminine, words that involve males are
masculine, and words that do not have any obvious sex are neuter (with a few exceptions). This
system may seem natural, but believe me, not all languages have been constructed so logically.
Knowing the gender of the antecedent, we can then choose a pronoun that has the matching
gender. A masculine antecedent requires a masculine pronoun. A feminine antecedent requires a
feminine pronoun. A neuter antecedent requires a neuter pronoun.
 The boy brought his turtle to class for show-and-tell.

Susan told me that she would like to move to Florida.

The old truck lost its muffler about two miles ago.

In the first example, the masculine pronoun his refers back to the masculine noun boy. In the second
example, the feminine pronoun she refers back to the feminine noun Susan. In the third example, the
neuter pronoun its refers back to the neuter noun truck. These are easy.
The sex of the antecedent is not always so clear, however, and it is then that problems arise. To
resolve the issue, English, rather unfairly, turns to the masculine pronouns he, him, and his to refer to
both sexes.
As we saw in the discussion of personal pronouns, some sentences need to refer to both sexes in
a single word. To do so, some writers and speakers use the masculine gender. An author might write,
“The reader should disregard all his previous assumptions.” This author knows that a substantial
portion of the readers are women but has used the pronoun his to refer to both men and women.
Other sentences might contain pronouns whose antecedents are indefinite pronouns. Since
indefinite pronouns do not specify gender in their forms, it may be unclear what gender the pronouns
referring to them should take. Again, we may use masculine pronouns.

If anyone saw the crash, he should call the police A.S.A.P.

The indefinite pronoun anyone is the antecedent of the personal pronoun he. Anyone could refer to
both men and women, so we use the masculine he.
However, sensitive grammarians typically recommend that we use the unbiased but awkward he
or she when the pronoun needs to refer to both genders.

Before anyone attempts to windsurf, he or she should buy a life jacket.

A professional athlete rapidly loses his or her ability to compete as he or she

ages.

These constructions sound strange, but better a funny sound than a sexist remark. This discussion
gives us yet another reminder of the necessity of bringing a gender neutral pronoun to the English
language.
In other sentences where a personal pronoun has an indefinite pronoun antecedent, the sex of the
personal pronoun may be obvious from the context of the sentence.

Anyone in the Secret Society of Women Only knows her secret handshakes.

Here, it is clear that anyone refers to females. Would you expect to find men in a society of women
only? Accordingly, we pick a feminine pronoun.
Other questionable cases arise when there is a series of two or more antecedents, joined by a
conjunction. We will call these compound antecedents. The elements of the compound antecedents
may differ in gender. In this case, simply use a plural pronoun. Gender is not an issue.
 The brother and sister gave their dog a bath.

We investors and you executives need to coordinate our efforts.

There is one complicating factor to this rule. When items of different sexes are connected by or,
nor, either-or, or neither-nor, a single pronoun cannot logically refer to all of the items. The writer
or speaker may do one of two things. The writer or speaker may use the awkward construction he or
she:

A man or a woman has driven his or her car into the arena.

The writer or speaker may also pick a pronoun that matches the gender of the nearest item:

A man or a woman has driven her car into the arena.

A woman or a man has driven his car into the arena.

In the first example, the feminine noun woman is closer, so we use a feminine pronoun, her. In the
second example, the masculine noun man is closer, so we use a masculine pronoun, his. While this
second option is perfectly acceptable, in the interests of equality the Hot Line recommends that you
use the first.

Vague Antecedents

Some people write as if they think that finding the antecedent of a pronoun is an amusing guessing
game. A pronoun should not have more than one possible antecedent.

Bob gave his father his pocketknife.

We have no idea whose pocketknife was given. Did Bob give his father his father’s pocketknife? Or
did Bob give his father Bob’s own pocketknife? Looking at this sentence, we have no way of
knowing. It needs to be rewritten.
If the former interpretation is correct, then the sentence should read as follows:

Bob returned his father’s pocketknife to his father.

By using the verb returned, we know that Bob gave back an object that did not belong to him. We
also apply the possessive noun father’s to the noun pocketknife. The knife must belong to Bob’s
father.
If the latter interpretation is correct, then the sentence should read as follows:

Bob loaned his father Bob’s pocketknife.

Here we do two things to clarify the meaning. The first is to use the verb loaned, implying that Bob is
giving out something that belongs to him. The second is to replace the second his with the possessive
noun Bob’s. With these two corrections, it becomes clear whom the knife belongs to.
While the first example was downright murky and needed to be rewritten, other sentences are
phrased in such a way that the antecedent of a pronoun contained therein can be inferred. If the
sentence structure doesn’t illuminate the antecedent of a pronoun, the context of the sentence should.
For instance, take this sentence:

John told Mary that they should leave right away.

The pronoun they could refer to the people named in the sentence, John and Mary, or it could refer to
some other group of people that John and Mary had been speaking of. Taken out of context, we have
no idea whom to choose. However, very few sentences are spoken or written without context. In real
life, the sentences spoken or written previously would let us know the identities of the individuals
that the pronoun they refers to.

Antecedent Woes

Q. A registered nurse became quite agitated when a supervising physician left her directions which
read, “The tray can be placed below the bed if it is dry.” Giggling, she called the Hot Line to ask,
“What would I do with this sentence to make the instructions clear?”

A. If it is dry is an adverbial clause, modifying the verb can be placed (see chapter 12 for
information on adverbial clauses). The subject of the clause is the pronoun it, but which word
does it refer back to? Is the antecedent tray or bed? A little thinking will illuminate the correct
answer, tray, but the doctor should have placed his pronoun nearer to its antecedent. The best
sentence would read, “If the tray is dry, it can be placed below the bed.”

Grammar and the Common Cold

Q. A teacher found this sentence in an educational journal and passed it on to the Hot Line for
perusal. “My dad asked me to walk the dog because he had a bad cough.”

A. Has the author of this sentence found a miraculous cure for the canine cough? Will a simple walk
relieve this doggie of what ails him? I don’t think so. What we have here is a vague antecedent.
Because he had a bad cough is an adverbial clause, modifying the verb asked. The problem lies
with the subject of the clause, he. What is its antecedent? Is it dog or dad? One assumes that the
answer must be dad—sick dogs do not like to go on walks any more than sick dads do—but the
reference is obscure. The sentence should read, “Because my dad had a bad cough, he asked me to
walk the dog.”

Grammatical Cannibals

Q. A professor at a local university sent us this gem written in a term paper by one of his students.
The sentence read, “The farmers have to raise the cattle so they will be strong and healthy enough
 to eat.”

A. Yikes! Who is eating whom in this farming community? Are the ranchers fattening up their own for
shipment to the dog food plant? Is cannibalism alive and well somewhere in rural Iowa? Of
course not! The sentence contains a vague antecedent. Does the personal pronoun they apply to
the farmers or the cattle? It certainly refers to the cattle. The sentence should read, “The farmers
have to raise their cattle to be strong and healthy enough to eat.” It behooves us all to practice the
art of clear and concise writing and speech.

Slaughterhouse Grammar

Q. A Chicago resident called about this ridiculous sign in her local butcher shop:

FRESH MEAT
THE BUTCHER KILLS HIMSELF TWICE WEEKLY
A. Someone needs to get that poor butcher some help…with his grammar. The butcher is not making
biweekly suicide attempts. He is slaughtering his livestock twice a week so that the merchandise
remains fresh. A better sign would read as follows:

FRESH MEAT
THE BUTCHER SLAUGHTERS HIS STOCK TWICE WEEKLY

Some Pronouns Don’t Need Antecedents

Remember that not all pronouns have antecedents. Some pronouns take the places of nouns and fill the
roles of nouns, but do not refer to any nouns in particular. We have seen several of these cases before.

Personal Pronouns
Some personal pronouns do not require antecedents. The first person pronouns I and we point to the
speaker as antecedent by virtue of the fact that they are in the first person. No specific noun
antecedent is necessary. Also, the second person pronoun you, singular and plural, and the third
person pronoun it, in its use as a dummy element, are often used without antecedents.

Interrogative Pronouns
The interrogative pronouns never have antecedents. Since they ask questions, the nouns they refer to
are unknown. If we could give an interrogative pronoun an antecedent, we would have no use for the
pronoun in the first place.

The Relative Pronoun WHAT

The relative pronoun what never has an antecedent. Instead, it implies its own antecedent.

I saw what (that which) you did.

The implied antecedent is the demonstrative pronoun that within the phrase that which.

Indefinite Pronouns
None of the indefinite pronouns have antecedents. That is why they are indefinite.

Some Other Things You Should Know About Pronouns

Here are a few points to remember when you use pronouns.

Pronouns and Contractions

Several of the pronoun-verb contractions sound just like possessive pronouns. Take care not to
confuse them.
Its vs. It’s: The possessive pronoun its is never spelled with an apostrophe.

The cat drank its milk.

The milk belongs to the cat. The possessive pronoun needs no apostrophe.
With an apostrophe, this word is a contraction of the personal pronoun it and one of the verbs is
or has.

It’s raining.→It is raining.

It’s rained.→It has rained.

Whose vs. Who’s: The possessive pronoun whose is never spelled with an apostrophe.

Whose ball is this?

To whom does the ball belong? The question asks for the possessor of the ball.
With an apostrophe, who’s is a contraction of the personal pronoun who and one of the verbs is
or has.

Who’s this?→Who is this?

Who’s been here before?→Who has been here before?

Your vs. You’re: Without an apostrophe, your is a possessive pronoun.

Your idea sounds great.

The idea belongs to you. The pronoun shows possession.

With an apostrophe, you’re is a contraction of the personal pronoun you and the verb are.
 You’re the greatest.→You are the greatest.

Their vs. They’re: Without an apostrophe, their is a possessive pronoun.

Their new car is gorgeous.

The car belongs to them. The pronoun shows possession.

With an apostrophe, they’re is a contraction of the personal pronoun they and the verb are.

They’re here.→They are here.

Theirs vs. There’s: The possessive pronoun theirs never carries an apostrophe.

The tennis court is theirs.

It is their tennis court. The pronoun takes the place of a noun and shows possession.
Spelled there’s, this word is a contraction of the dummy element there and one of the verbs is
or has.

There’s too much violence on TV.→There is too much violence on TV.

There’s been an accident.→There has been an accident.

A Mistaken Contraction

Q. A law student asked me to proofread a portion of his closing argument. I found mistakes in the
sentence “A person is presumed innocent until their found guilty.”

A. The law student used a possessive pronoun when he needed a contraction. Their is a possessive
pronoun.

Their words are honorable.

He needs a contraction of a personal pronoun and a verb, such as they’re. His sentence could
read, “A person is presumed innocent until they’re found guilty.”
However, a major error remains. The singular noun person is the antecedent of the plural
pronoun they. There has been a number shift. The law student needs to adjust the number of the
pronoun so that it agrees with its singular antecedent. His sentence should read, “A person is
presumed innocent until he or she is found guilty.”

A Brain Teaser

Q. A speech writer called in a quandary. “I’ve got three sentences, and I’m not sure which one is
right. Do I use ‘It’s who’s ever writing it,’ ‘It’s whosever writing it,’ or ‘It’s whoever’s writing
 it’?” he asked.

A. Whoa! Hearing those makes my head spin. I must say that none are very euphonious, but on a
second, third, fourth, and fifth examination, I can say that either the first or the third sentence could
work. The subject and verb of all three are the pronoun it and the verb is, encapsulated in the
contraction it’s. The first and third options work because the remainder of the sentence in each is
a nominal clause complete with subject and predicate and introduced by a relative pronoun. The
clauses serve as subject complements (see chapter 12 for more information on nominal clauses).
In the first sentence, the clause is who’s ever writing it. Who is the subject of the clause and
is, the verb. The two are combined in the contraction who’s. The complete sentence could be
written, “It is who is ever writing it.”
In the third sentence, the clause is whoever’s writing it. Whoever is the subject and is, the
verb. The two are combined in the contraction whoever’s. The sentence could be written, “It is
whoever is writing it.”
The second sentence does not work because whosever is not a real word. This is a ridiculous
sentence and should never have been written. It simply does not make sense.
To be honest, all three need work. It is possible that one may make more sense in context, but I
wouldn’t count on it. The style is poor, and the audience is bound to be confused. I advised this
fellow to take some time to rework one of the sentences into a more comprehensible form.

A Word of Caution With Demonstrative Pronouns

Q. A man from New Mexico called to comment, “I said, ‘Those type of berry is poisonous.’ My
daughter told me the sentence is wrong. What do you say?”

A. I warned the man to be careful with demonstrative pronouns that modify words that refer to classes
of objects, such as kind, sort, or type. If the noun is singular, such as kind, it needs a singular
modifier, this or that. If the noun is plural, such as sorts, it needs a plural modifier, those or
these. It is all too easy to do as he did and match a singular noun to a plural modifier or a plural
noun to a singular modifier. This gentleman’s sentence should have read, “That type of berry is
poisonous.”
Here are a few more examples of incorrectly used demonstrative pronouns and the corrections
needed:

These sort of behavior will never do. (incorrect)

This sort of behavior will never do. (correct)

That kinds of berries are juicy. (incorrect)

Those kinds of berries are juicy. (correct)

Verb Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns

Do not forget about the numbers of your indefinite pronouns. Some are singular. Some are plural.
Some are singular or plural. Some take different forms, depending on whether they are singular or
plural. When an indefinite pronoun is the subject of the sentence, that pronoun and the verb must agree
in number.

Singular

Somebody is coming to unlock the door.

The singular pronoun somebody takes a singular verb, is.

Plural

Few travel this far into the mountains.

The plural pronoun few takes a plural verb, travel.

Singular or Plural

Some is left in the container.

Some are going to leave shortly.

The pronoun some can be singular or plural. In the first example, it is singular and takes a singular
verb, is. In the second example, it is plural and takes a plural verb, are.

Singular and Plural Forms

Some other in my department knows where the keys are.

Others in my department know where the keys are.

The indefinite pronoun other changes form, depending on whether it is singular or plural in usage. In
the first example, it is singular, other, and so takes a singular verb, knows. In the second example, it
is plural, others, and so takes a plural verb, know.

Possessive Pronouns Used as Determiners

Recall from our discussion of determiners in chapter 3 that possessive pronouns are often used as
determiners. A determiner is a word that determines the reference of a noun phrase. It aids the reader
or listener in determining which person, place, thing, or idea is named by the noun phrase that the
writer or speaker is writing or speaking. Though the functions of possessive pronouns in this role are
similar to those of adjectives, we choose the more precise classification of determiner. Take a look at
the following examples of possessive pronouns used as determiners:

His shirt is muddy.

Your quick mind has helped you escape from many sticky situations.

As you might expect, the reference that possessive pronouns provide is one of ownership. They
inform us to whom some piece of property or attribute belongs. In the first example, the possessive
pronoun his is a determiner. It modifies the noun shirt and tells us whose shirt it is that is muddy. In
the second example, the possessive pronoun your is a determiner. It modifies the noun mind and
indicates whose quick mind helped its possessor escape from the sticky situations.
Please note that when a series of determiners modifies the same noun, the possessive pronoun
precedes the other determiners in the series. Take a look at these two examples:

My first three children were boys.

Tell us what your first choice is.

In the first example, the determiners my, first, and three modify the noun children. The
possessive pronoun my is at the head of the series. Also note that the ordinal number first precedes
the cardinal number three. In the second example, the determiners your and first modify the noun
choice. The possessive pronoun your precedes the ordinal number first in the series.

Aha! A Determiner!!

Q. A college student called to ask, “In the sentence ‘His manners left me cold,’ what do you call the
word his? I mean, I know it’s a pronoun, but it seems to be doing the same thing that an adjective
does. Do you call it an adjective or would you call it something else?”

A. The answer to the question our young friend has posed is contained in the lesson previous, and
you, dear reader, should know the answer to his question. The word his is indeed a possessive
pronoun, but its function is that of a determiner. It helps us determine whose manners the sentence
is addressing. Such words were once classified as adjectives, but we now look at them more
precisely as possessive pronouns that function as determiners. Take a look at some more examples
of sentences that contain possessive pronouns functioning as determiners:

His feet are huge.

Your paper was excellent.

In the first example, the possessive pronoun his is a determiner. It modifies the noun
feet and indicates whose feet are huge. In the second example, the possessive pronoun
your is a determiner. It modifies the noun paper and tells us whose paper was
excellent.
From My Files: Mrs. Malaprop

Writing for the magazine Smithsonian, James J. Kilpatrick added to the lore of hospital solecisms
with this report.
“I commend to you patients’ charts in any hospital in the nation, and you will find Mrs. Malaprop
alive and well. The lode is inexhaustible.”

“He was eating his tray, so I didn’t examine him.”

“For impotence, we will discontinue the meds, and let his wife handle him.”
“He was advised to force fluids through his interpreter.”
“Patient has an electric chair for transportation.”
“She slammed the phone down on the nurse.”
“When she fainted, her eyes rolled around the room.”
“Patient walks six blocks now. The doctor told him it may take a year to come back.”
 7

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that show the relationships between two words or
phrases in a sentence.

Now we arrive at prepositions; tasty morsels for the grammar gourmet. Chew them slowly and
swallow them carefully, for they are troublesome but immeasurably useful little words. With all
credit to Gertrude Stein, “Then come the things that can of all things be most mistaken, and they are
prepositions.” Fear not, my friends! With a little discussion and a few questions and answers, we will
chew, swallow, digest, even understand these crumbs without any undue indigestion.
Prepositions are relationship words. They relate some word or phrase to another word or
phrase, most often in terms of location, direction, or time.

A loathsome troll lurks under the bridge. (location)

The train to Oxford always runs late on Fridays. (direction)

Barnes was imprisoned twice during his lifetime. (time)

Here is a list of the most commonly used prepositions:

aboard
about
above
across
beside
between
betwixt
beyond
like
near
notwithstanding
of
till
to
toward
 under
after
against
along
among
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
but
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
off
on
out
outside
over
past
per
since
through
throughout
underneath
until
unto
up
upon
via
with
within
without

Complex Prepositions

In some cases, the relationship that the preposition needs to express is too complicated for a single
preposition. Here, we use a combination of two or three words that function together as a unit. These
are called complex prepositions. The following is a partial list:

across from
alongside of
along with
because of
by way of
from under
in addition to
in case of
in front of
in spite of
instead of
on account of

Here are a few examples of sentences containing complex prepositions:

The sounds are coming from under the front porch.

My house sits across from the cemetery.

The mower is in front of the shed.

In the first example, the sounds do not come from the porch, and they do not come under the
porch. They come from under the porch. In the second example, the house does not sit across the
cemetery, and it does not sit from the cemetery. It sits across from the cemetery. In the third example,
the mower is not in the shed, and it is not of the shed. It is in front of the shed. The combination of
prepositions in each of the three examples creates a complete meaning.

Participle Prepositions

Q. “What is the word concerning in the sentence ‘I have called concerning the lawsuit’?” asked a
paralegal. “Someone said this to me this afternoon, and it got me thinking.”

A. Excellent question! Though concerning looks much like a present participle, it is actually a
preposition. There are a number of other prepositions that look like verb participles but are truly
prepositions. Here is a partial list:

barring
concerning
considering
excepting
pending
regarding
 respecting
saving

The following sentences contain examples of such prepositions:

The concert will start at nine barring rain.

Considering his status in the community, it was surprising that the scandal was not
more devastating.

Partners of Prepositions

No true preposition can work alone. A preposition needs partners to carry on the relationship that it
establishes. These partners are the object and the referent.*The first partner, the object of the
preposition, is usually a noun or a pronoun and is usually located right after the preposition.

My friend bought flowers for me.

The peasants paid their tribute to the king.

I saw a UFO in the sky.

In the first example, the object of the preposition for is the pronoun me. In the second example, the
object of the preposition to is the noun king. In the third example, the object of the preposition in is
the noun sky.
The second partner, the referent, is the word that the preposition and object, acting together,
describe or modify. The referent may be a nominal, a verb, an adverbial, or an adjective.

The car smashed into the telephone pole.

The puppy with the spots is my favorite.

Juggling swords without cutting your hands off is quite a challenge.

In the first example, the referent of the preposition into is the verb smashed. In the second example,
the referent of the preposition with is the noun puppy. In the third example, the referent of the
preposition without is the gerund phrase juggling swords.

Prepositional Phrases

As we saw before, no preposition works alone. In fact, any preposition must participate in a word
construction called the prepositional phrase. This phrase consists of a preposition, the object of the
preposition, and any modifiers of that object.
 All eyes were locked on the giant screen.

We left the theater after the first act.

The first example contains the prepositional phrase on the giant screen. The preposition on creates a
relationship between the object screen and the referent locked. The phrase indicates where the eyes
were locked. The adjective giant describes the screen.
The second example contains the prepositional phrase after the first act. The preposition after
creates a relationship between the object act and the referent left. The phrase tells us when we left.
The adjective first describes the act.

Objects of Prepositions

The object of a preposition is usually a noun or a pronoun, always in the objective case. Though case
has no significant implications for standard nouns, it is quite important to pronouns. Pronouns that
function as objects of prepositions must take their objective case forms.

We returned the faulty merchandise to them. (correct)

She arrived before him. (correct)

I would like to go to the dance with her. (correct)

As you can see, each of these pronoun objects is in the objective case form. It would never do to use
them in their nominative case forms.

We returned the faulty merchandise to they. (incorrect)

She arrived before he. (incorrect)

I would like to go to the dance with she. (incorrect)

Oh, the humanity!

Notice that the object is usually, not always, a noun or a pronoun. Objects may also be words from
other parts of speech that function as nouns. These noun substitutes are called nominals.*

• Nominal Adjectives:

His mood changed from angry to morose.

This day is somewhere between the sublime and the ridiculous.

• Nominal Adverbs:

Light fell on us from above.

 We will take care of the problem at once, Sir!

• Gerunds:
The object could also be a gerund, a verbal or verb form that takes the place of a noun. The
gerund always ends in -ing.

I have nothing against dancing.

Running is near swimming on the gamut of exhausting sports.

Remember that another verbal, the infinitive, uses to as its infinitive marker: to smile, to fly.
Infinitives, however, are not prepositional phrases. Though to is a part of the infinitive, it does not
have the prepositional ability to establish a relationship between words. The verb portions of
infinitives (i.e., smile or fly) are not objects.

Object Questions

Q. Even presidents make mistakes. Maybe the White House staff needs a grammar coach to watch
over it so that these errors do not occur? A recent president inspired seventy-one callers to dial
the Hot Line with this gaffe: “It is time for Congress and I to make amends, to make a budget.”

A. For Congress and I is a prepositional phrase. The objects of prepositions are always in the
objective case. Nouns do not change form with case, so Congress is fine. Personal pronouns, on
the other hand, do. The objective case form of the first person, singular pronoun is me. I is the
nominative case form. The president should have said, “It is time for Congress and me to make
amends, to make a budget.”

Another Object Question

Q. “Should I ask for ‘Always in our heart’ or ‘Always in our hearts’?” asked a widow wanting to
know how to phrase the words on her husband’s tombstone.

A. The answer to this woman’s question requires a judgment call. Both in our heart and in our
hearts are prepositional phrases. The word in question is the object of the phrase. If her husband
were loved collectively, she should choose “Always in our heart.” A heart can be shared
figuratively. If, on the other hand, he were loved in different ways by different people, then she
should choose “Always in our hearts.”

Yet Another Object Question

Q. A businessman wondered, “Can a product advertised ‘for free’ also be marketed ‘freely’?”

A. To offer something for free is to offer it without charge. For free is a prepositional phrase with an
 adjective as an object. Though the adjective is not a typical object, the colloquial nature of the
expression allows us to treat free as a nominal. The expression is acceptable. To give freely is to
give without any fetters attached. This adverb is more appropriate to emotions than it is to
advertising. Advertisers should use for free when they are offering a product with no expectation
of compensation.

Uses of Prepositional Phrases

Grammar defines a phrase as a group of words lacking subject and predicate that functions as a
single part of speech. Accordingly, we treat the prepositional phrase as a unit, filling the role of one
specific part of speech in the sentence. It may act as a modifier or a nominal.

Prepositional Phrases Used as Modifiers

Many prepositional phrases modify nouns, pronouns, or other nominals in sentences. In these cases,
the preposition creates a relationship between its object and the noun, pronoun, or nominal referent in
the sentence. The prepositional phrase describes or qualifies this noun, pronoun, or nominal. The
phrase may follow the modified word(s) or it may appear in the predicate after a linking verb.

The restaurant at the beach serves excellent burgers.

My dad bought the beach house near the marina.

The girl under the umbrella is with me.

In the first example, the prepositional phrase at the beach modifies the noun restaurant. The
preposition at establishes a relationship between the nouns beach and restaurant. The relationship
indicates where the restaurant that serves the good, greasy food is.
In the second example, the prepositional phrase near the marina modifies the noun house. The
preposition near establishes a relationship between the nouns marina and house. The relationship
indicates where the house my dad bought is.
In the third example, the prepositional phrase under the umbrella modifies the noun girl. The
prepositional phrase with me, a subject complement, complements the noun girl, the subject of the
sentence. Under the umbrella follows this noun and indicates the girl’s location. With me follows
the linking verb is and indicates whom the girl is with.
Some prepositional phrases function as adverbials, modifying verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
The prepositions in these phrases establish relationships between their objects and verb, adjective, or
adverb referents in the sentences. These phrases will follow the words that they modify.

Jill’s present arrived just after her birthday.

The smog is thick in the early morning.

Carl runs awkwardly in these shoes.

The first example contains the prepositional phrase after her birthday, modifying the verb arrived. It
tells when the present arrived. The second example contains the prepositional phrase in the early
morning, modifying the adjective thick. It indicates when the smoke is thick. The final example
contains the prepositional phrase in these shoes, modifying the adverb awkwardly. It tells how Carl
runs awkwardly.

Prepositions at Graduation

Q. A recent secondary school graduate proudly announced that he received his degree when he
“graduated high school.” His mother called to ask us whether there was a prepositional phrase
missing from his sentence.

A. First, he received a diploma, not a degree, from high school. A degree can only be presented by a
college or university. Second, one cannot “graduate high school.” Taken literally, this means that
the student sends the high school out into the world to embark on life’s long journey. The young
man should amend his statement to say that he “graduated from high school.” The prepositional
phrase from high school is an adverbial that modifies the verb graduated.

Prepositional Phrases Used as Nominals

There is one case in which the preposition acts without a referent—when the prepositional phrase is
a nominal. Remember that a nominal is any noun or pronoun or any word, phrase, or clause that
performs the same function as a noun. Nominals have no descriptive or qualifying abilities, so they do
not refer to other words. Nominals put names on people, animals, and things. Similarly, a
prepositional phrase used as a nominal will have no referent. Its function will be to name.

Beyond the stars is where I would like to fly.

At noon is when we decided to meet.

In the first example, the prepositional phrase beyond the stars names a place, a place where I would
like to fly. In the second example, the prepositional phrase at noon names a time, a time that we
decided to meet.

Positioning the Preposition

The word preposition comes from two Latin words, prae, meaning “before,” and ponere, meaning
“to put.” The preposition is usually placed right before its object.

We drove through the woods.

Tim trained his binoculars on the eagle.

In each of these examples, the preposition comes almost directly before its object, separated only by
a modifier. Occasions do arise, however, when it is appropriate to place the preposition somewhere
else. When you encounter such an occasion, proceed with caution.
Contrary to popular belief, it is not a mortal sin to end a sentence with a preposition, as long as
the sentence sounds natural and its meaning is clear.

We found the earring you were looking for.

I know the place you are thinking of.

These sentences are fine.

Such constructions become dangerous, however, when their objects are pronouns. Separated
from the preposition, the object is less distinctively an object and easily mistaken for a pronoun in the
nominative case form. Warning! Warning! Warning! It is of the utmost importance that objects be in the
objective case form.

Whom are you looking for? (correct)

Whom are they staring at? (correct)

These sentences correctly put the pronoun objects of the prepositions for and at in objective case
forms. If only all objects could be so lucky.

Who are you looking for? (incorrect)

Who are they staring at? (incorrect)

These sad pronouns used as objects are in the nominative case form. With the prepositions far, far
away at the ends of the sentences, the author did not even recognize these pronouns as objects. If in
doubt, remember that it is always possible to reunite an object with the preposition that governs it.

For whom are you looking? (correct)

At whom are they staring? (correct)

The ideas expressed in these questions are identical to those expressed before, but their forms are
different. Here, the preposition is restored to its usual position before the object, and the object is
clearly an object again, correctly in the objective case form.

Ending a Sentence with a Preposition

Q. “Is it all right to end a sentence with a preposition?” asked an admirer of Winston Churchill. She
and her supervisor were arguing about the sentence “This is one which I cannot find the answer
for.”

A. If a sentence that ends with a preposition sounds fine and makes sense, by all means, write the
 sentence. It is absolutely antiquated to forbid ending a sentence with a preposition. However, it is
always possible to reword the sentence. “This is one for which I cannot find the answer.”
Incidentally, Winston Churchill, whose pen and voice so many admire, was an advocate of
this principle. He had a stock answer that he used to justify his reasoning. He would purposely
end a sentence with a preposition. “Overzealous grammarians are people whom I will not put up
with.” Then Churchill would joke that he’d rather end every sentence with a preposition than
trip over the clumsy alternative. “Overzealous grammarians are people up with whom I will not
put.”

Some Things You Should Know About Prepositions

Prepositions have a few peculiarities and trouble spots about which the serious student of grammar
will want clarification.

Prepositions or Adverbs?

You may have noticed words that seem to be prepositions working outside of prepositional phrases.
Do not be fooled! These are not prepositions. In some places, they may still function as prepositions,
but, in others, they function without objects and are adverbs.

The astronomy instructor asked her students to look up.

The rescue team was told to stand by.

The office turned down my request for a vacation.

The highlighted word in each example is an adverb. In the first example, the adverb up modifies the
infinitive to look. It tells where the students were asked to look. In the second example, the adverb by
modifies the infinitive to stand. It tells us where the team was told to stand. In the third example, the
adverb down modifies the verb turned. It indicates where the request was turned.

Onto

Q. “I know there is a word into, but is there a word onto, spelled as one word?” asked a high school
student.

A. There certainly is a word onto. Just take a glance at your dictionary. It means “on top of.”

My parakeet jumped onto the cage.

It can also be spelled as two words, where on is an adverb and to is a preposition.

The army marched on to its destination.

 To its destination is a prepositional phrase modifying on. On is an adverb modifying
the verb marched.

Soap Opera Grammar

Q. “One of my writers submitted a script with this sentence,” said a soap opera director. “ ‘There
hasn’t been a day gone by that I haven’t felt you dying inside Helen.’ It sounds funny, don’t you
think?”

A. The sentence was meant to be spoken in the second person to a dying woman named Helen. Inside
Helen (no comma) is a prepositional phrase. It suggests that someone is actually dying within
Helen other than Helen herself. If we insert a comma between inside and Helen, the intent of the
sentence becomes clear. It then reads, “There hasn’t been a day gone by that I haven’t felt you
dying inside, Helen.” Inside is an adverb modifying the verb dying. It describes where Helen is
dying. Helen is the name of the person to whom the sentence is spoken. On a stylistic note, I might
also change the beginning of the sentence to read, “Not a day has gone by….”

Common Usage Errors with Prepositions and Other Parts of Speech

English is a complex, but flexible language. It grants us powers of expression that a less sophisticated
language could not provide but burdens us with the responsibility of using those powers wisely.
Prepositions are a subject on which many readers and writers slip and fall. Some use unnecessary
words with the prepositions, and others use inappropriate words in place of true prepositions.
Whatever the case may be, the resulting grammatical constructions are incorrect. The following calls
to the Hot Line will illustrate a few of the most commonly made errors:

The Unnecessary Preposition Error

Q. A caller from Cincinnati asked, “Can I say, ‘I didn’t know where it was at’?”

A. Do not use a preposition unless the sentence requires it. The preposition at in this sentence is
superfluous. Try to rearrange the words so that at is reunited with its referent. You may have
trouble finding one. Should the sentence read, “I don’t know at where it was”? No, it should not.
Please remove the preposition so that the sentence does read, “I didn’t know where it was.”
Here are a few more examples of sentences containing unneeded prepositions:

Stay off of the grass. (incorrect)

Where are we at? (incorrect)

Where is she driving to? (incorrect)

The picture is over with. (incorrect)

The prepositions in bold print are unneeded and unwanted. They provide no useful information and
give the sentences a rather vulgar sound. Take them away!

Stay off the grass. (correct)

Where are we? (correct)

Where is she driving? (correct)

The picture is over. (correct)

These are much sweeter.

A Word of Caution

Q. “Could the word from be deleted in this sentence?” asked the owner of a stable. “It reads, ‘As he
dismounted from his horse, the animal spooked.’” The owner was posting a notice on his bulletin
board about a rider who had been injured the previous week.

A. From his horse is a prepositional phrase. If from, a preposition, were deleted, it would be
possible to interpret the sentence as meaning that the horse was being dismounted from some other
creature. Keep from. Writers, take care not to remove necessary prepositions. Of course, you
could say, “As he dismounted, the horse spooked,” leaving from his horse out. The meaning is
still clear.

The Different-Than Error

Q. “Is it appropriate to say that one thing is different than another?” asked a teacher from Utah.

A. When your intention is to describe the differences among people, animals, or things, use different
from. Different than is never correct.

She is different than the rest. (incorrect)

She is different from the rest. (correct)

The In-Back-Of Error

Q. “My husband just told me that ‘the kids are in back of the house.’ I told him that he was using
incorrect grammar by saying ‘in back of,’ and he told me to get a life. Was I right?”

A. This woman was correct in a sense. You shouldn’t use the wordy compound preposition in back of
when you can say behind. The simple preposition is more concise.
 The kids are in back of the house. (wordy)

The kids are behind the house. (excellent)

However, her husband wasn’t incorrect. His version was just wordier. It sounds as if they could both
use a night away from the kids.

The Outside-Of Error

Q. “Is outside of a synonym for except?” asked a would-be word sleuth from Baltimore.

A. The compound preposition outside of is not a suitable substitute for except.

I know no one who plays the accordion outside of Anthony. (incorrect)

I know no one who plays the accordion except Anthony. (correct)

The use of outside of even sounds a little creepy. Can you imagine playing the
accordion inside of poor Anthony?

The Inside-Of Error

Q. “I was also wondering about inside of and within, ” asked the same would-be word sleuth.

A. Many people mistakenly use the compound preposition inside of to speak of time. The correct
preposition to use in this context is within.

Our project must be complete inside of the week. (incorrect)

Our project must be complete within the week. (correct)

Only use the construction inside of when inside is used as a noun.

The inside of the house was worn and dirty. (correct)

The doctor examined the inside of my mouth. (correct)

In both examples, inside functions as a noun, naming the inside portions of a house and
a mouth. The preposition of begins a prepositional phrase in each.

The Regards Error

Q. “My boss is always saying ‘in regards to,’ and I keep telling him that he should say ‘in regard to,’
 but he doesn’t believe me. What do you think?”

A. This caller knows her grammar. The use of the plural regards in the phrases in regards to and
with regards to is incorrect. Since each phrase shows its speaker regarding just one issue, the
regard is singular: in regard to and with regard to.

I am calling in regards to your memo. (poor)

I am calling in regard to your memo. (excellent)

With regards to our meeting, I cannot attend. (poor)

With regard to our meeting, I cannot attend. (excellent)

Ambiguous Prepositions

Prepositions and prepositional phrases are subtle pieces of grammar. Used carelessly, they can
communicate faulty, misleading, even horrifying ideas. When you use a prepositional phrase, make
sure that the meaning of the phrase is the meaning you intend to communicate and that the word
modified by the phrase is clear to the listener or reader. Take a look at some of the problems that have
crossed my desk at the Hot Line.

Prepositional Phrase Placement

Q. A newscaster asked, “Is placement of a prepositional phrase in a sentence of any great

importance?”

A. The placement of a prepositional phrase has severe consequences for the meaning of a sentence.
The phrase must be so placed that its referent is clear. If the referent is uncertain or missing, we
say that the phrase dangles. Take a look at this example:

I cleaned the room with my pal Joseph. (unclear)

The referent of the prepositional phrase with my pal Joseph is uncertain. If the phrase
modifies the noun room, then the meaning of the sentence indicates that the speaker
cleaned the room occupied by his or her pal Joseph. The phrase is supposed to
function as an adverbial, modifying the verb cleaned. This meaning indicates that the
speaker cleaned with the help of his or her pal Joseph. To clarify things, place the
phrase at the beginning of the sentence:

With my pal Joseph, I cleaned the room. (clear)

A Hairy Question
Q. An attorney phoned me with this dandy of a dangling prepositional phrase: “People in front of me
cleaning their faces with beards amused me.” He said, “Some sentence, hmmm?”

A. Cleaning their faces is a present participle phrase. With beards is a prepositional phrase. The
placement of the words is a mess. It is unclear whether the prepositional phrase modifies the
present participle cleaning or the noun people. Do people with beards who are cleaning their
faces amuse the speaker? Do people who clean their faces with their beards amuse the speaker?
We don’t have the slightest idea. Immediately, change the sentence to “People with beards
cleaning their faces amused me” or, even better, “Bearded people cleaning their faces amused
me.”

Sentence Contamination

Q. Writing in Smithsonian magazine, William R. Appel reported that residents of Marshville, North
Carolina, received a frightening notice in the mail. It read, “You probably got a letter warning you
about the dangers of lead-contaminated water in your mail.”

A. I don’t really care whether the water in my mail is contaminated or not. My letters and bills, even
my junk mail, should not be wet! In your mail is a dangling prepositional phrase. In its current
position, the phrase seems to modify the noun water. Evidently, contaminated water has seeped
into the mail. To make sense of the situation, we should move the phrase. The sentence should
read, “You probably got a letter in your mail warning you about the dangers of lead-contaminated
water.”

Between What Times?

Q. “Does this make sense: ‘The injured baby was between one-and-a-half years old’?” asked a
skeptical newspaper reader.

A. The baby must be between two ages. This sentence only lists one. The clearest way of expressing
the idea is to write, “The injured baby was between twelve months and eighteen months old.”
Between twelve months and eighteen months is a prepositional phrase.

The Copious Drinker and Her Pile

Q. “Is this ad correct?” asked an astute beer drinker. “It reads, ‘She is sitting among a pile of beer
cans.’”

A. Among a pile is a prepositional phrase. Structurally, it is correct, but logically, it doesn’t make
sense. You cannot sit among a pile, which is defined as a single heap. You can sit on a pile or
next to a pile or between two piles, but not among one. The sentence needs to be reworded.

She is sitting among many beer cans.

 She is sitting on a pile of beer cans.

She is sitting in the midst of many beer cans.

Any of these will work. Why was she there anyway? Doesn’t she have better things to
do with her time? And who drank all that beer? The possibilities boggle the mind.

Clarifying Some Definitions

Q. A frequent Hot Line caller asked, “What’s the difference between between and among? I feel like
I know the answer, but I just can’t put it into words.”

A. There are several pairs of prepositions whose definitions are easily confused. The pair between-
among is certainly one of these. The preposition between refers to just two people, animals, or
things. The preposition among refers to more than two.

The cotton candy was divided between the two children.

The rumor was spread among the townspeople.

Here are a few other pairs of prepositions whose definitions could use some
clarification:

• Beside-Besides
One places a spoon beside or next to the knife. One plays tennis besides or in addition to
golf.

My dog waited beside my bed while I was sick.

Besides me, only four other people came to the first meeting.

• By-With
By refers to the individual taking the action. With refers to the instrument used to create the
action.

The book was written by Hemingway.

The tree was felled with a sharp ax and a quick stroke.

• During-For
During refers to a small set of times within a larger period, while for refers to the entire
period named.

I went to the bathroom four times during the first act.

 The thief was sent to prison for twenty-five years.

• In-Into
The preposition in denotes motion or action within a certain area. The preposition into
refers to motion toward an area from the outside.

We swam in the pool.

We dove into the pool.

• Of-Off
The words of and off may look similar, but their meanings are quite different. The
preposition of indicates distance, origin, cause, material, possession, or inclusion, among other
definitions.

The balloon touched down three miles south of the landing site.
(distance)

Charles is the Prince of Wales. (origin)

The miners died of oxygen deprivation. (cause)

The ring is of the purest gold. (material)

You are one of us now. (inclusion)

The preposition off implies removal or departure.

That took the weight off my shoulders.

Take your feet off the table.

Stay off my lawn, you kids!

Off can also be an adverb, again implying removal or departure.

I took off my shirt.

The thieves took off the car’s hubcaps.

• With-From
The prepositions with and from can both imply separation, but the types of separation
implied differ. With indicates an active separation, one where some person, place, or thing
actively moves away from another.

Let’s dispense with the social niceties.

 I had to part with many of my prized possessions when we moved.

The separation of the preposition from is passive. It is a matter of fact, such as the
distance from one place to another or from one time to another, rather than the result of
an active will.

The fireworks will start twenty minutes from now.

We are seventy miles from the nearest telephone.

An Additional Clarification: To-Too

Q. I received a fax one afternoon with a question from a frustrated high school biology student. She
wrote, “In my lab reports, I often don’t use the word to correctly. I put in an extra o, and I get
points knocked off my grade even though the rest of the report is fine. What is the correct way to
use to and too? ”

A. This caller is not alone in her frustration. The preposition to and the adverb too are often misused.
People err in their uses of these words for two reasons: 1) they write without thinking or 2) they
are not clear on the definitions. Only you can rectify the first situation, but I can help with the
second.
The word to, as we have seen before, is a preposition. It usually means “toward” or “in the
direction of.”

We decided to go to the movies.

My family traveled to Europe last summer.

To, as you well know, is also the marker of infinitives. In this role, it does not
have the true power of the preposition to create relationships between words.

I love to ski.

To run a marathon is one of my dreams.

On occasion, you may encounter to as an adverb, meaning “toward a certain

point.”

The saloon door swung to and fro.

The submariner pulled the hatch to.

The word too is an adverb and only an adverb. It can mean “also,” “extremely,”
or “excessively.”
 I would like to come too. (also)

That is too much lasagna for one person to eat. (extremely)

It is too bright in this room. (excessively)

To-With

Q. “Should I say, ‘It’s been a pleasure talking to you’ or ‘It’s been a pleasure talking with you’?” a
CEO asked.

A. To you and with you are both prepositional phrases. To is a one-directional preposition. It implies
that you did most of the talking. With implies a joining together, a give and take. To is a soliloquy,
whereas with is a colloquy. Either is correct, but the meanings are different, and with is just a bit
more couth.

In-On

Q. A publicist for a year-round resort asked, “Are sports played in or on the water?”

A. Some sports, such as water polo and swimming, can only be played in the water. In these
activities, the participants’ bodies are surrounded by the water. Other sports, such as waterskiing
and rafting, are done on the water. Here, the participants’ bodies remain above the water. Klutzier
water-skiers, however, may find themselves in the water more often than on.

In-Within

Q. “What’s the difference between in an hour and within an hour? ” asked an attorney.

A. An event that will take place in an hour will occur at the end of sixty minutes. An event that will
take place within an hour may occur any time between the present and sixty minutes from the
present. The difference is crucial, especially if you are to meet someone at a specific place and
time. Both in an hour and within an hour are prepositional phrases.

But-Except

Q. “Can but be a preposition in the sentence ‘No one but me knows the material so well’?” The
caller, a scholar from Biloxi, wanted clarification.

A. The usage of but is perfectly acceptable. But can be a preposition but only when it means
“except.”
 All of us will go but Jim.

All of us will go except Jim.

In the caller’s sentence, but is a preposition, meaning “except.”

No one except me knows the material so well.

No one but me knows the material so well.

From My Files: Political Grammar

A political ad a few years ago showed photographs of six potential candidates. It asked the reader,
“Between these, whom would you choose?” Grammatically, between can only involve two entities.
The writer implied that only two of the individuals were worthy of being considered. If he had
wanted the readers to consider all six of them, he should have written, “Among these, whom would
you choose?” Or perhaps some clever spin doctor knew exactly what was being said. Did the two
front-runners also know? If so, what a devious use of grammar this was to eliminate the competition!

Collocations and Prepositions

Q. A legal secretary complained that her boss always uses constructions which sound and look
awkward. “Is there a prescribed list of which prepositions go with which words?” she asked
plaintively.

A. Yes, there is. Grammarians call regular pairings of words collocations. That one word is
collocated with another does not mean that both words must be used together or not at all. A
collocation is simply a common and expected usage of that pair of words. This list of collocations
will indicate which prepositions we use in conjunction with particular words. It’s a good idea to
keep the list near your computer as it can be a great boon in settling petty arguments. Here’s the
list:

Abhorrence to
Hypocrisy is abhorrent to one.

Abide with
One abides with his wife.

Absolve by, from

One is absolved by the judge. One is absolved from all penalties.

Accede to
One accedes to a request.
Accommodate to, with
One accommodates to circumstances. One accommodates a friend with a loan.

Accompany by, with

One is accompanied by companions. One accompanies a speech with slides.

Accord with
One is in accord with the new office regulations.

According to
Everything is going according to my plan.

Account to, for

One has to account to the principal. You must account for your actions.

Accountable to, for

One is accountable to the boss for one’s work. You are accountable for the entire loss.

Accuse of
One may accuse another of wrongful actions.

Acquiesce in, to
One acquiesces in a decision. She acquiesced to the demands.

Acquitted of
One is acquitted of a misdemeanor.

Adapted to, for, from

One adapts oneself to a situation. One is not adapted for heavy lifting. A movie is adapted from
a best-selling book.

Admit of, to
Some words admit of two meanings. He admits to the accusation of improper behavior.

Advantage in, of, over, to, with

There is an advantage in early tax filing. You have the advantage of me. You have an advantage
over me. There is an advantage to keeping your promises. The advantage lay with the movie
director.

