Shri Vile Parle Kelvani Mandal’s

Institute of Technology, Dhule

First Year B.Tech.

Seminar Report on

ENTITLED

“OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION”

By
Student Name:
PRN:
Branch:
Roll No.

Under the Guidance of

Prof. Sachin Nerkar

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,

Lonere

A.Y.2020-21
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
2

1. Introduction

There has always been a demand to increase the capacity of transmission of information,
and scientists and engineers continuously pursue technological routes for achieving this goal.
The technological advances ever since the invention of the laser in 1960 have been indeed
revolutionized the area of telecommunication and networking. The availability of laser
presented communication engineers with a suitable carrier wave capable of carrying
enormously large amount of information compared to radio waves and microwaves.
A typical lightwave communication system, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a lightwave
transmitter, a transmission channel (namely, the optical fibre to carry the modulated beam) and
a receiver. At the heart of a lightwave communication system is the optical fibre, which acts as
the transmission channel carrying the light beam loaded with information.

Fig. 1. Basic fibre optic communication system

Since its invention in the early 1970s, the use of and demand for optical fibre have grown
tremendously. The uses of optical fibre today are quite numerous. With the explosion of
information traffic due to the Internet, electronic commerce, computer networks, multimedia,
voice, data, and video, the need for a transmission medium with the bandwidth capabilities for
handling such vast amounts of information is paramount. Optical fibre, with its comparatively
infinite bandwidth, has proven to be the solution.
In 2019, Sir Charles K. Kao was awarded Nobel Prize for Physics for “groundbreaking
achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibre optics for optical communications ”.
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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2. Objectives

The objective of this report is to:

• Identify the basic component of the fibre optic communication system.
• Define optical fibre.
• Illustrate the principles of operation of optical fibre, its types and modes.
• Determine the main characteristics and features of optical fibre.
• Discuss the advantages of optical fibre over metallic conductor transmission lines.
• Demonstrate the standard optical fibre cables and connectors.

3. What is an OPTICAL FIBRE?

Fibre is a transparent cylinder made of a dielectric. The basic structure of the optical fibre
is made of four concentric layers as shown in Fig. 2. These four layers can be described as:
• Core: this central section, made of silica, is the light transmitting region of the fibre.
The most common material used in fibre cables is fused silica (amorphous SiO2).
• Cladding: The first layer around the core. It is also made of silica but not with the same
composition as the core as it should have a lower index of refraction. This creates an
optical waveguide which confines the light in the core by total reflection at the
corecladding interface.
• Coating: It is the first non-optical layer around the cladding. The coating typically
consists of one or more layers of a polymer that protect the silica structure against
physical or environmental damage.
• Buffer (not pictured): The buffer is an important feature of the fibre. It is 900 microns
and helps protect the fibre from breaking during installation and termination and is
located outside of the coating

Fig. 2. The basic structure of the optical fibre

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
4

One of the key elements that make a dramatic improvement in the optical fibre revolution
is that silica is the primary constituent of sand, which is found in so much abundance on our
earth.
4. Principles of Operation

Optical Fibre is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the form
of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, optical fibre is not electrical in nature. A basic
fibre optic system consists of a transmitting device that converts an electrical signal into a light
signal, an optical fibre cable that carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light signal
and converts it back into an electrical signal.
The core of the optical fibre cable is a transparent cylinder of refractive index nf embedded
in a cladding material of refractive index nc as in Fig. 3. Refractive index of a medium is
defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to its velocity in this specified medium.
The light is guided down the core of the fibre by the optical cladding which has a lower
refractive index that traps light in the core through "total internal reflection."
If we consider a ray travelling in the plane containing the optical axis then it will remain
constrained as long as
𝑛𝑐
cos(𝜃𝑝 ) ≥ (1)
𝑛𝑓

Fig. 3. The principle of operation of optical fibre cables

The cladding provides medium with lower n and protects from frustrated total internal
reflection e.g. from fibre touching, dust or moisture on the surface.
The complexity of a fibre optic system can range from very simple (i.e., local area
network) to extremely sophisticated and expensive (i.e., long-distance telephone or cable
television trunking). For example, the system shown in Fig. 1 could be built very inexpensively
using a visible LEDs, plastic fibre, a silicon photodetector, and some simple electronic
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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circuitry. The overall cost could be less than £20. On the other hand, a typical system used for
long-distance, high-bandwidth telecommunication that employs wavelength-division
multiplexing, erbiumdoped fibre amplifiers, external modulation using distributed feedback
laser (DFB lasers) with temperature compensation, fibre Bragg gratings, and high-speed
infrared photodetectors could cost tens or even hundreds of thousands of pounds. The basic
question is “how much information is to be sent and how far does it have to go?” With this in
mind, we can examine the various components that make up a fibre optic communication
system and the considerations that must be taken into account in the design of such systems.