Advise of, about

She advised me of the new regulations. Advise me about the issue before deciding.

Agree in, with, on, to

We agree in principle. You must agree with me that the letter must be rewritten. I agree on that
 point. Agree to honor the contract.

Agreeable to, with

Oysters may not be agreeable to your stomach. Your plan is agreeable with our future plans.

Analogous to
This situation is analogous to mine.

Angry at, with

She is angry at her boss. She is also angry with my friendly attitude toward him.

Answer to
He must answer to his parents.

Appeal to, against

He appealed to his parents’ sense of fair play, but he also appealed against their unjust
criticism.

Apply to, for

Apply to the office for a day off. Apply for social security.

Answer to, for

Nevertheless, she must answer to her parents. You must answer for your shortcomings.

Apropos of
Apropos of your statement, let me say I agree.

Argue about, against, for, with

Let’s not argue about it any more. I shall not argue against you.
Let’s argue for a better way of doing things. I do not like to argue with you.

Averse to
He is averse to his move to the city.

Behalf in, on, of

One uses one’s influence in behalf of another person and acts on behalf of that person. One
might also influence a panel in another person’s behalf or act on that person’s behalf.

Capable of
One is capable of running a marathon.

Care about, for

One does not care about unimportant things. One cares for the good opinion of others.

Careless about, of
 One should not be careless about or of details.

Cause for
Adam’s words were cause for violence.

Center upon
Center your attention upon the important facts.

Characteristic of
Those remarks are characteristic of my mother.

Compatible with
One should be compatible with one’s fellow workers.

Compliance with
One attempts compliance with requests.

Concur in, with

I concurred in the demand. That doesn’t concur with my understanding.

Connect by, with

They are connected by marriage. Their good manners are connected with their upbringing.

Consideration for, of
It’s nice to have consideration for others. In consideration of the circumstances, he was overly
polite.

Consist in, of
The decision consists in weighing the facts. The book consists of sixteen chapters.

Contend against, for, with

I contended against the passage of the bill. I contended for a more equitable policy. I contended
with his ugly disposition.

Contrast to, with

One thing is contrasted to or with another thing.

Convenient to, for

The bus stop is convenient to my work, which makes commuting convenient for me.

Conversant with
He is conversant with the material.

Correspond to, with

This does not correspond to or with the facts.
Defer to
I always defer to the officer in charge.

Depend on, upon

That depends on or upon his testimony.

Desirous of
He is desirous of a promotion at his firm.

Die from, of
He died from or of kidney failure.

Differ from, with

Twins may differ from each other in appearance, but they may also differ with each other about
the best course of action.

Different from
He is different in person from his pictures.

Dispense with
Let’s dispense with the formalities.

Dispute with, about, over

I will not dispute with you about or over the facts in the case.

Dissent from
I dissent from the argument you proposed.

Distinguish between, among, from

One distinguishes between two things and among several, but one distinguishes a camel from a
chicken.

Divide between, among

One divides anything between two and among three or more.

Enamored of
He is enamored of his fiancée.

Enter into
A person enters into an agreement.

Entrust to, with

One entrusts one’s finances to a business manager. One entrusts one’s business manager with
one’s money.
Free from, of
It’s nice to be freed from responsibilities and to be free of them.

Furnish with
One furnishes another with a recommendation.

Give to, for

One gives a donation to the church for its upkeep.

Grieve at, for, over, with

It’s normal to grieve at or for or over the death of a pet. You can grieve with someone.

Guard against, from

One guards against or from unnecessary risks.

Happen on, upon, to

Sometimes, one happens on or upon good buys by chance. Good luck can happen to anyone.

Identical to, with

Twins may be identical to or with one another.

Incorrect in
He was incorrect in his answer.

Independent of
He’s lucky to be independent of any kind of financial pressure.

Infer from
One infers from another person’s implication.

Initiated into
One is initiated into a new club.

Inseparable from
They are inseparable from each other.

Instill into, in
He has had discipline instilled into him by his father. I shall instill in you certain virtues.

Intercede for, with

He intercedes for his parents with the tax assessor.

Interest in
He has a great interest in art.
Join with, in, to
Join with the others in the fun. Join this plug to the outlet.

Jump at, to
One jumps at a generous offer. One jumps to conclusions.

Liable for, to
Life makes us all liable for our actions. Indiscretions are liable to catch up with us.

Live in, at, on

One may live in or at a house of his or her own. One may also live on the coast.

Meddle in, with

She likes to meddle in or with other peoples’ affairs.

Necessity for, of
There is no necessity for you to attend. There is no necessity of your attending.

Need for, of
There is no need for you to go. There is no need of your going.

Object to
He objects to the change in plans.

Oblivious of
He is oblivious of his shortcomings.

Overcome by, with

He was overcome by the play. She was overcome with emotion.

Parallel to, with

Lines may be parallel to or with one another.

Part from, with

One does not like to part from or with one’s former companions.
One does not like to part with one’s money.

Ponder on, upon, over

He ponders on or upon or over his future course of action.

Preferable to
Employment is preferable to unemployment.

Prejudiced against
One is prejudiced against a matter.
Preside at, over
The chairman presides at or over the meeting.

Prevail against, on, upon, with, over

It’s sometimes difficult to prevail against hard times. But one can prevail on or upon or with
one’s boss for a raise. One can certainly prevail over a situation.

Provide against, for, with

One must provide against the future for one’s senior years to be sure one is provided with the
necessities. Your pension will provide for your needs.

Quarrel over, with

One should not quarrel over small things. One should not quarrel with one’s siblings.

Reason with, about

One reasons with one’s spouse about a matter.

Reckon with
One must reckon with inflation.

Reconcile to, with

One must reconcile oneself to or with many changes in life.

Rejoice with, at, in

It’s nice to rejoice with a friend at or in his or her good luck.

Result from, in
The argument resulted from a lie the boy told and eventually resulted in a fight.

Retire from, into

One retires from office. A turtle retires its head into its shell.

Seek after, for, out

Gold miners seek after wealth. Ponce de León was seeking for the Fountain of Youth. One can
seek out justice.

Strive against, with, for

One strives against or with difficulties for a positive outcome.

Supply to, with

One can supply goods to the army. One can also supply the army with goods.

Trade in, on, with

She trades in stocks and bonds. She trades on the stock exchange.
She trades only with reliable brokers.
Variance with
His bank records are at variance with his accountants.

Vary from, in, with

His opinions vary from the norm. Opinions may vary in intensity.
The flavor of wine varies with age.

Vexed at, by
One is vexed at one’s girlfriend or boyfriend. One is vexed by her or his attitude.

Vie for, with

He vied for her affections. He vies with his opponents.

Wait by, for, on

One waits by the telephone. One waits for the bus. A waiter or waitress waits on a table or a
customer.

Yield to
Don’t yield to temptation.
 8

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are the connections between words and groups of words.

Language is composed of many elements. We take words and put them together to make simple ideas.
We then take these simple ideas and put them together to make more complicated ones. The simple
ideas that make up the more complicated ones do not stick together on their own, however. For this,
we need some tape.
Conjunctions are language’s Scotch tape. They connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

Bill and I saw the concert last weekend.

My friend Dana can paint, but she really loves to sculpt.

I would like Italian or Chinese food for dinner.

In each example, a conjunction connects one word to another word or one group of words to another
group of words. The following is a list of some commonly used conjunctions:

although
and
as
because
before
for
if
lest
neither
nor
only
or
provided
safe
since
so
than
 that
thought
unless
when
whereas
whereat
whereby
wherefore
wherein
whereof
whereupon
wherever
whether
while
yet

Sometimes two or three words can be used together as a single conjunction.

I took this class so that I could learn more about genetics.

I will be there as soon as I can.

These examples use two- and three-word conjunctions: so that and as soon as.

Coordinate and Subordinate Conjunctions

Conjunctions also show the relationships between the words and word groups that they connect.
These connected elements may be of equal importance, but they may also differ in importance in
relation to one another. With this relating function in mind, conjunctions are divided into two general
categories: coordinate and subordinate.

Coordinate Conjunctions

Coordinate conjunctions connect elements of equal importance.

My cats and dogs are great friends.

Sam loves to cook, but he loves to eat more.

I think that Susan or Mary will ask me to the dance.

In the first example, the conjunction and connects the nouns cats and dogs. In the second example, the
conjunction but connects two simple sentences: Sam loves to cook and he loves to eat more. In the
third example, the conjunction or joins the names Susan and Mary. In each example, the elements
connected are of equal importance. One does not depend on the other to substantiate its meaning. Each
could function just as well without the other.
We can divide coordinate conjunctions further into conjunctive conjunctions and disjunctive
conjunctions. Conjunctive conjunctions bring elements together. They have an additive function. The
conjunction and is the most famous of the conjunctive conjunctions.

The frog sings and dances.

Jane and I went to the movies.

I need a hammer and chisel to cut this stale bread.

In each example, the conjunctive conjunction and adds elements of the sentences together: the frog’s
abilities, the people going to the movies, and the tools needed to cut the bread.
The other and, by far, the larger class of coordinate conjunctions is that of the disjunctive
conjunctions. While they may tie words and groups of words together, they also imply an opposition
or separation. Some disjunctive conjunctions are but, or, nor, and yet.

They will stay, or they will go.

The sports car was beautiful but expensive.

I never called her back, nor have I regretted it.

Do you see how the connected elements of each sentence are in opposition, be they words or groups
of words? Instead of being added together, the elements on either side of these disjunctive
conjunctions almost seem to defy one another.

A Coordinate Quandary

Q. “My associate and I are having a minor confrontation over a sentence. We’re confused about
whether we should use a preposition or a conjunction. Here’s the sentence that’s giving us trouble:
’We will celebrate its anniversary with a luncheon in a salute to women of achievement.’ Now,
can we replace in with and? If we do, does it change the meaning of the sentence?”

A. Either in or and is acceptable at this spot in the sentence, but the choice of word will have drastic
effects on meaning. Which word the coworkers select will depend on how they view the “salute
to women of achievement.” If the celebration is being held as a salute to women of achievement,
then the sentence should read, “We will celebrate its anniversary with a luncheon in a salute to
women of achievement.” The prepositional phrase in a salute to women of achievement
functions as an adverbial of reason to modify the verb phrase will celebrate. It gives us the reason
for celebrating.
If, however, the luncheon and the salute are regarded as two separate events that will take
place at the celebration, the sentence should read, “We will celebrate its anniversary with a
 luncheon and a salute to women of achievement.” The coordinate conjunction and has an additive
effect within the phrase. It adds the noun salute to the noun luncheon so that both are objects of
the preposition with. The entire prepositional phrase with a luncheon and a salute to women of
achievement functions as an adverbial of manner to modify the verb phrase will celebrate. It
tells us the manner of the celebrating.
Whew! Do you see how a simple word change can have a severe effect on meaning? Grammar
is the interior framework of language. Change the interior and there are bound to be consequences
for the exterior, the meaning. Thank you, callers, for bringing these lovely quandaries to my
attention.

Subordinate Conjunctions

Subordinate conjunctions connect elements of differing importance. One element is always a main
clause. The other is a subordinate clause. The main clause has a subject and predicate and may stand
on its own as a complete thought. For this reason, grammarians sometimes refer to it as an
independent clause.
The subordinate clause also has a subject and predicate, but it cannot stand alone and make
sense. It depends on the main clause. This element contains the subordinate conjunction. The function
of the subordinate clause is to modify the main clause in some way, rather than to express a primary
idea. This is why we view it as less important, and this is why we have assigned it the title of
subordinate clause. The word subordinate implies a lower rank. The subordinate conjunction binds
the words of the subordinate clause to those of the main clause (see chapter 12 for more information
about main and subordinate clauses).
Here is a list of the most familiar subordinate conjunctions:

after
although
as
as if
as though
because
before
even if
even though
except
for
if
lest
provided
save
since
than
that
though
 till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
wherever
whether
while

The relationship that the subordinate conjunction creates between main and subordinate clauses
may carry one of several meanings:

Place
Subordinate conjunctions such as where and wherever can imply a sense of place.

Where there is smoke, there is fire.

I will go wherever you ask me to go.

Time
Subordinate conjunctions such as after, before, since, until, when, whenever, and while can imply a
sense of time.

It has been years since I saw you last.

I saw dolphins swim past the end of the pier while I was waiting for you.

Manner
Subordinate conjunctions such as as and as if can imply a sense of manner.

You look at me as if I were from another planet.

She treats me as an equal.

Reason
Subordinate conjunctions such as as, because, in order that, since, so that, and that can provide a
reason.

I came because I want to see you.

I stopped running so that my knee could heal.

Possibility or Conditionality
Subordinate conjunctions such as although, if, even if, provided, though, and unless can state
possibility or conditionality.

If you go, I will go too.

Sammy will not go to bed unless we read her a story.

Comparison
Subordinate conjunctions such as as and than can make a comparison.

I like summer more than I like winter.

She does not want to do anything else than to play pinball.

Correlative Conjunctions

Q. One blustery afternoon, a caller telephoned to say, “There’s this quote that I hear all the time: ‘As
ye sow, so shall ye reap.’ I think it’s from the Bible. My question is this. What is the structure of
the sentence? It looks like it’s just two subordinate clauses, each one beginning with as or so.
What’s the explanation of this?”

A. The quote is indeed Biblical, Galatians 6:7 to be exact. This particular phrasing of that Biblical
quote makes use of a special type of conjunction. Conjunctions of this class are called correlative
conjunctions, and they come in pairs. Some correlative conjunctions function as coordinate
conjunctions. Others function as subordinate conjunctions. In the caller’s sentence, the pair as-so
is a correlative conjunction. It links a subordinate clause, as ye sow, to a main clause, so shall ye
reap.
The following are common examples of correlative conjunctions:

as-as
as-so
both-and
either-or
if-then
neither-nor
not-but
not only-but also
not so much-as
whether-or

Some of these words do not normally fall under the heading of conjunction. The word both, for
instance, is a determiner.* However, the pairings change the functions of these words into those
of conjunctions. Take a look at some more examples:
 Neither Tom nor Harry knows where the report went.

Both Jack and Jill went up the hill.

Either the cat goes or I go.

If you hadn’t called, then I would never have heard about the accident.

Whether you want to finish your homework or not is not my concern.

As you wish, so do I.

Not only am I a fisherman, but also I am a fabulous chef.

The washer never gets my clothes as clean as I would like.

When using the correlative conjunctions either-or or neither-nor, remember that either is
always paired with or and that neither is always paired with nor. These words are not
interchangeable.

From My Files: The President’s Cabinet

One Wednesday morning, I heard the CBS newsreader state, “The president or his cabinet are going
to meet this afternoon.” What savage language! The broadcasting industry must be made to recognize
its responsibility as a bearer of standards. Unconsciously, we mimic what we hear, and, with the
average American watching three to four hours of television a day, the voices of the media are the
voices often mimicked. It is vital that all media personalities, before they are allowed to speak to the
public, be trained in the rudiments of grammar. Before any network employs a newscaster, he or she
should be tested for basic grammar and pronunciation. It is unfortunate that the networks do not pay
experts to monitor and correct their broadcast scripts.
This newscaster had implied that either the president or his cabinet was to meet. The cabinet can
certainly meet, but the president alone, assuming he is sane, cannot. He needs others to meet with. The
reader should have said, “The president and his cabinet are to meet this afternoon.”

Some Other Things to Remember About Conjunctions

Here are a few additional issues about conjunctions that any skilled grammarian needs to address.

Connections

One of the most important things to remember when using conjunctions is that they must connect like
parts of speech or sentence elements. Adjectives should be connected to adjectives, adverbs to
adverbs, nouns to nouns, and verbs to verbs. It would never do to connect an adverb to a noun or a
noun to a verb. A noun, verb, adjective, or adverb can be connected to a phrase as long as the phrase
is of the same functional type as the word that it is connected to.

You must choose hot coffee at dinner or sleeping at night.

Terry played well and without error.

In the first example, the conjunction or connects the noun phrase hot coffee at dinner to the gerund
phrase sleeping at night. Both elements function as nominals so we can connect them. In the second
example, and connects the adverb well to the prepositional phrase without error. Both play adverbial
roles in the sentence, so we can correctly connect them, as well.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Q. “What part of speech is eventually? ” asked a late-night caller. “My dictionary says that it’s an
adverb, but that doesn’t quite seem right.”

A. This is a significant question because it highlights an entity known as the conjunctive adverb.
Remember that a standard adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

The snow fell mercilessly.

In this example, mercilessly describes the verb fell. Its role is that of a standard adverb.
Conjunctive adverbs share characteristics with two parts of speech. They are similar to
standard adverbs because of the meanings that they can convey, but they are also similar to
coordinate conjunctions because they connect main clauses.
Conjunctive adverbs are unlike standard adverbs in one very important way. While the
meaning implied by a standard adverb affects only a single word or phrase, the meaning implied
by a conjunctive adverb concerns the entire clause of which it is a part.
These are the most common conjunctive adverbs:

accordingly
afterward
again
also
anyhow
as a result
at last
at the same time
besides
consequently
earlier
eventually
finally
for example
for instance
furthermore
hence
however
in addition
in any case
indeed
in fact
in like manner
in short
instead
in the meantime
later
likewise
meanwhile
moreover
namely
nevertheless
next
on the contrary
on the other hand
otherwise
perhaps
so
still
subsequently
that is
then
therefore
thus

As we just discussed, conjunctive adverbs carry meanings that are similar to those of
standard adverbs. The possible meanings of these special adverbs number six.

1. Time: afterward, earlier, eventually, later

2. Addition: also, for example, furthermore, moreover
3. Cause: as a result, consequently, hence, therefore
4. Manner: anyhow, in like manner, in short, likewise
5. Contrast: however, in fact, on the contrary, on the other hand
6. Example: for instance, for example

Examine these examples of conjunctive adverbs in action. Remember that each possesses a
modifying and a connecting function.

Tom wanted to buy the leather jacket; however, his empty wallet
 persuaded him not to.

Grandma took the kids to the zoo. Afterward, they stopped for ice
cream.

In the first example, the conjunctive adverb however joins the main clauses Tom wanted
to buy the leather jacket and his empty wallet persuaded him not to. The meaning of the
conjunctive adverb affects the latter clause. It implies a sense of contrast, indicating that the
second clause exists in contrast with the first.
In the second example, the conjunctive adverb afterward forms a connection between the
main clauses Grandma took the kids to the zoo and they stopped for ice cream. Again, the
meaning of the conjunctive adverb affects the latter clause. It implies a sense of time, indicating
that the event described by the second clause occurred after the event described by the first.
We can see that adverbs and conjunctions are related. In some places, a single word may
perform the functions of both. We will complete our discussion of conjunctive adverbs in
chapter 12, on compound and complex sentences.

Conjunctions and Commas

So far, our discussion has been limited to connections between pairs of items, but sometimes it is
necessary to connect more than two items. When several items in a series are connected by the same
conjunction, you can replace that conjunction with a comma between all but the last two items.

The movie is long, silly, and boring.

Leslie, Karl, and I went skiing last weekend.

It is not a grammatical crime to leave the conjunctions between all the items. In some situations, they
can add flavor or emphasis to a sentence.

The movie is long and silly and boring.

Leslie and Karl and I went skiing last weekend.

If you choose this stylistic option, the commas are unnecessary.

Only

Q. A caller from Ann Arbor, Michigan, asked, “Is only an adverb or a conjunction?”

A. Only can be an adverb or conjunction. In fact, it can even be an adjective. Only is a versatile
word. With this versatility, however, comes a greater potential for confusion. When you put only
to use, be sure that it is used in the way that suits your needs. If an adjective, it should clearly
modify a noun or pronoun.
 John is our only child.

If an adverb, it should clearly modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

My little brother only eats pickles.

If a conjunction, it should connect phrases and clauses.

I would have finished, only I broke my leg.

Like

Speakers of American English use the word like far too loosely. It seems as if teenagers utter the
word like every second. Sadly, many of these utterances present like as a conjunction. Like is NOT a
conjunction. It is a preposition. These poor souls unwittingly use incorrect sentences such as those
following:

He acts like he is already the Homecoming King. (incorrect)

I wish I was popular like they are. (incorrect)

I want to be famous like Brad Pitt is. (incorrect)

Oh, no, no, no! These sentences all use like as a conjunction to join main and subordinate clauses.
There are two things we can do to correct the problem. We could change those subordinate
clauses into true prepositional phrases:

He acts like the Homecoming King.

I wish I was popular like them.

I want to be famous like Brad Pitt.

With the verbs removed and the pronouns changed where necessary, we create prepositional phrases:

We could also replace the word like with true conjunctions.

He acts as if he were already the Homecoming King.

I wish I was as popular as they are.

I want to be as famous as Brad Pitt.

Some solutions work better than others. Pick the one that works best for your sentence.
Like vs. As

Q. Adding to the Like-As controversy was this call from a high school senior on the East Coast.
(Mom, please don’t quibble over the long-distance phone bill.) His teacher marked him off on a
term paper for writing, “High school is valuable like any experience in life should be.” Our
troubled senior asked, “What’s wrong with my sentence?”

A. Like is a preposition. It must be used in a prepositional phrase. In his sentence, like begins an
adverbial clause, a group of words containing a subject and a predicate that functions as an
adverb. Any adverbial clause begins with a subordinate conjunction, but like is not a subordinate
conjunction. The young man needs to replace the preposition with the subordinate conjunction as.
Corrected, his sentence would read, “High school is valuable as any experience in life should
be.”

Like vs. As Again

Q. “Is like a preposition in the sentence ‘Like I said, we do not offer a next-day service’?” asked a
post office worker.

A. The word like is a preposition, but in the sentence above, it is being used as a subordinate
conjunction. This usage is unacceptable. The sentence needs a true conjunction, such as as. “As I
said, we do not offer a next-day service.”
In colloquial speech, like is accepted by many as a subordinate conjunction. Language is
forever changing, and usage ultimately determines what is right and what is wrong despite the
protestations of the purists. Purist though I am, I do not stubbornly resist change, even if it
occasionally rankles! The use of like as a conjunction in contemporary English is so widespread
that no one can deny that the word has found a new role. Few would argue with the grammar of a
sentence such as “It looks like rain,” but the sentence contains a subordinate clause introduced by
like. The verb has been omitted from the subordinate clause like rain (see here for more
information on verbs omitted from subordinate clauses). Even The American Heritage Dictionary
acknowledges the legitimacy of using like as a conjunction when the verb has been removed from
the subordinate clause. Those who avoid using like as a conjunction across the board will find
their sentences to be tortured.
 9

Interjections

Interjections are words that express strong feelings or grab attention.

Have you ever listened carefully to a James Brown song? His tunes are positively littered with
exclamations such as “Hah,” “Huh,” “Ow,” “Uh,” or “Hep.” Overcome by emotion and the music, he
cannot help but exclaim something such as “Howwhh!” Independently, these may sound silly, but in
the context of the music, they build excitement and hold the listener’s interest.
Writers and speakers frequently find themselves in need of the same sort of words. These little
firecrackers of prose are called interjections. The word comes from two Latin words, inter and
jacere, which together mean “to throw between.” Interjections are thrown between sentences or
words to grab attention, create interest, or highlight the speaker’s strong emotions.
The following is a list of common interjections:

Ah
Alack
Alas
Bah
Eh
Good
Good grief
Good heavens
Hallo
Heavens
Hey
Ho
Horrors
Humph
Indeed
Mercy
Mmm
Never
O
Oh
Oops
Pish posh
 Pshaw
Well
What
Whew
Whoops
Zounds

Interjections come in many forms. They may be nonsense words similar to those in the songs of
Mr. Brown, they may be real words, often nouns or adjectives, or they may even consist of more than
one word.

Zoiks! You scared me.

Heavens! Get the poor man some help.

Good grief! Lucy, you should leave poor Schroeder alone!

Interjections always function independently of the other parts of speech. An interjection is an

independent element because it lacks a grammatical relation to any other part of the sentence; it is a
complete thought unto itself. Only when quoted does such a word take on any larger meaning in
grammar.

“Never” was the last thing anyone heard him say.

Here the quoted interjection never serves as the subject of the sentence.

From My Files: Dated Curses

Many people of my generation are appalled at the younger generation’s use of vulgar
vocabulary. At any coffee shop and on any street corner, we can find a young person
punctuating each declarative sentence with all manner of foul language. If these cretins must
use vulgarity, why not revert back to Elizabethan prose and send an adversary reeling with
one of those fine sixteenth-century expressions? Here are a few dated curses for the
language buffs.

Thou beslubbering, beef-witted baggage!

Thou cockered, clapper-clawed bugbear!

Thou gleeking, flap-mouthed foot-licker!

Thou pribbling, ill-nurtured maggot-pie!

Thou quailing, motley-minded measley!

You beetle-headed, flap-eared knave!

 Ods bodkins! What folderol, balderdash, and poppycock that is.

Punctuation of Interjections

Interjections can be punctuated in one of two ways, depending on how strong they are. If the
interjection is mild, it can be included in a single sentence, separated from the rest of the words by a
comma.

Well, did you find the hotel?

Indeed, that is the strangest looking dog I have ever seen.

Stronger interjections, however, should stand alone. These are punctuated with an exclamation mark.

Heavens! You’re covered with blood.

What! Who told you I can’t dance?

You must choose the method appropriate to your own words.

Part II

Dissecting the Sentence

 10

Subjects & Predicates

The subject names whom or what a sentence is about.

The predicate indicates action performed or existence expressed by the subject.

With the knowledge gained from chapters past, the budding grammarian should now be able to
recognize, understand, and utilize any of the eight parts of speech. Grammar, however, is more than a
means of classifying individual words and phrases. It is the internal framework of language and the
key to complete thought and effective communication.
The concept of complete thought is not as simple as it might seem. While everyday speech may
appear to send messages with whole meanings intact, such expressive completeness does not always
include grammatical completeness. Complete conversational thought and complete grammatical
thought are different entities. In normal conversation, I might respond, “Yeah, a great time!” to a
question such as “Did you have a good time in Tahoe?” The meaning is clear, but my response lacks
the appropriate elements to constitute a complete grammatical thought. In the larger world of grammar
beyond the parts of speech, the complete sentence is the most basic unit of complete thought. To
qualify as a complete sentence, a group of words must possess both a subject and a predicate.

Subjects and Predicates Defined

What, then, are subjects and predicates? The subject is the naming part of the sentence. It represents
the person, place, or thing that performs the action of the verb or expresses the condition or state of
the verb. It is the topic about which the speaker or writer is speaking or writing. The predicate is the
doing or being part of the sentence. It represents the action taken by the subject or the existence or
state of the subject. The predicate is a claim made about the subject by the speaker or writer. Here are
a few simple examples of both subjects and predicates:

Harriet ran.

Factories pollute.

Ignatius was tan.

Camels swim?
 Though short, each of these is a complete sentence because it contains a subject and a predicate.
In the first sentence, the proper noun Harriet is the subject, and the verb ran is the predicate. Harriet
performs the action of ran. In the second sentence, the noun factories is the subject, and the verb
pollute is the predicate. Factories performs the action of the verb pollute. In the third sentence, the
proper noun Ignatius is the subject, and the linking verb was and the subject complement tan form the
predicate. Ignatius expresses the condition indicated by was. In the final sentence, the noun camels is
the subject, and the verb swim is the predicate. Camels performs the action of swim.

Head and Complete Subjects and Predicates

Not all sentences are as simple as the ones mentioned above. Most subjects and predicates consist of
two or more words. In the subject, there is always one word that names the entity spoken of. This is
the head* subject. The head subject and its attendant modifiers together are called the complete
subject.

The long, bitter winter took its toll on the soldiers.

In this example, the head subject is the noun winter. The complete subject is the long, bitter winter.
Winter is the particular thing about which the sentence speaks. The article the and the adjectives
long and bitter modify the head subject.
In the predicate, there is one word that unlocks the central meaning of the predicate. This word
is always a verb and is called the head*predicate. If the word is a verb phrase, then the pieces of the
verb phrase together constitute the head predicate. The head predicate along with its modifiers,
objects, and complements is called the complete predicate.

The hound dog led us quickly out of the woods.

Our family will be leaving town soon.

In the first example, the head predicate is the verb led. The complete predicate is led us out of
the woods. The central assertion made about the simple subject, dog, is that it led. The direct object
us complements the head predicate. The adverb quickly and the adverbial out of the woods modify
the head predicate.
In the second example, the head predicate is the verb phrase will be leaving. The complete
predicate is will be leaving town soon. The central assertion made about the simple subject family is
that it will be leaving. The direct object town complements the head predicate. The adverb soon
modifies the head predicate.
Subjects and predicates are often single words. If just one word constitutes a subject or a
predicate, then that word alone is both the head and complete subject or the head and complete
predicate. This is often the case with pronouns used as subjects and with verbs or verb phrases used
as predicates.

We saw the eclipse.

 Tigers are on the list of endangered species.

The doors opened.

The crowd has dispersed.

In the first example, a single pronoun, we, is the head subject and the complete subject. In the second
example, the noun tigers is the head subject and the complete subject. In the third example, the verb
opened is both the head predicate and the complete predicate. In the final example, the verb phrase
has dispersed is the head predicate and the complete predicate.

Simple or Compound Subjects and Predicates

Simple sentences are not always as simple as they appeared in the discussion above. Previous
examples had simple subjects and simple predicates. The writer was naming just one topic in the
subject and making just one claim about the subject in the predicate. Some sentences contain two or
more subjects or two or more predicates, each set joined by a conjunction. A sentence with two or
more subjects is said to have a compound subject. A sentence with two or more predicates is said to
have a compound predicate.

Bob and Doug are funny guys.

Eating pie and swimming laps together may cause trouble.

Shelby enjoys biking but loves swimming.

My pets sleep on the couch together and eat from the same bowl.

The first and second examples illustrate the compound subject. In the first example, the
compound subject is Bob and Doug. The conjunction and connects the two proper nouns. In the
second example, the compound subject is eating pie and swimming laps together. The conjunction
and connects the two gerund phrases.
The third and fourth examples illustrate the compound predicate. In the third example, the
compound predicate is enjoys biking but loves swimming. The conjunction but connects the verbs
enjoys and loves. The gerund biking is the direct object of enjoy, and the gerund swimming is the
direct object of loves. In the fourth example, the compound predicate is sleep on the couch together
and eat from the same bowl. The conjunction and connects the verbs sleep and eat. The adverb
together and the adverbial on the couch modify sleep. The adverbial from the same bowl modifies
eat.
We can also talk about the head and complete forms of compound subjects and predicates.

My sister Laurie and her friend Katie are traveling through Europe.

Playing the lottery and burning your money are equivalent activities.
These two sentences contain compound subjects. In the first sentence, the complete compound subject
is my sister Laurie and her friend Katie. The head compound subject is Laurie and Katie. Since
the subject is compound, we include the conjunction and in the head version. In the second sentence,
the complete compound subject is playing the lottery and burning your money. The head compound
subject is playing and burning.

She drives the car and sings along with the radio.

I will run the marathon and win the medal.

These sentences contain compound predicates. In the first sentence, the complete compound predicate
is drives the car and sings along with the radio. The head compound predicate is drives and sings.
We include the conjunction and in the head version because the predicate is compound.
The second sentence takes a shortcut that may need a bit of clarification. The complete
compound predicate is will run the marathon and win the medal. The head compound predicate is
will run and win. Notice that at least one head element of this compound predicate is a verb phrase,
will run. The other element, at first glance, seems to be the lone verb win, but is, in fact, also a verb
phrase, will win.
When a compound predicate is composed of verb phrases and those phrases share auxiliary
verbs, it is not necessary to repeat the auxiliary verbs in the latter elements of the compound
predicate. This sentence contains a predicate composed of two verb phrases, will run and will win,
that share the modal auxiliary verb will. We could have written, “I will run the marathon and will win
the medal.” However, repetition of an auxiliary verb in a compound predicate can grow unwieldy, so
we often choose to omit it. The sentence “I will run the marathon and win the medal” is kinder to the
tongue and easier on the ears.
 11

Sentence Types & Structures

Sentence types are categories used to classify sentences according to function.

Sentence structures are formulas used to build sentences.

Many people think of language use in speech and in writing as a purely creative process. What they
do not realize is that language is highly regular, almost formulaic. Any grammatically complete
thought will fit one of seven basic sentence structures and one of four sentence types. The
structures and types are flexible and allow room for creativity, but they still indicate a common,
underlying form given to us by grammar. Subjects and predicates are the base of both structures and
types. We will now build upon that base.

Sentence Types

Every sentence falls into one of four categories, depending on the intentions of the speaker or writer
and the manner of expression. A sentence can be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory. We can often distinguish among the different types by looking at the punctuation of the
sentences.
A declarative sentence makes a statement of fact or possibility. Most sentences are declarative.

My name is Eric.

We traveled through India.

My dog had puppies last Thursday.

I did not order the duck à l’orange.

We may never see each other again.

Declarative sentences end with periods.

An interrogative sentence asks a question.

 Who gave you that information?

What happened at the club?

Where did the detective go?

When did the lights flicker?

Why didn’t you come forward earlier?

Interrogative sentences always end with question marks.

An imperative sentence makes a request or gives a command.

Take your shoes off!

Don’t talk so loudly.

Bring me the paper, please.

Help me lift this box.

Hurry up!

Imperative sentences can end with periods or exclamation points, depending on the urgency of the
command or request.
An exclamatory sentence expresses a thought with strong emotion.

How wonderful you have all been to me!

What a beautiful day this has been!

Exclamatory sentences end with exclamation points.

Form vs. Function

Unfortunately, identifying sentence types may not be as simple as this past discussion has made it
seem. To understand the issue, one must understand the difference between form and function. The
form of a sentence is its appearance or shape. The order in which the elements that make up a
sentence appear and the end punctuation determine the form. In contrast to form, sentences are written
or spoken with particular functions in mind. The way a sentence is spoken or read (placement of
emphasis and changes of intonation), its intended meaning, its purpose, and the end punctuation will
determine its function. For instance, one may create a sentence that is declarative in form but
interrogative in function.

You went on a date with Harry?

The appearance of the sentence, end punctuation aside, would suggest that it is declarative, but the
tone with which the sentence is spoken or read carries a note of incredulity or questioning. Add to
this the presence of the question mark at the end, and we realize that this sentence, though declarative
in form, has an interrogative function.
The following sentence provides another illustration of the difference between form and
function:

Who do they think they are!

The sentence is interrogative in form, but exclamatory in function. In appearance, it looks like a
question. However, the speaker or writer does not expect an answer as he or she would if this were a
standard interrogative sentence. Instead, the sentence expresses strong feeling or emotion, possibly
indignation, and ends with an exclamation point as an exclamation would. The specific forms of each
sentence type will become clear as the chapter continues.

Word Order

Every sentence has an identifiable structure or arrangement of words. Take another look at the
examples of the different sentence types. Do you see any common word order within a given sentence
type? You should identify four distinct word orders for declarative, interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory sentences.

Declarative Word Orders

Declarative sentences are far and away the most commonly uttered of the basic sentence types. The
declarative word order that we know best is the canonical* order. In canonical order, the subject of
the sentence appears first, followed by the predicate.

Your tire is flat.

I gave her the ring for Christmas.

We saw your dog in the park.

In each example, the subject is the first thing to appear in the sentence. The predicate follows
immediately after.
If all speech and writing were this simple, the people of the world would soon die of boredom.
Our brains crave a variety of word choices and also a variety of word orders. We must speak and
write with diversity to maintain the interest of our peers. To support the human desire for novelty and
change, English grammar permits alternative word orders.
In some alternatively ordered sentences, the subject is not the first element to appear in the
sentence. Some element of the complete predicate is fronted or placed at the beginning of the
sentence in front of the subject. Fronting shifts emphasis from the subject to the fronted element in the
sentence.

At the beach, I always feel content.

Never could I have imagined the horrors that awaited us.

The first sentence begins with the adverbial at the beach. Though the phrase precedes the subject I, it
is still a part of the complete predicate. At the beach modifies the verb feel. The placement of the
adverbial at the beginning of the sentence emphasizes the place where the speaker or writer feels
content. The second sentence begins with the adverb never and the modal auxiliary verb could.
Though it precedes the subject, could is still a part of the verb phrase could have imagined. The
adverb never modifies could. Placement of the adverb at the beginning of the sentence emphasizes the
negative quality of the verb phrase. That could is brought to the front of the sentence with never is
because the latter modifies the former. Keeping them together maintains the integrity of the sentence.
A declarative sentence that includes a fronted element may also contain a subject-verb
inversion. In such an inversion, we place the subject after the verb.

Into the street bounced the ball.

Under the table ran the cat.

Each of these sentences begins with an adverbial and contains a subject-verb inversion. The first
sentence begins with the adverbial into the street, and the subject ball follows the verb bounced.
The second sentence begins with the adverbial under the table, and the subject cat follows the verb
ran.

Interrogative Word Orders

Most interrogative sentences contain a subject-verb inversion. They may start with auxiliary verbs.

Did you see the comet?

Is he going to ask her?

In the first example, the subject you follows the auxiliary verb did. In the second example, the subject
he follows the auxiliary verb is.
Interrogative sentences may start with interrogative adverbs.

Where did you buy that coat?

When will you be here?

The interrogative adverb where begins the first sentence. The interrogative adverb when begins the
second. In both sentences, an auxiliary verb appears before the subject.
Interrogative sentences sometimes begin with interrogative pronouns. These pronouns may or
may not stand for the subjects of the sentences, and the sentences may or may not contain subject-verb
inversions.

Whom are you here to see?

What did you say?

Who threw the spit ball?

The interrogative pronoun whom begins the first sentence. Whom is the unknown object of the
infinitive to see. The pronoun what begins the second sentence. It is the direct object of the verb say.
The pronoun who begins the final sentence. It replaces the subject of the sentence. The first two
sentences contain subject-verb inversions. The last does not.

Imperative Word Orders

Imperative sentences can provide especially confusing word orders. Often, these sentences do not
appear to contain subjects. While it is true that the subjects may be unwritten or unspoken, they are
not absent. The subjects are understood. As a command or request, an imperative sentence is always
in the second person, spoken to an individual or a group. Therefore, we are allowed to assume the
subject of an imperative sentence to be you. We say that the assumed subject is elliptical, understood,
or implied.

Shut the door!

You shut the door!

Take my hand.

You take my hand.

Do not be afraid.

You do not be afraid.

We can write each example with the subject expressed or with the subject understood. Both
constructions represent acceptable grammar. Sometimes, the written subject sounds fine and adds
emphasis. At other times, it makes the sentence sound awkward and even quite rude. You must decide
what is needed to remain a courteous speaker and writer, while conforming to the demands of your
own linguistic style.

Exclamatory Word Orders

While many declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences are made with an exclamatory
function, true exclamatory sentences are limited in number. Modern grammarians contend that only
non-interrogative sentences beginning with how or what are of the exclamatory type.

How lovely your eyes are in the moonlight!

What a mess we have made!

Hula Grammar

Q. An elementary school teacher said, “One of my students gave me this sentence in a report:
‘Hawaii is my favorite island.’ Is island a direct object?”

A. The teacher mistakenly thought that his student was using the subject-verb-direct object (S-V-dO)
sentence structure. The proper noun Hawaii is the subject. Is is the verb. Island is not a direct
object. It is a subject complement, specifically, a predicative nominative. We know this to be true
because it follows a linking verb. A linking verb needs a complement in the predicate to complete
its meanings. The noun island complements the linking verb is and renames the subject Hawaii.
The sentence structure used here is subject-verb-subject complement (S-V-SC).

Some Other Things to Remember About Sentence Structures

The following are additional issues to remember when evaluating sentence structures.

Nouns in Direct Address

Interrogative and imperative sentences often include a noun in direct address. Such nouns name the
person to whom the question is directed or to whom the command or request is given. These are
always set off by commas because they are independent elements. A noun in direct address has no
grammatical relation to any part of the sentence and is never the subject of the sentence.

Bosco, fetch the newspaper.

The subject of the sentence is an understood you, not Bosco. This proper noun is an independent
element.

Dummy Elements and Delayed Subjects

By now, the concepts of dummy elements and delayed subjects should be familiar ones. We examined
them during our discussions of pronouns in chapter 6 and of infinitives in chapter 5. A delayed subject
appears in the predicate, and its normal position is filled by a dummy element, such as it or there, as
the true subject.
Delaying the subject often creates an easier sentence construction, but any sentence with a
delayed subject has an alternative wording. Here is a sentence with the subject delayed:
 There was a robbery last weekend.

Here is the same sentence with the subject restored:

A robbery was last weekend.

Both are grammatically correct, but the first is more appealing to the ears.

A Word of Warning

This discussion of sentence structures has dealt with the structures in their most basic forms. Real-
world sentences are complex, creative, and beautiful. They may even seem to deny the existence of
any set of structures. Take a closer look at a tangled construction of your own, however. Underneath
all the clauses, phrases, and modifiers, you will find a regular and quite mundane structure.
That such structures exist does not detract from the beauty of language. Any creation, artistic or
not, must possess an underlying structure, and understanding this structure will not tarnish the final
product. Instead, it will enhance your artistry as a writer and speaker.
 12

Compound & Complex Sentences

A clause is any group of words with a subject and a predicate.

Language use is a constructive process. Writers and speakers create complete thoughts and ideas out
of simple building blocks. At the most elemental level, sentences are made of morphemes.* Single
morphemes or combinations of morphemes make up words which are then strung together to make
sentences. Chapter 10 dealt with subjects and predicates in the most basic sentences. This chapter is
about adding complexity to the structure of language.

Simple Sentences

Until now, our discussion has been limited to simple sentences; that is, sentences which contain a
single subject-predicate set.

We entered the topiary labyrinth.

Tuesday is payday.

Her ordinary dress did not detract from her natural beauty.

Each of these is a simple sentence because each possesses exactly one subject and one predicate. In
the first sentence, the complete subject is we and the complete predicate is entered the topiary
labyrinth. In the second sentence, the complete subject is Tuesday and the complete predicate is is
payday. In the third sentence, the complete subject is her ordinary dress and the complete predicate
is did not detract from her natural beauty.
The fact that a simple sentence has only one subject and one predicate does not imply that either
or both cannot be compound.

Beth and Amy paddled their raft through the rapids.

My friends sang, danced, and laughed till dawn.

The warriors and thieves gave their battle cries and locked swords in combat.
Each of these examples contains a compound subject, a compound predicate, or both, but they are all
simple sentences. The first contains a compound subject, Beth and Amy. The second contains a
compound predicate, sang, danced, and laughed till dawn. The third contains a compound subject,
the warriors and thieves, and a compound predicate, gave their battle cries and locked swords in
combat.

Introduction to Clauses

Now that we have moved on to the business of creating bigger and better sentences, we need larger
building blocks. Just as we combined words and phrases to form simple sentences, so do we combine
these same elements to form the larger parts of greater sentences. We call these larger elements
clauses.
A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. Clauses come in two
flavors: main and subordinate. A main clause can stand alone and make sense. A subordinate clause
relies on the presence of a main clause to complete its meaning. It cannot stand alone as a
grammatically complete thought.

I know the restaurant that you are thinking of.

This sentence contains both a main clause and a subordinate clause. The main clause is I know the
restaurant. It has a subject, I, and a predicate, know the restaurant. By itself on a page or in our
ears, it is a complete grammatical thought. When main clauses stand alone, we call them simple
sentences.
The subordinate clause in this sentence is that you are thinking of. It too has a subject, you,
and a predicate, are thinking of that, but this clause cannot stand alone and make sense. It relies on
the presence of the main clause for a complete meaning. That is why we label it “subordinate.” The
word subordinate means “of lesser rank” or “under another’s control.”
Clauses are tied together by connecting words. In the example above, the relative pronoun that
is a connecting word. Notice how we moved that when we analyzed the predicate so that the
connecting word occupied the space reserved for an object of a preposition. This word actually
functions as an object of a preposition in the clause. We will talk about connecting words in greater
detail as they become important to our discussion.

Compound Sentences

As our language skills develop, we quickly discover that simple sentences are not enough. If all we
used were simple sentences, our speech and writing would be devoid of easy transitions, smooth
connections, and logical relationships. We need some way to join simple sentences together to make
connections and establish relationships. To our rescue come the coordinate conjunctions.
When we link two or more main clauses together by using a coordinate conjunction, we get a
compound sentence. A coordinate conjunction is one type of connecting word. If the writer decides
that a sentence is to be a compound sentence, two factors must be present:
 1. The main clauses should be related to each other.
2. The main clauses should be of approximately equal value.

The writer is not emphasizing one of the clauses over the other(s).

Lily brought a casserole, Herman made a cheese ball, and I made the hot wings.

This compound sentence consists of three equal main clauses connected by the coordinate conjunction
and. Notice that we replaced the first occurrence of the conjunction with a lone comma. The
individual clauses are Lily brought a casserole, Herman made a cheese ball, and I made the hot
wings.
Now look at this compound sentence broken into three simple sentences.

Lily brought a casserole. Herman made a cheese ball. I made the hot wings.

They don’t have the same flow or rhythm as the compound version. The three sentences are like a car
driven by a teenager behind the wheel for the first time. They move in jerks and starts.

Punctuation of Compound Sentences

There are several ways to punctuate a compound sentence. The first is to use a comma before the
coordinate conjunction.

Sam wrote the lyrics, and I wrote the music.

Lenora plays the saxophone, but she sings better.

I will accept your offer, or I will decline it.

When the same coordinate conjunction connects three or more main clauses, we can replace all but
the last occurrence of that conjunction with commas.

The sky is clear, the sun is bright, and I’m in the mood for a game of soccer.

Notice that a lone comma divides the first main clause, the sky is clear, from the second, the sun is
bright. A comma, as well as the conjunction and, divides the second main clause from the third, I’m
in the mood for a game of soccer.
Another way to punctuate a compound sentence is with a semicolon. In some cases, the ideas
expressed by the main clauses are so closely related that we do not need the conjunction to spell out
their relationship. Instead, we place a semicolon between the clauses.
The king is dead; long live the king.
The summer comes; the summer goes.
The “dot” in the semicolon marks the end of a main clause. The “comma” under the dot indicates
that what follows is related and equal to the preceding main clause. Isn’t this a neat explanation?
Whether it’s based on historical fact is up for grabs, but it works!
 In other cases, main clauses already contain commas. To avoid the confusion we might create by
adding more commas between the main clauses, we separate the clauses with semicolons.

Al, an architect, donated the plans; and Sue, a contractor, donated the materials.

Having said his piece, Sam departed; but his anger lingered in the room.

We may also omit the punctuation when the compound sentence is composed of two main clauses
and those two main clauses are short.

I caught the criminal and she saved the victim.

I’ll buy a cake or I’ll make one myself.

Please remember that it is important to use punctuation before the coordinate conjunction but so that it
will not be mistaken for the preposition but.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Coordinate conjunctions are not the only type of word that we can use to join main clauses. A class of
conjunctive adverbs, also called connectors, fills this connecting role. They are not exactly
coordinate conjunctions, and they are not exactly standard adverbs, but they perform similar
functions. We discussed conjunctive adverbs briefly in chapter 8. Recall that the meaning implied by
the conjunctive adverb affects the entire clause of which it is a part.

accordingly
afterward
again
also
anyhow
as a result
at last
at the same time
besides
consequently
earlier
eventually
finally
for example
for instance
furthermore
hence
however
in addition
in any case
indeed
in fact
in like manner
in short
instead
in the meantime
later
likewise
meanwhile
moreover
namely
nevertheless
next
on the contrary
on the other hand
otherwise
perhaps
so
still
subsequently
that is
then
therefore
thus

The following example illustrates the linking and modifying powers of the conjunctive adverb.

The bank’s computers failed; hence, millions of dollars were lost.

In this example, the conjunctive adverb hence joins the main clauses the bank’s computers
failed and millions of dollars were lost. The meaning of this connecting word affects the entire
second clause. It implies a cause and effect relationship. The event of the second clause is a direct
consequence of the event of the first clause.
These alternative connecting words require a different method of punctuation than the coordinate
conjunctions do. Grammar grants us two methods to accomplish the task. Using the first method, we
place a semicolon between the main clauses, and use a comma to set off the conjunctive adverb from
the clause of which it is a part.

The castle is in ruins; nevertheless, the king has ordered us to hold our ground.

We all must maintain secrecy; otherwise, the plan will fail.

Using the second method, we place a period between the main clauses. Technically, the two
clauses are separate simple sentences, but the conjunctive adverb creates a connection between them,
and we may view them as parts of a compound. Again, the conjunctive adverb is set off by commas.
 Batman took care of the Riddler. Meanwhile, Robin subdued Catwoman.

The bridge has collapsed. Therefore, we must swim for our lives.

Please note that many conjunctive adverbs are mobile words. They may be placed in any one of
several different spots in the clauses of which they are parts. Though the conjunctive adverbs may
roam, we still punctuate the main clauses with periods or semicolons and set off the conjunctive
adverbs with commas.

The duke was beheaded for the crime; another man, however, soon confessed.

A Buick is unsuitable for mountain driving. A Jeep, on the other hand, is perfect.

Compound Sentence Woes

Compound sentences are easy to explain, but not always easy to use. The comma splice and the run-
on sentence are two commonly made mistakes. Here are two calls to the Hot Line that illustrate the
troubles callers have with these errors:

The Comma Splice

Q. “My son wrote the sentence ‘The safe is empty, the butler is missing’ in a creative writing
assignment at school. I know he’s got a problem with the comma. What should I tell him to do to
make the sentence correct?” asked a concerned father.

A. This man was correct about his son’s sentence. It contains a comma splice. A comma splice occurs
when a writer links, or splices, main clauses together by using only commas. This is not one of the
three correct methods of punctuating compound sentences. A comma can only join main clauses
with the help of a conjunction. This young man has joined two main clauses, the safe is empty
and the butler is missing, with a lone comma.
I told his caring father that we have four options at our disposal with which we might correct
the comma splice:

1. We can add a coordinate conjunction after the comma.

The safe is empty, and the butler is missing. (correct)

2. We can replace the comma with a semicolon.

The safe is empty; the butler is missing. (correct)

3. We can also replace the comma with a coordinate conjunction. Punctuation is not necessary
since the two main clauses are short.
 The safe is empty and the butler is missing. (correct)

4. We can turn the compound sentence into two separate simple sentences.

The safe is empty. The butler is missing. (correct)

Remember to use proper punctuation. Do not commit the error of a comma splice!

The Run-On Sentence

Q. A distressed junior high school teacher called me for a bit of advice. “He asked, “How can I make
my students stop writing run-on sentences?”

A. The run-on sentence is another result of incorrectly punctuating compound sentences. Such
constructions arise when writers string main clauses together without placing any punctuation or
coordinate conjunctions between them.

We knew which car we wanted to buy we went to the dealer to buy it.
(incorrect)

The sentence consists of two main clauses, we knew which car to buy and we went to the
dealer to buy it, the first of which runs right into the other without the help of punctuation or a
conjunction. The remedies that we used for the comma splice also apply to the run-on sentence.
Any of the four choices below are acceptable:

1. We knew which car we wanted to buy, and we went to the dealer to buy it. (correct)
2. We knew which car we wanted to buy; we went to the dealer to buy it. (correct)
3. We knew which car we wanted to buy and we went to the dealer to buy it. (correct)
4. We knew which car we wanted to buy. We went to the dealer to buy it. (correct)

I told the teacher that all he can do is to promote proper grammar and never to stand for
sloppy writing. Papers should be checked and double-checked. No amount of proofreading is
too much. Errors such as the run-on sentence or the comma splice are more often the result of
carelessness than of ignorance.

Complex Sentences

The compound sentence is not the pinnacle of language complexity. In these, we merely join clauses
of equal importance. Often, our thoughts and ideas demand that we link clauses that differ in
importance. The task requires a new sort of sentence construction.
When we join a subordinate clause to a main clause by using a connecting word, we get a
complex sentence. The main clause expresses the principal idea of the statement. The subordinate
clause, on the other hand, expresses an enhancing or modifying idea; its role is to support the main
clause. This is one reason why it is subordinate. Also remember that a subordinate clause cannot
stand alone and make sense. It depends on the main clause for meaning.
A subordinate clause is always introduced by a connecting word, such as a subordinate
conjunction or a relative pronoun. The connecting word relates the idea of the subordinate clause to
some word in the main clause and is the reason that the subordinate clause cannot stand alone. It
makes the subordinate clause dependent upon the main clause for grammatical completeness.
Take a look at these complex sentences:

You will hear the roar of the ocean if you are very quiet.

The man who gave you that information is unreliable.

The first example consists of a main clause, you will hear the roar of the ocean, and a
subordinate clause, if you are very quiet. The subordinate clause expresses a conditional idea. It
tells us that we will only hear the roar if we are quiet. The subordinate conjunction if introduces the
subordinate clause and relates it to the verb phrase will hear.
The second example consists of a main clause, the man is unreliable, and a subordinate clause,
who gave you that information. The subordinate clause modifies the subject of the main clause,
man. It indicates which man is unreliable. The relative pronoun who introduces the subordinate
clause and relates it to the noun man.
In both examples, the subordinate clauses lack grammatical completeness unless they are paired
with main clauses. Read each subordinate clause by itself.

If you are very quiet

Who gave you that information

These are sentence fragments. Even an untrained ear can tell that neither of them expresses a
grammatically whole idea on its own. The subordinate clauses need their partners, the main clauses,
for the complete meanings to emerge.
As you may have already guessed, there are several different types of subordinate clauses in
complex sentences. In fact, there are three varieties: relative, adverbial, and nominal.

Relative Clauses

A standard relative clause functions just as a standard adjective does. It modifies nouns, pronouns, or
other nominals. * Relative clauses are introduced by real relative pronouns, relative adverbs, or
relative determiners.

Relative Clauses with Real Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun is a multifaceted word. It introduces a relative clause and joins that clause to a
main clause, but it also stands for a noun, as any pronoun would. Relative clauses may be introduced
by any of the relative pronouns, including both real relative pronouns and relative adverbs, but we
are limiting the immediate discussion to relative clauses introduced by the real relative pronouns
who, which, and that.* As a relative pronoun, who may take two forms, depending on how it is used
in the relative clause.

NOMINATIVE CASE USAGE who

OBJECTIVE CASE USAGE whom

If the real relative pronoun is a subject or a subject complement, we use the nominative case form. If
the real relative pronoun is an object, we use the object case form.

I covet the dress that she wore to the wedding.

The dinosaur exhibit, which just opened Monday, is spectacular.

This is the man for whom the police have been looking.

Only people who know computers will succeed in the modern world.

In the first example, the real relative pronoun that joins the relative clause that she wore to the
wedding to the main clause I covet the dress. The relative clause modifies the noun dress. It
indicates which dress the speaker covets. The antecedent of that is the direct object dress.
In the second example, the real relative pronoun which joins the relative clause which just
opened Monday to the main clause the dinosaur exhibit is spectacular. The relative clause modifies
the noun exhibit. It provides information about when the exhibit opened. The antecedent of which is
the complete subject of the sentence, the dinosaur exhibit. Please note that the relative clause in this
example sentence is nonrestrictive and so is surrounded by commas.
In the third example, the real relative pronoun whom joins the relative clause for whom the
police have been looking to the main clause this is the man. The relative clause modifies the noun
man. It indicates who this particular man is. The antecedent of whom is the subject complement man.
In the relative clause, the relative pronoun is the object of the preposition for, so we use the objective
case form, whom.
In the fourth example, the real relative pronoun who joins the relative clause who know
computers to the main clause only people will succeed in the modern world. The relative clause
modifies the noun people. It tells us which type of people will be successful. The antecedent of who
is the subject of the sentence, people. In the relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the
clause, so we must use the nominative case form, who.

That vs. Which

Let’s take a moment now to review the that/which convention that some experts use to clarify the
distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive information. It was first introduced on in chapter 6.
According to this convention, the relative pronoun that should be used in restrictive clauses and the
relative pronoun which should be used in nonrestrictive clauses.

The opera that we saw last night was quite dull.

 The opera, which we saw last night, was quite dull.

These two sentences are similar in structure but different in meaning. In each sentence, a relative
clause modifies the noun opera. However, one clause is restrictive and the other is nonrestrictive.
The relative clause in the first sentence, that we saw last night, is restrictive and so begins with
the relative pronoun that. Because the clause is restrictive, we know that only the opera seen last
night was boring. There may very well be other operas in town that are riveting. The purpose of the
clause is to indicate which of several operas was seen.
The relative clause in the second sentence, which we saw last night, is nonrestrictive. It begins
with the relative pronoun which and is surrounded by commas. Because this clause is nonrestrictive,
there can be only one opera on the speaker’s mind. No significant change to the meaning of the
sentence results if the clause is removed. Its only purpose is to let us know that the speaker sat
through that boring opera last night. Without proper punctuation and the that/which convention, the
different meanings of these similar sentences would be hard to distinguish.

Who vs. Whom

Many people have a hard time determining which form of who to use in a relative clause. The key to
figuring this out is to first understand what case the pronoun takes. Each relative pronoun has a
function within the relative clause that it introduces, and this function determines its case.
The relative pronoun may be the subject of the relative clause, taking the nominative case form,
who.

I read about the philanthropist who gave away his fortune.

In this example, the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who gave away his fortune.
The clause describes the noun philanthropist, the antecedent of who. It is clear that who is the subject
of the clause, since the philanthropist is the one giving away the fortune.
The relative pronoun may be a subject complement to the subject of the relative clause, again
taking the nominative case form, who:

That is the kind of person who Cindy will be.

Here, the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who Cindy will be. The clause modifies
the noun kind (or, more specifically, the entire noun phrase the kind of person), the antecedent of
who. Within the relative clause, who is a subject complement, describing the subject of the relative
clause, Cindy, and completing the meaning of the linking verb be.
The relative pronoun may also be a direct object of the verb in the relative clause, taking the
objective case form:

Beth is a person whom I know very well.

The relative pronoun whom introduces the relative clause whom I know very well. The clause
modifies the noun person, the antecedent of whom. To see that whom is a direct object, isolate and
rearrange the clause. I know whom very well? I know a person very well. I know Beth very well.
The pronoun I is the subject, and the relative pronoun whom is the direct object of the verb know.
The relative pronoun could also be the object of a preposition:

This is the boy whom the article was written about.

The relative pronoun whom introduces the relative clause whom the article was written about. The
clause describes the noun boy, the antecedent of whom. The article was written about whom? The
article was written about the boy. The noun article is the subject of the clause. The relative pronoun
whom is the object of the preposition about.

The Who vs. Whom Debate Rages On

Q. An administrator at a graduate school of management was writing a recommendation for a

professor. He called to ask, “How is this sentence? ‘He is a professor who we gladly
recommend.’”

A. I advised the administrator to just say, “We gladly recommend this professor.” However, if the
word choice is important, then he needs to adjust his choice of a relative pronoun. Who we gladly
recommend is a relative clause, modifying the noun professor. We is the subject of the clause,
and who, a nominative case pronoun, is the direct object of the verb recommend. Should direct
objects be in the nominative case form? Absolutely not. A direct object is always in the objective
case form. The sentence should read, “He is a professor whom we gladly recommend.”

Relative Clauses with Relative Adverbs

The relative adverbs when, where, and why join relative clauses to main clauses in the same way
that the relative pronouns do, but they also function as adverbials in those relative clauses. Within the
clause, the relative adverbs describe only verbs (see chapter 6, for an explanation of why we classify
the relative adverbs under relative pronouns).

The workers chose a day when I will be vacationing on the French Riviera.

Uncle Murray discovered the hangar where the UFOs were hidden.

Helga knows the reason why Jimmy Hoffa’s body was never found.

In the first example, the relative adverb when joins the relative clause when I will be
vacationing on the French Riviera to the main clause the workers chose a day. The relative clause
modifies the noun day. It tells us what kind of day the workers chose. In the relative clause, when
modifies the verb phrase will be vacationing. It indicates the time at which the vacationing will
occur.
In the second example, the relative adverb where joins the relative clause where the UFOs are
hidden to the main clause Uncle Murray discovered the hangar. The relative clause modifies the
noun hangar. It indicates which hangar Uncle Murray discovered. In the relative clause, where
modifies the verb phrase were hidden. It indicates the place at which the hiding occurred.
In the third example, the relative adverb why joins the relative clause why Jimmy Hoffa’s body
was never found to the main clause Helga knows the reason. The relative clause modifies the noun
reason. It tells us the nature of the reason. In the relative clause, why modifies the verb phrase was
(never) found. It indicates a justification for the failure to find the body.

Relative Clauses with Relative Determiners

Relative clauses may also be introduced by relative determiners. The pronouns whose and which
are two common examples of this type. We call them relative determiners because they modify the
nouns that follow them in the relative clauses in the same way that articles, another type of
determiner, would modify the nouns that follow them. Please note that the relative determiner which
is always preceded by a preposition.

That is the family whose dog saved our little girl.

Your reports are due by midnight at which time I am going to bed.

In the first example, the relative determiner whose joins the relative clause whose dog saved
our little girl to the main clause that is the family. Whose modifies the noun dog. The relative clause
modifies the noun family. It indicates which family the speaker has seen. The antecedent of whose is
the subject complement family.
In the second example, the relative determiner which joins the relative clause at which time I
am going to bed to the main clause your reports are due by midnight. Which modifies the noun
time. The relative clause modifies the noun midnight. It indicates what will happen at that time. The
antecedent of which is midnight.

Placing Your Clause

Q. A gynecologist called the Hot Line to share a silly line from a note she received. The line read,
“She has two friends who just had babies who are not married.”

A. To be quite honest, I have yet to meet any babies who are married. The sentence consists of two
relative clauses, who just had babies and who are not married, and a main clause, she has two
friends. The problem in this complex sentence is that the word modified by the second relative
clause is unclear. As they are in the letter, the relative clause who just had babies modifies the
noun friends and the relative clause who are not married appears to modify the noun babies. As
we all know, babies have no interest in marriage.
The relative clauses need to swap positions, and the coordinate conjunction and needs to be
placed between them. The sentence should read, “She has two friends who are not married and who
just had babies.” Now both clauses clearly modify the noun friends. A small change in order
eliminates the confusion.
Restrictive or Nonrestrictive?

Q. “Do I put commas around relative clauses?” queried a technical writer.

A. Whether we place commas around relative clauses depends upon whether the information in the
relative clause in question is restrictive or nonrestrictive. The relative clauses we have seen so
far have all been restrictive. They’ve been essential to the complete meanings of the sentences, so
we haven’t set them off with commas. Other relative clauses are nonrestrictive. A nonrestrictive
relative clause adds information to a sentence but is not an essential part of the complete meaning.

Mr. Jeffries, who is my history teacher, gave us the homework assignment.

This example contains a nonrestrictive relative clause. The relative clause who is my
history teacher modifies the proper noun Mr. Jeffries. It provides information about Mr.
Jeffries, but the meaning of the sentence would not suffer without the clause. The sentence “Mr.
Jeffries gave us the homework assignment” communicates a nearly identical idea.

Zero Relative Pronouns

On occasion, we can correctly omit a relative pronoun from a relative clause. The gap left by the
omitted pronoun is called a zero relative pronoun. If the omission does not bring a verb to the head
of the relative clause, it is perfectly correct to remove the relative pronoun. The sentence will make
complete sense without it.

The car (that) we saw yesterday was too expensive.

The people (whom) we know are not very responsible.

In each example, the omitted relative pronoun is in parentheses because it is optional. In the first
example, the relative clause we saw yesterday modifies the noun car. We could write the clause with
the relative pronoun that included, but we do not have to. In the second example, the relative clause
we know modifies the noun people. We could have included the relative pronoun whom in the clause,
but the sentence makes perfect sense without it.
In other sentences, removing the relative pronoun would make a verb the first word in the clause
and cause the sentence to be grammatically incomplete.

The men who repaired our roof did a wonderful job. (correct)

We all saw the show that won the Tony Award this year. (correct)

Try leaving off the relative pronouns in each example.

The men repaired our roof did a wonderful job. (incorrect)

We all saw the show won the Tony Award this year. (incorrect)
These sentences do not amount to much. When appropriate, feel free to use a relative clause
containing a zero relative pronoun. Just be sure that your sentence still makes sense.

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs in the same way that standard adverbials
do, but most simply modify verbs. They are always introduced by subordinate conjunctions (see
chapter 8, for a list of subordinate conjunctions).

Classes of Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses convey the meanings that standard adverbs and adverbials do in addition to a few
extra: place or location, time, manner, reason, degree or comparison, and possibility or
conditionality.

Place or Location
The adverbial clauses that indicate place or location often begin with one of these conjunctions:
where, wherever.

We can eat wherever you want to eat.

In this example, the subordinate conjunction wherever joins the adverbial clause wherever you
want to eat to the main clause we can eat. The adverbial clause modifies the verb phrase can eat. It
tells us the location where the eating can occur.

Time
The adverbial clauses that express time often begin with one of the following subordinate
conjunctions: after, before, since, until, when, whenever, while, etc.

I watched the street while my partner planted the surveillance devices.

In this example, the subordinate conjunction while joins the adverbial clause while my partner
planted the surveillance devices to the main clause I watched the street. The adverbial clause
modifies the verb watched. It tells us when the speaker did the watching.

Manner
Many adverbial clauses that express manner begin with one of these subordinate conjunctions: as, as
if, etc.

She treated me as if I didn’t exist.

In this example, the subordinate conjunction as if joins the adverbial clause as if I didn’t exist
to the main clause she treated me. The subordinate clause modifies the verb treated. It tells us the
manner in which she treated me.

Reason
Adverbial clauses that express reason often begin with one of these subordinate conjunctions: as,
because, in order that, since, so that, that, etc.

The sheriff skipped town because he had embezzled one million dollars.

Here, the subordinate conjunction because joins the adverbial clause because he had
embezzled one million dollars to the main clause the sheriff skipped town. The adverbial clause
modifies the verb skipped. It gives us the reason why the sheriff left.

Degree or Comparison
These conjunctions frequently begin adverbial clauses that indicate degree or comparison: as, than,
etc.

My relatives arrived earlier than they usually do.

In this example, the subordinate conjunction than connects the adverbial clause than they usually do
to the main clause my relatives arrived earlier. The adverbial clause modifies the adjective earlier.
It compares the time that the relatives usually arrive to the time that they did arrive. Adverbial clauses
of comparison typically modify adjectives and adverbs and are sometimes called comparative
clauses.

Possibility or Conditionality
The adverbial clauses that indicate possibility or conditionality often begin with one of the following
subordinate conjunctions: although, if, even if, provided, though, unless, etc.

She will not supply the documents unless she is adequately reimbursed.

In this example, the subordinate conjunction unless connects the adverbial clause unless she is
adequately reimbursed to the main clause she will not supply the documents. The adverbial clause
modifies the verb phrase will supply. It describes the condition on which she will supply those
documents. The adverbial clause indicates a possibility or condition. Her providing the documents is
a possibility, but only if she is paid enough to do so.

Adverbial Clauses Modifying Adjectives and Adverbs

Most adverbial clauses modify verbs. However, adverbial clauses of comparison often modify
adjectives and adverbs.

This computer is faster than that one is.

 The plane landed later than we expected it to land.

In the first example, the subordinate conjunction than connects the adverbial clause than that
one is to the main clause this computer is faster. The adverbial clause modifies the adjective faster.
It compares the speed of this computer to the speed of that one. In doing so, the adverbial clause
specifies the nature of the comparison made by the comparative adjective faster.
In the second example, the subordinate conjunction than connects the adverbial clause than we
expected it to land to the main clause the plane landed later. The adverbial clause modifies the
adverb later. It indicates the degree of later by comparing the time the speaker and his cohorts
expected the plane to land to the time the plane actually did land. In doing so, the adverbial clause
limits the definition of later. It clarifies the time that later is meant to indicate.

Word Order and the Adverbial Clause

Q. A psychologist writing a report asked, “It’s OK to put a clause at the beginning of the sentence,
isn’t it?”

A. Many clauses appear at the beginnings of sentences. The clauses that this psychologist was
wondering about turned out to be adverbial clauses. Fortunately for her, the adverbial clause is a
mobile type of clause. It is free to float about the sentence structure. Though an adverbial clause
may appear at the end of a sentence in the canonical word order (see chapter 11), we can place
the same clause at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis. In this alternative word order, we
set the clause off with commas.

Marge wouldn’t be so insensitive if she knew the full story.

If she knew the full story, Marge wouldn’t be so insensitive.

In both sentences, the subordinate conjunction if joins the adverbial clause if she knew the full
story to the main clause Marge wouldn’t be so insensitive. The adverbial clause modifies the verb
phrase would (n’t) be. It indicates a possibility or condition. Marge’s insensitivity could disappear
on the condition that she learns the full story.
The different placements emphasize different elements of the sentence. In the first version, the
placement emphasizes Marge and her insensitivity. In the second version, the placement emphasizes
the fact that Marge does not know the full story. Since the adverbial clause appears first, we add a
comma to separate it from the main clause. The writer or speaker must choose the placement that
makes his or her point most effectively.

Nominal Clauses

The final type of subordinate clause is the nominal clause. Like the relative and adverbial clauses, the
nominal clause plays a subordinate role in the sentence and begins with some type of connecting
word. Unlike the relative and adverbial clauses, the nominal clause does not play a modifying role.
As its name suggests, the nominal clause has a nominal role, filling almost any spot that a standard
noun would.
A sentence containing a nominal clause is a complex sentence, but it is different from the
complex sentences that we encountered in the discussions of relative and adverbial clauses. These
consisted of subordinate clauses attached to main clauses by subordinate conjunctions, real relative
pronouns, relative adverbs, or relative determiners. The nominal clause, a subordinate clause,
completes the group of words that we once called a main clause. Therefore, this “main clause” itself
is grammatically incomplete without the subordinate clause. For this reason, contemporary
grammarians use the term host clause to describe the group of words that the nominal clause
completes. Here is an example of a complex sentence containing a host clause and a nominal clause:

What I really need is three cases of cold Dr. Pepper.

In this sentence, what I really need is a nominal clause. With relative and adverbial clauses, we
assume the remainder of the sentence to be a main clause, but anyone can see that is three cases of
cold Dr. Pepper is a sentence fragment and cannot stand alone. We rightly label it a host clause. The
complex sentence is only complete if the nominal clause is present.

Using Nominal Clauses

As was stated before, a nominal clause may play just about any role that a standard noun would. We
see nominal clauses used as subjects of sentences, subject complements, delayed subjects, and
appositives:

That they have not heard the news astounds me. (subject)

The latest news is that the workers are still on strike. (subject complement)

It is clear that they do not enjoy lutefisk. (delayed subject)

The notion that we will never see each other again is unbearable. (appositive)

In the first example, the nominal clause that they have not heard the news is the subject of the
sentence. It names the thing that the writer or speaker is writing or speaking about: that which
astounds the speaker.
In the second example, the nominal clause that the workers are still on strike is a subject
complement. It completes the linking verb is and complements the subject news.
In the third example, the nominal clause that they do not enjoy lutefisk is a delayed subject,
replaced in the true place of the subject by the dummy it. (To the uninitiated, lutefisk is a particularly
disagreeable Scandinavian dish made of cod soaked in lye.) While the dummy element and delayed
subject may create a more pleasant or readable construction, any sentence with the subject delayed
has an alternative wording. This sentence could have appeared as follows:

That they do not enjoy lutefisk is clear.

We removed the delay and restored the nominal clause to the true space of the subject.
In the fourth example, the subordinate conjunction that introduces the nominal clause that we
will never see each other again. The nominal clause is in apposition with the noun notion. As an
appositive, it explains the noun, telling us what kind of notion is unbearable.
We also see nominal clauses used as direct objects and objects of prepositions:

I know who your secret admirer is. (direct object)

The FBI agents were interested in why he opened a Swiss bank account. (object
of preposition)

In the first example, the nominal clause who your secret admirer is is the direct object of the
verb know. It answers the question “What do you know?” In the second example, the nominal clause
why he opened a Swiss bank account is the object of the preposition in. It names the thing that the
agents were interested in.
We rarely use nominal clauses as indirect objects. The constructions that result from such usage
are simply too awkward. However, one common but colloquial example of a nominal clause used as
an indirect object comes from the expression you know who. You know who is a nominal clause with
you as its subject and who as the direct object of the verb know. Please note that the direct object is
incorrectly in the nominative case form. A sentence containing this colloquial expression used as an
indirect object might read as follows:

I gave you know who a piece of my mind.

The nominal clause you know who is the indirect object of the verb gave. It answers the question “To
whom did you give a piece of your mind?” The conscientious grammarian, however, would have used
the correct form of the nominal relative pronoun. His or her sentence would read as follows:

I gave you know whom a piece of my mind.

An Aside on Nominal Clauses Used as Appositives

Nominal clauses used as appositives are some of the hardest constructions to recognize. The problem
is that such nominal clauses bear a striking resemblance to relative clauses. Let’s look again at the
example from our previous discussion of a noun clause used as an appositive:

The notion that we will never see each other again is unbearable.

The nominal clause that we will never see each other again is in apposition with the noun notion,
but some might argue that the nominal clause actually modifies notion. It is the connecting word that
gives the true identity of the nominal clause away.
Relative clauses only begin with real relative pronouns, relative adverbs, or relative
determiners. Though that can be a relative pronoun, its sole function in a nominal clause used as an
appositive is to connect a main clause and a subordinate clause. Because it does not stand in for a
noun within the subordinate clause, it cannot be a relative pronoun. It must be a subordinate
conjunction. Only adverbial clauses and nominal clauses may begin with subordinate conjunctions.
Since a nominal clause used as an appositive does not modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb,
we know that it is not an adverbial clause and that it must be a nominal clause. The functions of such
clauses are similar to those of modifiers, so we look for a role that a nominal can play where it
enhances or explains. Our best option is to call these nominal clauses appositives.
What you must realize is that this distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Grammar is a model of
language, and no model will ever perfectly capture its subject. There are always holes and loose ends
that we try to avoid but can never eliminate. When the grammarians who developed our system of
grammar encountered nominal clauses such as the ones we just saw, they too were unsure of what to
do with them. To make the system whole and to tie up any loose ends, the grammarians decided to call
the clauses appositives.
Thankfully, grammar is ever evolving. The inadequacies of one model are swept away as
another takes its place. As you read this book, grammarians, teachers, and other academics are
working to create a new model of grammar that better describes our speech and writing. Who knows
what methods students will be learning to model language in 2050?

Who vs. Whom Revisited

The controversy over whether to use who or whom is just as perplexing with nominal clauses as it
was with relative clauses. Remember, the key to solving the puzzle is to determine the role that the
relative pronoun plays in the clause. If it is a subject or a subject complement, use the nominative
case form of the pronoun, who. If it is an object, use the objective case form, whom.

Who gave you permission to skip my physics class does not matter to me.

The kids could not stop talking about whom we will see in a few hours.

In the first example, the nominal clause who gave you permission to skip my physics class is
the subject of the sentence. The relative pronoun who begins the nominal clause. We use the
nominative case form because the pronoun is the subject of the clause. Let’s replace the pronoun with
a random noun.

Bobby gave you permission to skip my physics class.

The proper noun Bobby is clearly the subject of the sentence. The relative pronoun who replaces
Bobby and turns the word group into a nominal clause.
In the second example, the nominal clause whom we will see in a few hours is the object of the
preposition about. The relative pronoun whom introduces the clause. We use the objective case form
because the pronoun is the direct object of the verb phrase will see. We now replace the pronoun with
a random noun.

We will see Susan in a few hours.

The proper noun Susan is the direct object of the verb see. It tells whom we will see. The relative
pronoun whom replaces Susan and turns our temporary sentence into a nominal clause.

Be Sure About the Case

Q. “I’m sending our board of directors a memo, and I don’t know what pronoun to use. Should I
write, ‘Our concern is about who or whom we should contact’?” asked the CEO of an internet
firm in Silicon Valley.

A. Please use whom. About who/whom we should contact is a prepositional phrase. Who/whom we
should contact is a nominal clause serving as the object of the preposition about. The relative
pronoun introducing the nominal clause is the direct object of the verb contact. We is the subject
of the nominal clause. We should contact whom? We should contact him. The relative pronoun
needs to be in the objective case form. Since whom is the objective case form, the memo should
read, “Our concern is about whom we should contact.”
Also note that we have not used whom because the nominal clause is the object of the
preposition about. This fact does not affect the case of the relative pronoun. We use whom instead
of who because the relative pronoun is an object within the nominal clause and so must take the
objective case form.

Connecting Words in Nominal Clauses

Q. A colleague from a nearby college asked me, “When I use the word that in a sentence like ‘That
they have not found your car is all I know,’ is that a relative pronoun or a subordinate
conjunction?”

A. My colleague had hit upon a particularly sticky issue in the grammar of nominal clauses. That can
be either a relative pronoun or a subordinate conjunction, but which is it in sentences such as this
one? Fortunately, there is a clear answer.
That, when used in nominal clauses, is a subordinate conjunction. In my colleague’s sentence,
the only function of that is to join the subordinate clause that they have not found your car to
the host clause is all I know. It does not stand in for a noun in the nominal clause, so it is not a
relative pronoun. That must be a subordinate conjunction.
Please note that nominal clauses may begin with a variety of words. The subordinate
conjunction whether often introduces nominal clauses.

I cannot tell whether the sweater is blue or black.

In this example, whether introduces the nominal clause whether the sweater is blue or black.
The nominal clause is the direct object of the verb tell. It answers the question “What can you not
tell?”
Many other nominal clauses are introduced by one of the relative pronouns (real relative
pronouns and relative adverbs alike). The relative pronoun joins a nominal clause to a host
clause, but it also takes the place of a noun in the clause of which it is a part. Because nominal
clauses that begin with relative pronouns so closely resemble the relative clauses of which we
previously spoke, grammarians sometimes refer to them as nominal relative clauses.

We will do whatever we need to do.

 Did you hear what those goody-goodies said about us?

Home is where you hang your hat.

In the first example, the compound relative pronoun whatever (a real relative pronoun)
introduces the nominal clause whatever we need to do. The nominal clause is the direct object
of the verb do. It answers the question “What will you do?” Within the nominal clause, whatever
is the direct object of the infinitive to do.
In the second example, the relative pronoun what (a real relative pronoun) introduces the
nominal clause what those goody-goodies said about us. This nominal clause is the direct
object of the verb hear. It answers the question “What did I hear?” Within the nominal clause,
what is the direct object of the verb said. It answers the question “What did they say?”
In the third example, the relative pronoun where (a relative adverb) introduces the nominal
clause where you hang your hat. The clause is a subject complement, completing the linking
verb is and complementing the subject home. Within the nominal clause, where modifies the verb
hang.

Other Connecting Words in Nominal Clauses

Q. A friend who teaches English at a high school in my town said to me, “Michael, what kind of
conjunction is whatever in the sentence ‘I will perform whatever service you request’? One of
my students came to me with some grammar questions, but I couldn’t answer this one.”

A. I answered that whatever is a connecting word, but it is not a conjunction. It is a compound

relative pronoun, specifically, a compound relative determiner. Whatever introduces the nominal
clause whatever service you request. In the sentence, the clause is the direct object of the verb
perform.
I then told my friend to look closely at the role that whatever plays within the nominal clause
whatever service you request. It does not simply take the place of a noun. This compound
relative determiner also modifies service, the direct object of the verb request. We use relative
determiners and their compound counterparts to join main and subordinate clauses and to modify
nouns within the subordinate clauses.
Here are a couple more examples of relative determiners, modifying nouns in nominal
clauses:

Take what money you need from my wallet.

You should wear whichever jacket will be warmest.

In the first example, the nominal clause what money you need is the direct object of the verb
take. The relative determiner what introduces the nominal clause and modifies the noun money.
In the second example, the nominal clause whichever jacket will be warmest is the direct object
of the verb wear. The compound relative determiner whichever introduces the nominal clause
and modifies the noun jacket.
Choosing the Connecting Word

Q. A mother was writing a note to her son’s teacher. The boy was returning to school after a week-
long illness. She asked, “Can I write, ‘The reason is because Bobby had a cold’?”

A. This mother has chosen the wrong connecting word to introduce her nominal clause. In her
sentence, the subordinate conjunction because introduces the nominal clause because Bobby had
a cold. The clause is a subject complement of the noun reason.
We only use the subordinate conjunction because to introduce adverbial clauses. There is,
however, another subordinate conjunction that is right for this job. Mom should have written, “The
reason is that Bobby had a cold.”

The Zero That in Nominal Clauses

There is one special case in which we can correctly omit the connecting word from the nominal
clause. This case arises when the subordinate conjunction that introduces a nominal clause that
serves as a direct object in the sentence. Grammarians call such clauses zero that-clauses:

I knew that everything would turn out for the best.

In this sentence, the subordinate conjunction that introduces the nominal clause that everything
would turn out for the best. The nominal clause is the direct object of the verb knew. It answers the
question “What did you know?” This sentence fits the description of our special case, so we can omit
that.

I knew everything would turn out for the best.

The sentence is clear and complete without the subordinate conjunction.

A Confusing Matter

Q. This caller told us of a failed dinner party where one couple stormed out after an embarrassing
incident. The caller said, “Our former friends left us this note, but I guess their anger got the better
of their grammar. Here’s the line: ‘We were so disgusted we are going home.’ How would I
correct this? I’m still peeved at those two.”

A. The writers of the note must have been quite angry because they managed to leave a note that lacks
a single clear meaning. The Hot Line wondered if there were any semicolons in the note. The
caller answered, “No, there are not.” Knowing this, we can look at the line from any number of
viewpoints.
We may have a run-on sentence. Under this interpretation, there are two main clauses, we
were so disgusted and we are going home. There is no punctuation mark or conjunction between
the two, so the sentence runs on. The Hot Line suggested that the best solution for this problem
would be to place a semicolon between the clauses. The sentence would read, “We were so
disgusted; we are going home.”
 We might also claim that this is a complex sentence where the subordinate conjunction has
been wrongfully omitted, a misuse of that in a zero that-clause. The subordinate conjunction
that should join the subordinate clause that we are going home to the main clause we were so
disgusted. The sentence would read, “We were so disgusted that we are going home.” Once the
conjunction has been restored, we can interpret the sentence in one of two ways.
If we claim that the adverbial clause that we are going home modifies the past participle
disgusted, then the couple was disgusted that they had to leave. They may have wished that they
could stay. Modifying disgusted, the clause indicates what the couple was disgusted about. They
were disgusted about having to go home.
If we claim that the adverbial clause modifies the adverb so, then the couple was disgusted to
such an extent that their disgust caused them to leave. The clause indicates the degree of so. It tells
us how much disgust “so disgusted” implies. I believe that this is the message that the angry
couple intended to leave behind.

Careful With Those Clauses

Q. “I’ve used this sentence: ‘I never knew that there was so many opportunities out there,’” stated a
young teacher looking for a job. “My advisor told me to call you for some advice on straightening
out my grammar.”

A. This young fellow has a verb error in his nominal clause. In the sentence, the nominal clause that
there was so many opportunities out there is the direct object of the verb knew. This is fine.
Within the clause, there is a dummy element. It stands in for the delayed subject so many
opportunities. The verb that follows the dummy element, was, is singular. However, the subject
that the dummy element stands for is plural. For subject and verb to agree, the verb must be plural.
The sentence should read, “I never knew that there were so many opportunities out there.” Thank
God that the Hot Line corrected his grammar before his bad habits wore off on any
impressionable young minds.

Some Other Things You Should Know About Compound & Complex Sentences

Clauses and complex sentences are two of the most difficult topics that the determined student of
grammar will encounter. Believe me, many do not make it this far. Schools do not have the time or
resources to teach such tricky material, and too many students lack the determination to learn it. The
following discussion should help you in some of the stickier situations that clauses and complex
sentences may present.

Compound-Complex Sentences

Q. A college student from Salt Lake City, Utah, asked, “Is there such a thing as a compound-complex
sentence?”
A. Compound-complex sentences do indeed exist. To be compound, the sentence would need two or
more main clauses. To be complex, one or more of these main clauses would need to be connected
to some subordinate clause.

The winner may receive the trophy, but anyone who finishes the race is a
champion.

The sentence consists of two main clauses, the winner may receive the trophy and anyone
who finishes the race is a champion, joined by the coordinate conjunction but. This makes the
sentence compound. The second main clause contains a relative clause who finishes the race.
The relative clause modifies the indefinite pronoun anyone. This makes the sentence complex.

Abbreviated Adverbial Clauses

Q. “Why, exactly, are we allowed to write sentences like ‘My sister is smarter than I’? I mean, they
sound fine, but is there some sort of justification for them?” asked a veteran English teacher.

A. Here is yet another probing question from a curious and thoughtful mind. Sentences such as the one
our caller provided are ubiquitous in the English language, but why have they come into use?
What is their justification for being? Well, here is the answer:
English idiom allows speakers and writers to omit words that are shared with the main clause
from adverbial clauses of comparison (also known as comparative clauses). Some portion of
the adverbial clause is obvious, even if unspoken or unwritten, so we omit it to avoid repetitive
or clumsy sentence construction.
In sentences such as the caller’s, it is the entire predicate of the adverbial clause that we omit.

My sister is smarter than I. (abbreviated)

My dog can jump as high as my cat. (abbreviated)

In the caller’s sentence, the subordinate conjunction than introduces the abbreviated
adverbial clause than I. In the other example, the correlative conjunction as-as introduces the
abbreviated adverbial clause as-as my cat. The missing portion of each clause is a potentially
awkward predicate.
Here are the sentences, unabbreviated:

My sister is smarter than I am smart. (unabbreviated)

My dog can jump as high as my cat can jump high. (unabbreviated)

In the original versions, the predicates am smart and can jump high were rightly omitted
because they are nearly identical to elements in the main clauses. With the predicates restored,
the sentences sound stiff and silly.
At other times, we omit the subject and the verb from the adverbial clause, leaving only a
direct object behind.
 He likes ice cream better than cake. (abbreviated)

Thomas found more garbage in the wreck than treasure. (abbreviated)

In the first example, the subordinate conjunction than introduces the abbreviated adverbial
clause than cake. In the second example, the subordinate conjunction than introduces the
abbreviated adverbial clause than treasure. Subjects and verbs have been omitted from both
clauses.
Here are the sentences with the missing subjects and verbs, he likes and he found, restored.

He likes ice cream better than he likes cake. (unabbreviated)

Thomas found more garbage in the wreck than he found treasure.

(unabbreviated)

The new versions don’t sound awful, but the added elements are unnecessary. The sentences are
more efficient and succinct without them.

Using the Correct Case in Abbreviated Adverbial Clauses

Q. A college student called to ask, “Why did my education professor put a big, evil, red mark around
than him in the sentence ‘Angela is more lively than him’? Than him is a prepositional phrase, so
I used him rather than he. My grammar may not be perfect, but I think I’m right here.”

A. Alas, I had to inform this young lady that her professor was in the right. Than him is not a
prepositional phrase; it is an abbreviated adverbial clause of comparison. Writers and speakers
often mistake the subordinate conjunction than at the beginning of an abbreviated adverbial clause
of comparison for a preposition and automatically place the pronoun that follows in the objective
case form. However, if it is the predicate that has been omitted from the abbreviated adverbial
clause, the pronoun is the subject of the clause and should be in the nominative case form. The
caller has fallen into this trap. She has omitted the predicate is lively from her adverbial clause of
comparison. With the incorrect objective case pronoun and a restored predicate, her sentence
would read as follows:

Angela is more lively than him is lively. (unabbreviated and incorrect)

The sentence is clearly incorrect. Unabbreviated, it should appear as follows:

Angela is more lively than he is lively. (unabbreviated and correct)

In my opinion, the caller was right to omit the predicate is lively, but she does need to use a
pronoun in the nominative case form. I told her that she should have written this sentence:

Angela is more lively than he. (abbreviated and correct)

 Be careful, though! In other sentences, a pronoun in an abbreviated adverbial clause may be
in the nominative or the objective case form, depending on the intended meaning of the sentence.
The following two sentences contain pronouns in the objective case form because their subjects
and predicates are missing:

Mr. Phillips respects you more than me. (abbreviated and correct)

The kids enjoy me more than her. (abbreviated and correct)

Me and her are both objective case pronouns. With the missing subjects and verbs restored, the
sentences would read as follows:

Mr. Phillips respects you more than he respects me. (unabbreviated and
correct)

The kids enjoy me more than they enjoy her. (unabbreviated and correct)

The pronouns are direct objects of their respective verbs. Me is the direct object of respects,
and her is the direct object of enjoy.
Written with pronouns in the nominative case form, the sentences could appear as follows:

Mr. Phillips respects you more than I. (abbreviated and correct)

The kids enjoy me more than she. (abbreviated and correct)

I and she are both nominative case pronouns. The predicates in these two sentences are missing.
This is how each would appear with its predicate restored:

Mr. Phillips respects you more than I respect you. (unabbreviated and
correct)

The kids enjoy me more than she enjoys me. (unabbreviated and correct)

As you can see, the pronouns in these abbreviated adverbial clauses can be in either the
nominative or the objective case form, but which case the writer uses has a great effect on the
meaning of the sentence.

Love and Grammar

Q. A jilted lover called the Hot Line and wanted to know the meaning of what a former beloved had
said. “She loves you more than me.”

A. The caller’s ex-girlfriend omitted a portion of an adverbial clause, but didn’t put the remaining
pronoun in the proper case form. What she said but didn’t mean was “She loves you more than she
loves me.” Me is the objective case form of the first person, singular personal pronoun. Knowing
 this, we can conclude that it was a subject and a predicate that were excluded. The resulting
sentence doesn’t communicate the speaker’s intended meaning.
His ex should have excluded the predicate, leaving behind a first person, singular pronoun in
the nominative case form, I. The sentence should read, “She loves you more than I.” With the
predicate included, it would read, “She loves you more than I love you.” Lovers, beware of how
you phrase those love notes, and check with the Hot Line before sending them!

Subject-Verb Agreement in Clauses

Don’t be hasty with the verbs that you use in subordinate clauses. Subjects and verbs must agree no
matter where they fall, but in sentences that begin with relative pronouns, this agreement can be
difficult to maintain.
Relative pronouns, such as who or which, possess no inherent number. When one of these
functions as the subject of a clause, the verb that follows must agree with it, but how do we decide
what number our verb should take? Just look to the antecedent of the relative pronoun for the answer.

Those three boys are the ones who are causing trouble.

My sister is a person who knows many jokes.

In the first example, the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who are causing
trouble. The plural pronoun ones is the antecedent of the subject of the clause, who. Since we have a
plural antecedent, we need a plural verb. The plural verb are (in the relative clause) fits the bill.
In the second example, the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who knows
many jokes. The singular noun person is the antecedent of the subject of the clause, who. Since we
have a singular antecedent, we need a singular verb. The relative clause contains a singular verb,
knows, as it should.

An Agreement Issue

Q. A banker from Kentucky called to ask about a photo caption printed in a nationally syndicated
newspaper. She said, “Check out this sentence: ‘Officers inspect motorcycle of one of the two
patrolmen who were shot.’ Tell me what the problem with this is. It sounds off to me.”