5. Types of Optical Fibre

Three basic types of optical fibre cable are used in communication systems:
• Step-index multimode.
• Step-index single mode.
• Graded-index.

This is illustrated in Fig. 4.

Fig.
4. Types of fibre
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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5.1. Step-index multimode fibre

It has an index of refraction profile that steps from low to high to low as measured from
cladding to core to cladding. Relatively large core diameter characterizes this fibre. The
core/cladding diameter of a typical multimode fibre used for telecommunication is 62.5/125 μm
(about the size of a human hair). The term “multimode” refers to the fact that multiple modes
or paths through the fibre are possible. Step-index multimode fibre is used in applications that
require high bandwidth (< 1 GHz) over relatively short distances (< 3 km) such as a local area
network or a campus network backbone. The major benefits of multimode fibre are: (1) it is
relatively easy to work with; (2) because of its larger core size, light is easily coupled to and
from it; (3) it can be used with both lasers and LEDs as sources; and (4) coupling losses are less
than those of the singlemode fibre. The drawback is that because many modes are allowed to
propagate (a function of core diameter and wavelength) it suffers from modal dispersion. The
result of modal dispersion is bandwidth limitation, which translates into lower data rates.
In a step-index multimode fibre, the number of modes Mn propagating can be approximated
by:
𝑉2
𝑀𝑛 = (2)
2
where V is known as the normalized frequency, or the V-number, which relates the fibre size,
the refractive index, and the wavelength. The V-number is given by

𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑎 × √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 (3)

𝜆

where a is the fibre core radius, λ is the operating wavelength, n1 is the core index, and n2 is the
cladding index.
The analysis of how the V-number is derived is beyond the scope of this report, but it can
be shown that by reducing the diameter of the fibre to a point at which the V-number is less
than
2.405, higher-order modes are effectively extinguished and single-mode operation is possible.
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
7

5.2. Step-index single mode fibre

It allows for only one path, or mode, for light to travel within the fibre. The core diameter
for a typical single-mode fibre is between 5 μm and 10 μm with a 125-μm cladding. Single-
mode fibres are used in applications in which low signal loss and high data rates are required,
such as in long spans where repeater/amplifier spacing must be maximized. Because single-
mode fibre allows only one mode or ray to propagate (the lowest-order mode), it does not
suffer from modal dispersion like multimode fibre and therefore can be used for higher
bandwidth applications. However, even though single-mode fibre is not affected by modal
dispersion, at higher data rates chromatic dispersion can limit the performance. This problem
can be overcome by several methods. One can transmit at a wavelength in which glass has a
fairly constant index of refraction (~1300 nm), use an optical source such as a DFB laser that
has a very narrow output spectrum, use special dispersion compensating fibre, or use a
combination of all these methods. In a nutshell, single-mode fibre is used in high-bandwidth,
long-distance applications such as long-distance telephone trunk lines, cable TV head-ends, and
high-speed local and wide area network (LAN and WAN) backbones. The major drawback of
single-mode fibre is that it is relatively difficult to work with (i.e., splicing and termination)
because of its small core size. Also, single-mode fibre is typically used only with laser sources
because of the high coupling losses associated with LEDs.

5.3. Graded-index fibre

It is a compromise between the large core diameter of multimode fibre and the higher
bandwidth of the single-mode fibre. With the creation of a core whose index of refraction
decreases parabolically from the core centre toward the cladding, light travelling through the
centre of the fibre experiences a higher index than light travelling in the higher modes. This
means that the higher-order modes travel faster than the lower-order modes, which allows them
to “catch up” to the lower-order modes, thus decreasing the amount of modal dispersion, which
increases the bandwidth of the fibre. Table I summarizes the three types of optical fibres.

Table I. Comparison of types of optical fibres

Step-index multimode Step-index single mode Graded-index
Type
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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 Easy coupling  Coupling more difficult  Easy coupling

Characteristics

 Model dispersion  No model dispersion  Less model dispersion

 Lower data rate  High data rates  Good compromise between
 Short distances  Long distances  multimode and single-mode

6. Characteristics of Optical Fibre

6.1. Attenuation

The attenuation or transmission loss of optical fibres has proved to be one of the most
important factors in bringing about their wide acceptance in telecommunications. As channel
attenuation largely determined the maximum transmission distance prior to signal restoration,
optical fibre communications became especially attractive when the transmission losses of
fibres were reduced below those of the competing metallic conductors (less than 0.1 dB per
km). Signal attenuation within optical fibres, as with metallic conductors, is usually expressed
in the logarithmic unit of the decibel. In optical fibre communications, the attenuation, which
is a function of the wavelength, is usually expressed in decibels per unit length (i.e. dB/km) as
following:
𝑃𝑖
𝛼𝑑𝐵𝐿 = 10log10 (4)
𝑃𝑜

where αdB is the signal attenuation per unit length in decibels which is also referred to as the
fibre loss parameter, L is the fibre length, Pi is the input (transmitted) optical power into the
fibre and P0 is the output (received) power from the fibre.

6.2. Material absorption losses

Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the material composition and the
fabrication process for the fibre, which results in the dissipation of some of the transmitted
optical power as heat in the waveguide. The absorption of the light may be intrinsic (caused by
the interaction with one or more of the major components of the glass) or extrinsic (caused by
impurities within the glass).
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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6.3. Bend loss

Optical fibres suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths. This is due to the
energy in the evanescent field at the bend exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and
hence the guidance mechanism is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated from the
fibre. An illustration of this situation is shown in Fig. 5. The part of the mode which is on the
outside of the bend is required to travel faster than that on the inside so that a wavefront
perpendicular to the direction of propagation is maintained. Hence, part of the mode in the
cladding needs to travel faster than the velocity of light in that medium. As this is not possible,
the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through radiation.

Fig. 5. An illustration of the radiation loss at a fibre bend

6.4. Dispersion

Dispersion, expressed in terms of the symbol Δt, is defined as pulse spreading in an optical
fibre. As a pulse of light propagates through a fibre, elements such as core diameter, refractive
index profile, wavelength, and laser linewidth cause the pulse to broaden. This poses a
limitation on the overall bandwidth of the fibre as demonstrated in Fig. 6. Dispersion Δt can be
determined by:

𝛥𝑡 = (𝛥𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝛥𝑡𝑖𝑛) (5)

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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Fig. 6. Pulse broadening caused by dispersion

and is measured in time, typically nanoseconds or picoseconds. Total dispersion is a function of

fibre length. The longer the fibre, the more the dispersion. total dispersion is given by

𝛥𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐿 × (𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛/𝑘𝑚) (6)

The overall effect of dispersion on the performance of a fibre optic system is known as
intersymbol interference which occurs when the pulse spreading caused by dispersion causes
the output pulses of a system to overlap, rendering them undetectable. If an input pulse is
caused to spread such that the rate of change of the input exceeds the dispersion limit of the
fibre, the output data will become indiscernible. This is the main reason for having a high
model dispersion in stepindex multimode optical fibres and no model dispersion in step-index
single-mode optical fibres as illustrated in Fig. 7.

Multimode Single -mode

Fig. 7. Intersymbol interference

7. Advantages of Optical Fibres

Communication using an optical carrier wave guided along a glass fibre has a number of
extremely attractive features, several of which were apparent when the technique was originally
conceived. Furthermore, the advances in the technology to date have surpassed even the most
optimistic predictions, creating additional advantages. Hence it is useful to consider the merits
and special features offered by optical fibre communications over more conventional electrical
communications. In this section, we commence with the originally foreseen advantages and
then consider additional features which have become apparent as the technology has been
developed.
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
11

7.1. Enormous potential bandwidth.

The optical carrier frequency in the range 10 13 to 1016 Hz (generally in the near infrared
around 1014 Hz or 105 GHz) yields a far greater potential transmission bandwidth than metallic
cable systems (i.e. coaxial cable bandwidth typically around 20 MHz over distances up to a
maximum of 10 km) or even mm-wave radio systems (i.e. systems currently operating with
modulation bandwidths of 700 MHz over a few hundreds of meters). Indeed, by the year 2000,
the typical bandwidth multiplied by length product for an optical fibre link incorporating fibre
amplifiers was 5000 GHz km in comparison with the typical bandwidth–length product for the
coaxial cable of around 100 MHz km. Hence at that time, optical fibre was already
demonstrating a factor of 50,000 bandwidth improvement over the coaxial cable while also
providing this superior informationcarrying capacity over much longer transmission distances.