A. The editors have printed a complex sentence with a disagreement between the subject and verb in
the relative clause. The relative pronoun who joins the relative clause who were shot to the main
clause officers inspect motorcycle of one of the two patrolmen. To the untrained eye, the
antecedent of who appears to be the plural noun patrolmen, but it is actually the singular pronoun
one. Patrolmen is the object of the preposition of.
The relative pronoun who is the subject of the relative clause. Since its antecedent is singular,
it is also singular and demands a singular verb. Were is a plural verb. The sentence should read,
“Officers inspect motorcycle of one of the two patrolmen who was shot.”
The Hot Line recognizes that the sentence is still technically incomplete—the writers could
 add articles at a number of spots—but space limitations in newspaper captions and headlines do
require the elimination of words that will not affect the clarity of the sentence. If we had to write
the truly complete version, it would appear as follows: “The officers inspect the motorcycle of
one of the two patrolmen who was shot.”

Another Agreement Issue

Q. One caller complained, “I’ve found another television personality with bad grammar. This one
said, ‘Five finalists will be selected by using the ABC criteria which includes the final four
steps.’ Will they never learn?”

A. Again, the subject and verb in a relative clause do not agree. The relative pronoun which joins the
relative clause which includes the final four steps to the main clause five finalists will be
selected by using the ABC criteria. The antecedent of which is the plural noun criteria.
Which is the subject of the clause. Since its antecedent is plural, it is plural as well and needs
a plural verb. Includes is a singular verb. The sentence should read, “Five finalists will be
selected by using the ABC criteria which include the final four steps.”

Yet Another Agreement Issue

Q. An attorney was writing a speech. He called to ask, “What’s up with this sentence? I know there’s
something amiss. ‘We present this award in grateful recognition of Bob and Jim who has
participated in the work of this event.’ ”

A. It’s the same old story. There is subject-verb disagreement within the relative clause. The relative
pronoun who joins the relative clause who has participated in the work of this event to the main
clause we present this award in grateful recognition of Bob and Jim. The subject of the
relative clause is who. The proper nouns Bob and Jim are both antecedents of this relative
pronoun.
With multiple antecedents, the pronoun is a plural subject and needs a plural verb. Has
participated is a singular verb phrase. The sentence should read, “We present this award in
grateful recognition of Bob and Jim who have participated in the work of this event.”
If the attorney were to place a comma after the first proper noun, Bob, then the only antecedent
of the relative pronoun who would be the second proper noun, Jim. The relative clause would
need a singular verb, and the sentence would appear as follows: “We present this award in
grateful recognition of Bob, and Jim who has participated in the work of this event.” The comma
divides the two proper nouns, so that who cannot claim any noun beyond Jim as an antecedent.

Agreement and Nominal Clauses

Q. A director of personnel asked us to check his grammar. He said, “Here’s my sentence: ‘What
business needs most are some good ideas.’ What do you think? Sometimes I think it’s right, but
 sometimes it sounds wrong. I just can’t tell.”

A. The Hot Line guessed that the caller was concerned about the agreement between the subject and
the verb. Creating agreement in a complex sentence can be tricky. In this sentence, the relative
pronoun what introduces the nominal clause what business needs most, the subject. Are is the
verb in the sentence. It is plural. We need to verify that the subject and verb agree, but the number
of the subject, singular or plural, is ambiguous.
For an answer to the mystery, we turn to the nominal clause what business needs most, the
subject of the sentence. The pronoun what refers to the plural subject complement some good
ideas. This might lead us to believe that the subject is plural and needs a plural verb, are.
Unfortunately, the answer is not quite so simple.
The pronoun what is always singular in form when it is the subject of a sentence even
though it may be plural in meaning. As we know, what refers to a plural subject complement.
Even so, this pronoun is singular in form. For subject and verb to agree, our director needs to use
a singular verb. The sentence should read as follows:

What business needs most is some good ideas.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement in Clauses

Equally troubling are personal pronouns found in subordinate clauses. When the antecedent of a
personal pronoun is a relative pronoun, how do we know which person, number, and gender to assign
it? Again, look to the antecedent of the relative pronoun for the answer.

Bill is a man who carries his heart on his sleeve.

Mountain climbing is a sport which has its share of hazards.

In the first example, the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who carries his
heart on his sleeve. Within the relative clause, the pronoun his modifies the noun heart. The
antecedent of his is the relative pronoun who. The antecedent of who is the masculine, third person,
singular noun man. This noun, man, is the ultimate antecedent of his. Since his is masculine, singular,
and in the third person, the pronoun and its antecedent agree.
In the second example, the relative pronoun which introduces the relative clause which has its
share of hazards. Within the relative clause, the pronoun its modifies the noun share. The antecedent
of its is the relative pronoun which. The antecedent of which and the ultimate antecedent of its is the
neuter, third person, singular noun sport. Since its is neuter, singular, and in the third person, the
pronoun and its antecedent agree.

Agreement Isn’t Easy

Q. One caller said, “Every day, on my way home from work, I hear this car dealer on the radio. His
grammar is atrocious. What should he do to clean up this sentence: ‘This is for anyone who don’t
 think that they have the cash’ ?”

A. The relative clause in this complex sentence contains a faulty verb. The relative pronoun who
connects the relative clause who don’t think that they have the cash to the main clause this is
for anyone. The relative pronoun who is the subject of the clause. Its antecedent is the singular
indefinite pronoun anyone. To make a singular subject and verb agree, the dealer needs to use a
singular verb, doesn’t. As it stands, the sentence contains a plural verb, don’t.
To make matters worse, there is a faulty nominal clause, that they have the cash, within the
relative clause just mentioned. The subject of the nominal clause is the pronoun they. The
ultimate antecedent of they is the singular indefinite pronoun anyone— the antecedent of they is
who, and the antecedent of who is anyone. The dealer needs to use a singular personal pronoun,
such as he or she, and he needs to change his plural verb, have, to agree with a singular subject.
If the dealer has any pride, he will re-tape his spot to say, “This is for anyone who doesn’t think
that he or she has the cash.”

A Judgment Call

Q. A writer for the AFL-CIO called about a sentence he was using in a report. He said, “I have a
sentence that I want you to look at. ‘I have a pool of skilled workers who are able to complete the
task.’ Is it acceptable?”

A. I told the writer that he had asked a question which could not be answered easily. In his sentence,
the relative pronoun who introduces the relative clause who are able to complete the task. The
antecedent of who is the collective noun pool. Pool is generally inanimate, as in “a pool of
resources.” This sort of pool is an abstract idea, rather than a concrete object. If this is how the
writer views the pool to which he refers, he must use a relative pronoun, such as that, that may
stand for an inanimate noun. Under this interpretation, his sentence would read, “I have a pool of
skilled workers that are able to complete the task.”
However, the members of this particular pool are human beings, and the argument could be
made that this fact gives the pool an animate quality. It is not a pool of money or weapons or
machines. This pool is composed of living, breathing people, so the collective noun must live and
breathe as well. Under this very reasonable interpretation, the sentence would not require change.
Grammar, like any other complex and engaging topic, will never be cut-and-dried. It is
interesting because it is arguable and because there are issues that lack clear solutions. The path
that leads to proper grammar is a dialogue, not a dogmatic monologue. Don’t ever let anyone tell
you otherwise!
Part III

Spelling, Vocabulary, & Punctuation

 13

Spelling

Spelling is the art of writing words with the correct sequence of letters, and,
believe me, while it may not be as riveting as some, it is an art.

The academic term for spelling is orthography. It comes from the two Greek words orthos, meaning
“straight,” and graphein, meaning “to write.” Together in orthography, they mean “to write or spell
correctly.”
Why is our spelling system so difficult? Why are so few of us able to become competent
orthographers? It is because the spellings of English words have developed in such a haphazard
manner. From the beginning, ours has been an amalgamated language, influenced by contacts with
languages across the globe. English, a Germanic language, was born among three Germanic tribes, the
Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons, along the shores of the North Sea in what we now call northern
Germany and southern Denmark. With the invasion of Britain by the Angles and the Saxons, English
felt a Celtic influence as it spread across the English channel to a people who spoke the Celtic
tongue. During its early years, English also experienced a Scandinavian influence as England was
subject to frequent Viking invasion. The first major change to the English language arrived with
William of Normandy and his conquering French legions in 1066 A.D.; the invaders brought the
influence of Norman French with its Latin origins to the language of the Britons. Later, during the
Renaissance, English would borrow great numbers of words, particularly from French and Italian, as
the language acquired more scholarly functions once reserved for Latin. Although English has become
a major international language, it still retains spelling irregularities, products of these many
influences.
Linguists view the evolution of English in stages. The oldest form of English was spoken
between 700 and 1100 A.D. and has been appropriately named Old English. A more recent but not yet
modern version of English is known as Middle English. This language existed until approximately
1500 A.D. English then began its gradual evolution into the language we speak today, sometimes
called Modern English.
Though speakers of Old and Modern English would certainly have trouble holding conversations
with one another, many Old English spellings are quite similar to those of Modern English. For
instance, the Modern heart was spelled heorte in Old English, and the Modern breast was spelled
breost in Old English. The articles a and an are two of the oldest English words. In Old as in
Modern English, they “marked” or modified nouns.
Somewhere along the line, English speakers realized the value of a comprehensive list and
description of English words, and, in England, in 1775, Dr. Samuel Johnson published the first
English dictionary. Dr. Johnson had a great love for Latin and was directly responsible for some of
the strange spellings in English today. He inserted a silent b in debt because the Latin word from
which debt is derived is debitum. He even inserted a silent p in receipt (from the Latin recepta) for
the same reason but chose not to in conceit (from the Latin conceptum) and deceit (from the Latin
deceptus).
In America, Noah Webster’s dictionary altered many words from their original English
spellings:

AMERICAN SPELLING ENGLISH SPELLING

jail gaol
honor honour
wagon waggon
jewelry jewellry

English continues to evolve today. Spellings and pronunciations change. New words are added
to the lexicon. With the infiltration of mass media into our daily lives we are bombarded with words
from across the globe. If a foreign word or phrase is heard often enough, it becomes part of our
everyday speech and writing. Growth and change keep the language from stagnating and dying.

Spelling Rules

If only English words were so simple that we could spell them by a single, clear, and well-defined
set of rules…. While it may be said that spellings follow a number of common themes, these themes
are full of exceptions and contradictions. Nevertheless, there are a number of rules that can help you
become a better speller. Here they are:

1. The consonant letters f, l, s, and z at the end of one-syllable words containing short vowel
sounds are usually written twice.

Examples: dress, drill, cuff, fuzz

Exceptions: bus, gas

2. The /k/ sound at the end of words containing short vowel sounds is spelled with a ck.

Examples: back, rack, hammock, sock, cassock

Exceptions: picnic, panic, sonic, tonic, caustic

3. Since the letters c and k can both represent a /k/ sound, it can be difficult to decide when to
use which letter. The following general rules will help you to make the correct choice:
 RULE 1 When a word begins with a /k/ sound that is followed by one of the short
vowels a, o, or u, the /k/ sound is spelled with the letter c.

Examples: casserole, cot, culprit

RULE 2 When a word begins with a /k/ sound that is followed by one of the short
vowels e or i, the /k/ sound is spelled with the letter k.

Examples: kiss, kelp, kit, kept

4. Most nouns are made plural simply by adding -s. In these words, the final sound blends well
with the /s/ sound.

hill→hills
cake→cakes
cereal→cereals

However, nouns ending in the letters ch, sh, s, x, or z, whose sounds are called the sibilant sounds,
are made plural by adding -es. The sibilant sounds do not blend well with the sound of the pluralizing
-s. Please note that you must double the final consonant z before adding -es.

watch→watches
fox→foxes
wish→wishes
whiz→whizzes
kiss→kisses
miss→misses

5. To pluralize a noun ending in a y preceded by a consonant, simply change the y to i and add -
es.

daddy→daddies
puppies→;puppies
lily→lilies

If the final y is preceded by a vowel, simply add -s.

key→keys
delay→delays
relay→relays

6. To pluralize a compound of words that serves as a single noun, such as mother-in-law, add -s
or -es to the most important word in the group.

mother-in-law→mothers-in-law
 sergeant-at-arms→sergeants-at-arms

7. It can be difficult to pluralize nouns ending in f, ff, or fe. These general rules will help.

RULE 1 Generally, with nouns that end in f or fe, change the f or fe to v, and add
-es to form the plural.

wife→wives
shelf→shelves
knife→knives
calf→calves
life→lives
loaf→loaves

RULE 2 To form the plurals of nouns ending in ff, just add -s.

puff→puffs
muff→muffs
cuff→cuffs

EXCEPTIONS TO RULE 1 There are a number of words that end in fe or f to

which we simply add -s to form their plurals.

safe→safes
chief→chiefs
roof→roofs

8. Here are two rules that will help you form the plurals of words ending in o:

RULE 1 If the final o follows a vowel, simply add -s.

stereo→stereos
radio→radios

RULE 2 If the final o follows a consonant, add -es.

potato→potatoes
tomato→tomatoes

EXCEPTION 1 Many musical names end in o preceded by a consonant. To form

the plural, simply add -s.

piccolo→piccolos
alto→altos
soprano→sopranos
 EXCEPTION 2 There are a few other nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant whose
plurals we form by adding -s.

albino→albinos
dynamo→dynamos
silo→silos

EXCEPTION 3 We form the plurals of some nouns with the o ending preceded by
a consonant with either -s or -es.

hero→heros or heroes
tornado→tornados or tornadoes

9. The /ch/ sound at the end of a word is generally spelled with a tch.

Examples: watch, catch, match, hatch, latch

However, if that /ch/ sound is preceded by an /n/ or /r/ sound or a vowel sound spelled with more
than one vowel letter, it is spelled with a ch.

Examples: lunch, brunch, march, arch, brooch, approach

10. If a word ends with the long /a/ sound, it usually has an ay ending.

Examples: array, play, stay

However, a few words that end with the long /a/ sound have an ey ending.

Examples: they, prey

11. Remember the i before e rule! I before e except after c or when sounded like a as in
neighbor and weigh.

Examples: relieve, mischief, receive, conceive

There are, however, a number of exceptions to this classic rule:

caffeine
either
foreign
height
neither
protein
seize
sheik
 weird

12. Words that end with a /j/ sound are spelled with a dge ending.

Examples: edge, bridge, nudge

13. When forming contractions, use the apostrophe to replace missing letters:

they will→they’ll
did not→didn’t
you would→you’d
would not→wouldn’t
they have→they’ve

Remember that the possessive pronouns are never spelled with apostrophes. They already show
possession, and there are no missing letters for the apostrophe to replace.

Examples: yours, hers, its, ours, theirs

14. It can be difficult to figure out how to spell the /seed/ sound cluster that ends some words.
Should you use sede, ceed, or cede? These general rules will help:

RULE 1 I know of only one word in English that ends in sede. It is supersede.

RULE 2 I know of only three words in English that end in ceed. They are
proceed, exceed, and succeed.

RULE 3 All other words with the final /seed/ sound cluster end with cede.

Examples: precede, recede

15. Adding a prefix does not change the spelling of the base word. If you know how to spell the
base word, all you need to do is add the prefix.

dis- + similar→dissimilar
un- + constitutional→unconstitutional
re- + enter→reenter

16. When should we use the prefixes ante- and anti-? Even though they sound the same, their
meanings are different. The prefix ante- means “before,” as in antebellum, meaning “before
the war.” The prefix anti- means “against,” as in anti-intellectual, meaning “against
intellectuals or intellectual thought.” Knowing the context in which the word is written or
spoken should help you determine which prefix is appropriate.
 17. When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to a word, double the final consonant in the
base word only if the following conditions are met:

CONDITION 1 The base ends with a single consonant.

CONDITION 2 The vowel sound preceding the final consonant in the base is
represented by a single vowel letter.

CONDITION 3 The final consonant of the base is in an accented syllable.

expel + -ed→expelled
admit + -ed→admitted
submit + -ing→submitting

Do not double the final consonant before adding the suffix if any one of these three conditions is not
met.

prefer + -ence→preference
reap + -ing→reaping
find + -er→finder

18. Here are some notable exceptions to Rule 17:

EXCEPTION 1 Always double the final m of base words that end in the syllable
-gram before adding the suffix.

diagram + -ed→diagrammed
diagram + -ing→diagramming

EXCEPTION 2 Do not double a final 1 before the suffix -ize, -ism, -ist, or -ity.

scandal + -ize→scandalize
final + -ist→finalist
plural + -ism→pluralism
equal + -ity→equality

EXCEPTION 3 Never double a final x. It is pronounced as two consonants, /ks/,

and so violates Condition 1 of Rule 17.

tax + -ed→taxed
mix + -er→mixer
fix + -ing→fixing

19. Generally, when adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to a word ending in e, drop the e
and then add the suffix.
 debate + -ing→debating
relate + -ed→related

As you may have expected, there are exceptions to this rule.

dye + -ing→dyeing
be + -ing→being

20. When adding a suffix that begins with a or o to a word that ends with ce or ge, do not drop
the final e from the base word.

change + -able→changeable
courage + -ous→courageous

If the suffix begins with e, i, or y, however, drop the final e from the base.

manage + -er→manager
mange + -y→mangy
face + -ing→facing

21. If words end in ye, ee, or oe, drop their final e before adding a suffix that starts with e.

canoe + -ed→canoed
dye + -ed→ dyed

If the suffix does not begin with the letter e, do not drop the final e from the word.

canoe + -ing→canoeing
dye + -ing→dyeing

22. When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to a word that ends with ue, drop the final e
before adding the suffix.

issue + -ing→issuing
ensue + -ed→ensued

23. Do not drop the final e before adding a suffix that begins with a consonant.

strange + -ly→strangely
bare + -ly → barely

Watch out though! There are some unusual and unexplainable exceptions to this rule.

judge + -ment→judgment
awe + -ful→awful
 nine + -th→ninth
acknowledge + -ment→acknowledgment
true + -ly→truly
argue + -ment→argument
whole + -ly→wholly

24. When adding the suffix -ing to a word that ends in ie, change the ie to y, and then add the
suffix.

die + -ing→dying
belie + -ing→belying

25. If a word ends in y, change the y to i before adding any of the suffixes -able, -ance, or -ant.

apply + -ance→ appliance

rely + -ant→reliant
ply + -able→pliable

EXCEPTION charity + -able→charitable

26. For most words that end in c, insert a k before a suffix that begins with i, e, or y. The final c
in these words retains the /k/ sound after the suffix has been added.

panic + -ing→panicking
picnic + -ed→picnicked
panic + -y→panicky

If the final c does not retain the /k/ sound, do not add a k.

caustic + -ity→causticity
toxic + -ity→toxicity
electric + -ity→electricity

27. It is sometimes difficult to determine when to use the suffix -ible and when to use the suffix -
able at the end of a word. The following general rules will show you the way.

RULE 1 If the base word ends in a hard c or a hard g, use the suffix -able.

Examples: amicable, navigable

RULE 2 If the base itself is a complete English word, use the suffix -able.

Examples: changeable, flyable

RULE 3 If the base is not a complete English word and does not end in a hard c
 or g, use the suffix -ible.

Examples: susceptible, visible

RULE 4 If you can add the suffix -ion to the base to make a legitimate English
word, then you should use the suffix -ible.

Examples: corruptible(corruption), perfectible (perfection)

28. When in doubt, look it up! Use your dictionary. It is a powerful tool and your key to
becoming a perfect speller.

From My Files: The Dangers of Spell Check

CAUTION: Your computer’s spell checker is stupid. Though an invaluable time-saver, spell checking
is far from infallible. Your computer may indicate that a word is spelled correctly, but it cannot tell if
its choice of word is correct for the sentence. For example, look at this sentence: “The ideal
candidate will posses a flair for the dramatic.” Run the sentence through your spell checker, and it
will tell you that everything is okay, even though the fifth word is misspelled. The computer is
ignorant of context. It does not know that the sentence needs a verb that means “to have” and does not
realize that this word ends with a double s: possess. The computer only knows that the plural of
posse is posses and that the sentence contains what could be a legitimate English word. The spell
checker is a fine tool for the initial round of editing, but only a sharp human mind can ensure perfect
writing. The following poem illustrates just why a keen proofreading eye is a writer’s most valuable
asset:

Word Processing

I have a lovely spelling check

That came with my PC,
Witch plainly marks, four my revue,
Miss takes I can not sea.
I’ve run this poem threw the thing,
I’m sure your please too no.
It’s latter perfect in every weigh.
My checker tolled me sew.
—Author unknown

Heteronyms, Homonyms, Homophones, and Homographs

Once you have learned the rules, you must learn the exceptions that turn the rules upside down. What
do you do with words that have identical spellings or pronunciations but different meanings? There is
no easy answer to that question. Only experience, persistence, and a watchful eye will help the
cautious speller avoid the pitfalls that these words pose. To enhance our understanding of the lexicon,
grammarians have divided such tricky words into four categories: homophones, homographs,
homonyms, and heteronyms.
Homophones are words that are pronounced alike and that have different meanings but that may
or may not be spelled the same. The noun quail, meaning “a type of game bird,” and the verb quail,
meaning “to falter,” are homophones. The verb pray, meaning “to address a deity,” and the noun prey,
meaning “a victim,” are also homophones.
Some homophones are also homonyms. These are words that have the same pronunciation and
spelling but different meanings. The noun quack, meaning “the sound made by a duck,” and the noun
quack, meaning “a charlatan,” are homonyms.
There is another set of tricky words called homographs. These words have the same spelling
but different origins, meanings, or pronunciations. The noun homer, meaning “an ancient Hebrew unit
of measure,” and the noun homer, meaning “a home run,” are homographs.
Some homographs are also heteronyms. These are words with the same spelling but different
pronunciations and meanings. The noun conduct (accent on the first syllable), meaning “behavior,”
and the verb conduct (accent on the second syllable), meaning “to guide,” are heteronyms. The
adjective Polish (with a long /o/), meaning “originating in the land of Poland,” and the verb polish
(with a short /o/), meaning “to make smooth and shiny,” are also heteronyms.
The definitions of the different categories can become confusing; the different names sound quite
similar. One way to tell them apart is to learn the Greek origin of each word. The syllable homo
comes from the Greek word homos, meaning “same.” The syllable hetero comes from the Greek word
heteros, meaning “different.” The syllable graph comes from the Greek word graphein, meaning “to
write.” The syllable phone comes from the Greek word onyma, meaning “name.” The syllable phone
comes from the Greek word phone, meaning “sound.” The word homophone, then, means “same
sound.” The word homonym means “same name.” The word homograph means “same spelling.” And
the word heteronym means “different names.”
Heteronyms, homonyms, homophones, and homographs almost defy description. The problems
they present are mind-boggling, and they are quite difficult to learn. To make the process as painless
as possible, the Hot Line has compiled a list of the most common. You’ll simply have to learn them
all in order not to make an embarrassing mistake.
ad (n) The ad for new shoes interested me.
add (v) I can add up the numbers that you require.
aid (n) The Red Cross gives aid to people in need.
aide (n) An aide is always there to give assistance.
ail (v) What ails you?
ale (n) Don’t drink too much ale.
air (n) The air was stifling.
heir (n) He was heir to a fortune.
aisle (n) He proudly escorted the bride down the aisle.
I’ll (contraction) I’ll go to the movies with you.
isle (n) Oh, what adventures they had on Gilligan’s Isle.
altar (n) The altar of the church is magnificent.
alter (v) No one can alter the past.
arc (n) The thin arc of the moon illuminated the night.
ark (n) The ark almost foundered in the water.
ate (v) We ate our dinner by candlelight.
eight (n) The number eight has some strange connotations.
aught (n) Many mathematicians say “aught ” instead of “zero.”
ought (v) You ought to learn the homonyms.
bail (n) The bail was set at $1,000,000.
bail (v) The survivors must bail the water from their boat.
bale (n) We counted three bales of hay.
band (n) The marching band played wonderfully.
band (n) Don’t snap me with that rubber band!
band (v) We will lose the fight unless we band together.
banned (v) The authorities banned the film from the festival.
bare (v) Dare you bare your head to the blazing sun?
bear (v) I cannot bear that awful noise.
bear (n) The grizzly bear was extremely menacing.
bases (n) With two men out, the bases are loaded.
basis (n) He has no basis for his argument.
beat (v) Can you beat his score?
beat (n) The cop walks his beat at night.
beet (n) The beet is a nutritious red root.
beau (n) She came to the dance with her new beau.
bow (n) A red bow adorned the little girl’s hair.
bow (n) Robin of Locksley was master of the bow and arrow.
bow (v) You must bow before the king.
been (v) The tourists have been to The Plaza in Athens.
bin (n) Throw the remnants into the trash bin.
berry (n) A freshly picked berry is a fine summer treat.
bury (v) Bury the evidence quickly!
berth (n) Give that crazy man a wide berth.
birth (n) The birth of their first child was a joyous occasion.
bid (n) Duke Hawthorne placed the winning bid at the auction.
bid (v) The gentleman bid the lovely lady adieu.
blew (v) The winds blew ferociously.
blue (n) The color blue is my favorite.
board (n) The rotting, wooden board split in two.
board (v) All passengers may now board the airliner.
bored (adj) The bored child turned the television off and went outside.
bolder (adj) The child grew bolder with each success.
boulder (n) A large, granite boulder blocked the trail.
born (v) Eileen was born on a glorious day.
borne (v) You have borne your troubles majestically.
brake (n) My car needs new brakes.
break (v) Don’t break anything in the china shop.
bread (n) There are few foods so satisfying as freshly baked bread.
bred (v) My uncle bred horses for a living.
bridal (adj) We attended the bridal shower.
bridle (n) The room adjusted the horse’s bridle.
borough (n) The Bronx is a borough of New York City.
burrow (v) The mole burrowed under the house.
burrow (n) The rabbits retreated into their burrow.
buy (v) How much can you buy with so little money?
by (prep) The tired runner fell by the roadside.
bye (int) Bye! Have a nice day!
cache (n) The burglar’s cache held all the loot from the robbery.
cash (n) I don’t have enough cash to pay for dinner.
canvas (n) As an artist, my dad always had a large stock of canvas.
canvass (v) Senator Bigs canvassed the neighborhood for support.
capital (adj) The murderer was given capital punishment.
capital (n) The capital of California is Sacramento.
capitol (n) The United States Congress meets in the Capitol.
carat (n) That diamond is one carat.
Proofreaders use a caret to indicate where missing or
caret (n)
additional information should be placed within text.
carrot (n) Everyone knows about beta carotene in carrots.
karat (n) The purity of gold is measured in karats.
Hong Kong island was ceded to the British by the Treaty of
cede (v)
Nanking in 1842.
seed (n) Every mighty oak grew from a tiny seed.
ceiling (n) The ceiling must be painted as well.
sealing (v) She is sealing the envelope with wax.
cell (n) Let the villain rot in his cell.
sell (v) He will sell his car through the classifieds.

cellar (n) Rudy kept his fine wine in the cellar.

seller (n) The watch seller got a fair price for his wares.
census (n) The bureau conducted a population census last year.
senses (n) Taste is one of the five senses.
cent (n) One cent used to buy a stick of gum.
scent (n) The dog’s keen nose picked up the scent.
sent (v) The teacher sent the upstart to the principal.
cereal (n) Cold cereal with bananas sounds like a fine breakfast.
serial (adj) These murders appear to be the work of a serial killer.
cession (n) England’s cession of Hong Kong created controversy.
session (n) I missed my session with the therapist.
chased (v) The police chased the suspect.
chaste (adj) He is virtuous and chaste.
chews (v) The cow chews contentedly on her cud.
choose (v) You must choose between the two sweaters.
choir (n) I appreciate the sweet sounds of a fine choir.
quire (n) One needs many quires of paper to write a book.
chord (n) The strange musical chord made me shiver.
cord (n) They tied the cord around the box.
chute (n) Dispose of the papers in the garbage chute.
shoot (v) “Stop or I’ll shoot!” yelled the policeman.
cite Always cite your sources when writing essays.
sight (n) Is the Statue of Liberty in sight?
site (n) The mayor chose this site for the new building.
climb (v) The courageous defy death and climb mountains.
clime (n) The birds flew south toward gentler climes.
colonel (n) She attained the rank of army colonel.
kernel (n) How many kernels are there on an ear of corn?
complement (v) The debutante’s hat complemented her outfit.
compliment (n) She gave me a flattering compliment.
conduct (n) Benny’s conduct in class has been less than admirable.
conduct (v) Reginald will conduct the tour of the museum.
core (n) Some people enjoy eating the core of the apple.
corps (n) The Marine Corps is a force to be reckoned with.
council (n) The city council met in special session.
counsel (n) His counsel gave him good advice.
coarse (adj) The coarse fabric was uncomfortable to wear.
course (n) The runners followed the course through the forest.
course (n) She enrolled in a Medieval English course.
coward (n) He was labeled a coward after he ran from a challenge.
cowered (v) During the storm, the kitten cowered under the bed.
creak (v) The stairs creak at night.
creek (n) The waters of the creek babbled outside my window.
cue (n) The cue to begin the race was the sound of a gunshot.
cue (n) She struck the ball with the pool cue.
queue (n) Standing in a queue requires patience.
currant (n) The black currant is a delicious berry.
current (n) The current of the river was swift.
current (adj) It is good to be knowledgeable about current events.
cymbal (n) The sound of clashing cymbals is thrilling.
symbol (n) The American flag is a symbol of freedom.
dear (adj) Dear reader, you should learn these homonyms.
deer (n) New Zealanders raise deer as Americans raise cows.
desert (v) The frightened soldier deserted his platoon.
desert (n) Only the hardiest of plants survives in the desert.
dessert (n) Crème brûlée is a special dessert.
dew (n) The pearly dew glistened on the lawn.
do (v) Please do the work immediately.
due (adv) The assignment is due next week.
die (v) Water the plant or it will die.
dye (n) The dye made the white shirt green.
discreet (adj) The diplomat handled the affair in a discreet fashion.
discrete (adj) Ours was a discrete department, separate from the rest.
doe (n) A female deer is a doe.
dough (n) The baker kneaded the dough.
done (v) The job is done.
dun (n) The smog turns the color of the sky to dun.
dun (v) Don’t dun me for what I owe.
dual (adj) The coupe had dual exhausts.
duel (n) The adversaries fought a fearsome duel.
earn (v) The more you earn, the more you spend.
urn (n) We keep Grandpa’s ashes in an urn.
elicit (v) I elicit thoughtful responses from my pupils.
illicit (adj) The politician’s illicit affair caused quite a scandal.
ewe (n) Ewes roam the pastures in Scotland.
you (pro) You are very special.
exercise (n) My lack of exercise contributes to this unsightly bulge.
exorcise (v) The priest will exorcise the demon.
faint (adj) Faint sounds caught our attention.
feint (n) With a quick feint, the fencer won the match.
fair (n) We journeyed to the county fair.
fair (adj) Children are taught to be fair with each other.
fare (n) Rapid transit fares seem to go up and up.
fated (adj) To be fated is to be destined by fate.
feted (v) For his accomplishment, we feted him.
faze (v) Such behavior does not faze me.
phase (n) She is going through a difficult phase in her life.
feat (n) The stuntman began another absurd feat of daring.
feet (n) After a long day, the feet are tired.
feet (n) There are three feet in a yard.
find (v) What did you find in the shipwreck?
fined (v) The scoundrel was fined $1,000.
fir (n) The Douglas fir is a magnificent tree.
fur (n) It’s all right to wear imitation fur.
fisher (n) The fishers caught their limit at the lake.
fissure (n) The quake opened several fissures in the ground.
flair (n) My sister has a flair for baking.
flare (v) Why do you flare up in anger?
flea (n) That flea is driving my dog crazy.
flee (v) The town’s inhabitants must flee the volcano’s wrath.
flew (v) The young birds flew from their nest.
flu (n) Each winter I catch a nasty case of the flu.
flue We found it necessary to clean the flue of the chimney.
flour (n) I always use unbleached flour in my bread.
flower (n) Place the flower in the vase.
flower (v) When she turned thirteen, her musical abilities flowered.
for (prep) These flowers are for you.
fore (adj) The fore three seats are empty.
four (n) The number four is a perfect square.
forbear (v) Forbear from speaking when I am
forebear (n) My forebear gave me some good
foreword (n) Many readers ignore the foreword of a book.

forward (adv) We marched straight forward.

fort (n) The children gleefully played in their fort.
forte (n) Mathematics has never been my forte.
forth (adv) It is time to go forth and seek your
fourth (adj) April is the fourth month of the year.
foul (n) Wilt didn’t like the foul called against
fowl (n) I enjoy eating fowl, especially chicken.
freeze (v) The butcher will freeze the meat.
frieze (n) The artist did a fine job with the frieze.
gamble (v) Many people gamble away their pleasure.
gambol (v) The children gambol about the with joy.
gibe Do not gibe me for I resent sarcasm.
jibe (v) The sail jibed from one side to the
jibe (v) Does my observation jibe with yours?
gilt The gilt on the balcony glistened
guilt (n) Carrying guilt is a burden that devours the guilty.
gnu (n) The gnu is a graceful beast.
knew (v) All of us knew the truth.
new (adj) I just bought a new car.
grate (v) The sound of my neighbor’s singing grates on my nerves.
grate (n) The ashes rested on the fireplace grate.
great (adj) Thomas told me a great joke.
groan (v) I groan at bad jokes.
grown (v) The sapling has grown into a mature tree.
groom (n) I fear that the groom has developed cold feet.
groom (n) The groom takes excellent care of the horses.
guessed (v) We guessed that this book was needed.
guest (n) Being a gracious guest is easier than being a gracious host.
hail (n) In Illinois we have hail the size of golf balls.
hail (v) My friend hailed a cab.
hale (adj) The President looks hale and hearty.
hair (n) She has beautiful, thick, dark hair.
hare (n) The hare lost a famous race with a tortoise.
hail (n) The hall in the Sheraton Palace is magnificent.
haul (v) After the quake, trucks hauled away the debris.
hangar (n) The plane is kept in the hangar.
hanger (n) My hangers always seem to be on the closet floor.
hart (n) The hart, a mighty stag, leapt over the rock.
heart (n) I beg you not to break my heart.
heal (v) Time heals all wounds.
heel (n) Achilles’ heel proved to be his downfall.
heel (v) In the strong wind, the boat heeled leeward.
hear (v) Can you hear the whispering of the forest nymphs?
here (adv) We came here on our honeymoon.
heard (v) They obviously haven’t heard the news.
herd (n) A herd of bison raced just ahead of our train.
higher (adv) The plane flew higher than ever before.
hire (v) They will hire you if you are literate.
him (pro) His teacher gave him an A.
hymn (n) The choir sang a lovely hymn.
hoard (n) We discovered a hoard of fine books.
horde (n) A horde of students awaited me.
hoarse (adj) One’s voice becomes hoarse after a day of lecturing.
horse (n) My one experience riding a horse was not pleasant.
hole (n) Alice fell down a very deep hole.
whole (adj) Our research required a whole set of encyclopedias.
holey (adj) The moth-eaten sweater was quite holey.
holy (adj) In Judaism, Saturday is a holy day.
wholly (adv) Having cavities filled is a wholly unpleasant experience.
homer (n) Timmy hit a homer at the top of the fifth inning.
homer (n) The ancient Hebrews measured volume in homers.
hour (n) My watch shows one minute before the hour.
our (pro) This is our greatest triumph.
idle (adj) I like to read in my idle time.
idol (n) My boyhood idol was Joe DiMaggio.
idyll (n) An idyll is a short poem describing a pleasant, rural scene.
in (prep) Did you go in the room?
inn (n) I frequent a certain inn in Greenwich.
indict (v) The drug lord was indicted by a grand jury.
indite (v) Shelley indited many wonderful poems.
its (pro) The dragon returned to its cave.
it’s (contraction) It’s going to be a fine, sunny day.
jam (n) It’s difficult to find fresh gooseberry jam.
jamb (n) The door was stuck because the jamb was
key (n) Education is the key to unlocking closed doors.
quay (n) The four-masted schooners unloaded at the quay.
knight (n) Sir Lancelot was a brave knight.
night (n) Only marauders and spirits walk at night.
know (v) I now know what his motives were.
no (adv) No, I haven’t seen Elvis in the mall lately.
lead (n) The walls of this building are lined with lead.
lead (v) Our guide will lead us out of the jungle.
led (v) Why is he led about so easily?
lean (v) Lean on me for support.
lien (n) The bank has a lien on her property.
lessen (v) Antibiotics will lessen the infection.
lesson (n) The first lesson is to pay close attention.
lie (v) Why don’t you lie down and take a nap?
lie (v) Do not lie. A falsehood is always discovered.
lye (n) Lye is a poison used in making soap and
load (n) We all carry a heavy load in life.
lode (n) The mother lode was rich in gold.
made (v) Her successes made her happy.
maid (n)She works as a maid at the
Ritz.
main (adj) What is your main goal in life?
mane (n) The horse’s mane was long and burnished.
manner (n) She has a pleasant manner.
manor (n) A tree-lined road leads to the Duke’s country manor.
marshal (n) A marshal carries out court orders.
marshal (v) The colonists marshaled their defenses against the British.
martial (adj) She studies the martial arts.
meat (n) Being a vegetarian, he didn’t eat meat.
meet (v) Please meet us at noon.
mete (v) My teacher metes out A’s as if they were made of gold.
mean (adj) That was a mean, wicked act.
mien (n) He has a noble mien.
might (v) Things might have been different between us.
might (n) Her might was expressed in her mind and her muscles.
mite (n) The mite is a minuscule creature.
mite (n) This farthing, only a mite, is hardly worth anything.
miner (n) Miners often develop black lung disease.

minor (adj) The petty theft was only a minor infraction.

missed (v) We missed you at dinner tonight.
mist (n) The mist hovered over the tranquil lake.
morn (n) On Christmas Day, the children awoke in early morn.
mourn (v)At funerals, we mourn the
death of a loved one.
morning (n) The morning of the twelfth, I took the train to Tulsa.
mourning (v) Some never stop mourning the loss of a loved one.
naval (adj) The naval battle was fought at Trafalgar.
navel (n) Your navel is your belly button.
one (n) One comes just before two.
one (pro) One can do anything one sets one’s mind to.
won (v) These knights have won many battles.
overdo (v) Do not overdo it.
overdue (adj) This is your seventh overdue library book this year.
paced (v) He paced about the room nervously.
paste (n) Only paste held the costume together.
packed (v) She packed her bags and left.
pact (n) The countries signed a pact to codify the peace agreement.
pail (n) The pail was filled with fresh, warm milk.
pale (adj) His pale color after surgery was quite shocking.
pain (n) My tolerance for pain is high.
pane (n) The stone broke the pane of glass.
pair (n) What a lovely pair of vases.
pare (v) Please pare the fruit.
pear (n) There is no fruit better than a ripe, juicy pear.
passed (v) The time passed so quickly.
past (prep) She ran past the lake.
peace (n) The enemies ceased fighting and declared peace.
piece (n) That piece of strudel is fattening.
peak (n) The adventurers climbed to the mountain’s peak.
peek (v) Peek behind the curtain and see if he’s there.
pique (v) The discovery piqued my curiosity.

peal (n) The peal of the bells rang through the town.
peel (n) The peel on the avocado is thick.
peer (n) Don’t give in to pressure from your peers.
pier (n) Fishermen cast their lines from the end of the pier.
plain (n) A great, barren plain stretched before us in every direction.
plain (adj) I prefer plain colors to busy patterns.
plane (n) The plane began a sharp descent through the clouds.
pleas (n) We can still hear their pleas for help.
please (v) A firm back rub will always please me.
polish (v) We must polish the silver before the company arrives.
Polish (adj) I love the flavor of a Polish sausage with mustard and kraut.
pole (n) The barber’s pole is an ancient symbol.
poll (n) The latest election poll bodes ill for the incumbent.
poor (adj) The poor farmers do not need another summer of floods.
pore (n) Sweat passes through the pores in your skin.
pour (v) Pour the milk, please.
populace (n) The populace rallied to overthrow the monarchy.
populous (adj) A populous city has a large population.
port (n) The ship returned to its port of call.
port (n)Father has a number of fine
bottles of port in his wine cellar.
praise (n) The book has received nothing but high praise.
prays (v) He prays for humankind’s well-being.
preys (v) The tiger preys on smaller, weaker animals.
present (n) I bought her a birthday present.
present (n) Many of us think of the future, while ignoring the present.
present (v) I will present my findings to the committee.
principal (adj) The principal ideas are the main ones.
principal (n) The principal of the school was my pal.
principle (n) The Golden Rule is my guiding principle.
profit (n) He failed to make any profit on the risky investment.
prophet (n) The prophet foretold a time of peace and prosperity.
quack (n) I heard the quack of a duck close by our shelter.
quack (n) Do not put your faith in the medical miracles of that quack.
quail (n) The quail warbled merrily in its nest.
quail (v) The explorers quailed at the sound of the raging rapids.
rack (n) I have no need for a gun rack.
wrack (n) The storm brought wrack and ruin to the town.
rain (n) We seldom see rain in Southern California.
reign (n) The reign of the last czar proved to be tragic.
rein (n) It is sometimes difficult to hold on to the reins of the horse.
raise (v) Please raise your hand if you have a question.

raze (v) This demolition team can raze a city block in one afternoon.
rays (n) The rays of the sun can be harmful.
rap (n) A loud rap at the door woke us.
rap (n) The patsy took the rap for a crime he didn’t commit.
rap (v) You can rap with your friends when the lecture is over.
wrap (v) The salesman will wrap the package in festive paper.
read (v) He read the poem beautifully.
red (n) Red is the color of passion.
read (v) Please read me a story.
reed (n) Oboes and clarinets are both fitted with reeds.
real (adj) Real life is often stranger than fiction.
reel (n) The fisherman used a fine reel to land the marlin.
rest (n) A long rest after this hike will do us good.
wrest (v) The thief could not wrest the briefcase from my hands.
rhyme (n) The poem has a pleasing, melodic rhyme.
rime (n) The freezing temperatures coated the windows with rime.
right (adj) The contestant failed to provide the right answer.
right (n) The right to privacy should be guaranteed to everyone.
rite (n) They must pass an initiation rite when they thirteen.
wright (n) A wright is a worker.
write (v) Please write a letter to her soon.
ring (n) The ring on her finger glittered with diamonds.
ring (v) Please ring the bell before entering.
wring (v) I wring my hands as a nervous habit.
road (n) Few cars travel this desolate, desert road.
rode (v) They rode in the car.
role (n) The politician vehemently denied his role in the scandal.
roll (n) I’ll have a salami sandwich on an onion roll.
roll (v) Roll out the red carpet.
root (n) The police discovered the root of the problem.
route (n) A paper route is a good way to make some money.

rose (n) She received a dozen roses for Valentine’s Day.

rose (v) At the shrill sound of the alarm, I rose from my slumber.
rows (n) There are rows and rows of seats at The Hollywood Bowl.
rows (v) He rows the boat.
rote (n) My brother learned the names of the presidents by rote.
wrote (v) I wrote to my friend today.
sail (n) The wind ripped the sail from the mast.
sale (n) They’re having a sale on velvet paintings.
scene (n) The next scene in the movie is dreadful.
seen (v) None of us had ever seen a sunset so beautiful.
sea (n) The gentle sea has a salubrious effect on most viewers.
see (v) Did you see that car racing down the highway?
seam (n) The seam in my pants came undone.
seem (v) It may seem silly at first, but his plan has merit.
serf (n) A serf is little more than a slave.
surf (n) The sand and surf give me a peaceful feeling.
serge (n) Serge is a heavy material suitable for winter wear.
surge (v) When the show starts, the crowd will surge forward.
sew (v) I will sew the button onto your shirt.
so (adv) Those basketball players are so tall.
shear (v) Some farmers shear their sheep.
sheer (adj) The face of the cliff was sheer granite.
shone (v) The midnight moon shone on the lake.
shown (v) Our daughter’s teacher has shown us her fine grades.
slay (v) The prince will slay any who dare to challenge his power.
sleigh (n) We rode in a one-horse, open sleigh.
sleight (n) The magician’s sleight of hand is unbelievable.
slight (adj) The rescue team has only a slight chance of success.
sloe (n) The blackthorn fruit sloe is often used to flavor gin.
slow (adj) The journey was a slow one.
soar (v) Airplanes soar above the clouds.
sore (n) The physician examined the sore.
soared (v) The toy rocket soared into the sky.
sword (n) Excalibur was the name of King Arthur’s sword.
sole (n) My favorite dish, Dover sole, was listed on the menu.
sole (n) I have a corn on the sole of my left foot.
soul (n) Blues music speaks to my soul.
some (pro) Some of them are actually angry.
sum (n) She embezzled a substantial sum of money.
son (n) His son has made him very proud.
sun (n) The sun is bright today.
sow (v) In the spring, I will sow the seeds into the fertile earth.
sow (n) A sow is an adult, female hog.
spade (n) He dug in the earth with his spade.
spayed (v) My dog Gertie was spayed after her first litter was born.
stair (n) The third stair from the top always creaks.
stare (v) Don’t stare at others.
stake (n) To destroy a vampire, pound a stake through heart.
steak (n) Barbecued steak is my favorite summer meal.
stationary (adj) She rides a stationary bike at the gym after work.
stationery (n) Our new stationery is printed on recycled paper.
steal (v) Many workers steal office supplies.
steel (n) Steel now fortifies the infrastructures of most buildings.
steel (v) Steel yourself against the temptation of chocolate.
staid (adj) His staid character prevents him from overreacting.
stayed (v) They stayed on in London until their fortune spent.
steer (n) We raised a steer for slaughter, but it became household pet.
steer (v) Steer the car to the right.
straight (adj) The arrow flew in a straight line.
strait (n) It was a rocky journey through the strait to Morocco.
suite (n) Most travelers rent a single room rather than a suite.
sweet (adj) Every day can be as sweet as candy or as bitter as vitriol.
tail (n) The puppy’s tail wagged happily.
tale (n) I love to spin a tale of adventure.
tare (n) A tare is a seed of a herbaceous plant.
tear (n) I have a tear in my shirt.
tear (n) Her first tear signaled an onslaught of weeping.
tier (n) I love sitting in the highest tier at the Met.
taught (v) My teachers taught me well.
taut (adj) His taut nerves have been stretched to their breaking point.
team (n) The basketball team is out of town.
teem (v) In summer, the air will teem with flying insects.
their (pro) Their gifts sat under the Christmas tree.
there (adv) There she goes again.
they’re (contraction) They’re my friends.
threw (v) She threw the bouquet to her bridesmaids.
through (prep) We ran through the woods.
throes (n) He was in the throes of a special passion.
throws (v) Buddy throws a mean curve ball.
throne (n) The queen sits on the throne.
thrown (v) Someone had thrown a snowball at the car.
tide (n) The motion of the tide is as certain as death and taxes.
tied (v) We tied the burglar to a chair.
to (prep) The hikers walked to the falls.
too (adv) You study too much.
two (n) One plus one is two.
troop (n) He led a Boy Scout troop.
troupe (n) Many adventurers would love to join a circus troupe.
undo (v) Sometimes you cannot undo what has already been done.
undue (adj) Your actions caused undue commotion.
vain (adj) He is vain and egotistical.
vane (n) The weather vane swung slowly in the breeze.
vein (n) The miners stumbled upon a rich vein of gold.
wade (v) Let’s wade into the cool, shallow water.
weighed (v) They weighed the apples on the grocery scale.
waist (n) This old belt no longer fits around my waist.
waste (n) His death is a terrible waste.
wait (v) Please wait here.
weight (n) The weight of a car is related to its performance.
waive (v) Don’t waive your voting rights.
wave (v) She waved to me.
want (v) If you want it, you must work for it.
wont (adj) You are wont to eat too much; it is a bad habit.
ware (n) He tried to sell us his cheap wares.
wear (v) Wear your jacket.
where (adv) Where in the world have you been?
way (n) Do you know the way to Lodi?
weigh (v) I weigh myself on a digital scale.
weak (adj) She makes my knees feel weak.
week (n) The week flew by.
weather (n) The weather is cloudy and cool.
whether (conj) Whether or not you may go has yet to decided.
which (pro) Which purse will go best with your outfit?
witch (n) Glinda, the good witch, charms me still.
whine (v) No one enjoys a child who whines.
wine (n) A merlot is a fine wine for any occasion.
whose (pro) Whose book is this?
who’s (contraction) Who’s coming to your party?
wood (n) These floors are of polished wood.
would (v) We all wish that peace would prevail.

Other Confusing Word Pairs

Casual speech is one of the most fiendish culprits behind confused spellings. English is full of words
that sound quite similar when spoken but whose pronunciations are technically different. These sets of
words are not homophones or homographs, but they can be confusing for the same reasons.

One or Two Words?

Some sets consist of one single word and one pair of words. Casual conversation slurs the word pair
together so that each becomes indistinct and the pair has the same sound as the single word. Though
the single word and the word pair may sound the same, their spellings and usages are quite different.
Careful writers should recognize the distinction.

The judge will allot us twenty minutes for our

allot (v)
presentation.
a lot (article + n) There is a lot of material to scrutinize,
all ways (adj + n) In all ways, life is a splendid adventure.
always (adv) My best friend is always kind to me.
anyone (pro) Is anyone here dissatisfied?
any one (adj + num) Pick any one number and bet on it.
Anyway, we wouldn’t have had fun if we had
anyway (adv)
gone.
any way (adj + n) I will help in any way possible.
everyday (adj) We all have certain everyday tasks to perform.
every day (adj + n) We perform these tasks every day.
everyone (pro) Everyone we loved was present.
every one (adj + pro) Every one of the watches is fine.
nobody (pro) Nobody knows the trouble I’ve seen.
no body (adj + n) Despite the solid clues, no body was ever found.

Confusing Spellings

The following pairs of words defy categorization. For your edification, I have included clarifying
commentary.

boy (n) Her young boy is quite precocious.

buoy (n) Many had trouble spotting the buoy in the channel.
Clarifying Commentary: We all know how to pronounce boy. It rhymes with joy, toy, and Roy. That
tricky word buoy, on the other hand, has two pronunciations. Some pronounce the word as if it rhymes
with suey, as in chop suey: /b ē/. Others say it as if it ends with a single /oi/ sound. In this second
case, the words boy and buoy have identical sounds. Make sure that you know which is which.

They measured the length and breadth of the

breadth (n)
field.
breath (n) In polluted air, a breath is sometimes agony.

Clarifying Commentary: Sloppy speakers often forget the /d/ sound in breadth, and the result
sounds just like breath. Try not to include yourself among their legions.
decent (adj) Most people are good and decent.
descent (n) After the climb, they began their descent.

Clarifying Commentary: The words look similar, but they are accented on different syllables. The
adjective decent is accented on the first syllable. The noun descent is accented on the second
syllable. Make sure that your pronunciation puts the emphasis in the right place.
latter (n) The latter is closer than the former.
ladder (n) The technician climbed the ladder onto our roof.

Clarifying Commentary: Reckless speakers often turn the voiceless /t/ sound and the voiced /d/
sound into the flap sound /D/.* As a result, the difference in pronunciation between /t/ and /d/ is lost,
and it can be difficult to distinguish latter from ladder.

Spelling Shortcuts

Q. A caller asked, “Are there any shortcuts to spelling words correctly? Are there tricks by which I
can remember the words more easily?”

A. Many master spellers have made up their own mnemonics to help them learn the spellings of
words. A mnemonic is a trick or shortcut, such as a formula or a rhyme, that helps to strengthen
your memory. The best spellers have created mnemonics with which they memorize the most
difficult words and clarify the most difficult distinctions.
For instance, one of my students has a short sentence that he uses to remember to spell
calendar with an e rather than another a (calandar). He says, “I never lend my calendar.” Another
student never forgets that there are two t ’s in attendance because he has coined the sentence “At
ten, dance.” A friend of mine knows to spell the word accommodate with two m’s because he is
an M&M’s junkie. He has trained himself to say, “I always accommodate myself with at least
two M&M’s. ” Do you get it? Two m’s in accommodate. Two M&M ’s. These tricks may seem
silly, but they do work. Here are some other mnemonics that friends and students have used
successfully:

all right It’s the opposite of all wrong, not alwrong.

candidate A good candidate is candid.
complement Compl ements complete.
embarrass When I’m embarrassed, my face gets red, red.
grammar Ma taught me grammar.
lose vs. loose To lose, you must lose an o from loose.
miner vs. minor The miner is in a mine.
moral vs. morale Too much ale pulls down morale.
peace vs. piece There’s pie in a pie ce.
precede vs. proceed A pro team proceeds down the field.
principal vs. principle My pal is the principal.
stationary Remember the a in “stand still.”
Remember the e in “envelope.” Stationery goes
stationery
in an envelope.
superintendent The superintendent collects the rent.
their There’s an heir in their for ownership.
there There’s a here in there.

A Spelling Question
Q. A college student called the Hot Line to ask about the spelling in a sentence from her school’s
newspaper. The offending sentence read, “We will spend money on censor devices.” The student
asked, “Is censor correct?”

A. The word for devices that sense is sensor. The sentence should have read, “We will spend money
on sensor devices.”

Another Spelling Question

Q. A restaurateur called to ask, “Should I write Lofat, Lo Fat, Lo-fat, Low-fat, or Low fat on our
dessert menu?”

A. Desserts with lower quantities of fat could be described as low fat or low-fat. The other options
compromise the purity of written English. They are unacceptable.

Still Another Spelling Question

Q. “I see the word sic quite a bit in newspapers and magazines. Is it spelled correctly and what does
it mean?” asked a caller.

A. The word sic is Latin and means “thus.” One uses sic after a word or phrase that is obviously
incorrect but that has been reproduced purposefully in its flawed form despite the error. The word
is generally bracketed and italicized.

The drunken senator yelled, “I ain’t never [sic] going to get reelected.”

The quote in this sentence contains a double negative, “ain’t never,” but it has been
reproduced in its original form. We place sic afterward to say, “I know the error
exists. I have placed it there on purpose.”

Numbers and Spelling

Q. A caller queried, “When should I spell out numbers, and when should they just be written as
numbers?”

A. Always spell out numbers (including years) at the beginnings of sentences. Within a sentence, spell
the numbers zero through ninety-nine, and write the numbers 100 and higher by using digits.

A Spelling Challenge

Q. A colleague issued me a challenge one afternoon. He said, “I have this sentence, and I’ve never
met anyone who can spell every word in it. Do you think you have what it takes to beat the odds?”
The sentence he then spoke went as follows: “Outside a minuscule cemetery, an embarrassed
 peddler and a harassed cobbler gnawed on a desiccated bone while gazing on a lady’s ankle with
unparalleled ecstasy.”

A. Oh, I was so close. In my haste to win, I dropped an r from embarrassed. The sentence does
indeed contain some tough words. Try it on your friends!

Word History

Q. One caller asked, “If a word has two accepted spellings, one old and one new, which one should I
choose?”

A. The caller was thinking of word pairs such as draught and draft, theatre and theater, or cheque
and check. Since both spellings are correct, consider the preferences of the readers. This was a
smart question from a sophisticated caller. Always consider the audience!

From My Files: Misspelled Names and Words

These commonly misspelled names and words were faxed to the Hot Line one night by a language
lover who was tired of seeing them written incorrectly:

accordion
aficionados
Allen Ginsberg
anointed
convalescent
cypress
daiquiri
discernible
Edgar Allan Poe
Evel Knievel
fascist
fettuccine
forgo
Gandhi
Guinness
guttural
Harley Davidson
julep
likable
Madam Tussaud
mannequin
Muhammad Ali
Soho
Philip Morris
pizzeria
Raquel Welch
S. J. Perelman
Schick Shavers
subtly
unmistakable
 14

Vocabulary

Vocabulary is the complete collection of the words in a language.

The true mark of an educated person is a well-developed vocabulary. An extensive understanding of

language indicates a thirst for knowledge, and the closer to unquenchable this thirst becomes, the
more interesting and intelligent a person will be. This is not to say that one must be snobbish to be
smart but that a smart person is one who listens, reads, comprehends, and remembers. Such
individuals cannot help but cultivate a robust vocabulary.
The dictionary is the word enthusiast’s best friend. After all, anyone who seeks to enhance his or
her vocabulary needs a tool with which he or she can discover the meanings of new words. The
dictionary is the best and only tool for the job. One could use one of those little pocket dictionaries, a
helpful companion for the word sleuth on-the-go but insufficient for more than a cursory glance at the
lexicon.
One could also purchase a dictionary of the portable, hardbound variety. These are too large to
fit in your pocket, but, at three or four pounds in weight, they are small enough to sit on a desk or a
bookshelf for casual perusal. These larger guides to the lexicon are complete enough to satisfy an
average curiosity but still unsatisfactory for the most serious students of language. Such dictionaries
only cover ten to fifteen percent of the total selection of words in English.
The word lover’s best option is the unabridged dictionary. These will cover most, if not all, of
the 1,200,000 English words. The primary drawback to these language titans is that lifting one can
result in a hernia. The reward for the pain of manipulating an unabridged dictionary is possession of a
comprehensive listing of words and an ever-reliable source of new vocabulary.
Of course, a dictionary is much more than just a list of words and basic definitions. Any good
dictionary will provide information on pronunciation, origin, and subtleties of meaning. An entry for a
word will probably list several definitions. The first is not necessarily the best one. It is merely the
one which the authors of the dictionary decided to place in the first position. Similarly, the dictionary
may list several pronunciations for a single word. The first isn’t the best. It merely indicates the most
common way that people pronounce the word.
Another piece of information that a dictionary will provide is the origin or etymology of a word.
English is composed of words from many different languages, so it can be interesting to find out
where a particular word came from. A good dictionary will indicate the language of origin of a word.
Looking in my dictionary at home, I discovered that the English word church comes from a Dutch
word, kerk. I love random tidbits of information!
Dictionaries may also provide information about the usage of a word, whether it is slang,
colloquial, or nonstandard English. Dictionaries should provide information about parts of speech
and other grammatical issues too. They will indicate what part of speech a word is, when it is used in
a particular way, or whether a verb is transitive or intransitive. Most of this information comes in the
form of abbreviations, and the dictionary should include an abbreviation key. This is a chapter about
vocabulary, however, and we need to reroute the discussion back to the meanings of words.

Definition Distinctions

Since its inception, The National Grammar Hot Line has received thousands of calls concerning
misused, mispronounced, or misunderstood words. The words about which people call most often
have changed over the years. The following is a list of the most common and most interesting word
distinctions that callers have asked the Hot Line to make:

KEY: adj = adjective v = verb adv = adverb n = noun con = conjunction pro =
pronoun prep = preposition

accept (v), except (prep): The verb accept means “to receive with approval” or “to agree with.”

The school board accepts the generous donation.

I accept your terms.

The word except is most often used as a preposition, meaning “excluding” or “but.”

My friend Bud does nothing except play the guitar.

At times, we see except used as a verb. There, it means “to exclude.”

The defense excepted crucial evidence from its arguments.

administer (v), administrate (v): In most cases these words both mean “to manage.”

The teacher administered the test.

The new officials administrated the season poorly.

However, administer has an additional meaning, “to give aid,” that administrate does not.

The relief workers administer food and medicine to the poor.

admit (v), allow (v): These words are close in meaning. Admit can mean “to permit entrance,” “to
grant a privilege,” or “to confess or acknowledge.”

The tickets admitted us to the fair.

The lawyer was admitted to the bar.

 He admits that he committed the crime.

The verb allow also involves permission but in a more general sense.

We were allowed to enter the castle.

The judge allowed the attorney’s remarks.

One can allow someone to exit while one can only admit someone in entrance.
adverse (adj), averse (adj): Both words have negative connotations.
Adverse is an adjective, meaning “antagonistic, opposing, or negative.”

The experimental treatments had adverse effects on the patients.

Benny does not hold up well under adverse circumstances.

The adjective averse means “strongly opposed or repulsed.” One usually describes a person as being
averse.

He is averse to eating meat.

The council is averse to any change in the budget.

advice (n), advise (v): The verb advise means “to offer opinion or counsel.”

The old sage advises the community.

The noun advice names the wisdom received when another offers this counsel.

The community ignored the advice of the elders.

One advises others and receives advice.

affect (n, v), effect (n, v): Affect (accented on the second syllable) is usually a verb. It means “to
influence.”

The cast on my arm affects my ability to drive.

Psychologists do use affect (accented on the first syllable) as a noun, meaning “one’s feelings or
emotions.”

The patient exhibits a flat affect.

Effect is usually a noun. It means “a result or consequence.”

The effects of the plague were devastating.

In some cases, effect can also be a verb, meaning “to bring about or accomplish.”

Jerry Garcia effected a change in the world of rock and roll.

The confusion between affect and effect is not only quite common but has a long history. Effect
was used in place of affect as early as 1494. If you are unsure of which word to use, check the
dictionary. all right (adv + adj), alright (adv): Both constructions mean the same thing: “everything is
correct.”

We kids were all right.

However, alright is an example of poor English. The expression should always be written as two
separate words.
The confusion exists because of the word already. If we can change all ready into a single
word, why can we not do this to all right? Some dictionaries even state that there is no difference
between the two. These authors and many other experts agree that there is only one spelling: all right.
This is not a point worth resisting. Those dictionaries are wrong. It is simply a fact of life.

alumnus (n), alumna (n): Most of the callers for this distinction wonder if the noun alumni covers
both men and women. In fact, alumni is the plural form of the word alumnus. An alumnus is a male
graduate. The word for “female graduate” is alumna. Its plural form is alumnae. In modern usage, the
word alumni often refers to both male and female graduates even though its origins are masculine.

among (prep), between (prep): The words between and among are both prepositions. Between
refers to just two individuals.

This information must stay between the two of us.

The sailors were caught between a rock and a hard place.

Among refers to more than two individuals.

The feeling among the crew members was that mutiny was in the wind.

Dr. Hastings lived among the people of the Sahara for several years.

anxious (adj), eager (adj): One who is anxious may be worried or strained about some issue or
event.

The struggling medical student was anxious for his board exams to be over.

My younger brother is anxious about starting kindergarten.

One who is eager is excited or gleeful in anticipation.

 My sister is eager for Christmas Day to arrive.

We are all eager to see our cousins again.

Anxious can also be a synonym for eager.

My sister is anxious for Christmas Day to arrive.

We are all anxious to see our cousins again.

apprise (v), appraise (v): When you give notice or inform, you apprise.

Please apprise me of any change in her condition.

When you judge, estimate, or rate, you appraise.

The mechanic appraised the vintage sports car.

The words sound alike, but their meanings are different.

attorney (n), lawyer (n): Believe it or not, these nouns are not synonyms. A lawyer, as we all know,
is a person who conducts lawsuits for clients or who advises on legal matters.

Schultz’s lawyer successfully argued his innocence.,

An attorney, as distinguished from an attorney at law, is a person who has been legally appointed to
carry out business for another person. An attorney may be a lawyer, but he or she may also fill any
one of a number of business-related roles.

My attorney will be the executor of my estate.

bathos (n), pathos (n): The word pathos names some element of art or experience that arouses
sympathy or compassion.

The plight of the orphaned kittens aroused feelings of pathos.

The word bathos, on the other hand, means “insincere or phony pathos.” It names an element of art or
experience that indicates gross insincerity or maudlinism.

The hero’s empty rhetoric was a perfect example of bathos.

biannual (adj), biennial (n, adj): An event that occurs twice a year is biannual.

The town council holds biannual referendums in April and August.

An event that occurs every two years is biennial.

 Our biennial celebration of the sun will not come around for another two years.

Horticulturists also use the noun biennial to name plants that take two years to reach maturity.

I planted a few biennials in the garden.

bring (v), take (v): Many people use the word bring when they really need take. The verb bring
means “to deliver toward the speaker.”

Bring the newspaper to me.

I asked Mother to bring us breakfast.

The verb take means “to deliver away from the speaker.”

Please take this message to my family.

The ferryman would not take us across the river.

burglary (n), robbery (n): Burglaries and robberies are different sorts of crimes. One who commits a
burglary breaks into a house and removes items of value.

We lost our television and some jewelry in the burglary.

One who commits a robbery takes property directly from another person.

The person who committed the robbery took my wallet and my wits.

capital (adj, n), capitol (n): These two words sound alike but have very different meanings. The noun
capitol names the building or buildings where the state or federal government meets.

My class visited the nation’s capitol last November.

The adjective capital indicates that something is of the utmost seriousness. When it describes
punishment, this adjective indicates punishment by death.

Murder is a capital offense.

Many Americans oppose capital punishment.

Capital can also be a noun. In this role, it names stock, resources, or worth.

The small company did not possess enough capital to stay in business.

A sense of humor can be valuable capital.

climactic (adj), climatic (adj): We derive the adjective climactic from the noun climax. This
adjective describes the point of highest tension in a drama or an event.

We missed the climactic ending of the disaster movie.

We derive the adjective climatic from the noun climate. This adjective describes a weather-related
condition or event.

The climatic conditions are very poor for sailing at this time of the year.

These two words sound similar, but their meanings are different.

colloquy (n), soliloquy (n): Both nouns involve different types of speeches. A colloquy is a formal
conversation or discussion.

The dean engaged us in an interesting colloquy.

A soliloquy is a monologue. These are especially common in dramas where a character reveals his or
her thoughts in a speech to himself or herself.

Romeo’s soliloquy moves me to tears.

complement (n, v), compliment (n, v): The verb complement means “to complete or make perfect.”

Your eyes complement your dress quite nicely.

We can also use complement as a noun with a related meaning.

The full moon is a perfect complement to this beautiful evening.

The noun compliment names an expression of praise or admiration.

My friend Bill does not take compliments well.

We can also use compliment as a verb with a related meaning.

I must compliment you on your fine choice of attire.

compose (v), comprise (v): The verb comprise is a verb of condition. It means “to consist of or
include.”

The whole of my savings comprise these four dollars.

The bomb comprises four hidden pieces.

The verb compose is often a verb of action. It means “to create from parts.”

The maestro composed a great symphony.

 The disgruntled tenants composed a lengthy letter of complaint to the landlord.

We can also use the verb compose as a verb of condition, meaning “to make up the whole.”

The fossilized remains compose this layer of rock.

The ingredients that compose this cake are very unhealthy.

The condition of comprise travels from the whole to the parts, whereas the condition of compose
travels from the parts to the whole.

connote (v), denote (v): Both verbs are words of identification, but theirs are different types of
identification. To connote something is to suggest it. The verb creates a figurative identification.

Memories of his illness connote sadness and loss.

My stuffed bear connotes security and well-being.

To denote something is to mark or indicate it. This verb creates a literal identification.

The distant thunder denotes a heavy storm on its way.

His actions denote bravery and loyalty.

continual (adj), continuous (adj): These words are close in meaning but not quite synonyms. The
adjective continual describes a constant but occasionally interrupted series of events, while the
adjective continuous describes a constant and uninterrupted series of events.

The continual flow of traffic was broken every few minutes by the family of geese
who waddled back and forth across the busy road.

The continuous racket from downstairs is threatening my sanity.

deprecate (v), depreciate (v): Both verbs involve some kind of loss. To deprecate is to express
disapproval or to belittle. It involves a loss of respect.

The teacher deprecated her students for their atrocious behavior.

To depreciate is to lower in value.

After the scandal broke, the value of the once-stable stock depreciated rapidly.

disinterested (adj), uninterested (adj): Now here is a subtle distinction. The prefix dis- means
“apart from.” One who is disinterested is indifferent, impartial, or unconcerned. The word denotes a
lack of feeling for an issue.
 The disinterested children ignored their teacher’s stern reprimands.

The prefix un- means “not.” One who is uninterested lacks interest in a particular matter. It is not that
the individual is unconcerned. In fact, he or she wishes to avoid the matter actively.

We were uninterested in the ambassador’s dull speech.

discreet (adj), discrete (adj): These words are pronounced the same but have entirely different
meanings and spellings. The adjective discreet means “tactful, prudent, careful, or cautious.”

The surveillance car maintained a discreet distance.

The clumsy spy’s questions were anything but discreet.

The adjective discrete means “separate.”

Light travels in discrete packets.

The four warring powers divided the country into four discrete territories.

empathy (n), sympathy (n): Both words involve a sharing of emotion. Empathy is an understanding
of another’s emotions or thoughts so complete that one actually feels physical manifestations of those
emotions and thoughts.

The empathy I felt toward my ailing twin made my insides ache.

Sympathy is a weaker degree of empathy. It is the ability to share and understand the feelings and
thoughts of another, but that understanding does not involve the same physical symptoms that the
understanding in empathy does.

All I saw in the eyes of the people at the funeral were sympathy and tears.

entrée (n), entry (n): The noun entrée has two meanings. It can name the freedom to enter or the
main course at a meal.

The immigration services granted us entrée into the country.

We enjoyed the entrée at Bonaparte’s.

The noun entry merely names the act of entering or the right to enter.

The police allowed us entry into the crumbling apartment building.

The explorers’ entry into the fifth dimension was marked by a moment of panic.

envelop (v), envelope (n): We mail letters in an envelope and envelop our packages in brightly
colored paper. The noun envelope names a wrapper or package. The most common sort is the flat
paper kind that we send through the mail, but we can also say that a layer of air forms an envelope
around the earth.

The envelope had been torn by the time that it arrived in the mail.

The verb envelop means “to enfold, enclose, or cover.” It is the action that an envelope performs.

The thick fog enveloped the road.

epitaph (n), epithet (n), epaulette (n): An epitaph is a memorializing phrase written on a
gravestone.

I want my epitaph to read, “He was a man of many hats.”

An epithet is an insulting or disparaging word or phrase.

The crowd hurled epithets at the shocked politician.

An epaulette is a decorative patch worn on either shoulder of a uniform.

The epaulettes on the dusty old uniform were falling off.

especial (adj), special (adj): These two words differ in the degree of the quality that they express.
Something that is special is distinctive or unique.

This picture is special to me.

Something that is especial is also distinctive or unique but outstandingly so.

The moment my daughter was born was an especial day in my life.

extant (adj), extent (n): The adjective extant describes something that is still in existence.

There are only two extant practitioners of the ancient art of alchemy.

The noun extent names a range or scope.

It is difficult to judge the extent of the hurricane’s damage.

The words sound alike but have very different meanings.

fated (adj), feted (v), fetid (adj): The adjective fated describes something that is predetermined or
destined to be.

My brother feels that he is fated to become a millionaire.

The verb feted means “to be honored with a large party.”

The Academy feted the winners with an extravagant banquet.

The adjective fetid describes something that smells bad.

That cheese has a fetid smell.

figurative (adj), literal (adj): Things that are figurative possess metaphorical similarity but not
factual similarity.

My remarks about his shark fins and sharp teeth were figurative.

Things that are literal are true in fact.

The literal meaning of that saying is silly, but the figurative one makes sense.

The words are opposites.

flammable (adj), inflammable (adj): Both words mean “easily ignited.” Inflammable seems as if it
should mean “not easily ignited,” but its origins are in the verb inflame, meaning “to set on fire.”

The costume should not be made of flammable material.

The fire spread quickly because of the inflammable material.

Inflammable can also mean “easily angered or provoked.”

His quick temper made him an inflammable opponent.

Think of the adjective inflammable as “able to be inflamed.”

founder (n, v), flounder (n, v): As a noun, a founder is one who founds.

The founders of our country were brave men.

As a verb, to founder is to collapse or become disabled.

The ship foundered on the reef.

As a noun, a flounder is a flat, bottom-dwelling, and quite tasty fish.

We will have the flounder with mango salsa, please.

As a verb, to flounder is to act or proceed clumsily.

The nervous dancers floundered on the stage.

gastronome (n), gourmet (n), gourmand (n): Gastronomes, gourmets, and gourmands are all lovers
and connoisseurs of fine food and drink, but gourmands express this interest in a gluttonous manner. If
you invite any one of these three to dinner, be sure the food is well presented and well prepared, and,
in the case of the gourmand, be sure there is plenty of it.

guaranty (n, v), guarantee (n, v): These words are synonyms. As verbs, they both mean “to assure
another of the quality of goods or the completion of services.” As nouns, both name an assurance of
this quality or completion. Guaranty, however, is most commonly used as a noun.

I guarantee that you will be satisfied with your llama-hair jacket.

The guaranty states that we can return the vacuum for a full refund.

hardy (adj), hearty (adj): Someone who is stalwart, rugged, strong, courageous, stouthearted,
intrepid, capable of surviving unfavorable conditions, brazenly daring, and audacious is hardy. The
word refers to people or animals.

They had to be a hardy people to survive these brutal winters.

Only the hardiest of the explorers survived the ordeal.

However, more things than just people and animals can be hearty. Someone or something that is
hearty is supportive, enthusiastic, and joyful.

He gave me a hearty handshake.

The hearty troop members picked up their instruments and played a polka.

We also use the adjective hearty to describe things that are nourishing or invigorating.

After the long walk home, the weary wanderers downed a hearty meal.

A hearty kiss in the morning starts my day off right.

hanged (v), hung (v): Both hanged and hung are past indicative forms and past participle forms of
hang, but the types of hanging that they imply are different. Use hanged when the verb carries the
sense of capital punishment.

The sheriff hanged the cattle rustlers for their crimes.

Use hung when the verb carries the sense of everyday suspension of objects.

The kids hung their coats in the closet.

hurdle (n, v), hurtle (v): To hurdle is to leap over an obstacle.

 The horse hurdled the barrier with ease.

A hurdle can also be a barrier over which one leaps.

The runner leaped over the highest set of hurdles.

To hurtle is to move with great speed.

The car hurtled down the Autobahn.

illicit (adj), elicit (v), licit (adj): The adjective illicit describes something that is illegal.

The men were caught bringing illicit drugs into the country.

The verb elicit means “to bring out” or “to draw forth.”

My vicious attack failed to elicit a response from my stoic opponent.

The adjective licit means “legal.”

Our business here is licit.

insure (v), ensure (v), assure (v): All three words mean “to make certain, sure, or secure.” They are
interchangeable in some contexts but can have subtle differences in meaning. The act of insuring
involves taking steps to create security before an event happens.

Your careful planning insures our safety.

The act of assuring involves removing doubt or worry from another person’s mind or one’s own
mind.

I assure you that we are perfectly safe.

The act of ensuring can take either meaning but is closer to insuring.

My promise should ensure your complete satisfaction.

irregardless (adv), disregardless (adv), regardless (adv): The first two adverbs, irregardless and
disregardless, are not real words. If you are using them, drop them from your vocabulary at once!
When you want to say “in spite of,” the only word to use is regardless.

I am going to the dance regardless of what you say.

later (adj, adv), latter (n, adj): The word later refers to some point in time that comes after another
reference point. We can use it as an adjective or an adverb.

We will attend the later show of the two.

 The concert began later than we expected it to.

The word latter refers to the second of two items. We can use it as a noun or an adjective.

He offered me money or happiness, and I chose the latter.

The latter option was the only sensible one to pick.

lectern (n), podium (n): The lectern is the stand that holds the speaker’s books and notes. The
podium is the elevated platform on which the speaker stands, but it is the lectern that he or she
approaches. Delivering a speech, one does not walk up to a podium unless one is only a foot high.

lend (v), loan (n, v): Both words involve the giving and taking of money. Lend is a verb. It means “to
give money with the expectation that the money will one day be returned.”

I agreed to lend my buddy two thousand dollars.

The word loan is usually a noun. It names the sum of money that is lent.

The bank would not give me a loan.

However, loan has acquired verb characteristics through common usage. English allows us to use it
as we would the true verb lend.

Will you loan me a few dollars for lunch?

libel (n, v), slander (n, v): Libel is a defamation of character in writing.

The author’s remarks in the unauthorized autobiography constitute libel.

I cannot believe that a close friend would libel me as he did in his book.

Slander is a spoken defamatory statement.

Her statement to the media is nothing short of slander.

Be careful that you do not slander your opponent in a fit of rage.

lightening (n, adj), lightning (n): The word lightening indicates a decrease in weight or darkness.
The weight can be physical, emotional, or psychological.

The lightening of my pack as the trip progressed made hiking so much easier.

Anticipating her full exoneration is lightening my mental load.

The word lightning names the magnificent electrical discharges that occur in the clouds during
thunderstorms.

The fierce bolt of lightning snapped the great oak in two.

memoriam (n), memorial (n, adj): Many callers have been torn between holding a memorial or a
memoriam. Unless you speak Latin, the correct choice is memorial. This word can be a noun, naming
some event or item that preserves a memory, or an adjective, describing some event or item that
preserves a memory.

The memorial stands at the crest of a high hill.

The memorial service will begin at noon.

Memoriam is a Latin word that most English speakers have seen at the heads of plaques and
monuments bearing the text “in memoriam.” We take it to mean “in memory of,” but the strict Latin
means “into memory.”

misogynist (n), misanthrope (n), misogamist (n): The prefix miso-comes from the Greek word
misos, meaning “hatred.” A misogynist is a person who hates women.

My boss, a piggish misogynist, refused to give any of the women raises.

A misanthrope is a person who hates and distrusts mankind.

The terrorist, a pathetic misanthrope, turned his rage against innocent people.

A misogamist is a person who hates marriage.

My brother, once an ardent misogamist, is tying the knot next month.

The spelling of the prefix changes when it is placed before a base word that begins with a vowel, as
it did in misanthrope. For the sake of easy pronunciation, we dropped the o.

moot (adj), mute (adj): The adjective moot describes something that is debatable, doubtful, or of no
importance.

The question is moot.

The adjective mute describes someone or something that cannot produce sound. We often use it to
describe people who cannot speak.

Since the accident, her husband has been mute.

moral (n, adj), morale (n): The word moral, as a noun or an adjective, concerns humankind’s
distinction between right and wrong. When we say that something is moral, we mean that it falls on
the side of good.
 His morals are suspect.

That was not a terribly moral decision.

The noun morale names a person’s or group’s spirit or enthusiasm.

Following the crushing defeat at Bangor, my platoon’s morale plummeted.

motive (n), motif (n): The noun motive names the force that drives one to act toward a certain end.

We will never know what his motives for robbing the bank were.

The noun motif names a recurring theme. The word is common in descriptions of art and literature.

The critic sensed a cyclical motif in the painter’s work.

naked (adj), nude (adj, n): As adjectives, both words mean “without clothes,” but nakedness is
somehow barer or starker than nudeness is. Someone who is nude is unclothed in an almost artistic
sense. Artists paint nudes, not nakeds.

The naked figures shivered in the morning sun.

The nude model strolled onto the stage.

My artist friend paints only nudes.

We can also use naked to mean “exposed or unprotected.”

The soldiers felt naked, marching across the barren plain.

Losing one’s house in a fire leaves one feeling naked.

nauseous (adj), nauseated (adj): Very few people use these words correctly. When you’re feeling
queasy, you’re feeling nauseated, not nauseous. Something that is nauseous causes you to feel
nauseated. The adjective nauseated means “feeling sick.” The adjective nauseous means “causing
sickness.”

The details of the accident left me feeling nauseated.

The nauseous smell drove even the rats from the building.

nuance (n), subtlety (n): A nuance is a kind of subtlety. The noun subtlety names a fine or delicate
quality.

Any great work of literature contains subtleties in meaning.

The noun nuance names a slight variation in meaning, quality, or expression.

Mastering the nuances of international politics takes a lifetime.

ordinance (n), ordnance (n): An ordinance is a rule or regulation.

The Mayor wants to pass a new ordinance regarding garbage collection.

The noun ordnance names military weapons or the branch of the military that manages the weapons.

The squadron leader demanded that her ordnance be replenished before the next
strike.

parameter (n), perimeter (n): These two words are constantly confused and misused. A parameter
is a limit or boundary. We often hear mathematicians use the word parameter to mean “a constant or
variable in an equation.”

The young scientist struggled to define the parameters of his startling equation.

The team leader clarified the parameters of the mission.

A perimeter is the boundary of a closed figure or body.

The guards watched the perimeter of the military compound.

The perimeter of a square equals the length of any side times four.

pendant (n), pendent (adj), pedant (n): Because the noun pendant has the alternate spelling pendent
and the adjective pendent has the alternate spelling pendant, the cautious reader must rely on context
to sort things out. The noun pendant (also pendent) is a hanging object such as an ornament or an
electrical fixture.

My mother wears an ornate pendant on a chain around her neck.

This jade pendent belonges to Aunt Tess.

The adjective pendent (also pendant) describes something that is overhanging, suspended, or
undetermined.

The tree leaned pendent over the edge of the cliff.

The resolution to this investigation remains pendant.

A pedant is one who pays undue attention to book learning and formal rules.

I grant no weight to the rantings of a pedant like Frances.

penultimate (adj), ultimate (adj, n): The adjective penultimate describes the next to the last item in
a series.

This is the penultimate step in our journey.

The word ultimate, as a noun or an adjective, refers to the last item in a series or to something that is
the most extreme of its type.

We have reached the ultimate stage of our development.

Skydiving is the ultimate thrill.

persecute (v), prosecute (v): To persecute is to harass or oppress.

The villagers persecuted the mysterious scientists.

To prosecute is to bring legal action against someone.

The district attorney decided to prosecute the accused arsonists.

practical (adj), practicable (adj): Something that is practical is realistic, sensible, or efficient.

The station wagon was a practical purchase.

Something that is practicable is something that can be accomplished.

His plan to climb the Matterhorn was not practicable.

principal (n, adj), principle (n): The word principal refers to the person or thing that is the most
important or influential.

Our lack of capital is the principal issue.

The principal suspended the recalcitrant students.

The noun principle names a fundamental rule, belief, or truth.

His actions are not consistent with his principles.

qualitative (adj), quantitative (adj): The adjective qualitative involves the quality or kind of things
or people.

The researchers conducted a qualitative analysis of their patients.

The adjective quantitative involves measurements of quantity or amount.

A quantitative approach to economics is fundamentally flawed.

quiet (adj), quiescent (adj): To be quiet is to make little or no noise.

Quiet children are a rare treat.

To be quiescent is to be inactive, still, or dormant.

The virus has become quiescent for the time being.

rational (adj), rationale (n): To be rational is to be logical, reasonable, or understandable.

She is grief-stricken and not forming rational thoughts.

A rationale is a fundamental reasoning or explanation.

Please share your rationale for running away from home.

rebound (v), redound (v): The verb rebound means “to spring back.”

Sarah rebounded quickly after the painful breakup.

The verb redound means “to have an effect.”

The President’s actions redounded to his reputation.

recur (v), reoccur (v): There’s no such word as reoccur. If you want to use a verb that means “to
occur again,” you must use recur.

The damaging floods of springs past are bound to recur this season.

regime (n), regimen (n): The noun regime names a system of rule or government.

The rebels vowed to overthrow the fascist regime.

The noun regimen names any systematic procedure whether it be one of government, of therapy, or of
natural phenomena.

My wife began a regimen of daily exercise.

The regimen of spring renews life.

regretful (adj), regrettable (adj): The adjective regretful describes someone who is filled with
sorrow and regret.

The children felt regretful about their behavior at the movies.

The adjective regrettable describes a situation that deserves regret.

 The current circumstances are regrettable, but there is nothing we can do.

respectfully (adv), respectably (adv), respectively (adv): The adverb respectfully means “with
respect.”

Respectfully, I send my condolences.

The adverb respectably means “in a manner worthy of esteem or respect.”

Samuel is dressed quite respectably tonight.

The adverb respectively refers to items in a series and means “in the order named.”

Fred, Daphne, and Velma, respectively, will give their presentations.

spit (n, v), spat (n, v): The word spit refers to saliva. As a noun, it can refer to the stuff itself, and as
a verb, it can refer to the act of turning the stuff into an airborne projectile.

A thin line of spit dribbled down the baby’s chin.

I spit the spoiled cheese into the garbage.

The word spat is sometimes the past indicative form of spit.

The cowboy spat tobacco into the urn.

At other times, spat is a verb, meaning “to strike with the sound of falling rain.”

The popcorn spats against the edge of the pan.

At still other times, spat is a noun that names a small quarrel, a young mollusk, or a cloth or leather
gaiter which covers the upper part of the shoe.

The dog and cat engaged in a spat over the chicken bone.

The octopus ate the unfortunate spat.

The members of the marching band wore bright red spats over their shoes.

splutter (v), sputter (v): One who makes a spitting noise or who speaks incoherently splutters.

The embarrassed gourmet spluttered as he spat the hot pepper into his napkin.

One talks so excitedly or confusedly that one sputters.

The distraught mother could do nothing but sputter.

stationary (adj), stationery (n): The adjective stationary means “immobile.”

The prowler remained stationary in the bushes until the police had gone.

The noun stationery means “writing or typing materials.”

Doesn’t my résumé look professional on this stationery?

statute (n), statue (n): A statute is a law.

The legislature enacted a number of new statutes.

A statue is a form or likeness sculpted, modeled, carved, or cast in material such as stone, clay,
wood, or bronze.

I have always wanted a statue sculpted in my likeness.

temblor (n), trembler (n), tremor (n): A temblor is an earthquake.

The last temblor struck in the dead of night.

A trembler is one who shakes and trembles.

My tiny cousin is a trembler when lightning strikes.

A tremor is a shaking or trembling motion. We can use the word in several contexts. A tremor can be
the result of physical or emotional weakness.

As the jury read the verdict, the accused murderer felt a tremor of anxiety.

A tremor can be a small trembling of the land that precedes or follows a major seismic disturbance.

Several tremors followed the large jolt of the earthquake.

A tremor can also be a feeling of doubt.

Agnes felt a tremor of uncertainty over her decision.

than (con), then (adv): The conjunction than joins main and subordinate clauses and makes a
comparison of inequality.

Pie is richer than cake.

I like to swim more than I like to run.

The adverb then means “next in space, time, or order.”

 Then we went to the movies.

The soldiers came first, and then came the queen’s entourage.

tortuous (adj), torturous (adj): The adjective tortuous describes something that is winding and
twisty or something that is devious and crooked.

The tortuous road brought the daring driver to his knees.

The thieves hatched a tortuous plan to steal all the water in the world.

The adjective torturous describes something that causes torture or pain.

The dull ceremony became torturous after just an hour.

My neighbor’s singing voice is torturous.

toward (prep), towards (prep): These words are interchangeable. They both mean “in the direction
of,” “for the purpose of,” “near,” or “with regard to.”

The foot soldiers marched toward the enemy encampment.

Tommy is saving money towards buying a new bike.

The church was built toward the crest of the hill.

His attitude towards the death penalty disturbs me.

wench (n), wrench (n, v), wince (n, v), wretch (n): The noun wench is a rude name for a young girl.
We also use it to name an unsavory woman.

The king ordered the wench to bring him his dinner.

The word wrench involves a twisting motion. As a noun, it names a sudden, violent jerk or twist or a
tool used to hold or twist an object. As a verb, wrench means “to twist suddenly.”

The repairmen loosened the bolts with a wrench.

Montgomery wrenched his knee in the game last Sunday.

As a noun, a wince is a flinch. As a verb, it is the act of flinching.

Tom gave a wince as the doctor set his broken leg.

The child only winced when the doctor inserted the needle.

A wretch can be either a terribly unhappy person or an odious and hateful person.
 We gave the poor wretch what money we could spare.

The soldiers tossed the wretch into the deepest prison cell.

while (n, v, con), wile (n): The word while is multifunctional. We most often see it as a conjunction
meaning “for the time that,” “whereas,” or “although.”

Be good while I am away.

While the solution was clear to the teacher, the pupils were stymied.

While we located the missing explorers, we could not find the lost artifact.

As a verb, while means “to cause to pass.”

She and I whiled away the hours in pleasant conversation.

As a noun, while names a period of time.

We decided to remain in Maine for a while.

A wile, on the other hand, is a deceitful stratagem or a trick. We usually see this noun in plural form.

The princess used her feminine wiles to outwit the dim palace guards.

Her wiles alone have kept them alive in the wilderness.

wont (adj, n), won’t (contraction): The word wont involves habit or practice. As an adjective, it
means “accustomed to or used to.” As a noun, it names a habit.

He is wont to complete the crossword puzzle each day.

His wont to exercise borders on the fanatical.

The word won’t is a contraction of the auxiliary verb will and the adverb not.

The council won’t listen to my warning.

The kids won’t go to bed.

From My Files: Positions

Would a body lie prone at the murderer’s feet? Or would it be supine? Or perhaps it lay prostrate?
Or recumbent? Or was that procumbent? No one seems to know the difference between these
position words. Fortunately, the Hot Line is here to help.
One who is prone is lying face down, while one who is supine is lying face up. One who is
recumbent has lain down in any position appropriate for rest or sleep, while one who is procumbent
is simply lying face down. Finally, one who is prostrate has thrown himself or herself into a prone
position in adoration, praise, humility, or submission.
The victim may have been recumbent at the time of his or her death or he or she may have made
himself or herself prostrate in a final plea for mercy (if this sentence isn’t a cry for a gender neutral
pronoun, I don’t know what is), but it is more likely that the body was prone/procumbent or supine.
Whichever position you pick, be sure that it is not “prostate.” The prostate is a gland that surrounds
the mammalian male urethra where it meets the bladder.

Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes

Q. One desperate caller asked, “What can I do to improve my vocabulary? There are too many words
that I don’t know.”

A. The only surefire method for cultivating a refined vocabulary is to read, READ, READ. Only the
avid reader truly knows his or her words. He or she will encounter new words daily and, because
of a love for reading, will look up these new words in a dictionary and add them to his or her
ever-growing vocabulary arsenal.
One might also become the master of several of the languages from which English is derived, but
this requires more time than most Americans care to spare. My other recommendation is that those
concerned about their vocabularies learn the Greek and Latin roots, suffixes, and prefixes that are so
common in English words. The following list will aid those who decide to embark upon this
endeavor:
A Prefix Question

Q. One caller asked, “How is something that is atypical different from something that is typical?”

A. The words are opposites. The prefix a- means “not,” so something that is atypical is not typical.

Another Prefix Question

Q. Another caller wondered, “What’s the difference between an interoffice and an intraoffice
memo?”

A. The prefix inter- means “between or among,” so an interoffice memo moves between two or more
offices. The prefix intra- means “within,” so an intraoffice memo remains within a single office.

Word Origins

As was mentioned earlier, one way to enhance your vocabulary is to understand the etymologies or
origins of words. While many words have their origins in the classical languages, others have
emerged from more obscure places and cultures in our world. Several callers have contacted the Hot
Line with questions about word origins. The following calls are the most interesting and informative
of the bunch.

Words from Literature

Q. “Is lilliputian a real English word?” asked a researcher from Nova Scotia.

A. The curious researcher has exposed one of the more interesting origins that a word can have, that
is, literature. Lilliputian is a real English word. It comes from Jonathan Swift’s satirical novel
Gulliver’s Travels. In the book, Gulliver visited a land called Lilliput that was populated by tiny
people. We now call something or someone who is very small lilliputian. Gulliver also visited a
land called Brobdingnag that was filled with giants. The English adjective Brobdingnagian
describes people or things that are very large.
The contemporary English word malapropism comes from the name of a character in the
Richard Brinsley Sheridan play The Rivals. The character’s name is Mrs. Malaprop, and she has
become famous for using words in ridiculous contexts. A malapropism is a usually unintentional
and often amusing misuse of a word. One who utters a malapropism might speak of “polo bears”
and “hermit’s nests,” rather than “polar bears” and “hornet’s nests.”
We have even created words from the names of authors.* Literature that is written in the style
that Charles Dickens used is described as being Dickensian. And a bleak, hopeless, and
oppressive situation similar to that devised by George Orwell for his novel 1984 is described as
being Orwellian. This has been a small sample of words with literary origins. Doubtless there
are others, but you will need a book on etymologies to complete the study.