7.2. Small size and weight.

Optical fibres have very small diameters which are often no greater than the diameter of a
human hair. Hence, even when such fibres are covered with protective coatings they are far
smaller and much lighter than corresponding copper cables. This is a tremendous boon towards
the alleviation of duct congestion in cities, as well as allowing for an expansion of signal
transmission within mobiles such as aircraft, satellites and even ships.

7.3. Electrical isolation.

Optical fibres which are fabricated from glass, or sometimes a plastic polymer, are
electrical insulators and therefore, unlike their metallic counterparts, they do not exhibit earth
loop and interface problems. Furthermore, this property makes optical fibre transmission
ideally suited for communication in electrically hazardous environments as the fibres create no
arcing or spark hazard at abrasions or short circuits.

7.4. Immunity to interference and crosstalk.

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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Optical fibres form a dielectric waveguide and are therefore free from electromagnetic
interference (EMI), radio-frequency interference (RFI), or switching transients giving
electromagnetic pulses (EMPs). Hence the operation of an optical fibre communication system
is unaffected by transmission through an electrically noisy environment and the fibre cable
requires no shielding from EMI. The fibre cable is also not susceptible to lightning strikes if
used overhead rather than underground. Moreover, it is fairly easy to ensure that there is no
optical interference between fibres and hence, unlike communication using electrical
conductors, crosstalk is negligible, even when many fibres are cabled together.

7.5. Signal security.

The light from optical fibres does not radiate significantly and therefore they provide a
high degree of signal security. Unlike the situation with copper cables, a transmitted optical
signal cannot be obtained from a fibre in a non-invasive manner (i.e. without drawing optical
power from the fibre). Therefore, in theory, any attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted
optically may be detected. This feature is obviously attractive for military, banking and general
data transmission (i.e. computer network) applications.

7.6. Low transmission loss.

The development of optical fibres over the last 20 years has resulted in the production of
optical fibre cables which exhibit very low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison with
the best copper conductors. Fibres have been fabricated with losses as low as 0.1 dB/ km and
this feature has become a major advantage of optical fibre communications (So, 100 km before
reamplification for 10 times attenuation). It facilitates the implementation of communication
links with an extremely wide optical repeater or amplifier spacing, thus reducing system cost,
complexity and power consumption. Together with the already proven modulation bandwidth
capability of fibre cables, this property has provided a totally compelling case for the adoption
of optical fibre communications in the majority of long-haul telecommunication applications,
replacing not only copper cables, but also satellite communications, as a consequence of the
very noticeable delay incurred for voice transmission when using this latter approach. Fig. 8
represents the number of repeaters (amplifiers) needed for optical fibre and copper transmission
lines over a long distance. It is clear that optical fibre needs much less number of repeaters to
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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maintain the same signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) over the same distance compared to copper
transmission lines (typically 10 times amplification every 100 km).

Fig. 8. Repeaters for optical fibre and copper transmission lines

7.7. Ruggedness and flexibility.

Although protective coatings are essential, optical fibres may be manufactured with very
high tensile strengths. Perhaps surprisingly for a glassy substance, the fibres may also be bent
to quite small radii or twisted without damage. Furthermore, cable structures have been
developed which have proved flexible, compact and extremely rugged. Taking the size and
weight advantage into account, these optical fibre cables are generally superior in terms of
storage, transportation, handling and installation to corresponding copper cables, while
exhibiting at least comparable strength and durability.

7.8. System reliability and ease of maintenance.

These features primarily stem from the low-loss property of optical fibre cables which
reduces the requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the transmitted
signal strength. Hence with fewer optical repeaters or amplifiers, system reliability is generally
enhanced in comparison with conventional electrical conductor systems. Furthermore, the
reliability of the optical components is no longer a problem with predicted lifetimes of 20 to 30
years being quite common. Both of these factors also tend to reduce maintenance time and
costs.
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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7.9. Potential low cost.