The Shakespearean Connection

Q. A caller asked, “What does the expression “hoisted by one’s own petard” mean? It’s
Shakespearean, isn’t it?”

A. The contemporary noun petard names a type of firecracker or a case for an explosive device used
to blow a hole in a wall or door. The word comes from the French péter, meaning “to break
wind.” Those firecrackers and engines of destruction make a noise similar to that of a person
loudly passing gas.
One who has been hoisted by his or her own petard has been caught in his or her own trap or
deceived by his or her own trickery. Perhaps this sad individual has been caught, figuratively, in
the blast from his or her own explosive device. Or maybe he or she has been humiliated by the
release of his or her own hot and noxious air.
In any case, the phrase is indeed Shakespearean. It comes from Hamlet (III, iv, 206). The
original text reads:

For ’tis sport to have the engineer

Hoist with his own petar.
Portmanteau Words

Q. “I heard a game show host talking about portmanteau words yesterday. What are they?” one caller
asked.

A. A portmanteau is a large leather suitcase that opens on hinges into two halves. A portmanteau word
is a word with the meanings and sounds of two words packed into it. Lewis Carroll, author of
Alice in Wonderland, was a skilled user of these clever little words. He had creatures which he
described as slithy. They were lithe and slimy. You see, the word is like a portmanteau. It has
two parts and two meanings and sounds packed into one word.
Many of us use portmanteau words each day without realizing it. Smog is both smoke and
fog. When we go to brunch, we are attending a meal somewhere between breakfast and lunch. A
motel is a combination of motor and hotel. Someone who is prissy is prim and a sissy. A
simulcast is a simultaneous broadcast. Smoke and haze make smaze, and the amalgamation of
agriculture and business gives us agribusiness.

Eponyms

Q. “I know what synonyms and antonyms are, but I read the word eponym in a book the other day,
and I don’t know what those are. Could you give me a definition and a few examples?” the caller
asked.

A. The Hot Line is always happy to oblige a curious caller. An eponym is a word which has come
into the language from a person’s proper name. Often, the person has gained fame from some
outstanding event or utterance. For instance, when we dun someone, we repeatedly insist that the
person repay a debt. We are using the last name of Joe Dun, a popular London bailiff during the
1820s, who was exceedingly efficient in catching defaulting debtors.
A more famous example of an eponym comes from the name of a Texan, Samuel August
Maverick (1803–1870). The mayor of San Antonio and, later, a member of the Texas Congress,
Maverick refused to have his cattle branded as the law required him to do. Initially, the word
maverick was a name for an unbranded range animal. Later, it came to name or describe an
individual who refuses to go along with the group.
Other eponyms you will recognize are the noun leotard from the name of Jules Leotard, a
nineteenth-century trapeze artist who designed and popularized the tight-fitting body suits, and the
noun nicotine from the name of Jean Nicol who introduced tobacco into France in 1560. The noun
silhouette comes from the name of another Frenchman, Etienne de Silhouette (1709–1767). To
ridicule this despised finance minister, his enemies gave his name to a mere outline, indicating
that, as a man, he was something less than substantial. Finally, Ambrose E. Burnside (1824–1881)
lent his name to those famous bits of facial hair, sideburns.
Perhaps these few examples have fueled your desire to learn more about the origins of words.
There are many more eponyms in the English language, and it is worth a trip to the library to
check out a book on these fascinating words and their stories.
Epiphany

Q. A curious teenager asked, “Where does the word epiphany come from? It’s become the cool word
to use, and all my girlfriends are saying it.”

A. In contemporary usage, the noun epiphany names a moment of revelation or insight. Originally,
Epiphany was a Christian holiday celebrated on January 6 to commemorate the divine
manifestation of Christ. The day of Epiphany is sometimes called Twelfth Day, and the eve of
Epiphany is sometimes called Twelfth Night. The realization of Christ’s divine nature was a
profound spiritual revelation for Christians, but the resulting holiday spawned a word that
encompasses revelations in general, spiritual and otherwise.

Commonly Used Foreign Words and Phrases

Q. A caller commented, “I’m often unsure about foreign words and phrases that my friends and
teachers use from time to time. I’m never sure that they mean what I think they mean. Do you have
some list that I could look at?”

A. I bet many readers share our caller’s insecurity. See if this list of foreign words and phrases
commonly used in English helps.
KEY: F = French G = German Gk = Greek Heb = Hebrew Hw = Hawaiian I = Italian L = Latin R =
Russian S = Spanish Y = Yiddish

à bas(F) down with

without instrumental accompaniment (literally, “in
a capella (I)
the chapel style”)
ad hoc (L) for a particular purpose (literally, “for this”)
ad infinitum (L) forever; without limit or end
aficionado (S) enthusiast; fan
alfresco (I) in the open air
the school, college, or university that one has
attended or from which one has graduated; the
alma mater (L)
song or hymn of a school, college, or university
(literally, “fostering mother”)
aloha (Hw) greeting or farewell (literally, “love”)
ancien régime (F) the old regime
anno Domini (A.D.) (L) in the year of the Lord
deductive (literally, “from what comes before” or
a priori (L)
“from the former”)
ars longa, vita brevis (L) art is long, life is short
au contraire (F) on the contrary
au naturel (F) nude; plain; in a natural style or condition
avant-garde (F) forward; advanced; vanguard
beau geste (F) noble gesture
beau idéal (F) highest ideal; ideal or perfect beauty
bête noire (F) pet peeve (literally, “black beast”)
billet doux (F) love letter
bon marché (F) inexpensive (literally, “good market”)
bon mot (F) clever saying
bonne chance (F) good luck
bon voyage (F) good journey
carpe diem (L) seize the day
unrestricted delegated authority; full power
carte blanche (F)
(literally, “white card”)
cause célèbre (F) scandal; notorious incident
caveat emptor (L) let the buyer beware
c’est la vie (F) that’s life
cherchez la femme (F) look for the woman
chutzpah (Y) gall; daring
cogito ergo sum (L) I think, therefore I am
those in the know; a person knowledgeable in fine
cognoscenti (I)
arts and fashion
comme il faut (F) proper; appropriate
con mucho gusto (S) with pleasure
corpus delicti (L) evidence (literally, “body of the crime”)
coup de grâce (F) a mortal or final blow
coup d’état (F) overthrow of government
da capo (I) from the beginning
de facto (L) in fact; in reality
de jure (L) in law; by right, legal
underworld; the other side of the tracks; the social
demimonde (F)
class of prostitutes
dernier cri (F) the last word
contrived solution (literally, “God from a
deus ex machina (L)
machine”)
dishabille (F) disheveled; slovenly
a child or adult who behaves in an infantile
manner; in English, usually applied to artists or
enfant terrible (F)
celebrities who behave this way (literally,
“terrible child”)
entre nous (F) between us; privately
et cetera (etc.) (L) and others of the same class; and so forth
(literally, “and other [things]”)
eureka (Gk) I’ve found it!
ex cathedra (L) with high authority (literally, “from the chair”)
for example; by way of example (literally, “for the
exempli gratia (e.g.) (L)
sake of an example”)
ex post facto (L) after the fact; afterward
fait accompli (F) accomplished fact
faux pas (F) social error (literally, “false step”)
femme fatale (F) an alluring, dangerous woman
characteristic of the end of the nineteenth century,
fin de siècle (F) especially that which references the decadence of
the period (literally, “end of the century”)
flagrante delicto (L) in the very act of committing a misdeed
glasnost (R) openness
gonif (Y) thief
goy (Y) gentile
writ requiring a court appearance (literally, “you
habeas corpus (L)
should have the body”)
haute couture (F) high fashion
haute cuisine (F) fine cooking
haut monde (F) high society
hoi polloi (Gk) common people
honi soit qui mal y pense (F) evil to him who thinks evil
hubris (Gk) overwhelming pride, arrogance
in the same book or chapter (literally, “in the
ibidem (ibid.) (L)
same place”)
idée fixe (F) fixed idea; obsession
in medias res (L) in the middle of things
in vino veritas (L) in wine (there is) truth
joie de vivre (F) keen enjoyment of life
the greatest achievement of an artist or writer;
magnum opus (L)
masterpiece (literally, “great work”)
manqué (F) failed; unsuccessful
maven (Y) expert; authority
mazel tov (Heb) congratulations
mea culpa (L) I am guilty (literally, “my fault”)
mens sana in corpore sano (L) a sound mind in a sound body
meshuggah (Y) crazy
mirabile dictu (L) amazing (literally, “wonderful to tell”)
modus operandi (M.O.) (L) method of operation

the height of achievement or excellence (literally,

ne plus ultra (L)
“no more beyond”)
noblesse oblige (F) noble obligation
nom de plume (F) pen name
a response that does not follow from anything
non sequitur (L)
previously said (literally, “it does not follow”)
nota bene (N.B., n.b.) (L) note well
par excellence (F) above all; preeminently
par exemple (F) for example
parvenu (F) newcomer; upstart
per diem (L) daily
per favore (I) please
por favor (S) please
prima facie (L) on the face of it; at first sight
que sera sera (S) what will be, will be
raison d’être (F) reason for being
rara avis (L) rarity (literally, “rare bird”)
reductio ad absurdum (L) reduction to absurdity (in logical argument)
sang-froid (F) aplomb; composure
sanctum sanctorum (L) the holy of holies; inner circle
semper fidelis (L) always faithful
thus or so—used after a printed passage or word
sic (L) to indicate that it exactly reproduces the original,
including errors
sic transit gloria mundi (L) thus passes the glory of the world
an essential element, condition, or thing (literally,
sine qua non (L)
“without which not”)
current state of affairs (literally, “the state in
status quo (L)
which”)
name for a late-eighteenth-century German
Sturm und Drang (G) romantic literary movement (literally, “storm and
stress”)
sub rosa (L) secretly
one of a kind; unique (literally, “of his, her, or its
sui generis (L)
own kind”)
the mind before it is developed and changed by
tabula rasa (L)
experience (literally, “an erased [wax] tablet”)
tempus fugit (L) time flies
terra firma (L) solid ground
terra incognita (L) unknown territory

tout de suite (F) immediately

trompe l’oeil (F) illusionary (literally, “fool the eye”)
vade mecum (L) handbook; guide (literally, “go with me”)
vox populi, vox Dei (L) the voice of the people (is) the voice of God
wunderkind (G) prodigy
yenta (Y) busybody; gossip
Zeitgeist (G) spirit of the times

From My Files: Grammar Is Glamorous

Through the ages, there has been a sense of mystery and wonder attached to words. Ancient Egyptian
priests, anxious to maintain their power, kept the art of reading and writing a secret of the temple, and
common people looked upon these skills with superstitious awe.
Even in sixteenth-century England, the ability to read and write was regarded suspiciously, and
this special knowledge was associated with black magic. The illiterate masses, wary of the literati
and frustrated with their own lot in life, accredited occult and devilish powers to those who were
fluent in Latin, the language of the cultured few. Books were written in Latin, and intellectuals
conversed in it.* To the masses, the mere word grammar implied magic or sorcery.
That intriguing word glamour was born out of the magic and fear associated with knowledge of
grammar. As the years went by, the letter r in the mysterious word grammar changed to 1, as r often
does when language mutates. Other modifications crept in, and a new word glamor was born that
originally carried the cabalistic undertones once attached to grammar. It meant “magic or
enchantment.” Over the years, that old, mystical glamor has undergone more changes, so that, in
modern English, it has become glamour and means “compelling charm, romance, and excitement.”

Synonyms for Said

Q. A caller queried, “What are the synonyms for said? I’m writing a story, and I need a few
alternatives for the times I’m writing dialogue.”

A. Our budding author was wise to bring novelty and variety to his work. The past indicative verb
said is so dull. It implies a very generic form of saying. Often, moments in a story need a special
type of communication and require a word with a more complex meaning. I faxed the author the
following list of synonyms for said:

accused
acknowledged
added
advanced
advised
affirmed
agreed
alleged
announced
answered
approved
argued
asserted
avowed
believed
called
cautioned
certified
charged
cited
claimed
commented
complained
conceded
concluded
confessed
confided
confirmed
contended
continued
countered
decided
declaimed
declared
demanded
denied
denoted
described
designed
disclosed
discussed
divulged
elucidated
emphasized
ended
exclaimed
explained
exploded
exposed
expostulated
expounded
expressed
felt
foretold
found
held
hinted
imparted
implied
indicated
informed
insinuated
insisted
intimated
iterated
jested
lashed
lauded
maintained
mentioned
murmured
named
narrated
noted
notified
observed
opined
orated
ordered
pleaded
pointed out
posted
praised
predicated
predicted
proclaimed
professed
prompted
pronounced
proposed
propounded
protested
put forward
 questioned
quoted
recalled
recapitulated
recited
recounted
reiterated
related
remarked
reminded
repeated
replied
reported
responded
retorted
returned
revealed
reviewed
shouted
sighed
signified
specified
spoke
stated
stressed
submitted
suggested
summarized
swore
talked
testified
thought
told
trumpeted
turned
uncovered
urged
uttered

Misused Vocabulary

Our world is in a sad state of affairs. Overwhelming social and environmental crises aside, I turn to
the trauma that is being inflicted on our language. Mrs. Malaprop and her cousins run rampant through
our streets, speaking with no regard for proper context or rules of usage. Their mistakes are not
always amusing. Many of our callers have caught this devilish family at its worst, and these are the
best of those calls.

Calendars and Verbs

Q. “My boss always wants me to do the ‘calendarizing.’ Is there such a word?” asked a caller.

A. This sort of misuse makes me want to wear earplugs. There is no such word as calendarize. I
assume the caller’s boss was asking him to make an entry in a calendar or planner. Why did the
boss not ask his employee “to enter these into the calendar”? Is our need for brevity so intense that
it blinds us to the righteous standards of the language?
This type of mistake is not a limited phenomenon. Many lazy speakers and writers add -ize to
a noun base in the hopes of creating a legitimate verb, but their efforts are in vain. They see words
such as categorize, from category, and stigmatize, from stigma, and assume that the procedure
is valid for any noun. We must not forget that brevity isn’t everything. It is better to use a few extra
words than to pull nonsense out of thin air.

Redundant Prefixes

Q. “I question the use of the prefix co- in the word coconspirator. What do you think?” queried an
attorney with the Justice Department in the state of Virginia.

A. The attorney has raised an excellent point. The prefix in coconspirator is redundant. It is meant to
indicate that the conspirator named was conspiring with others. However, a conspiracy, by
definition, is a plot hatched among a group of conspirators. If one is a conspirator, then one
automatically has fellow conspirators. The prefix provides no useful information.
Common English is full of nonsensical constructions. Have you ever been offered a “free
gift” or been asked to “reserve ahead?” Well, what kind of a gift isn’t free, and how can anyone
reserve behind? Such usage is thoughtless and sloppy. I’m tempted to believe that there exists a
group of coconspirators bent on destroying proper English.

Esoteric English

Q. “Do terms like deplaning, offloading, and preboarding annoy you as much as they annoy me?”
asked a professional travel agent.

A. Personally, I live in constant fear of ever having to preboard. I have no idea what I would do. To
me, preboarding activity seems like the fidgeting I do in the waiting area while I wait for the
airline attendants to call my flight. I’m certain that the airlines have something else in mind, but I
can’t imagine what it is. If these commercial flight conglomerates feel the need to justify their own
existence by adding words to the language, they should at least choose a few that make sense.
To be honest, some of the airport lingo has a history. The word deplane has been used in print
 since 1923, long before the commercial airline service was established, and offload dates back to
1851. It probably was used in the shipping or railroad industry, since the Wright Brothers didn’t
take flight at Kittyhawk until 1903. Just how these words came into being is lost to history.
What I say to you now is that our language has no use for illconceived and esoteric words
such as these. Instead of asking passengers to preboard, why not call for early boarding. Instead
of instructing us to deplane, couldn’t the flight attendants request that we exit the aircraft? And
rather than offloading the baggage, the ground crew should remove the baggage from the plane.
The alternative words and phrases are equally clear and so much more agreeable.

Legal Jargon

Q. A disturbed caller asked, “How can lawyers and judges get away with the kind of writing and
speech that they use? All the whereases, not pursuants, and not withstandings are absurd.”

A. Legal jargon is a double-edged sword. In one sense, reading a brief makes me want to scream. The
language is archaic and murky, and its only purpose seems to be to create confusion. Conversing
with an attorney, one sometimes gets the feeling that one is speaking with a creature from another
universe. The truth of the matter is, however, that legal jargon serves a purpose.
If any one of us were to enter a standard English sentence into a book of law, we would be
introducing the legal system to a world of trouble. Everyday language is full of assumptions.
Shared contexts and meanings abound, and we are not obliged to put every detail of an expression
into words.
Lawyers and judges do not share this luxury. Their job is to make a law in impeccable and
incontestable language. To make a clear and lasting point, there can be few assumptions and little
room for interpretation. The language, in and of itself, must be enough to define the law, and the
unfortunate side effect is legal jargon. A law in normal language would be argued and contested
from Portland to the steps of the Supreme Court until the end of time.
This is, of course, a simplified explanation. Many say that the founding fathers wrote the
Constitution in a vague manner so that it would be a robust document, applicable across a wide
expanse of time and in varying contexts. Even so, the language of law must be confining. Legal
jargon is an unavoidable consequence of this fact.

Unique Overuse

Q. “The people in my office, myself included, have fallen into the bad habit of using unique in every
letter or report or memo that we write. We need some alternatives. Can you make any
suggestions?” asked a concerned manager.

A. How sad that unique has fallen into overuse. I suggested that they try using several of the
following words and phrases and then pull unique off the shelf when it feels fresh again.

absolute
critical
essential
 extreme
one of a kind
perfect
rare
singular
supreme
ultimate
unequaled
unparalleled
unprecedented
unusual
vital
zenith

Peculiar Words and Phrases

English, like any other interesting language, has its share of peculiar words and phrases. The next two
calls will give you a taste of these.

Oxymorons and Palindromes

Q. “I love the words oxymoron and palindrome, but what are they exactly?” asked a caller.

A. Those are wonderful-sounding words, aren’t they? There is just something fun and engaging about
them. To answer the caller’s question, an oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines
contradictory terms. For instance, the phrase mournful optimist is an oxymoron. One who is
mourning has a sad or negative outlook while one who is optimistic has a happy or positive
outlook. The meanings of the words are contradictory, yet they are used in the same phrase. Here
are some more oxymorons:

bad health
genuine imitation
free gift
exact estimate
extensive briefing
old news
friendly fire
intense uninterest
idiot savant
friendly invasion
good war
definite maybe
cold as hell
 A palindrome is a word, phrase, or sentence that reads the same forward and backward. People
have been creating palindromes since the third century B.C. The word comes from the Greek words
palin, meaning “back or again,” and dramein, meaning “to run.” Together these words form the Greek
palindromos, which means “to run back again.” Here’s a great palindrome: A man, a plan, a canal:
Panama. Now read it backwards. I guarantee that you’ll get the same thing.
Read the following palindromes carefully. Do you see how cleverly their authors have
constructed them?

Able was I ere I saw Elba. Draw, O Caesar, erase a coward.

Madam, I’m Adam. He lived as a devil, eh?
Enid and Edna dine. Niagara, O roar again!
Ma is a nun, as I am. Dennis Krats and Edna Stark sinned.

Spoonerisms

Q. “My mother transposes syllables constantly. The other day, she said, “Here comes Mr. Clown with
his brass,” instead of “Here comes Mr. Brown with his class.” There’s a word for this, isn’t
there?” queried a caller.

A. We call these transpositions spoonerisms. The word is an eponym, derived from the name of
Reverend William A. Spooner (1844– 1930), dean and later warden of New College at Oxford.
Spooner’s penchant for transposing bits of words endeared him to his students. In chapel one day,
he announced the next hymn as “Kinguering Congs,” instead of “Conquering Kings,” and he once
reprimanded a student by telling him, “You have deliberately tasted two worms,” instead of “You
have deliberately wasted two terms.”

Some Other Things You Should Know About Vocabulary

If only there were time and space enough in this book to delve deeply into the issue of vocabulary.
The origins of our language and the nature of current word use are truly fascinating topics, but the
issues involved are too vast for a single book on grammar to make significant headway. I hope that the
preceding information was helpful and that these last few pointers will strengthen your grasp on
vocabulary.

A Vocabulary Quandary

Q. “Which is correct: ‘We reached a happy median’ or ‘We reached a happy media’?” asked a caller.

A. At first, her question was unclear. Did she mean members of the press, the media, or a statistical
midpoint, the median? A few moments of discussion unraveled the puzzle. She was trying to
describe the situation where two individuals agree upon a middle ground. The word she needed
 was medium. “We reached a happy medium.”

A Vocabulary Distinction: Advisor and Adviser

Q. “What is the difference between the nouns advisor and adviser? ” asked a market research
analyst.

A. The caller had been told, somewhere, sometime, that an adviser is a group or a company that gives
advice and that an advisor was an individual who gives advice. NO! NO! NO! Both words mean
“one who gives advice.” They are synonyms.

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Using and Utilizing

Q. “What’s the difference between using and utilizing resources?” wondered the president of a
college as he wrote a commencement address.

A. To utilize is to put to use for a specific purpose or to make practical, productive, or worthwhile
use of something not obviously intended for the job.

The teachers utilized the materials available to them.

To use, on the other hand, is to put into action or service.

The teachers used the display to teach long division.

The words are similar and somewhat interchangeable, but use is preferred to the
more pretentious utilize where there is no particular sense of urgency.

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Allude, Elude, and Illude

Q. “These words have always confused me: allude, elude, and illude. Can you clarify them?” asked a
political cartoonist.

A. Allude means “to refer to.” Elude means “to avoid,” and, to the best of our knowledge, there is no
such word as illude. However, the first two are verbs, as is delude, which means “to mislead.”

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Flout and Flaunt

Q. “Does one flout or flaunt one’s assets?” asked a disgruntled marital partner, contemplating
divorce.

A. To flout is to treat contemptuously. To flaunt is to display ostentatiously. One would flaunt one’s
assets or flout the rules. I hope her husband wasn’t doing either.
Another Vocabulary Distinction: Disseminate and Decimate

Q. In an interview, a football quarterback was asked if he “disseminated” his opposition. A journalist

called to ask if disseminate was the right word.

A. The interviewer was actually looking for the word decimate, meaning “to demolish or destroy.”
Decimate is based on the prefix deci-, meaning “ten,” so technically it means “to destroy a tenth
of the whole.” That’s quite a large portion of the opposing team for one player to handle.
Disseminate means “to spread or share.” Activists disseminate information. Newspapers
disseminate news.

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Decry and Descry

Q. A tour operator inquired about the use of the word decry. In a travel article, she had written, “I
could barely decry the Golden Gate Bridge through the fog.”

A. Decry is a verb, meaning “to belittle or blame.” It is not the word that the tour operator was
looking for.

We decry their hostile actions.

She needed the word descry, meaning “to discern or detect.” This portion of her article
should have read, “I could barely descry the Golden Gate Bridge through the fog.”

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Immigrate and Emigrate

Q. A history teacher asked, “Can you help me with the difference between immigrate and emigrate?”

A. One emigrates when one leaves a country. One immigrates when one enters a country. I am
moving from North America to South America. More specifically, I emigrate from the United
States, and I immigrate into Brazil.

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Imply and Infer

Q. During a recent, highly publicized trial in Los Angeles, we received a call from a bailiff on his
lunch break. He said, “I think the defense attorney is misusing words. I’ve heard him begin a
sentence with ‘He inferred that….’ I’m thinking that he meant to say ‘implied’ rather than
‘inferred.’ What do you think?”

A. The Hot Line replied that we would need to read the session transcripts to be sure, but that we
would take her word for it that the attorney was misusing the word. To imply an idea is to suggest
it without expressly stating it.
 Her remarks implied that she was guilty.

To infer an idea is to conclude it without having heard it expressly stated.

The jury inferred from her remarks that she was guilty.

The distinction is a crucial one. I hope someone sends this attorney a dictionary.

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Iterate and Reiterate

Q. A concerned teacher called to say, “In class, one of my students asked, ‘Do you have to reiterate it
again? I got it right the first time.’ Something is wrong here, but I’m not sure what.”

A. To iterate is to repeat once. To reiterate it is to repeat it again. Since the teacher has only made
one repetition, her student should have said, “Do you have to iterate it?” Notice that I have
dropped the adverb again. Iterating a statement again is the same thing as reiterating it.

Another Vocabulary Distinction: Flutist and Flautist

Q. “Do flutists or flautists play flutes?” asked a music lover who had long been perplexed by these
two words.

A. Both do. People who play flutes can be called flutists or flautists. Either word is acceptable,
although I prefer the ring of elegance that I hear in flautist.

Vocabulary Misuse

Q. The president of an association of pathologists wanted to know if the noun phrase “such
egregiously good service” contained an oxymoron.

A. An oxymoron is a combination of two contradictory words. We’ve all heard of “old news” and
“cruel kindness.” In the president’s sentence, the adjective good describes the noun service. The
adverb egregiously describes good. Grammatically, it’s perfect. It just doesn’t make any sense.
Egregiously means “outstandingly bad.” The Hot Line believes that the president was
commenting on outstandingly good service. Unless she intends to utter an oxymoron, we suggest a
different choice of adverb. Any of the adverbs amazingly, shockingly, or phenomenally would
work.
 15

Punctuation

Punctuation is the system of symbols that writers use to make their writing clear
and to add emphasis, intonation, and pause to a work.

Our discussion of grammar is close to completion. With parts of speech, clauses and sentences, and a
bit of spelling and vocabulary under our belts, we are almost ready to reenter the world as expert
writers and speakers. However, no discussion of grammar is complete without mention of
punctuation. Marks of punctuation are traffic signs for readers. They guide us through the maze of
words and ideas that any piece of writing presents.
Writers punctuate sentences for two reasons. The first and most common is to provide order and
structure to an otherwise dark and disorganized stream of words. Without punctuation marks to
indicate starting and stopping points, pauses, and other breaks, most readers would drown in a sea of
undifferentiated thoughts, facts, and ideas.
The second reason that writers punctuate their sentences is to add style to writing. Speech is
punctuated with hand gestures, pauses, tone changes, breathing, and facial expressions. Each of these
adds a subtle meaning to the spoken sentence that it accompanies, but all of them disappear when
words are put to the page. Writers sometimes use punctuation in place of the natural stylings. A
comma adds a dramatic pause. An exclamation point emphasizes a crucial moment. A mark of
punctuation can serve the same purpose as frantically waving hands or a pair of crooked eyes.
Examine this incomprehensible set of words. Without punctuation, we have no idea what it
means:

That that is is that that is not is not is that it it is

Watch the magic of punctuation work on this murky stream of words:

That that is, is. That that is not, is not. Is that it? It is.

Punctuation is powerful enough to change the meaning of an entire sentence. In this next example, a
simple apostrophe turns a rude butler into a master of decorum:

RUDE: Thebutler stood at the door and called the guests names.
MASTERFUL: The butler stood at the door and called the guests’ names.
 History of Punctuation

Punctuation is a vital tool in clear, precise communication. The word itself is expressively lucid,
derived as it is from the Latin punctus, meaning “a point.” The first use of punctuation appears on the
Moonbite Stone, dating from 850 B.C., on which each word is separated from the others by a vertical
line.
Most scholars attribute the invention of punctuation to Aristophanes of Byzantium (not to be
confused with Aristophanes, the Athenian playwright, 450–388 B.C.), who was in charge of the great
library of Alexandria around 194 B.C. He created a system of points that correspond roughly to our
period, comma, and semicolon. Aristophanes is also credited with inventing other marks of
punctuation, such as the virgule, hyphen, apostrophe, and question mark.
Manuscripts dating back to the fourth century B.C. contain rudimentary marks of “pointing,” and,
in the earliest stone inscriptions, a dot is sometimes placed between each word to separate it from its
predecessor. The modern uses of the period evolved around the eighth century A.D. The comma at first
looked just like the number seven, then slowly evolved into a slash mark or virgule, and, eventually,
was altered into its present form.
Charlemagne, King of the Franks from 768 to 814 A.D. and Holy Roman Emperor for the latter
part of this period, and Alcuin, the English director of Charlemagne’s palace school, led an
educational revival which produced superior spelling and punctuation. Lowercase letters came into
use (formerly, the use of all uppercase letters was the custom), but the ascenders and descenders of
these letters made it difficult to read a manuscript without punctuation. The men adopted a simplified
version of Aristophanes’ system to clarify the writing. The punctuation set consisted of a full stop, or
period, and an intermediate stop, written with what we know today as a colon.
By the eleventh century, writers had adopted Aristophanes’ full system which included the
punctus interrogatives, an ancestor of today’s question mark. Modern punctuation can be loosely
traced back to Aldus Manutius, a sixteenth-century Venetian printer, who is generally given the credit
for systematizing punctuation.

Rules of Punctuation

Today, questions about punctuation range from where to put a comma to whether or not the period
goes inside or outside of the quotation marks. Much of our punctuation can be explained as part of our
grammatical structure, so, when discussing certain marks, one often refers to the grammatical
structures that the marks support.
The modern system of English punctuation is by no means simple and straightforward. A book
that covers all the bases would need to be of considerable breadth and weight, and anyone interested
in such a resource is advised to consult The Chicago Manual of Style. However, these authors will
do what we can to enhance your knowledge of the subject in one meager chapter. The following rules
and guidelines should illuminate the basic structure of contemporary punctuation.

The Period
The purpose of the period, as any first-grader knows, is to represent a strong pause or a break. This
pause or break may be a physical pause, as occurs between sentences, or a pause in meaning, as
occurs between the different letters in an abbreviation. There, the period indicates that each letter
represents a word separate from the words represented by the other letters in the abbreviation. Here
are a few rules that govern the use of the period:

With Imperative and Declarative Sentences

The period ends imperative and declarative sentences that are not written or spoken with the force of
an exclamation.

Pass the salt.

The postman always rings twice.

With Requests and Questions

The period may end a request, an indirect question, a rhetorical question, or an imperative sentence
phrased as a question.

Would you please turn your stereo down. (request)

He wonders who she is. (indirect question)

May I make a suggestion. (rhetorical question)

Would you stop tapping your foot. (imperative sentence phrased as question)

With Abbreviations
The period appears after some abbreviations and between certain initials.
A.D.
A.M.
B.C.
D.W.G.
E.J.E.
Feb.
i.e.
Mr.
Mrs.
Ms.
P.M.
Ph.D.

Please note that abbreviations and initials are a tricky bunch. Some take the period, while others
do not, and there does not seem to be much rhyme or reason to the system. If in doubt, contact the
organization or individual named or consult a more complete punctuation resource for the correct
answer.
Also note that a sentence that ends with an abbreviation or set of initials does not require an
additional period to mark its end.

The relics date back to 800 B.C.

However, if the sentence is a question or an exclamation, add the appropriate punctuation after the
period that ends the abbreviation or set of initials.

Did he earn a B.S.?

Meet me at nine A.M.!

I asked him to meet me at seven P.M., but he didn’t arrive till eight.

With Ellipses
A series of periods, known as an ellipsis, indicates missing words in a quote. Three periods
indicate words missing at the beginning of the quote or within the quote.

“Unless we can surmount the crises…all the plans for the rebuilding of backward
countries in other continents will all be put on the shelf, because war interrupts
everything like that.”
—Walter Lippmann

We place an ellipsis of four periods at the end of a quote where words are missing. This series of
periods includes the period that ends the sentence.

“Give me a dozen healthy infants…and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random
and train him to become any type of specialist I might select…”
—J. B. Watson

In Place of Parentheses

The period often appears in place of a parenthesis after a letter or number that marks an item in a
series.

a. Chop the carrots.

b. Cook the rice.

1. Set the modifier switch to seven.

2. Turn the modulating dial to fourteen.
Ellipses, Question Marks, and Exclamation Points

Q. “Can question marks and exclamation points follow ellipses?” wondered a caller.

A. Of course ellipses can be used with question marks and exclamation marks. Simply place the
appropriate punctuation after an ellipsis of three periods.

She cried, “How can that be…?”

I exclaimed, “You’re leaving me…!”

Abbreviations

Q. “When do I put a period after an abbreviation?” A hospital administrator explained that his
secretary put them in, and he kept taking them out. “Is there a list available?” he asked.

A. Here are some abbreviations which require periods: Dr., Jr., pp., etc., e.g., i.e. On the other hand,
well-known organizations, such as government agencies, radio and TV stations, and large
corporations do not require periods: AT&T, UNICEF, CBS, ASCAP, IBM. Abbreviated chess
terms (Bk 5) and chemical symbols (Fe) do not receive periods either. One abbreviation which
most get wrong is TV; it doesn’t take periods. For a list, consult a dictionary or reference volume
such as The Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations.

From My Files: Pandemonium

My office is at the end of a hall in the college library. Downstairs are the stacks where students
browse and sometimes study. There is a stairway from my floor to the first floor, but it is only meant
to be ornamental, and it is not to be used. There is a door leading to the staircase, however, and a sign
on the door. At least ten times a week, someone will open the door to traipse down the stairs. The
moment the door is ajar, a loud, piercing alarm begins to wail. It’s no wonder that, despite the sign on
the door, innocents continue to open it and to create pandemonium. The foolish sign-makers hung
these words on the door:

NO ENTRANCE
ALARM WILL SOUND

The sign makes it sound as if there is no alarm that will sound. It should read:

NO ENTRANCE.
ALARM WILL SOUND.

Punctuation makes all the difference.

The Comma

The comma is a mark of separation. It may divide items in a series, distinguish subordinate from main
clauses, and insert stylistic pauses, among other things. The comma is a useful tool, but it is all too
often misused. Please pay close attention to the dos and don’ts that follow. They will start you on your
way to becoming the master of the comma.

With Adverbial Clauses

Do place a comma after an adverbial clause that begins a sentence.

Until we have your final report, we cannot make a decision.

Because we are such great friends, I am asking you for this favor.

When the adverbial clause ends the sentence, the comma is optional. Use a comma if you feel that it
clarifies the meaning of the sentence or makes the sentence easier to read.

We cannot make a decision until we have your final report.

or
We cannot make a decision, until we have your final report.

I am asking you for this favor because we are such great friends.

or
I am asking you for this favor, because we are such great friends.

With Verbals
Do place a comma after a participle phrase, a simple infinitive, or an infinitive phrase (see chapter 5)
that introduces a sentence.

Seeing her again, I felt my heart go pitter-patter.

To fly, one needs a strong pair of wings.

To win this competition, we must trust each other completely.

Please do not place a comma after an infinitive that functions as the subject of the sentence.

To drive a Porsche would be an exhilarating experience.

To sail the high seas was a childhood fantasy of mine.

With Prepositional Phrases

Do place a comma after a prepositional phrase that begins a sentence if you feel that the comma
clarifies the meaning or makes the sentence easier to read. This comma is optional.

After the concert, we stopped for a cup of coffee.

or
After the concert we stopped for a cup of coffee.

In Sweden, we toured the royal palace.

or
In Sweden we toured the royal palace.

With Conjunctive Adverbs

Do use commas to set off a conjunctive adverb from the sentence of which it is a part. If a conjunctive
adverb begins the sentence, place a single comma after it. If a conjunctive adverb appears amidst the
other words in the sentence, place a comma before and after it.

Consequently, the freighter sank just three miles from its home port.

Sherman said, however, that he could not let these mistakes go unreported.

With Negative and Affirmative Adverbs

Do place a comma after a negative or affirmative adverb (no or yes) that begins a sentence.

Yes, that is Merv Griffin.

No, I will not buy you a velvet Elvis.

With Nouns in Direct Address

Do use commas to set off nouns in direct address.

Mr. Grennan, assume the push-up position.

I told you, Ms. Stevens, that we no longer sell garlic shakes.

With Interjections
Do place a comma after an interjection at the beginning of a sentence.

Oh, I didn’t expect to see you here.

Well, that was certainly an unusual movie.

With Appositives
Do place commas before and after appositives in the midst of the words in a sentence.

Jennifer, the consummate hostess, put together another staggering dinner party.

I sent my complaint to Herb Lornthorpe, the head of employee relations, but

haven’t received a response.

If an appositive ends the sentence, a comma need only precede it.

I met my best friend, Susan.

That’s Herbie, my dog.

With Three or More Items in a Series

Do use commas to separate the items in a series of three or more words, phrases, or clauses.

I need you to buy olive oil, sun dried tomatoes, and paprika for me.

We looked around the yard, by the pond, in the cave, and along the tracks.

I sheared the wool, Beth spun the yarn, and Agnes knit the sweater.

A dank, oily, and gray cloud of smoke bellowed out from the machine’s innards.

With Adjectives
Do place a comma between two adjectives that describe the same noun and that precede the noun they
describe when no coordinate conjunction is present.

A damp, gray day greeted us this morning.

Our chicken dinner benefited from those large, aromatic cloves of garlic.

Do not place a comma between two adjectives that modify the same noun when the first adjective
modifies the entire idea created by the second adjective and the noun modified.

The brave young man rode into battle without fear.

In this example, the adjective brave describes the noun phrase young man. He is a young man who is
brave. The braveness affects the youngness.
Adding a comma would imply that we could have written the sentence with the conjunction and
between the two adjectives without changing the meaning. However, we would never write the
sentence in this way:

The brave and young man rode into battle without fear.
We are writing of a young man who is brave, not a man who is brave and young.

With Coordinate Conjunctions

Do place a comma before a coordinate conjunction that separates two main clauses of a compound
sentence.

I saw the game, but I don’t remember the final score.

She drove us to the market, and I bought another pack of cream soda.

Do not place a comma before a coordinate conjunction that connects two subordinate clauses.

Because time is short, and because the matter is so urgent, we must act now.
(incorrect)

The first comma in this sentence, the one that appears before the conjunction and, is unnecessary. The
sentence should read as follows:

Because time is short and because the matter is so urgent, we must act now.
(correct)

That first comma is gone, and all is well.

To Indicate Omissions
Do use a comma to indicate the omission of a word.

Frank is a strong man, and Hank, a clever man.

In this example, the second comma marks the omission of the main verb is. We could have written the
sentence as follows:

Frank is a strong man, and Hank is a clever man.

To Set off Phrases of Contrast

Do use a comma to set off a phrase of contrast at the end of a sentence.

Jeff told her to chop the onion, not dice it.

Bev ordered the shrimp salad, not the chicken salad.

The concert was loud, yet dull.

To Set off Interrogative Clauses

Do use a comma to separate a declarative clause from an interrogative clause that follows it.

She has beautiful eyes, doesn’t she?

This is the place, isn’t it?

With Quoted Material

Do use commas to set off quoted material from the main body of the sentence in sentences that contain
quotes. If the main body precedes the quote, one comma appears between the end of the main body
and the start of the quote.

Terry said, “Bring me the flashlight.”

The speaker wondered, “Do any of you understand what I am talking about?”

In these cases the commas appear outside of the quotation marks.

If the main body follows the quote, one comma appears between the end of the quote and the
beginning of the main body.

“I am overjoyed,” my mother cried.

“I think that music is going to drive me crazy,” John said.

In these cases the commas appear inside the quotation marks.

If the main body comes between the pieces of a broken quote, two commas separate the quote
from the body, one before and one after the body.

“What,” she asked, “is the point of this display?”

The comma between the first piece of quote and the main body appears inside the quotation marks.
The comma between the second piece of quote and the main body appears outside the quotation
marks.

With Salutations
Do place a comma after the salutation in an informal letter and after the complimentary close in an
informal or formal letter.

Dear Wendy,
Thank you so much….

Your friend,
Stephen

With Dates
Do place a comma between the day and year in a date.

January 8, 1702
August 14, 1998
May 1, 1004

Some authorities also feel that a writer must always place a comma after the year in a date used in a
sentence. The authors and editors of this book, however, recommend that such commas be excluded
when the date is used as the subject of a sentence.

On November 4, 1972, a miracle occurred. (date used as object of preposition)

March 17, 1948 is her birthday. (date used as subject of sentence)

With Addresses and Locations

Do place a comma between the elements of an address or geographic location.

His address is Vern Nutley, 57 Hawthorne Way, Rockford, IL 61114.

Bentley visited Greenwich, CT, over the break.

The comma after CT in the second example is correct. You need to place a comma after the final
element in an address or geographic location when that element falls before the end of the sentence.

With Titles
Do use a comma to separate a name from titles that may follow. If multiple titles follow, place a
comma between each title and the next.

John Addison, Ph.D., M.D., has agreed to consult on the research project.

William Ray Bedford, Sr., called his family together for an emergency meeting.

With Numbers
Do use commas to separate sets of three digits in numbers one thousand and greater.

1,927
50,876
1,408,863

With Names
Do place a comma after the last name in a list where the first and last names have been inverted.

Frampton, Peter
 Lightfoot, Gordon

Willis, Bruce

To Eliminate Ambiguity
Do place commas in sentences when the placement eliminates ambiguity. Read the following
ambiguous sentences without commas.

Before Mary Lou was our accountant.

The finer the silk the higher the price.

As they stand, these sentences are a bit confusing. They need commas for their meanings to become
clear.

Before Mary, Lou was our accountant.

The finer the silk, the higher the price.

With Nonrestrictive and Restrictive Information

Do use commas to set off nonrestrictive words, phrases, and clauses.

My only sister, Bernie, is coming for a visit next month.

Many dogs, such as poodles and dachshunds, do not contribute to home security.

The particulars of the game, which I have never learned, are terribly confusing.

In each sentence, the word, phrase, or clause set off by commas is nonrestrictive
because it does not change the meaning of the sentence. These words, phrases, and
clauses describe an antecedent rather than limit or define it.

Do not use commas to set off restrictive words, phrases, or clauses. Such items define or limit
the meanings of their antecedents. The use of commas would indicate that the meanings they provide
are not essential.

My brother Timmy graduated at the top of his class.

Times like these test the strength of familial ties.

The man who gave you that information cannot be trusted.

The information that the word, phrase, or clause provides in each example is essential and restrictive,
so we do not set it off with commas. In the first example, the proper noun Timmy identifies which
brother graduated at the top of his class. The speaker must have more than one. In the second example,
the phrase like these limits the definition of the noun times. It tells us just what kind of times we are
discussing. In the third example, the clause who gave you that information tells us which man the
speaker is mentioning. Without the noun Timmy, the phrase like these, and the clause who gave you
that information, the meanings of the sentences would be quite different.

Avoid Comma Splices

Do not place a comma between main clauses unless it is accompanied by a coordinate conjunction.

Harry robbed the bank, Billy drove the getaway car. (incorrect)

This sentence contains a comma splice. We need to change the comma to a period or a semicolon,
replace the comma with a conjunction, or add a conjunction.

Harry robbed the bank. Billy drove the getaway car. (correct)

Harry robbed the bank; Billy drove the getaway car. (correct)

Harry robbed the bank and Billy drove the getaway car. (correct)

Harry robbed the bank, and Billy drove the getaway car. (correct)

Each of these sentences is acceptable. Remember that a comma is not required when a compound
sentence is composed of two main clauses and those two main clauses are short.

A Comma Question

Q. “Please tell me what this sentence means?” asked a piano teacher. “It goes, ‘Those who can
practice ten hours a day.’ ”

A. As it stands, the sentence has a problem with its verb. There seems to be a verb phrase, can
practice, in a relative clause beginning with the pronoun who—who can practice—but the
resulting sentence doesn’t make any sense. We need a comma to help us eliminate the ambiguity.

Those who can, practice ten hours a day.

Now, the purposes of the two verbs become clear. The former, can, is part of the relative
clause who can. The latter, practice, is the verb in the main clause those practice ten hours a
day. The sentence is informing us that those who are able to practice ten hours a day do so.

Commas within a Series of Items

Q. “When you have items in a series, do you put commas after each one?” asked a secretary for a
large shipping firm. “Here is my sentence. ‘The company needs notification of what is important
relevant or new for the new season.’ ”
A. If there are three or more items in a series and a coordinate conjunction between the last two,
expert grammarians will recommend placing a comma after each item in the series (including the
item before the coordinate conjunction) except the last. The secretary’s sentence contains a series
of three adjectives: important, relevant, and new. The coordinate conjunction or connects the
final two. This fellow must place commas between his items.

The company needs notification of what is important, relevant, or new

for the new season.

Bacon and Eggs and Commas

Q. A nurse, transcribing the description of a patient’s meal, asked, “Where should I put commas in
this sentence: ‘The patient had coffee bacon and eggs and orange juice.’?”

A. The sentence contains a series of three or four items, the last two of which are connected by the
coordinate conjunction and. Whether the series is of three or four items depends upon whether we
consider bacon and eggs to be a single unit or two separate items. With bacon and eggs as a single
unit, the sentence reads as follows:

The patient had coffee, bacon and eggs, and orange juice.

With bacon and eggs as two separate items, we must remove the conjunction and
between them before we insert the commas. The sentence would appear as follows:

The patient had coffee, bacon, eggs, and orange juice.

However, most people, through common usage, have come to regard bacon and
eggs as a single unit. Colloquial speech, therefore, would dictate that the former
interpretation is correct. The rule is certainly not hard and fast, and, if the latter option
suits you, that is fine. It is just that most people would naturally pick the former.

A Judgment Call

Q. “Should I place a comma between rough and wood in the phrase rough, wood fence? ” asked a
newly retired lady who was building a new house.

A. The adjectives rough and wood both describe the noun fence. Our comma rules recommend that
the writer place a comma between two adjectives in a series if both describe the same noun and
no coordinate conjunction separates them. Without the commas, we might be talking about wood
that is rough, rather than a fence that is rough.
To determine whether or not a comma should be placed between the two adjectives, insert the
word and between them. If the presence of the conjunction does not change the meaning of the
sentence, the comma is appropriate. Otherwise, no comma is necessary. Just don’t forget to
remove the and that you inserted.
Purified Punctuation

Q. A forest ranger asked, “Do I need the commas in this sentence: ‘Water, which is boiled, is safe to
drink’?”

A. Whether we place commas around the subordinate clause which is boiled depends upon whether
we feel that it is restrictive or nonrestrictive information. Nonrestrictive information requires
commas. Restrictive information does not.
It seems to the Hot Line that the clause which is boiled is absolutely necessary to the
meaning of the sentence. I think we can assume that only boiled water is safe to drink. The
modifying effect of the clause is essential. Therefore, the commas are unnecessary.

Water which is boiled is safe to drink.

The ranger could also pick a better phrasing for his sentence.

Boiled water is safe to drink.

A Comma Splice

Q. A writer with an active word processing business wrote this sentence and wanted to know if the
commas were necessary. Her sentence read, “We don’t know if he took his medicine, however,
we hope he did.”

A. The writer has placed a comma between two complete thoughts (main clauses) and created a
comma splice, a mistake that writers and grammarians consider quite serious. The first complete
thought is we don’t know if he took his medicine. The second is however, we hope he did. This
writer needs to separate the two thoughts with a semicolon or a period.

We don’t know if he took his medicine; however, we hope he did.

We don’t know if he took his medicine. However, we hope he did.

The comma after the conjunctive adverb however is fine.

For Clarification

Q. “Is a subordinate clause ever separated from a main clause by a comma?” a typesetter asked.

A. Of the three varieties of subordinate clause, only the adverbial clause requires a comma to
separate it from the main clause. Remember that the adverbial clause often answers one of the
adverb questions: when?, where?, how?, or how often?
If the adverbial clause starts the complex sentence, we must place a comma after it:

As you might have guessed, I’m not feeling too well.

 As you might have guessed is an adverbial clause. It begins the sentence, so we place
a comma between it and the main clause I’m not feeling too well.
If the adverbial clause had ended the complex sentence, the comma would have
been optional:

I’m not feeling too well, as you might have guessed.

or I’m not feeling too well as you might have guessed.

A Mature Question

Q. This caller asked, “Do I need a comma before the and in this sentence: ‘As a person gets older
and as she becomes more mature she begins to look at things differently.’ ”

A. Well, a comma definitely belongs after the word mature since the word ends an adverbial clause
that begins the sentence. The caller, however, thought that she might need a comma before the
coordinate conjunction and. I told her that a comma in that spot was unnecessary. As a person
gets older and as she becomes more mature are both adverbial clauses in a series. Since the
series consists of just two items, the conjunction and is sufficient to connect them. No comma is
necessary. This is how the sentence should read:

As a person gets older and as she becomes more mature, she begins to
look at things differently.

Appositive Punctuation

Q. “How do I punctuate appositives?” asked a caller who was helping her daughter finish her
homework.

A. Remember that an appositive is a word or phrase that is placed beside another word to rename,
explain, or enhance it. How one should punctuate the appositive depends on whether it is non-
restrictive or restrictive. Nonrestrictive appositives are set off from the rest of the sentence by
commas, while restrictive appositives require no punctuation.

She lives in a beautiful city, Santa Monica. (nonrestrictive)

Shakespeare’s play As You Like It is one of my favorites. (restrictive)

In the first example, the appositive Santa Monica is nonrestrictive, so we set it off
from the rest of the sentence with a comma. Since the appositive ends the sentence, we
need use only one comma. In the second example, the appositive As You Like It is
restrictive, so we do not use any punctuation.
From My Files: On the Importance of Commas

A Russian nobleman had been sentenced to hard labor in Siberia for opposing the czar. The night
before the nobleman was to be sentenced, a friend sneaked into the imperial palace and found the
order that would send the poor man to a life of misery. The order read, “Pardon impossible, to be sent
to Siberia.” With a few quick strokes of his quill and some clever embellishment of letters to hide the
previous punctuation, the friend was able to move the comma one word back in the sentence so that it
then read, “Pardon, impossible to be sent to Siberia.” The fortunate nobleman was set free.

The Colon

Those two little dots we know as the colon often indicate a strong break in a sentence and mean “as
follows.” In fact, the colon often follows the words following and as follows.

With Appositives
The colon can emphasize an appositive at the end of a sentence.

There is only one word that can describe the President’s decision: ridiculous.

I have only one thing to say to you: “Get a life.”

With Lists
Use a colon to introduce a list that appears at the end of a sentence.

Mom asked us to get these things from the grocer’s: bread, milk, and cheese.

With Quoted Material

Use a colon to introduce a long quote.

The first page of the novel reads as follows:

“It was a dark and stormy night….”

With Page Specifications

Use a colon to separate the pieces of a page specification.

John 3:16

The New Republic 22:72

Chapter 8: Section 7
With Ratios
Use a colon to separate the numbers in a ratio.

Combine the three chemicals in a 3:5:1 ratio.

With Time

Use a colon to separate the elements in written time.

By Greenwich mean time, it is 22:34:56:05.

With Titles and Subtitles

Use a colon to separate the title and subtitle of a book.

I just read a book called Too Many Hats: A Man and His Compulsions.

With Salutations
Place a colon after the salutation in a formal letter.

Dear Ms. Flatchet:

I am writing to express my displeasure….

Question: Comma or Colon?

Q. A fledgling writer asked, “Before I quote someone’s words, should I use a comma or a colon?”

A. Unless it is a long quote, use a comma to separate the main body of the sentence from the quoted
material.

Mary said, “I’m ready to quit today; let’s go home.”

Ali said, “I’m still the champ.”

Writers often use colons to introduce long quotes.

This tedious book began with a twelve-line description of her shoes:

“The color of her shoes matched the color of the sky that
afternoon….”

The Semicolon
The semicolon indicates a stronger pause than the comma but a weaker pause than the period. Though
a useful tool, the semicolon must be employed cautiously. Misused, this mark of punctuation can result
in overly wordy and convoluted sentences. These are the rules governing the use of the semicolon:

With Compound Sentences

The semicolon may separate main clauses in a compound sentence when no coordinate conjunction is
used. The meanings of the two clauses should be closely related for the semicolon to be appropriate
punctuation.

I woke up; I got out of bed.

Their house is a mess; their yard is a disgrace.

The semicolon may also separate main clauses in a compound sentence when a conjunctive
adverb introduces the second clause.

Your plan is insane; nevertheless, it is our only hope.

Santa didn’t bring the toys we expected; instead, he left socks and underwear.

The semicolon may separate main clauses linked by a coordinate conjunction in a compound
sentence when one or both of the clauses contain internal punctuation and additional commas would
create a muddled sentence.

Mr. Stafford, president of this corporation and corporate genius, has predicted a
banner year; but his reasoning is not beyond reproach.

The chef at this restaurant, which I have never liked, makes terrible bouillabaisse;
but we will eat wherever you like on your birthday.

With Items in a Series

The semicolon may separate items in a series when one or more of the items contain internal
punctuation. The use of commas as separators in this situation would result in confusion.

The guest list includes Bill, my cousin; Susan, my best friend; and Arnold, my
annoying brother.

Tommy Gissard, the movie star; Harry Tupins, the publisher; and Blue Eisen, the
model, donated their time to this charity event.

The Apostrophe

The apostrophe is used to indicate plural and possessive forms of words or to indicate missing letters
and digits. We will take a brief look at each use now.
With Possessive Nouns
The apostrophe is used to create the possessive forms of nouns. With singular and plural nouns that do
not end in s, place apostrophe s (’s) at the end of the word to create the possessive form.

SINGULAR: dog→dog’s chef→chef’s William→William’s

PLURAL: geese→geese’s men→men’s feet→feet’s

With singular nouns that do end in s, add apostrophe s (’s). We should stick to the general rule
when we can.

boss→boss’s
lass→lass’s
Jones→Jones’s
class→class’s
bus→bus’s
Charles→Charles’s

Please note that there are several exceptions to this rule:

1. The possessive forms of the names Jesus and Moses take a simple apostrophe.

Jesus→Jesus’
Moses→Moses’

2. The possessive forms of names of more than one syllable that end in s and whose final
syllable has an /ez/ sound take only an apostrophe.

Euripides→Euripides’
Ramses→Ramses’
Socrates→Socrates’

Please remember, however, that most of these are names of long-deceased Greek philosophers or
Egyptian pharaohs and of little concern to the general populace.

3. When the object of the preposition in the expression for something’s sake ends in s, that
object takes only an apostrophe.

for goodness’ sake

for Jones’ sake

To add apostrophe s (’s) would give us three s sounds in a row and that is too many for an articulate
speaker to make.
With plural nouns that end in s, just add an apostrophe.
 tigers→tigers’
rats→rats’
boys→boys’
beasts→beasts’
hearts→hearts’
militias→militias’

With Plurals of Letters and Abbreviations

The apostrophe is used to create the plural forms of letters and abbreviations.

1. To form the plurals of single letters, add apostrophe s (’s): R’s, t’s.
2. To form the plurals of abbreviations with internal periods, add apostrophe s (’s): Ph.D.’s,
M.D.’s.

For more information on pluralizing letters and abbreviations, please refer to chapter 1.

With Contractions
The apostrophe is used in contractions to indicate missing letters.

is not→isn’t
he is→he’s
could not→couldn’t

With Missing Letters

We often pronounce words in a colloquial manner, leaving off a letter or two. When these
colloquially spoken words are written, we use apostrophes to indicate the missing letters.

That ol’ car has served me well.

In this example, the adjective old has been shortened into ol’. The apostrophe stands in for the missing
d.

With Missing Digits

The apostrophe appears in numbers to indicate missing digits.

1981→’81
1917→’17
1941→’41

The Possessive Dickens

Q. “I collect first editions. My favorites are by Charles Dickens. Do I write that they are Dickens,
Dickens’, or Dickens’s novels?” asked a book collector.

A. The apostrophe rules advise that you add apostrophe s (’s) to show possession with singular nouns
that end in s. The phrase Dickens’s novels is the correct choice.
This is a difficult and controversial issue. There are two schools of thought regarding the use
of the apostrophe with singular nouns: the pro-apostrophe s camp and the apostrophe-only camp.
The latter camp suggests that we add only the apostrophe and eliminate the s. Some books say to
do it one way; some say to do it the other; some say that both ways are all right, depending upon
the writer’s preference. This writer is of the apostrophe s (’s) camp, but you should choose the
method that you feel communicates the idea of possession most effectively.

The Follow-Up Call

Q. That same book collector phoned the Hot Line a few nights later with another question. He said,
“I’ve been thinking about this whole Dickens’s thing, and it’s got me wondering. How do I
pronounce Dickens’s? ’ Do I say the word with two s sounds at the end—to be honest, that way
sounds awful—or do I pronounce it with one s?”

A. Our inquisitive book collector had raised an important point. The way we spell a word does not
always match the way that we pronounce it. In this caller’s case, we pronounce the word
Dickens’s in the same way that we would the word Dickens, as if the former ended in a single s
sound.
Possessive pronunciation becomes an issue with singular nouns that end in s. Since we add
apostrophe s (’s) to these words to create their possessive forms, they appear to end with two s
sounds. Such pronunciations may seem awkward, but, in practice, are not. The rules to follow are
these:

1. If the word ends in s’s and is of only one syllable, it is pronounced as if it ended with es in the
place of the apostrophe s (’s). The word bus’s is pronounced in the same manner as the word
buses, the word class’s is pronounced in the same manner as the word classes, the word Gus’s
is pronounced in the same manner as the word Guses, and so on.
2. If the word ends in s’s and is of two or more syllables, it is pronounced as if the apostrophe s
(’s) had never been added. The word Charles’s is pronounced in the same manner as the word
Charles, the word Williams’s is pronounced in the same manner as the word Williams, and so
on.

Sports Writers and Apostrophes

Q. A sports writer asked, “Do I need apostrophes in this headline: ‘Clippers loss is Hornets win’?”

A. The loss belongs to the Clippers and the win belongs to the Hornets. Both team names need to be
in their possessive forms. Since the words Clippers and Hornets are singular collective nouns,
 we add apostrophe s (’s) after each.

Clippers’s loss is Hornets’s win.

This Stuff Isn’t Easy

Q. “Where do I put apostrophes in this sentence: ‘They met with the railways divisions counsel’?”
asked a vice president of public relations who was puzzled by a press release he had written.

A. First, we needed to determine which words were possessive. The VP indicated that the divisions
belonged to the railway and that the counsel belonged to the divisions.
Second, we needed to know whether the noun railway was singular or plural. The VP said that
he was writing only of the railway that he worked for, so we put an apostrophe between the y and
the s in railways. One would add apostrophe s (’s) to create the possessive form of the singular
noun railway.
That left the word divisions to be dealt with. Since something divided always has at least two
divisions, I assumed it to be plural. To make this noun possessive, we added an apostrophe after
the s. Simply add an apostrophe to create the possessive forms of plural nouns that end in s. The
VP’s amended sentence read:

They met with the railway’s divisions’ counsel.

A Masters in Apostrophes

Q. A caller from the Dean of Instruction’s office at an Eastern university asked, “Should the titles
bachelors degree and masters degree contain apostrophes since the degrees belong to the
master or the bachelor?”

A. There are two approaches. For sheer elegance, The National Grammar Hot Line recommends not
using the apostrophe. Grammatically, however, an apostrophe does belong in each word:
bachelor’s degree and master’s degree. In the battle between grammatical correctness and
aesthetics, I side with the former.

Possessive Years

Q. A legal researcher at the district attorney’s office was composing a document regarding an
individual previously incarcerated. He asked, “Do I need to put an apostrophe somewhere in the
word years in this sentence: ‘The board gave him three years probation’?”

A. Since the probation belongs to the years, we need to put the word years in its possessive form. The
apostrophe rules mandate that we add a lone apostrophe to this plural noun.

The board gave him three years’ probation.

 Wasn’t that easy?

Settling a Dispute

Q. A call came from the president of the student council at a local high school with an interesting
question regarding apostrophes. She and the editor of the school’s paper were arguing about the
plural of the phrase student body. The president felt that the plural of student body should be
student bodies. The editor felt that the plural of student body should be student body’s. The
sentence under dispute was this:

The student bodies/body’s from several high schools came together at the
tournament.

A. The matter was easily solved. The editor had confused his plurals and his possessives. The plural
of the noun body is bodies. The word body’s indicates possession or ownership.

The student body’s mascot was a large green rabbit.

The president of the student council won this battle. Her sentence was correctly printed in
the school paper.

The student bodies from several high schools came together at the
tournament.

Eventful Apostrophes

Q. “Do we need an apostrophe in this statement: ‘Mayors Office of Special Events Music Alive
Nights’?” asked a caller from the Chicago mayor’s office.

A. The sentence contains two apostrophe issues, the first of which is easily solved. Since the office
belongs to the mayor, we need to insert an apostrophe between the r and the s in the word mayors.
The second issue requires a more complex resolution. Since the “Music Alive Nights” belong
to the Office of Special Events, we must somehow make the noun phrase Office of Special
Events possessive. To do so, we make the last word in the noun phrase possessive. Events is a
plural noun that ends in s, so we add a lone apostrophe (’) after the s. The amended statement
would read as follows:

Mayor’s Office of Special Events’ Music Alive Nights

The Hot Line then asked the caller to consider rewriting her sentence into a more
understandable form. We suggested a statement such as this one:

Mayor’s Office of Special Events Hosts Music Alive Nights

 The caller concurred, and the deed was done.

The Question Mark

Some say that the shape of the question mark is based on the curving tail of that enigmatic and
beloved creature, the cat. This is only a rumor and should be taken as all rumors should: with a grain
of salt. These are the rules that govern the use of the question mark:

With Direct Interrogative Sentences

The question mark ends all direct interrogative sentences.

What did you order?

Can I have another cookie?

With Imperative Sentences Written as Questions

Either a question mark or a period may end an imperative sentence written as a question.

Will you please stop that infernal racket?

or
Will you please stop that infernal racket.

Would you fetch the paper, Deary?

or
Would you fetch the paper, Deary.

With Interrogative Sentence Elements

We can place question marks after each interrogative element in a sentence that contains multiple
questions.

Are you sure of her loyalty? her skill? her determination?

To Indicate Uncertainty
Question marks often appear in parentheses in a sentence to indicate uncertainty about some piece of
information given.

King Monty ruled between 1015 (?) and 1030 A.D.

The divers discovered twelve (?) bronze statues among the undersea ruins.
Rhetorical Questions

Q. “If a question is rhetorical, does it deserve a question mark?” wondered a teacher of English.

A. No question mark is required with a rhetorical question. In fact, neither indirect nor rhetorical
questions require question marks since they are more commands or statements than questions.
A rhetorical question is defined as one that is asked for effect rather than in expectation of an
answer. The answer is usually very obvious, and the speaker already knows the answer.

How many times do I have to tell you to shut the door.

What is the meaning of this.

The indirect question asks a question in a declarative manner. The difference between
the direct and indirect questions will be subtle.

DIRECT: What kind of pasta is that?

INDIRECT: She asked what kind of pasta that is.

The direct question always ends with a question mark.

The Exclamation Point

The exclamation point indicates strong emotion, surprise, or urgency. These are the situations in
which its use is appropriate:

With Declarative Sentences

The exclamation point ends any declarative sentence that is written with the force of an exclamation.

I have never been so disgusted!

This is the most awful concoction I have ever had the displeasure of consuming!

With Imperative Sentences

The exclamation point ends any imperative sentence that is made with the force of an exclamation.

Watch out for that tree!

Come back here!

With Interjections
We sometimes place exclamation points after interjections. Often, the sentence that follows is made
with the force of an exclamation.
 Ouch! That stings!

Pshaw! I don’t believe that for a second!

With Interrogative Sentences

The exclamation point sometimes ends interrogative sentences that are written as exclamations.

Do you realize what this will do to our company!

How can you think that!

With Exclamatory Sentences

The exclamation point always ends exclamatory sentences.

How big your teeth are!

What a weekend we had!

Parentheses

With Explanations or Commentary

Parentheses enclose words, phrases, clauses, and sentences that are included in a sentence as
explanations or commentary but that are main constructions unto themselves. The punctuation for
parenthetical items remains within the parentheses. Punctuate the primary portion of the sentence as if
the parenthetical portion were not there.

Jack acted surprised (as if he didn’t know) when Rachel told him the news.

She promised (she has never kept a promise in her life) to pass on the information.

Those boys (Bob, Harry, and Andy) will cause no end of trouble.

With Numbers, Letters, and Symbols

Parentheses often enclose numbers, letters, and symbols that are used as appositives in sentences.

The price of this meal ($200.00) is outrageous.

We will use the ampersand (&) in place of the word and in the title.

I disagree with the third item (C) on the agenda.

With Dividers and Subdividers

Parentheses enclose numbers and letters that divide and subdivide items in a sentence.

The rebels’ plan is to (1) take over the television station, (2) urge the citizens to
revolution through hourly freedom broadcasts, and (3) topple the communist
regime.

The items on the shopping list include (a) motor oil, (b) tissue paper, (c) ground
beef, and (d) turnips.

Brackets

With Information Inserted into Quoted Material

Brackets enclose information that an editor inserts into a quote.

The story read, “When it [the Crystal Park Hotel and Casino] opened last fall, it
was a gambler’s dream.”*

With Parenthetical Material Within Parentheses

Brackets also enclose parenthetical material within parentheses.

He (the driver of the car [a Ferrari]) had the car going over one hundred miles per
hour when he was stopped.

The Hyphen

With Words in a Compound

The hyphen links multiple words into a single expression.

Don’t look at me with that holier-than-thou expression.

This town is full of has-beens and wanna-bes.

With Prefixes
The hyphen is often placed between the root word and a prefix when the alternative (no hyphen) can
be easily misread.

Despite his record, the company decided to reemploy Mr. David Jones.
The city officials are taking a pro-orthodoxy standpoint.

With Words Broken Over Two Lines

When a word is broken between the end of one line and the beginning of the next, place the hyphen
after the first piece to indicate that the remainder will follow on the next line.

Marjorie and Her Singing Spaniels are to perform their rendition of Handel’s
Messiah this Thursday. It is an event not to be missed.

More Fun with Hyphens

Q. “Please tell me about hyphens. I feel like I never know where to put them,” despaired a fledgling
copywriter.

A. Hyphens are really very simple. And, they have a few uses in addition to those mentioned above.

1 Hyphens are used to separate syllables in words.

in-te-ri-or

plan-e-tar-y

rhyth-mi-cal

Please remember that each syllable in an English word must contain at least one
vowel. If none of the five regular vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) are present, count y as a
vowel.

2. Hyphens are also used to separate the words in the written form of a fraction.

The vote passed by a two-thirds majority.

3. Hyphens are often used to join compound adjectives, especially when they present the risk of
ambiguity in a sentence. A compound adjective consists of two or more words that are read as
one and function as a single adjective.

The show featured a fast-talking robot.

Thankfully, it was a well-planned meeting.

We live in an eighth-floor apartment.

4. Here’s a short list to help you remember other words that need hyphens and a few that do not.
Always hyphenate

all forms of in-law: brother-in-law, father-in-law.

all great compounds: great-aunt, great-grandfather.
all vice compounds: vice-consul, vice-chairperson.
 all elect compounds: mayor-elect, president-elect.
all self compounds: self-taught, self-assured.

Do not hyphenate

any ache compound: toothache, backache (unless forced to at the end of a line).
any book compound: textbook, notebook (unless forced to at the end of a line).

Downsizing

Q. “Everyone at our company uses the word downsizing. Is it spelled as one word or two?”
wondered a consultant from San Francisco.

A. There’s an informal guideline that will tell you whether such constructions as downsizing are
written as one word or two. When two words mean something different separately but, when
joined together, take on a third meaning that is widely accepted, they can be written as one word.
Therefore, it would be appropriate to squeeze down and sizing into one word: downsizing. If in
doubt, check your dictionary.

The Importance of Hyphens

Q. A hospital administrator, baffled by the words given to him by a colleague, called for
clarification. He asked, “How should this headline read: ‘Lessons Learned from Multi
Disciplinary Patient Focused Care Will Aid Future Patients at the Hospital’?”

A. Someone went mad with the lexicon here. For the sake of absolute clarity, I recommended the
addition of a hyphen between Patient and Focused. The headline should appear as follows:

Lessons Learned from Multidisciplinary Patient-Focused Care

Will Aid Future Patients at the Hospital

The headline was made far more intelligible with the addition of a hyphen.

Prefixes and Hyphens

Q. “When do I place a hyphen between a prefix and the rest of the word?” asked an accountant.

A. We place hyphens between root words and prefixes when the unhyphenated alternatives can be
easily misread or misinterpreted. For instance, the noun meaning “to form again” is spelled
reformation while a similar noun meaning “a change” is spelled reformation. Similarly, the verb
meaning “to form again” is spelled re-form while the verb meaning “to change” is spelled
reform.
 We also place hyphens between prefixes and root words that are proper nouns or proper
adjectives: non-Jewish, anti-American, pro-Israel. The proper noun or adjective must begin
with a capital letter. Without the hyphen, the small letter at the end of the prefix would sit next to
the capital letter at the start of the noun or adjective: nonjewish, antiAmerican, prolsrael. This
result is too strange, so we add the hyphen to separate them.

The Dash

An extended hyphen, the dash (—), is primarily a stylistic mark. It usually sets off words that
represent an abrupt change of thought or shift of flow in a sentence. Though it does have its place, the
dash is a mark of punctuation that the conscientious author should use sparingly. There is often another
mark that is more appropriate.

With Parenthetical Material

The dash may set off parenthetical material. With the dash present, the parentheses are excluded. The
use of the dash puts more emphasis on the word, phrase, or clause than a set of parentheses would.

I am sure that the Wizard’s force—and the other forces of Evil—will be waiting
for our attack.

From beneath his jacket he drew forth a device that turned our blood to ice—a
nuclear detonator.

With Afterthoughts
The dash may set off and emphasize an afterthought at the end of a sentence.

It is possible that we will not see each other for a long while—maybe never
again.

With Dialogue
In dialogue, the dash may indicate hesitant or stumbling speech.

His—his face was—it was covered with—with worms.

With Numbers and Dates

The dash is often placed between inclusive numbers and dates to replace one of the words to or and.

Charlemagne ruled the Franks from 768–814.

Ms. Creeper asked us to read pages 5–85 over the weekend.

A Dash Question

Q. “Can the dash replace a comma?” asked a studious printer’s apprentice.

A. Yes, it is perfectly acceptable to replace a comma with a dash when the comma precedes a direct
quote.

Sherman said, “War is hell.”

Sherman said—“War is hell.”

However, the version with the comma is preferable.

Here is a note for the curious. In print shop lingo, dashes are referred to as em
dashes or en dashes, depending on their sizes. The em dash was formerly the width of
the letter M of any given font and is now the width of a square of any type body used
as a unit of measure. The em pica, for instance, is about one-sixth of an inch in width.
The mark—is an em dash. The en dash is one-half the width of an em dash. The en
dash, –, looks much like a hyphen and is mainly used between inclusive numbers and
dates, as seen above.

Another Dash Question

Q. “Do dashes ever belong with appositives?” asked an English tutor whose pupils were working on
punctuation.

A. We often see dashes before such expressions as namely and for instance, expressions that
introduce appositives.

Some kids—namely, the twins—are incorrigible.

This usage is perfectly acceptable.

Still Another Dash Question

Q. “Can I use a dash to introduce a list?” asked a writer of history textbooks.

A. Dashes may be used to introduce lists and also to introduce each item in a list as a bullet would.

These are the items that we need—

—chocolate

—flour

—sugar
 —eggs

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks come in two varieties: single and double. The more common of the two is the double
quotation mark. We will tackle this variety first.

Double Quotation Marks with Quoted Material

Quotation marks enclose quoted material.

Then, the pig said, “But, we already have a chicken.”

“Who,” she asked, “is responsible for this debacle?”

Notice that each piece of the broken quote in the second example is surrounded by quotation marks
and that only the first word in the quote is capitalized.

Double Quotation Marks with Titles

Quotation marks may enclose the titles of short works and portions of larger works, such as magazine
articles, newspaper articles, essays, short stories, songs, poems, chapters of books, short films,
sculptures, and paintings.

Have you read the story “The Illustrated Man” by Ray Bradbury?

I call this short film “T for Trombone.”

Double Quotation Marks with Words Called to the Reader’s Attention

Writers often enclose words in quotation marks to which they wish to call the reader’s attention.
These include nicknames, slang, and coined words or phrases, among others.

John “Big Boy” Samuels has been a loyal friend of mine since we were kids.

My son told me that my new hairstyle looks “phat,” whatever that means.

I suffer from “90210phobia,” the fear of the cast and characters of the hit
television series Beverly Hills 90210.

Double Quotation Marks with Referenced Words, Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences
Quotation marks often enclose words, phrases, clauses, and sentences that are referred to within a
sentence.

The origins of the word “grammar” are quite fascinating.

 I think the description “a few sandwiches short of a picnic” fits her well.

The sentence “He took the time to take my temperature” contains alliteration.

Please note that the writers of The Grammar Bible have chosen to place most of the words,
phrases, and clauses referred to within our sentences in boldface rather than within quotation marks.
We refer to so many words, phrases, and clauses that quotation marks would clog the pages of the
book. This is a stylistic issue, and, for the sake of our readers, we opted for the clarity and visual
aesthetic of bold-faced print.

Single Quotation Marks

Single quotation marks enclose material that the standard double quotation marks would when that
material is enclosed within a sentence already enclosed in double quotation marks.

Bobby said, “Did you bother to consult Morty ‘Bookworm’ Morrison?”

I said, “Jennifer said, ‘You haven’t heard the last of the Cromwells!’”

The president commented, “Sadly, we are all victims of ‘Reaganomics’!”

Another Use of Quotation Marks

Q. “Are quotation marks used to indicate irony?” asked a college student.

A. Quotation marks can be used to indicate irony, but only as a last resort, when the irony might
otherwise be lost. A skillfully prepared ironic meaning should not elude the reader. Quotation
marks should not be necessary.

Quotation Marks and Other Marks of Punctuation

Punctuation can become most troublesome when the quotation marks come into play. It is usually
obvious when and where the quotation marks are necessary, but what is not quite so obvious is how
the other marks of punctuation should be placed in relation to those quotation marks. Many callers
have phoned the Hot Line with questions on this issue, so we will let their calls show us the Way.

Commas, Periods, and Quotation Marks

Q. “Where do periods and commas go in relation to closing quotation marks?” asked an English
teacher.

A. The comma and the period go inside the closing quotation marks at all times. There are no
exceptions to this rule.
 My advisor told me, “You better pick another project.”

“That,” she said, “is a large steak.”

Question Marks and Quotation Marks

Q. “If a sentence ends with a quoted word or phrase, does the question mark belong inside or outside
of the closing quote?” asked a state department researcher.

A. If the entire sentence, including the material within the closing quotes, is a question, place the
question mark outside the quote.

Have you read Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants”?

Since the sentence itself is interrogative (it asks a question), the question mark affects
more than just the quoted material and belongs outside the quote.
If only the quoted material is a question, place the question mark inside the closing
quote.

I heard you say, “When is the play over?”

Here, only the quoted material is interrogative. The sentence as a whole is declarative.
Therefore, we place the question mark inside the closing quote.

Exclamation Points and Quotation Marks

Q. Moments later, the same caller was back on the line. He asked, “What should I do with
exclamation points and closing quotes?”

A. I told him, “The very same rules apply. If the entire sentence, including the quoted material, is an
exclamation, place the exclamation point outside the quote.

How awful it was to hear him say, “I won’t work”!

If only the quoted material is an exclamation, place the exclamation point inside the
closing quote.

I heard him say, “I hate you!”

Colons, Semicolons, and Quotation Marks

Q. “Do any punctuation marks always go outside closing quotes?” a graduate student wondered.

A. There are only two marks of punctuation that are almost always placed outside closing quotes: the
 colon and the semicolon. Unless it is a part of the quoted material, you will never find one of
these within the quotation marks.

My teacher feels that these books are “highbrow reading”: Catcher in

the Rye by J. D. Salinger, Remembrance of Things Past by Marcel
Proust, and Ulysses by James Joyce.

My mother said, “You may not attend the dance!”; therefore, I know that I
must attend.

Single Quotation Marks and Other Marks of Punctuation

Q. “What do I do with the punctuation next to single quotes within double quotes?” asked an assistant
copy editor.

A. Among contemporary linguists, this is a controversial matter. The most important thing to
remember in choosing a method of punctuation is that your marks should clarify, not confuse, the
meaning of the sentence. In general, American-style punctuation suggests that we follow these
three rules:

A General Rule
Place any mark of punctuation that belongs to the quoted material enclosed in single quotes within
those single quotes.

Bob said, “She asked me, ‘Where should we go to eat?’”

He said, “Then the policeman yelled, ‘Stop!’ ”

Single Quotation Marks with Periods and Commas

Place commas and periods that do not belong to the quoted material enclosed in single quotes within
those single quotes unless you feel that such placement is confusing.

I said, “Barry complained that he ‘doesn’t get any respect.’ ”

Randy stated, “They call me Randy ‘The Shrimp,’ but I don’t mind.”

Single Quotation Marks with Exclamation Points, Question Marks, Semicolons, and Colons
Do not place exclamation points, question marks, semicolons, and colons within single quotation
marks unless they belong to the quotation within those single quotation marks.

He exclaimed, “I don’t know the meaning of the word ‘palatalize’!”

She asked, “What did he mean when he said, ‘I’m never coming back’?”
 Some Other Things You Should Know About Punctuation

Here are a few more points to consider before our discussion of punctuation comes to an end:

Punctuation of Business Letters

Q. “I’m writing a business letter. Can I put a comma after the opening salutation, or is it a colon or a
semicolon?” asked a bank manager.

A. The opening salutation of a formal letter is followed by a colon, never a comma or a semicolon.
However, use a comma after the salutation in an informal letter. Commas are also appropriate in
business letters written to friends.

Slashes

Q. “What are the proper grammatical uses of the slash mark?” asked a post office clerk.

A. The slash mark, also known as the virgule, is used to mark the divisions between words, lines, and
numbers. The word virgule comes from the Latin virgula, meaning “little rod.” We often see the
slash mark in the expression and/or and in the informal writing of a date between the day and the
month and between the month and the year: 9/22/95. The expression in care of is frequently
abbreviated c/o.

Asterisks

Q. “Where did the asterisk come from?” asked a caller who had just finished formatting footnotes in a
research paper.

A. This starlike sign (*) is used in print to refer the reader to footnotes, references, omissions, and the
like. The word comes from the Greek word asteriskos, meaning “little star.” You may have seen
the flower, the aster. It resembles a star.

Bullets

Q. “How do I use bullets?” asked a toy company representative. “I always list the virtues of our toys
when I write letters to clients.”

A. As the representative’s remarks suggest, bullets (•) mark items in a list. If a sentence follows the
bullet, place a period at its end. Words and phrases that follow bullets need no ending
punctuation. It is never necessary to place the conjunction and before the list item in a bulleted
list.
 Birthday Wish List:
Dynamo with Explosive Action Arm
Ballerina Bobby
Monkey Madness Playset

Other Formatting

Q. One caller commented, “I remember from my school days that we were told to underline titles of
books in our papers. I’m writing a memo at work and it has a title in it. Does it need underlining
or quotes or italics or what?”

A. There are very few rules to guide us when we need to set off a word or a group of words, such as
a title, in our writing. Some people use quotation marks. Others insist on underlining. Still others
use italics for the job. The issue is primarily stylistic. Whatever method offsets your word or
words the most effectively is the one that you should use. In my opinion, underlining is overkill.
Italics are more subtle and equally effective.
Despite the fuzzy nature of the issue, I would suggest some special formatting of a word or
words that need to be offset from the main text in the following situations:

1. Foreign words and phrases that have not yet made it into a standard English dictionary should
be italicized.

The German ambassador described the party as wunderbar.

2. Words used as words should be set off in bold-faced or italicized type.

The word sinister has interesting Latin origins.

or

The word sinister has interesting Latin origins.

3. The titles of books, newspapers, magazines, movies, plays, television shows, and works of
art should be italicized.

I’ve read Watership Down eight times.

I laughed so hard during The Foreigner that my stomach hurt.

Seinfeld is a brilliant television program.

Writing Dialogue

Q. A novelist, tired of writing he said or she said before each line of dialogue, asked if I knew of a
 simpler way to create conversation in writing.

A. I advised him to start a new paragraph every time the speaker changes. The careful reader will
easily follow the change and will appreciate the simplicity and brevity that the elimination of
those he saids and she saids creates.

“Are we going out tonight?”

“No, I’ve decided that we should stay home.”

 Bibliography

Appel, William R. “Letters to the Editor,” Smithsonian, March 1995.

Chalker, Sylvia. The Little Oxford English Dictionary. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Cousin, Pierre-Henri, Lorna Sinclair, Jean-Francois Allain, and Catherine E. Love, eds. Harper
Collins French Dictionary. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.
Douglas, Auriel. Webster’s New World Dictionary of Eponyms: Common Words from Proper Names.
New York: MacMillan General Reference, 1990.
Ehrlich, Eugene, and Marshall De Bruhl, compilers. The International Thesaurus of Quotations.
Rev. ed. New York: HarperCollins, 1996.
Fargis, Paul, ed. The New York Public Library Writer’s Guide to Style and Usage. New York:
HarperCollins, 1987.
Flexner, Stuart Berg, ed. Random House Unabridged Dictionary. 2nd ed. New York: Random
House, 1993
Fortsch, Dagmar, Hildegard Pesch, Lorna Sinclair, and Elspeth Anderson, eds. Harper Collins
German Dictionary. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.
Grafton, Sue. L Is for Lawless. New York: Henry Holt, 1995.
Greenbaum, Sidney. The Oxford English Grammar. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Grossman, John, ed. The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1993.
Hemingway, Ernest. A Farewell to Arms. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.
Kilpatrick, James J. “Mrs. Malaprop’s Prose Set a Precedent,” Smithsonian, January 1995.
Leeds, Jeff. “Tough Times at Compton Casino,” Los Angeles Times, October 6, 1997.
Lerner, Alan J., lyricist; Frederick Loewe, composer; George Cukor, director. My Fair Lady.
Burbank, Calif.: Warner Bros., 1964.
McShane, Frank, ed. Selected Letters of Raymond Chandler. New York: Columbia University Press,
1981.
Sisson, A. F. Sisson’s Synonyms: An Unabridged Synonym and Related-Term Locator. West Nyack,
NY: Parker Publishing Company, 1969.
Soukhanov, Anne H., ed. Roget’s II: The New Thesaurus. Rev. ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.
Thurber, James. The Years with Ross. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1959.
Traupman, John C., Ph.D. The New College Latin & English Dictionary. Rev. ed. New York: Bantam
Books, 1995.
Williams, Janet B. W. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders III-R. Washington,
D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1987.
 About the Authors

MICHAEL STRUMPF founded the National Grammar Hot Line while a professor of English at Moorpark
College. He has appeared on Oprah and NBC’s Today and serves as grammatical consultant to major
corporations and governmental bodies.

AURIEL DOUGLAS is an editor and writer whose work has appeared in such diverse publications as
Playboy and the Los Angeles Times. Her books include The History of the Academy Award Winners
and The Dictionary of Eponyms.
 Acknowledgments

The writing of this book has truly been a team effort. The publisher wishes to acknowledge the
tireless efforts of Eric Ericson, editor in chief, whose sharp eye and insightful commentary have
helped to make this book the thorough and accessible volume that it is; Ke Zou, Ph.D., whose
scholarly consultation has held this tome to the highest standards of accuracy and clarity; and Carson
Elder, whose organizational talents are impeccable. Additional thanks also go to Gretchen Ericson
for her invaluable Latin consultation and to Candice Chen for her editorial contributions.
Finally, we must thank the many callers to The National Grammar Hot Line. Inasmuch as their
questions and comments appear in this volume, we not only give them due credit, but, additionally,
thank them for providing such thoughtful queries and scholarly observations.
 Glossary