The glass which generally provides the optical fibre transmission medium is made from
sand – not a scarce resource. So, in comparison with copper conductors, optical fibres offer the
potential for low-cost line communication. Although over recent years this potential has largely
been realized in the costs of the optical fibre transmission medium which for bulk purchases
has become competitive with copper wires (i.e. twisted pairs), it has not yet been achieved in
all the other component areas associated with optical fibre communications. For example, the
costs of highperformance semiconductor lasers and photodiodes are still relatively high, as well
as some of those concerned with the connection technology (demountable connectors, couplers,
etc.).
Overall system costs when utilizing optical fibre communication on long-haul links,
however, are substantially less than those for equivalent electrical line systems because of the
low-loss and wideband properties of the optical transmission medium. As indicated before, the
requirement for intermediate repeaters and the associated electronics is reduced, giving a
substantial cost advantage. Although this cost-benefit gives a net gain for long-haul links, it is
not always the case in short-haul applications where the additional cost incurred, due to the
electrical-optical conversion (and vice versa), may be a deciding factor. Nevertheless, there are
other possible cost advantages in relation to shipping, handling, installation and maintenance.
The reducing costs of optical fibre communications have provided strong competition not
only with electrical line transmission systems but also for microwave and mm-wave radio
transmission systems. Although these systems are reasonably wideband, the relatively short-
span ‘line of sight’ transmission necessitates expensive aerial towers at intervals no greater than
a few tens of kilometres. Hence, with the exception of the telecommunication access network
due primarily to current first installed cost constraints, optical fibre has become the dominant
transmission medium within the major industrialized societies.
Table II summarizes the advantages of optical fibre over copper
Table II. Advantages of optical fibre over copper
Copper coaxial cable Optical fibre cable
Multimode Single mode
Bandwidth 100 MHz 500 MHz +100,000 MHz
Attenuation/km @ 1GHz > 45 dB 1 dB 0.2 dB
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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Cable cost High Low Low

Cable diameter (in.) 1 1/8 1/8
Data security Low Excellent Excellent
EMI immunity OK Excellent Excellent

8. Optical fibre cables and links.

Typical multimode fibres have a core diameter/cladding diameter ratio of 50 μm/125 μm

and 62.5 μm/125 μm (although 100 μm/140 μm and other sizes are sometimes used depending
on the application). Single mode fibres have a core/cladding ratio of 9 μm /125 μm at
wavelengths of 1300nm and 1550nm as shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 10 portrays a cable with multiple
optical fibres.

Fig. 9. Popular optical fibre core/cladding diameter ratios

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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Fig. 10. Example of the construction of a multi-fibre cable

It is very important to learn how to link two optical fibre. There are two ways of linking
two optical fibre
• Fusion Splice: This operation consists in directly linking two fibres by welding with an
electric arc, by aligning best possible both fibre cores. The specific device to make this
fusion is called a fusion splicer (shown in Fig. 11).
The advantages of this method are being fast and relatively simple to make. Also, the light
loss generated by the welding, due to the imperfect alignment of the cores, remains very
weak. The drawbacks are being relatively fragile (in spite of the protection of fusion by a
heat-shrinkable tube) and permanent. It is also necessary to invest in a fusion splicer.
• Use of connector: In this case, it is necessary to terminate a connector at each end of the
fibres to be connected. The two fibres can then be connected by connecting the two
connectors together.
The advantage of this method is having a robust connection. Moreover, the type of
connector can be chosen according to the application field of the system. Also, Connection
is removable. It is possible to connect and disconnect two fibres hundreds to thousands of
times without damaging the connectors

Fig. 11. Fibre-optic fusion splicer

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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9. Summary

Optical Fibre is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in the form
of light. Optical fibre outperforms copper transmission line as it enjoys:
• Larger bandwidth
• Smaller size and weight
• Better electrical isolation
• Better immunity to interface
• Higher signal security
• Lower transmission loss, hence less power consumption
• And, more flexibility and reliability

Which make optical fibre an excellent candidate for telecommunication systems.

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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References

[1] wikipedia.
[2] Fiber-Optic communications systems(Book by Govind P.Agrawal)
Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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Shri Vile Parle Kelvani Mandal’s

Institute of Technology, Dhule

First Year B.Tech.

Certificate

This is to certify that, Mandwekar Sakshi Madhukar Of IInd semester FY B.Tech

Bearing university PRN: 2054491245047 .has satisfactorily presented seminar on “OPTICAL

FIBER COMMUNICATION” in fulfillment award of degree of B. Tech in Computer

Engineering, as prescribed by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonere

during the academic year 2020-21

Prof. Sachin Nerkar Dr. Tushar S. Shinde

Seminar Guide FE Coordinator

Optical Fibre: Fundamentals, Properties and, Advantages
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Signature with Date Signature with Date