action verb: a verb which expresses action

active voice: the stronger form of voice in which the subject performs the action of the verb.
adjective: a type of word that modifies nouns or pronouns.
adverbial clause: a clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb in the same way that a
standard adverbial would.
adverbial complement: a special adverbial without which the sentence is incomplete or
ungrammatical.
adverbial: a sentence element that performs the same function as a normal adverb and is optional.
adverb: a type of word that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
affirmative adverb: the adverb yes, which answers questions.
antecedent: the word for which a pronoun stands.
apostrophe: a mark of punctuation that is used to indicate plural and possessive forms of words or to
indicate missing letters and digits.
appositive: a word, phrase, or clause that is placed beside another word to rename, explain, or
enhance it.
article: a word, either a, an, or the, used to determine the references of a noun.
auxiliary verb: the verb in a verb phrase that precedes the principal or main verb (also known as
helping verbs).
base: the base of a verb is its present indicative form.
bare infinitive: an infinitive written without the infinitive marker to.
canonical order: the word order used with a declarative sentence in which the subject of the sentence
appears first, followed by the predicate.
cardinal number: a number that expresses absolute number without any implication of position or
order—the counting numbers (one, two, three, etc.).
case: describes the relationship of a noun or pronoun to the other words in the sentence.
clause: a group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate.
collective noun: a noun that names a group of people or objects.
colon: a mark of punctuation that is used to indicate a strong break within a sentence and that means
“as follows”.
comma: a mark of punctuation that may divide items in a series, distinguish subordinate from main
clauses, and insert stylistic pauses, among other things.
comma splice: a common mistake that occurs when a writer links, or splices, main clauses together
by using only commas.
common noun: a general noun, such as goat or knife.
comparative clause: an adverbial clause of comparison that typically modifies adjectives and
adverbs.
 adverbs.
comparative degree: the degree of comparison that indicates that one object, verb, adjective, or
adverbial holds a greater or lesser degree of a quality or quantity than the object(s),verb(s),
adjective(s), or adverbial(s) with which it is compared.
comparison: the characteristic of an adjective or adverb that indicates the degree of a quality
expressed by that adjective or adverb.
complete predicate: the head predicate along with its modifiers and any objects and complements.
complete subject: the head subject along with its attendant modifiers.
complex preposition: a combination of two or three words, such as across from or in addition to,
that function together as a single preposition.
complex sentence: a sentence consisting of a subordinate clause linked to a main clause by some
connecting word.
compound predicate: two or more predicates connected by a coordinate conjunction in the complete
predicate of the sentence.
compound sentence: a sentence consisting of two or more main clauses linked together by a
coordinate conjunction.
compound subject: two or more subjects connected by a coordinate conjunction in the complete
subject of the sentence.
conjugation: the complete set of forms for a particular verb inflected across tense, mood, voice,
person, and number.
conjunction: a word that creates a connection between words or groups of words.
conjunctive adverb: a connecting word, such as again or otherwise, that is similar to a standard
adverb because of the meaning that it conveys, but that is also similar to a coordinate conjunction
because it connects main clauses—more often referred to as a connector.
conjunctive conjunction: a coordinate conjunction, such as and, that has an additive function.
connector: a connecting word, such as again or otherwise, that is similar to a standard adverb
because of the meaning that it conveys, but that is also similar to a coordinate conjunction because
it connects main clauses—sometimes referred to as a conjunctive adverb.
contraction: an abbreviated version of a subject and a verb (i.e., he is→he’s) or of a verb and the
negative adverb not (i.e., is not→isn’t).
coordinate conjunction: a conjunction that connects sentence elements of equal importance.
dangling participle: a participle or participle phrase that does not clearly modify a particular word
or phrase in a sentence.
dash: a mark of punctuation that is used to indicate an abrupt change of thought or shift of flow in a
sentence.
declarative sentence: a sentence that is used to make a statement of fact or possibility.
definite article: the article the, which points to particular people, places, things, and ideas.
delayed subject: a subject that is pushed to the end of the sentence and replaced in the true place of
the subject by some dummy element, such as it or there.
demonstrative pronoun: a pronoun that points to the noun that it is replacing.
descriptive adjective: an adjective that describes the noun or pronoun that it modifies by indicating
color, shape, texture, scent, or any other quality that entities named by nouns and pronouns can
possess.
determiner: a word that determines the reference of a noun phrase.
direct object: a noun, pronoun, or other nominal that receives the action of the verb.
direct object: a noun, pronoun, or other nominal that receives the action of the verb.
disjunctive conjunction: a coordinate conjunctive, such as but, that ties words and groups of words
together and that also implies an opposition or separation.
double negative: a grammatical construction in which two negative words are used to make a
positive.
dummy element: a word, such as it or there, that takes the place of some word(s) in a sentence.
eponym: a word that has come into the language from a person’s proper name, such as maverick
from the name of the famous Texan, Samuel August Maverick.
exclamation point: a mark of punctuation that is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate strong
emotion, surprise, or urgency.
exclamatory sentence: a sentence that expresses a thought with strong emotion.
first person (with nouns and pronouns): a noun or pronoun in the first person names the person or
persons speaking; first person nouns are always used in apposition with first person pronouns.
first person (with verbs): with a first person verb, the speaker includes himself or herself as one who
takes the action of the verb or whose condition is described by the verb.
form (of a sentence): the appearance or shape of a sentence, determined by the order in which the
elements that make up the sentence appear and the end punctuation.
fronting: the act of moving some element of the complete predicate to the beginning of the sentence,
especially in front of the subject.
function: the intended purpose of a sentence, determined by the way the sentence is spoken or read
(placement of emphasis and changes of intonation), its intended meaning, and the end punctuation.
future tense: encompasses all actions or states of being we might encounter in a verb between the
briefest of moments after the present and the end of time.
gender: the classification of nouns according to sex.
gerund: a type of verbal that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.
gerund phrase: a gerund together with its modifiers, objects, and complements.
head predicate: the one word in the complete predicate that unlocks the central meaning of the
predicate.
head subject: the one word in the complete subject that names the entity spoken of.
helping verb: the verb in a verb phrase that precedes the principal or main verb (better known as an
auxiliary verb).
heteronyms: words that have identical spellings but different pronunciations and meanings, such as
the noun conduct (accent on the first syllable), meaning “behavior,” and the verb conduct (accent
on the second syllable), meaning “to guide”.
homonyms: words that have the same sound and spelling but different meanings, such as the noun
quack, meaning “the sound made by a duck,” and the noun quack, meaning “a charlatan”.
homographs: words that have the same spelling but different origins, meanings, or pronunciations,
such as the noun homer, meaning “an ancient Hebrew unit of measure,” and the noun homer,
meaning “a home run”.
homophones: words that are pronounced alike and that have different meanings, but that may or may
not be spelled the same, such as the noun quail, meaning “a type of game bird,” and the verb quail,
meaning “to falter”.
host clause: the group of words that the nominal clause completes in a sentence containing a nominal
clause.
imperative mood: a mood or property of the verb that characterizes commands, orders, or requests.
imperative mood: a mood or property of the verb that characterizes commands, orders, or requests.
imperative sentence: a sentence that makes a request or gives a command.
indefinite article: the article a or an, both of which do not point to any noun in particular.
indefinite pronoun: a pronoun, such as anyone and everybody, that has no specific antecedents.
independent clause: a clause that has a subject and predicate and may stand on its own as a complete
thought—more often referred to as a main clause.
indicative mood: a mood or property of the verb that characterizes statements, questions, or
exclamations.
indirect object: a noun, pronoun, or other nominal that receives and precedes the direct object in the
sentence.
infinitive: a type of verbal that can function as a nominal, an adjective, or an adverbial and that
usually begins with its marker to.
infinitive phrase: an infinitive together with its objects, complements, and modifiers.
interjection: a word, such as alas or mercy, used to grab attention, create interest, or highlight the
speaker’s strong emotions.
interrogative adverb: an adverb usually used at the beginning of a sentence to ask a question (i.e.,
how, when, where, and why).
interrogative pronoun: a pronoun, such as who, which, and what, that asks a question.
interrogative sentence: a sentence that asks a question.
intransitive verb: a verb that does not take a direct object.
irregular verb: a verb whose past indicative and past participle forms are generated in an irregular
way.
lexicon: a catalog of words, often those defined in the dictionary, but also those appropriate to more
specialized contexts, such as professions or pastimes.
limiting adjective: an adjective that restricts the definition of the noun or pronoun that it modifies.
linking verb: a verb that joins the subject of the sentence to some word or words in the predicate.
main clause: a clause that may stand on its own as a complete thought—sometimes referred to as an
independent clause.
main verb: the head of the verb phrase that can express action, existence, or condition by itself and
that always appears at the end of the verb phrase—also known as the principal verb
mnemonic: a trick or shortcut, such as a formula or a rhyme, that helps to strengthen your memory and
that you can use to remember those hard-to-spell words.
modal auxiliary verb: an auxiliary verb that indicates the attitude of the subject toward the action of
the verb.
modifier: any word that acts to describe or qualify another word in such a way that it changes the
meaning of that other word.
mood: the form or property of the verb that indicates the speaker’s attitude toward what is
communicated in the sentence.
negative adverb: the adverbs no or not; no answers questions or modifies nouns; not modifies
verbs.
nominal: any noun or pronoun or any word, phrase, or clause that performs the same function as a
noun.
nominal clause: a subordinate clause that functions as a nominal within a sentence.
nominal relative clause: a nominal clause that begins with a relative pronoun.
nominative case: nouns and pronouns in the nominative case name the words that statements are
nominative case: nouns and pronouns in the nominative case name the words that statements are
made about.
nonrestrictive: descriptive information in a sentence that can be eliminated without changing the
meaning of the sentence.
noun: a naming word that gives a title to a person, place, thing, or idea.
noun phrase: a group of words that is composed of a noun and a number of optional modifiers and
that lacks a subject or a predicate.
number: indicates how many people or objects a noun, pronoun, or verb refers to.
objective case: nouns and pronouns in the objective case are objects, such as direct objects, indirect
objects, and objects of prepositions.
object complement: a noun, pronoun, other nominal, or adjective that renames or describes a direct
object.
object of preposition: one of the partners of the preposition—it is usually a noun or a pronoun and
always follows the preposition.
ordinal number: a number that indicates position or order in relation to other numbers (first, second,
third, etc.).
orthography: the academic term for spelling.
oxymoron: a figure of speech that combines contradictory terms, such as “exact estimate”.
palindrome: a word, phrase, or sentence that reads the same forward and backward, such as
“Madam, I’m Adam”.
participle: a verb form that may be used as an adjective or an adverbial (when it is a verbal) or as
the main verb in a verb phrase.
participle phrase: a participle together with its objects, complements, and modifiers.
passive voice: the weaker form of voice in which the subject is acted upon.
past participle: the -ed participle form (i.e., baked)—when used as a verbal, it implies action now
completed but that may have been ongoing at the time of the main verb.
past tense: includes any action or state of being that we could find in a verb between the dawn of
time and a split second before the present. perfect form (of verb tense): a characteristic of verb
tense that indicates that the action of the verb ends.
period: a mark of punctuation that represents a strong pause or break and that is often seen between
sentences and between the letters in abbreviations.
person: the characteristic of a noun, pronoun, or verb that describes the relationship of that noun,
pronoun, or verb to the speaker.
personal pronoun: a pronoun that represents a specific person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of.
personification: the act of treating an inanimate object or an idea as if it had human qualities.
phrase: a group of words that lacks both a subject and a predicate and that functions as a single part
of speech.
plural: the number of a noun, pronoun, or verb that refers to more than one of anything.
portmanteau word: a word with the meanings and sounds of two words packed into it, such as smog
from smoke and fog.
positive degree: the degree of comparison that indicates a lack of comparison.
possessive pronoun: a pronoun that shows possession.
predicate: the sentence element that indicates action performed or existence expressed by the subject.
prepositional phrase: a phrase that consists of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and any
modifiers of that object.
 modifiers of that object.
preposition: a word that shows the relationship between two words or phrases in a sentence.
present participle: the -ing participle form of a verb (i.e., baking); when used as a verbal, it implies
action that is ongoing at the time of the action of the main verb in the sentence.
present tense: includes only those actions or states of being that exist in the immediate moment.
principal verb: the head of the verb phrase that can express action, existence, or condition by itself
and that always appears at the end of the verb phrase—more often referred to as the main verb.
pronoun: a word that takes the place of a noun in a sentence.
proper noun: a noun that refers to a specific person, place, or thing, such as Eric and Springfield.
possessive case: nouns in the possessive case show ownership.
progressive form (of verb tense): a characteristic of verb tense that implies that the action or
condition of the verb is specifically ongoing.
punctuation: the system of symbols that writers use to make their writing clear and to add emphasis,
intonation, and pause to a work.
question mark: a mark of punctuation that is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate that a question
is being asked.
real relative pronoun: one of the relative pronouns, who, which, that, or what, each of which plays
a nominal role, such as subject, object, or subject complement, within the clause to which it
belongs.
reciprocal pronoun: the pronoun phrase each other or one another in which the action of each
member of the group that the pronoun phrase stands for affects all the other members of that group.
reflexive pronoun: a pronoun, such as myself or ourselves, that refers or reflects back to the subject
of the sentence or places emphasis on another noun or pronoun in the sentence.
regular verb: a verb whose past indicative and past participle forms are generated in a regular or
standard way.
relative adverb: one of the relative pronouns, when, where, and why, each of which functions as an
adverbial within the clause to which it belongs.
relative clause: a subordinate clause that modifies a noun, pronoun, or other nominal.
relative determiner: a pronoun, such as whose or which, that introduces a relative clause but that
also modifies the noun that follows it in the relative clause in the same way that an article, another
type of determiner, would modify the noun that follows it.
relative pronoun: a pronoun that takes the place of a noun as a normal pronoun would but that also
connects the replaced noun to a subordinate clause.
restrictive: descriptive information in a sentence that cannot be eliminated without changing the
meaning of the sentence.
run-on sentence: a mistake that occurs when writers string main clauses together without placing any
punctuation or coordinate conjunctions between them.
second person (with nouns and pronouns): a noun or pronoun in the second person names the person
or persons spoken to; second person nouns are always appositives or nouns in direct address.
second person (with verbs): the speaker uses a verb in the second person to address the person or
people around him or her.
semicolon: a mark of punctuation that indicates a stronger pause than the comma but a weaker pause
than the period.
sentence structure: the formula used to build a sentence.
sentence type: a category used to classify a sentence according to function.
sentence type: a category used to classify a sentence according to function.
simple form (of verb tense): a characteristic of verb tense that indicates action that merely occurs at
its respective place in time.
simple predicate: a predicate consisting of just one predicate element.
simple sentence: a sentence which contains a single subject-predicate set.
simple subject: a subject consisting of just one subject element.
singular: the number of a noun, pronoun, or verb that refers to just one of anything.
spelling: the art of writing words with the correct sequence of letters.
split infinitive: any infinitive phrase construction that separates the infinitive marker to from the verb.
spoonerism: a word or phrase in which syllables have been transposed, such “Mr. Clown’s Brass”
instead of “Mr. Brown’s Class”; the term spoonerism is an eponym, derived from the name of
Reverend William A. Spooner (1844–1930), dean and later warden of New College at Oxford.
subject: the sentence element that names whom or what a sentence is about.
subject complement: a noun, pronoun, other nominal, or adjective that renames or describes the
subject of a sentence.
subject-verb inversion: placement of the verb in front of the subject in some declarative sentences
and in many interrogative sentences.
subjunctive mood: a mood or property of the verb that characterizes wishes or contradictions of fact.
subordinate clause: a clause that cannot stand alone and make sense.
subordinate conjunction: a conjunction that connects sentence elements of differing importance.
substantive: a dated term for any noun or pronoun or any word, phrase, or clause that performs the
same function as a noun—modern grammarians use the term nominal.
superlative degree: the highest degree of comparison—no object, verb, adjective, or adverbial can
possess a quality to a degree higher than the superlative.
tense: the placement of a verb in time.
third person (with nouns and pronouns): a noun or pronoun in the third person names the person or
persons spoken of.
third person (with verbs): to speak in the third person is to use the verb to speak or write about
those around you.
transitive verb: any verb that requires an object.
verbal: a form of a verb that is used as another part of speech.
verb phrase: a complete verb composed of more than one word.
verb: a type of word that expresses action, existence, or condition.
vocabulary: the complete collection of the words in a language.
voice: the characteristic of a verb that indicates the strength of the subject in a sentence.
zero relative pronoun: the gap left by an omitted relative pronoun in a relative clause.
zero that-clause: a nominal clause from which the subordinate conjunction that has been omitted.
 Index

The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages in your eBook .
Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your
reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.

a
a-an distinction
a/an/the
abbreviated adverbial clauses
correct case in
abbreviations
apostrophe with plurals of
articles and
period with
plurals of
action verbs
modifiers
objects of
posing as linking verbs
active voice
addresses, comma with
adjective/adverb distinctions, key
adjectives
adverbial clauses modifying
and adverbs
adverbs counterpart of
adverbs functioning as
adverbs modify
articles transforming into nouns
comma with
beyond comparison
compound adjectives
defined

degrees of comparison
demonstrative pronouns as
descriptive adjectives
 descriptive adjectives
emphatic usage
ending in -ly
incomparable (list)
infinitive as
infinitives modifying
interrogative pronouns as
irregular comparison (list)
issues with
limiting
following linking verbs
modifying gerunds
nominal adjectives
nouns as
object of preposition
overused
participle as
positioning
possessive pronouns as
as referent of preposition
special usage
types of
typical usage
usage as object complements
usage as subject complements
words both adverb and
adjectives with special implications antecedents modified by
adverb comparison
adverb phrase
adverbial clauses
abbreviated
classes of
comma with
modifying adjectives and adverbs
subordinate conjunctions introducing
type of subordinate clauses
word order and
adverbial clauses of comparison (comparative clauses)
adverbial complement
adverbial of reason
adverbials
infinitive as
modifying gerunds
modifying participles
prepositional phrases as
as referent of preposition
 as referent of preposition
relative adverbs as
adverbs
adjective/adverb distinctions, key
and adjectives
adverbial clauses modifying
adverbs modifying
affirmative adverbs
categories of
beyond comparison
conjunctive adverbs (connectors)
conjunctive adverbs (connectors): list
creating
defined
degrees of comparison by
distinguished from prepositions
ending in -ly
functioning as adjectives
independent
interrogative
irregular comparison
modifiers
modifying gerunds
modifying participles
modifying pronouns
modifying verbs
negative/affirmative
nominal adverbs
number
other kinds of
points to note about
positioning
relation to conjunctions
suffix comparison
too many
within verb phrase
words both adjective and
see also relative adverbs
advisor/adviser
affirmative adverb comma with
afterthoughts, dash with
airport lingo
Alcuin
allude/elude/illude
am
in contraction
 in contraction
ambiguity
comma to eliminate
ambiguous prepositions
American English
foreign words in
American Heritage Dictionary, The
among, between-
as, like vs.
an
and
compound antecedents connected by
conjunction
animals
collective nouns
ante-/anti-
antecendents
agreement between pronouns and
collective nouns as
compound antecedents
indefinite pronouns as
modified by adjectives with special implications
plural in form but singular in manner
pronouns not needing
of relative pronouns
vague
apostrophe
with contractions
with degrees
with missing digits
with missing letters
not with used possessive pronoun
with noun phrase
in plurals
with plurals of letters and abbreviations
plurals of nouns containing
in possession
with possessive nouns
possessive of indefinite pronouns
rules for
with singular nouns
Appel, William R.
appositives
colon with
comma with
dash with
 dash with
nominal clauses as
nouns as
punctuation
are
in contractions
Aristophanes of Byzantium
articles
and abbreviations
capitalization
as determiners
indefinite/definite
positioning
transforming adjectives into nouns
artistic license
with split infinitives
asterisks
auxiliary (helping) verbs
categorizing
in compound predicate
contractions
in interrogative sentences
in verb phrase

bad vs. badly

bare and bear
bare infinitives
base forms of verbs
in infinitives
in participles
be
conjugation table
linking verb
bear, bare and
beside-besides
between-among
bold-faced type
for words as words
both
brackets
with information inserted into quoted material
with parenthetical material within parentheses
rules for
brevity, need for
brevity, need for
Brobdingnagian
Brown, James
bullets
business letters, punctuation of
but-except
by-with

can
as modal auxiliary
canonical word order
capitalization
of prepositions
of proper adjectives
of proper nouns
cardinal numbers
list
Carroll, Lewis
case
in abbreviated adverbial clauses
indefinite pronouns
in nominal clauses
nouns
pronouns
pronouns: and personal pronouns
cause
adverbial clauses
Charlemagne
Chicago Manual of Style, The
Churchill, Winston
clauses
conjunctions connecting
defined
difficulties with
pronoun-antecedent agreement in
restrictive/nonrestrictive
subject-verb agreement in
see also under type, e.g., adverbial clauses; main clauses; nominal clauses; relative clauses;
subordinate clauses
clauses, referenced
double quotation marks with

clauses in series
comma with
collective nouns
collective nouns
agreement with verbs
animals (list)
as antecedents
number
possessive
collocations
and prepositions (list)
colloquial speech
like in
written
colloquialism
colon
with appositives
with lists
with page specifications
and quotation marks
with quoted material
with ratios
rules for
with salutations
single quotation marks with
with time
with titles and subtitles
comma(s)
with addresses and locations
with adjectives
with adverbial clauses
with appositives
in compound sentences
conjunctions and
with conjunctive adverbs
with coordinate conjunctions
with dates
to eliminate ambiguity
to indicate omissions
with infinitive
with interjections
with items in series
with names
with negative and affirmative adverbs
with nouns in direct address
with numbers
with participle phrase
with prepositional phrases
and quotation marks
 and quotation marks
with quoted material
with relative clauses
with restrictive/nonrestrictive information
rules for
with salutations
to set off interrogative clauses
to set off phrases of contrast
single quotation marks with
with subordinate clauses
with titles
with verbals
comma splice
avoiding
commentary, parentheses with
common gender
common nouns
common usage
comparative clauses
predicates omitted in
comparative degree of comparison adjectives
comparison
adjectives: degrees of
adjectives beyond
by adverb
adverbial clauses
adverbs: degrees of
adverbs: degrees of irregular
adverbs beyond
forms of
irregular
subordinate conjunctions
by suffix
complements
direct objects
in gerund phrases
in infinitive phrases
of linking verbs
in participle phrases
of verbs
see also object complements; subject complements
complete compound predicate
complete compound subject
complete predicate
complete sentence
basic unit of complete thought
 basic unit of complete thought
complete subject
complete thought (concept)
complex prepositions
complex sentences
issues regarding
subject-verb agreement in
subordinate clauses and
compound adjectives
hyphens in
compound antecedents
connected by and
connected by or, either-or, or neither-nor rules for
compound-complex sentences
compound/compounded
compound indefinite pronouns (list)
compound nouns
possessive case
compound predicates
auxiliary verbs in
compound relative determiner
compound relative pronouns
compound sentences
comma in
composed of two main clauses
issues regarding
punctuation of
semicolon with
compound subjects
compound words, plurals of
computer grammar checker
conjugation
future indicative forms
future perfect indicative forms
past indicative forms
past participle
past perfect indicative forms
past perfect subjunctive forms
past subjunctive forms
present indicative forms
present participles
present perfect indicative forms
present perfect subjunctive forms
present subjunctive forms
principal parts of verbs
regular/irregular verbs
 regular/irregular verbs
conjugation tables
be
do
grow
have
look
run
conjunctions
capitalization
and commas
commonly used (list)
conjunctive conjunctions
connecting clauses
coordinate conjunctions
correlative conjunctions
defined
disjunctive conjunctions
issues about
relation of adverbs to
subordinate conjunctions
conjunctive adverbs (connectors)
comma with
list
punctuation with
conjunctive conjunctions
connecting word(s)
in complex sentences
nominal clauses
omitting from nominal clause
relative pronouns as
subordinate conjunction
that as
tying clauses together
connections
with conjunctions
connectors
see conjunctive adverbs (connectors)
consonants
sounds
context
meaning in
pronoun takes meaning from
of pronouns
contractions
abbreviated versions of verb phrases
 abbreviated versions of verb phrases
apostrophe with
pronouns and
verbs
contrast, phrases of comma setting off
coordinate conjunctions
comma with
in compound sentences
conjunctive adverbs similar to
with items in series
punctuation with
copulative verbs
see linking verbs
correlative conjunctions
could
contracting have with
could of/might of/, should of
creative license
curses, dated

dangling participles
dash
with afterthoughts
with appositives
with dialogue
to introduce lists
with numbers and dates
with parenthetical material
replacing comma
rules for
dates
comma with
dash with
decimate, disseminate/
declarative sentences
exclamation point with
period with
word order
decry/descry
definite articles
definition distinctions

degree
adverbial clauses
adverbs
 adverbs
degrees, apostrophe with
delayed subjects
dummy it as
nominal clauses as
in sentence structure
demonstrative pronouns
adjectives as
caution regarding
as determiners
demonstrative pronoun
that as
uses of
deplane
descriptive adjectives
determiners
articles as
defined
demonstrative pronouns as
indefinite pronouns as
interrogative pronouns as
possessive pronouns as
relative determiners
dialogue
dash with
writing
Dickens, Charles
Dickensian
dictionary
consulting
first English
information provided by
for spelling
Webster
different-than error
digits, missing
apostrophe with
direct address
nouns in
nouns in: comma with
direct interrogative sentences
question mark with
direct objects
adjectives following
complements
in infinitive phrases
 in infinitive phrases
need for
nominal clause as
nouns as
pronouns as
in relative clauses
direct questions, question mark with
disjunctive conjunctions
disseminate/decimate
dive/dived/dove
dividers, parentheses with
do
conjugation table
as transitive or intransitive verb
uses for
double negatives
perpetuating
double possessives
downsizing
drinking and driving
and adverbs
dummy element(s)
dummy it
in nominal clauses
in sentence structure
dummy it
dun
during-for

each other
editorial we
either-or
ellipses
period with
punctuation with
question marks with
em dash
emigrate, immigrate
emphasis, placement of
emphatic form of verbs do in
emphatic role
reflexive pronouns
en dash
English idiom
English idiom
English language
colloquial
complications in
esoteric English
evolution of
is flexible
like in
modifiers in
nonsensical constructions in
nonstandard
peculiar words and phrases
powers of expression in
pronoun in
pronoun gender in
epiphany
eponyms
everybody
except, but-
exclamation(s)
punctuation with
exclamation point
with declarative sentences
with ellipses
with exclamatory sentences
with imperative sentences
with interjections
with interrogative sentences
and quotation marks
rules for
single quotation marks with
exclamatory sentences
exclamation point with
word order
explanations, parentheses with
expletives
see dummy element(s)

Farewell to Arms, A (Hemingway)

feminine gender
fewer, less/

first person
nouns
pronouns
 pronouns
shall/will in
with verbs
flout/flaunt
flutist/flautist
for, during-
foreign words and phrases
italics for
list
form vs. function
sentence types
formatting
fractions, hyphen in
French
gender of nouns
fronted element/fronting
future indicative forms of verbs
future perfect indicative forms of verbs
future perfect tense
future tense
shall and will in
verb phrase in

gender
agreement between pronouns and antecedents in
nouns
indefinite pronouns
pronouns
pronouns: personal pronouns
gender neutral pronoun (proposed)
German
gender of nouns
gerund phrases
modifiers in
objects and complements in
gerunds
adjectives modifying
adverbials modifying
adverbs modifying
formed from linking verbs
as nominal

object of preposition
participles
possession and
 possession and
perfect form of
possessive pronouns modifying
subject complements with
use of
Gibbs, Woolcott
glamour
glossary
good vs. well
googolplex
grammar
framework of language
is model of language
rigorous approach to
word
grammatical flaws
becoming correct
grammatical structure
punctuation and
grow
conjugation table
Gulliver’s Travels (Swift)

had gone/had went

had to
as modal auxiliary
hang/hung
hard vs. hardly
has
in contractions
have
conugation table
in contractions
head compound predicate
head compound subject
head predicate
head subject
healthy, healthier, healthily, healthfully
Hemingway, Ernest
heteronyms
homographs
homonyms
homophones
host clause
host clause
how
interrogative adverb
hung, hang
hyphen
and plurals
prefixes and
rules for
with words broken over two lines
with words in a compound

immigrate/emigrate
imperative mood
imperative sentences
exclamation point with
nouns in direct address
period with
word order
written as questions: question mark with
imply/infer
in-back-of error
in-into
in-on
in-within
inanimate objects
possessive case with
incomparable adjectives (list)
indefinite articles
indefinite pronoun phrases
indefinite pronouns
as antecedents
case
compound indefinite pronoun
as determiners
do not have antecedents
forms of
gender
list
nominative case
number
objective case
person
plural forms
verb agreement with
 verb agreement with
independent adverbs
independent clauses
see also main clauses
indicative mood
indirect objects
in infinitive phrases
nominal clauses as
nouns as
indirect question
period with
question mark not required with
infer, imply/
infinitive interpretation
infinitive phrases
comma with
direct objects in
indirect objects in
modifiers
objects
subject complements in
infinitives
as adverbials
bare infinitives
comma with
functions of
as modifiers
as nominals
as objects
in other roles
participles
perfect form of
split infinitives
as subject complements
as subjects
initials
period with
inside-of error
interjections
comma with
common (list)
defined
exclamation point with
punctuation of
interrogative adverbs
in interrogative sentences
 in interrogative sentences
interrogative clauses, comma setting off
interrogative pronouns
as adjectives
as determiners
do not have antecedents
in interrogative sentences
uses of
interrogative sentences
exclamation point with
interrogative pronouns in
question mark with
nouns in direct address
word order
intonation
intransitive verbs
irony
quotation marks indicating
irregular comparison
adverbs
degrees of
irregular verbs
is
in contractions
it
dummy element
neuter pronoun
italics
for foreign words and phrases
for titles
items in series
commas with
coordinate conjunctions with
semicolon with
iterate/reiterate
its vs, it’s
-ize
verbs with

Johnson, Samuel

Kilpatrick, James J.
language
changing
complexity
irregularities in
is regular
see also English language
language errors
Latin language
gender of nouns
plurals of nouns from
lay, lie and
legal jargon
leotard
less/fewer
letters
apostrophe with missing
apostrophe with plurals of
parentheses with
plurals of
lie and lay
like
like vs. as
lilliputian
limiting adjectives
linking verbs
action verbs posing as
adjectives following
complements
gerunds formed from
objects of
participle and
subject complements with
lists
colon with
dash introducing
literature, words from
location or direction
adverbs
locations
comma with
look
conjugation table
lot
lowercase letters
lowercase letters

main clauses
and complex sentences
in compound sentences
coordinate conjunctions connecting
defined
nominal clauses and
subordinate conjunctions with
Malaprop, Mrs.
malapropism
manifest
manner
adverebial clauses
adverbs
subordinate conjunctions
Manutius, Aldus
masculine gender nouns
may
as modal auxiliary
maverick
meaning
punctuation and
media personalities
testing for grammar and pronunciation
medium
memorization
metaphrase
Middle English
might
contrasted with have
might of, should of, could of
missing digits, apostrophe with
missing letters, apostrophe with
mnemonics
modal auxiliary verbs
in verb phrases
Modern English
modifiers
action verbs
adverbs
in gerund phrases
in infinitive phrases
infinitives as
 infinitives as
misplaced in split infinitives
misused
in participle phrases
prepositional phrases used as
redundant
mood (verb)
imperative mood
indicative mood
subjunctive mood
Moonbite Stone
morphemes
much more simple vs. simpler
musical terms
must

names
comma with
misspelled (list)
Nasser, Gamal Abdel
natural gender
negative/affirmative adverbs
comma with
neithern-nor
neuter gender
neuter pronouns
newspapers
bastardizing language
nice
nicotine
no
negative adverb
nominal adjectives
object of preposition
nominal adverbs
object of preposition
nominal clauses
as appositives
case in
connecting words in
as delayed subjects
as direct objects
dummy element
faulty
 faulty
as indirect objects
and main clauses
as object of preposition
relative pronouns in
relative pronouns introducing
as subject complement
subject-verb agreement in
as subjects
subordinate conjunction in
that in
type of subordinate clause
using
words beginning
nominal relative clauses
nominals
defined
gerund as
infinitive as
object of preposition
prepositional phrases used as
real relative pronouns as
as referent of preposition
relative pronouns as
nominative case
indefinite pronouns
nouns
nominative case form
pronouns in
real relative pronoun
none
nonrestrictive information
see restrictive/nonrestrictive information
nor, neither
not
contracted with verbs
do with
negative adverb
noun
test to determine whether word is
word
noun phrases
apostrophe with
reference of
nouns
as adjectives
 as adjectives
appositives
articles transforming adjectives into
case
collective nouns
compound nouns
defined
as direct objects
gender
gender-specific
heteronyms and homonyms
as indirect objects
nominative case
number
as objects of prepositions
person
in personification
plurals
possessive case
possessive case: apostrophe with
properties of
rules for pluralizing
as subject complements
as subjects
substantives
turning into verbs
types of
uses of
nouns in direct address
comma with
interrogative sentences
number
agreement between pronouns and antecedents in
adverbs
collective nouns
indefinite pronouns
nouns
nouns: issues in
nouns: and subject-verb agreement
pronouns
pronouns: personal pronouns
pronouns: possessive pronouns
rules for pluralizing nouns
verbs
verbs: and subject-verb agreement
number-quantity words
 number-quantity words
as determiners
numbers
cardinal numbers
comma with
dash with
parentheses with
plurals of
spelling out

object complements
adjectives as
objective case
indefinate pronouns
objective case form
objects of prepositions
pronouns in
real relative pronouns
objects
in gerund phrases
in infinitive phrases
infinitives as
of linking verbs
in participle phrases
and verb phrases
see also direct objects; indirect objects
objects of gerunds
nouns as
objects of infinitives
nouns as
objects of participles
nouns as
objects of prepositions
adjectives as
nominal clause as
nominals
nouns as
objective case form
pronouns
in relative clauses
objects of verbals

objects of verbs
of action verbs
of
of
in possessive
of-off
offload
Old English
omissions, comma indicating
on, in
one another
only
onto
or, either
ordinal numbers
list
orthography
Orwell, George
Orwellian
ought to
as modal auxiliary
outside-of error
Oxford Dictionary of Abbreviations, The
oxymorons

page specifications colon with

palindromes
paragraphs
in dialogue
paraphrase
parentheses
with dividers and subdividers
with explanations or commentary
with numbers, letters, and symbols
period in place of
rules for
parenthetical material
dash with
parenthetical material within parentheses
brackets with
participle phrases
comma with
dangling
modifiers in
objects and complements in
subject complements in
troublesome
 troublesome
participle prepositions
participles
as adjectives or adverbials
adverbials modifying
adverbs modifying
and curses
dangling
gerunds
how to use
infinitives
and linking verbs
placement of
present participle
as subject complements
in verb phrases
verbals
see also past participle
parts of speech
conjunctions connecting
information about, in dictionary
passive voice
past indicative form of verbs
past participle
past participle form
past perfect indicative forms of verbs
past perfect subjunctive forms of verbs
past perfect tense
past subjunctive forms of verbs
past tense
in emphatic form
with modal auxiliaries
past tense verbs
in past, present, or future
perfect forms of verbals
perfect forms of verbs
period
with abbreviations
in compound sentences
with declarative sentences
with ellipses
with imperative and declarative sentences
with indirect question
in place of parentheses
and quotation marks
with requests and questions
 with requests and questions
rules for
single quotation marks with
person
agreement between pronouns and antecedents in
indefinite pronouns
nouns
nouns: and subject-verb agreement
pronouns
pronouns: possessive pronouns
verbs
verbs: and subject-verb agreement
personal pronouns
case and
declension of
gender and
not needing antecedent
number and
in subordinate clauses
personification
petard
phrase(s)
defined
conjunctions connecting
peculiar
restrictive/nonrestrictive
see also specific types, e.g., noun phrases; prepositional phrases
phrases, referenced
double quotation marks with
phrases in series
comma with
phrases of contrast
comma setting off
phlegm-phlegmatic syndrome
place
subordinate conjunctions
place or location
adverbial clauses
plural forms
indefinite pronouns
plurals
hyphens and
irregular: nouns
of letters and abbreviations, apostrophe with
of nouns
of nouns: compound words
 of nouns: compound words
of nouns: rules for
of nouns containing apostrophes
of nouns ending in f or fe
of nouns ending in o
of nouns ending in y
of nouns of foreign origin: Latin
of nouns seemingly singular
of nouns strictly plurals
misused (list)
of Ms.
of numbers, letters, abbreviations
of proper names
of verbs
of words not normally pluralized
poetic license
popular usage
compound subjects
portmanteau words
position words
positive degree of comparison
adjectives
adverbs
possession
apostrophe in
and gerund
possessive case
with inanimate objects
indefinite pronouns
nouns
nouns: apostrophe with
nouns functioning as adjectives
nouns modifying gerunds
possessive pronouns
as adjectives
confusing pronoun-verb contractions with
modifying gerunds
in reflexive pronouns
used as determiners
possibility or conditionality
adverbial clauses
subordinate conjunctions
Pound, Ezra
preboard
predicate adjective
see also subject complements
 see also subject complements
predicate nominative
see also subject complements
predicates
compound predicates
defined
head and complete
omitted in comparative clauses
simple predicates
in simple sentences
verb phrases used as
in word order
predicative nominative
prefixes
and hyphens
list
redundant
in spelling of words
prepositional phrases
as adverbials
comma with
dangling
infinitive resembles
placement of
usage errors with
used as modifiers
used as nominals
uses of
prepositions
adverbs distinguished from
ambiguous
capitalization
collocations and
complex prepositions
defined
ending sentence with
list
pairs confused
participle prepositions
partners of
peculiarities and trouble spots
positioning
relative determiners preceded by
usage errors with
see also objects of prepositions; referent of preposition
present indicative forms of verb
present indicative forms of verb
present participle
perfect form of
present perfect indicative forms of verbs
present perfect subjunctive forms of verbs
present perfect tense
present subjunctive forms of verbs
present tense
in emphatic form
principal (main) verbs
in verb phrase
principal parts of verbs
questions regarding
table of
progressive forms of verbs
pronoun-antecedent agreement
in clauses
pronoun phrases
indefinite pronoun phrases
pronouns
adverbs modifying
agreement with antecedents
case
case of, in abbreviated adverbial clauses
and contractions
defined
demonstrative pronouns
as direct objects
function of
gender
indefinite pronouns
neuter
nominative case form
not needing antecedents
number
objective case form
objects of prepositions
person
points to remember about
possessive pronouns
possessive pronouns as determiners
reciprocal pronouns
reflexive pronouns
second person
third person
types of
 types of
used as subjects
see also interrogative pronouns;
personal pronouns; relative pronouns
pronunciation
possessive
spelling and
proofreading
proper adjectives
hyphen with prefix with
proper names
pluralizing
proper nouns
capitalization of
defined
hyphen with prefix with
punctuation
appositives
of business letters
of compound sentences
defined
with exclamation(s)
history of
of interjections
and meaning
nouns in possessive case
points to consider
quotation marks and other marks of
with restrictive/nonrestrictive information
rules of
and sentence type
single quotation marks and other marks of
and style

question mark
with direct interrogative sentences
with ellipses
with imperative sentences written as questions
to indicate uncertainty
with interrogative sentence elements
interrogative sentences end with

not required with rhetorical questions

and quotation marks
rules for
 rules for
single quotation marks with
period with
punctuation with
quick vs. quickly
quotation marks
colons, semicolons, and
commas, periods, and
exclamation points and
indicating irony
not required with indirect question
and other marks of punctuation
question marks and
rules for
quotation marks, double
with quoted material
with referenced words, phrases, clauses and sentences
with titles
with words called to reader’s attention
quotation marks, single
with exclamation points, question marks, semicolons, and colons
and other marks of punctuation
with periods and commas
quoted material
brackets with information inserted into
colon with
comma with
double quotation marks with

raise and rise

ratios, colon with
reading
real relative pronouns
introducing nominal clauses
as nominals
nominative case form
objective case form
vs. relative adverbs
relative clauses with
that as
real vs. very

reason
adverbial clauses
adverbs
 adverbs
subordinate conjunctions
reciprocal pronouns
redundancy
avoiding
reduntant modifiers
referent of preposition
nominal as
preposition acting without
uncertain or missing
verb as
referent of prepositional phrase
reflexive pronouns
possessive pronouns in
regards error
regular verbs
reiterate, iterate/
relative adverbs
as adverbials
introducing nominal clauses
real relative pronouns vs.
relative clauses with
relative clauses
commas with
direct object in
faulty
nominal clauses resembling
nominal relative clauses
objects of preposition
placement of
with real relative pronouns
with relative adverbs
with relative determiners
relative pronouns in
relative pronoun omitted from
restrictive/nonrestrictive
subject complement
subject-verb agreement
subjects
type of subordinate clause
relative determiners
in nominal clauses
relative clauses with
relative pronouns
antecedents of
compound
 compound
as connecting words
in nominal clauses
introducing nominal clauses
as nominals
omitting from relative clauses
real relative pronouns, vs. relative adverbs
in relative clauses
role of
and subject-verb agreement
in subordinate clauses
that as
uses of
see also real relative pronouns
requests, period with
restrictive/nonrestrictive information
commas with
punctuation with
relative clauses
that/which distinction
rhetorical question
period with
no question mark needed
rise, raise and
Rivals, The (Sheridan)
Romance languages
roots (list)
royal we
run
conjugation table
run-on sentence

said
synonyms for (list)
salutations
colon with
comma with
second person
in imperative mood
pronouns
shall/will in

with verbs
semicolon
with compound sentences
 with compound sentences
with items in a series
and quotation marks
rules for
single quotation marks with
sentence contamination
sentence fragments
sentence structures
defined
delayed subject in
issues regarding
sentence types
declarative sentences
defined
exclamatory sentences
exclamatory sentences: word order
form vs. function
imperative sentences
imperative sentences: nouns in direct address
imperative sentences: word order
interrogative sentences
interrogative sentences: nouns in direct address
interrogative sentences: word order
and punctuation
complex sentences
complexity of
conjunctions connecting
ending with preposition
punctuation in meaning of
simple sentences
word order
see also compound sentences; declarative sentences
sentences, referenced
double quotation marks with
set, sit and
sexism
Shakespeare, William
shall
future tense
as modal auxiliary
with progressive tense verb
shall vs. will
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley
shook up
should
contracted with have
 contracted with have
should of/could of/might of
sibilant sounds
[sic]
sideburns
silhouette
simple forms of verbs
simple predicates
simple sentences
predicates in
subjects in
simple subjects
singular
verbs
see also number
singular forms
indefinite pronouns
singular nouns
apostrophe with
sink, sank, sunk
sit and set
slashes
spell check
spelling
defined
history of
numbers
and pronunciation
spelling rules
exceptions to
suffixes in
spelling shortcuts
spellings, confusing
split infinitives
Spooner, William A.
spoonerisms
Star Trek
Stein, Gertrude
strict, stricter, strictest
style
in formatting
punctuation and
subdividers, parentheses with
subject complements
adjectives as
with gerunds
 with gerunds
in infinitive phrases
infinitives as
with linking verbs
nominal clause as
nouns as
participles as
in participle phrase
relative clause
subject-verb agreement
in clauses
in nominal clauses
relative pronouns and
subject-verb inversion
subjects
compound subjects
defined
delayed
head and complete
implied, in participle phrase
infinitives as
mistaken
nominal clauses as
nouns as
relative clauses
in simple sentences
simple subjects
in word order
subjunctive mood
subordinate clauses
adverbial clauses
comma with
and complex sentences
in complex sentences: types of
defined
nominal clauses
parts of verbs
personal pronouns in
relative clauses
relative pronouns in
subordinate conjunction with
subordinate conjunctions
comparison
as connecting word
introducing adverbial clauses
list
 list
with main clauses
in nominal clause
omitted
with subordinate clause
that as
substantives
see nominals
subtitles, colon with
suffix comparison
adverbs
suffixes
list
in spelling of words
superlative degree
adverbs in
superlative degree of comparison
adjectives
Swift, Jonathan
symbols, parentheses with
synonyms
for said (list)

tense
future tense
past perfect tense
past tense
present tense
than
in abbreviated adverbial clause
that
confused with which
as connecting word
demonstrative pronoun
in nominal clauses
as real relative pronoun
relative pronoun
as subordinate conjunction
that vs. which
restrictive/nonrestrictive information
the
their vs. they’re
their vs. there’s
third person
third person
pronouns
shall/will in
with verbs
this
demonstrative pronoun
Thurber, James
time
adverbial clauses
adverbs
colon with
subordinate conjunctions
number
titles
colon with
comma with
double quotation marks with
italics for
to
in infinitive
to make amends
to-too
to-with
transitive verbs

uncertainty
question mark to indicate
underlining
unique, overuse of
unnecessary preposition error
uppercase letters
usage
adjectives
common
determines grammar
information about, in dictionary
and plurals
popular
usage errors
with prepositional phrases
using/utilizing

vague antecedents
variety
verb phrases
adverb within
auxiliary verb in
contractions abbreviated versions of
in future tense
modal auxiliaries in
and objects
participles in
replacing have and of in
used as predicates
in voice
verbal misdemeanors
verbals
comma with
defined
misused
objects of
participles
perfect forms
verbs
action verbs
adverbs modify
agreement with indefinite pronouns
auxiliary (helping), verbs
characteristics of
complications with
conjugation
contractions
defined
intransitive verbs
irregular verbs
with -ize
modal auxiliary verbs
mood
nouns becoming
number
objects of
parts of
past tense, in past, present, or future
perfect forms of
person
plural, (see also verbs, number)
principal (main) verbs
principal parts of
 principal parts of
progressive forms of
as referent of preposition
regular/irregular
second person with
simple, perfect, and progressive forms of
subject-verb agreement
tense
third person with
transitive vs. intransitive
troublesome
used as predicates
voice
see also base forms of verbs; linking verbs
very, real vs.
virgule
vocabulary
cultivating
defined
misused
vocabulary distinctions
voice (verbs)
active voice
passive voice
verb phrase in
vulgar vocabulary

we
editorial we
royal we
Webster, Noah
well, good vs.
what
interrogative pronoun
relative pronoun
relative pronoun as real relative pronoun
singular in form
whatever
connecting word
when
interrogative adverb
relative adverb
relative pronoun
where
where
interrogative adverb
relative adverb
relative pronoun
which
confused with that
interrogative pronoun
real relative pronoun
relative pronoun
relative pronoun as real relative pronoun
which, that vs.
restrictive/nonrestrictive information
who
real relative pronoun
relative pronoun
relative pronoun as real relative pronoun
who/whom
interrogative pronouns
with nominal clauses
with relative clauses
whom
relative pronoun
whose
relative pronoun
whose vs. who’s
why
interrogative adverb
relative adverb
relative pronoun
will
future tense
with progressive tense verb
will, shall vs.
William of Normandy
with, by-
with-from
within, in
word order
and adverbial clause
declarative sentences
exclamatory sentences
imperative sentences

interrogative sentences
predicate in
subjects in
 subjects in
word origins
word pairs
confusing
single words or
spelling
words
conjunctions connecting
definition distinctions
etymology of
hyphens separating syllables in
from literature
meanings of
misspelled (list)
mystery and wonder attached to
peculiar
restrictive/nonrestrictive
as words: boldfaced or italic type for
words, referenced
double quotation marks with
words broken over two lines
hyphen with
words called to reader’s attention
double quotation marks with
words in a compound
hyphen with
words in series
comma with
would
contracted with have
writing
punctuation in

Years with Ross, The (Thurber)

yes
affirmative adverb
you
plural verb with
your vs. you’re

zero relative pronouns

zero that-clauses
Owl Books
Henry Holt and Company, LLC
Publishers since 1866
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New York, New York 10010
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An Owl Book® and ® are registered trademarks of Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

Copyright © 1999, 2004 by Michael Strumpf and Auriel Douglas

All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Strumpf, Michael.
The grammar bible: everything you always wanted to know about grammar but didn’t know
whom to ask by Michael Strumpf and Auriel Douglas.—1st owl ed.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN: 978-1-4668-0066-3
1. English language—Grammar—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Douglas, Auriel. II. Title.
PE1112.S778 2004
428.2—dc22
2003057129
First published in 1999 by Knowledgeopolis
*The
plural form of fish can be fish or fishes. Use fish when referring to a collective of individual fish. The fish are jumping. Use
fishes when referring to multiple species or kinds of fishes. We caught several kinds of fishes on our canoeing trip.
*The
verb hang, whose principal parts are hang-hanged-hanged, means “to punish by death at the gallows.” The criminals were
hanged for their crimes. The verb hang, whose principal parts are hang-hung-hung, means “to suspend.” The clothes were hung
out to dry.
*The
verb hang, whose principal parts are hang-hanged-hanged, means “to punish by death at the gallows.” The criminals were
hanged for their crimes. The verb hang, whose principal parts are hang-hung-hung, means “to suspend.” The clothes were hung
out to dry.
†The verb shine, whose principal parts are shine-shined-shined, means “to polish.” I shined my shoes. The verb shine, whose
principal parts are shine-shone-shone, means “to give off light.” The stars shone in the sky.
†The
verb shine, whose principal parts are shine-shined-shined, means “to polish.” I shined my shoes. The verb shine, whose
principal parts are shine-shone-shone, means “to give off light.” The stars shone in the sky.
*Unless
otherwise specified, a rule will apply to all persons and numbers of the verb.
*
When need is used as a modal auxiliary verb, it does not have a past tense form. Neither does ought to. They are both auxiliaries of
present urgency.
*
When need is used as a modal auxiliary verb, it does not have a past tense form. Neither does ought to. They are both auxiliaries of
present urgency.
†
As its -ed ending suggests, used to always denotes or describes habitual action or condition that existed only in the past, not in the
present. Due to this semantic property, used to has no present tense form.
*Remember!
A determiner is a word that determines the reference of a noun phrase.
*Adverbs
and adverbials are similar but not the same. Though they share the same modifying function, their characters are different. An
adverbial is a sentence element or functional category. It is a part of a sentence that performs a certain function. An adverb, on the other
hand, is a type of word or part of speech. We can say that an adverb may serve as an adverbial, but an adverbial is not necessarily an
adverb. There are many other types of words or parts of speech apart from the adverb that we might include in a sentence to perform
the modifying function of adverbials.
†An adverb phrase
consists of a simple adverb and a number of optional modifiers.
She dances quite well.
Tom runs quickly.
Both quite well and quickly are adverb phrases.
*Remember
that we can also use a participle form as the main verb in a verb phrase. However, since this chapter is about verbals, forms
of verbs used as other parts of speech, that usage is not a part of this definition.
*Any participle
phrase has an implied subject, and it is this implied subject that the subject complement in the participle phrase is
complementing. In this example, the implied subject of the present participle phrase being the king is the subject of the sentence, he.
†Not
to be confused with the noun ice.
*A nominal is
any noun or pronoun or any word, phrase, or clause that performs the same function as a noun.
*In this
case, to see that the prepositional phrase does modify the gerund, perform a small manipulation to change the modifier into a
possessive noun. The waves’ crashing lulled me to sleep. Such a manipulation only works with prepositional phrases that begin with of.
*Infinitives
used after the verb help (active voice) may or may not be bare. The choice belongs to the writer or speaker.
We helped them clear the debris.
We helped them to clear the debris.
*These
two reflexive pronouns are based on the objective case forms, him and them, of the appropriate personal pronouns. Hisself and
theirselves are just too awkward.
*These
two reflexive pronouns are based on the objective case forms, him and them, of the appropriate personal pronouns. Hisself and
theirselves are just too awkward.
*A main clause
is a group of words with both a subject and a predicate that can stand alone as a complete thought.
*The
second person deals only with people spoken to in the strictest grammatical sense. However, creative speakers, especially easily
frustrated computer users, often find themselves speaking to objects. “You blasted machine! Where on God’s green earth did you put that
file?!?” Please remember that grammar is just a model or set of guidelines and that human creativity and expressiveness allow us to
transcend the model when the need arises.
*The
term referent most often plays a fairly esoteric role in philosophical linguistics. We use the term in the context of prepositions
because it is descriptive of the word that the preposition and object modify.
*The
title nominal describes any noun or pronoun or any word, phrase, or clause that functions as a noun.
*
A determiner is a word that determines the reference of a noun phrase. Determiners are words, such as a, an, the, other, that, few,
or many, that aid the reader or listener in determining which person, place, thing, or idea is named by the noun phrase that the writer or
speaker has written or spoken.
*
Please note that the term head does not imply that the particular head subject is the first word in the complete subject.
*
Please note that the term head does not imply that the particular head predicate is the first word in the complete predicate.
*
The word canonical means “orthodox, sanctioned, authoritative, or regular.”
*
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of word formation. For example, the word haunted contains two morphemes: haunt and -
ed.
*
Remember that the term nominal applies to any noun or pronoun any word, phrase, or clause that performs the same function as a
noun.
*
The real relative pronoun what does not appear in relative clauses that modify nouns, pronouns, or other materials.
*
The flap sound /D/ is produced when the tip of the tongue rapidly touches the alveolar ridge (the inner ridge of the gums behind the
upper front teeth).
*Words
that come from proper names are called eponyms. We will discuss these shortly.
*One
professor was actually defrocked for daring to deliver a lecture in English.
*
Jeff Leeds, “Tough Times at Compton Casino,” Los Angeles Times, October 6,1997.