PROGRAMMING THE BASIC COMPUTER

Introduction

Machine Language

Assembly Language

Assembler

Program Loops

Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

Subroutines

Input-Output Programming
 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
Those concerned with computer architecture should
have a knowledge of both hardware and software
because the two branches influence each other.

Instruction Set of the Basic Computer

Symbol Hexa code Description
AND 0 or 8 AND M to AC m: effective address
ADD 1 or 9 Add M to AC, carry to E M: memory word (operand)
LDA 2 or A Load AC from M found at m
STA 3 or B Store AC in M
BUN 4 or C Branch unconditionally to m
BSA 5 or D Save return address in m and branch to m+1
ISZ 6 or E Increment M and skip if zero
CLA 7800 Clear AC
CLE 7400 Clear E
CMA 7200 Complement AC
CME 7100 Complement E
CIR 7080 Circulate right E and AC
CIL 7040 Circulate left E and AC
INC 7020 Increment AC, carry to E
SPA 7010 Skip if AC is positive
SNA 7008 Skip if AC is negative
SZA 7004 Skip if AC is zero
SZE 7002 Skip if E is zero
HLT 7001 Halt computer
INP F800 Input information and clear flag
OUT F400 Output information and clear flag
SKI F200 Skip if input flag is on
SKO F100 Skip if output flag is on
ION F080 Turn interrupt on
IOF F040 Turn interrupt off
 Machine Language

MACHINE LANGUAGE
• Program
A list of instructions or statements for directing
the computer to perform a required data
processing task

• Various types of programming languages

- Hierarchy of programming languages

• Machine-language
- Binary code
- Octal or hexadecimal code

• Assembly-language (Assembler)
- Symbolic code

• High-level language (Compiler)

 Machine Language

COMPARISON OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

• Binary Program to Add Two Numbers • Hexa program
Location Instruction
Location Instruction Code
000 2004
0 0010 0000 0000 0100 001 1005
1 0001 0000 0000 0101 002 3006
10 0011 0000 0000 0110 003 7001
11 0111 0000 0000 0001 004 0053
100 0000 0000 0101 0011 005 FFE9
101 1111 1111 1110 1001 006 0000
110 0000 0000 0000 0000

• Program with Symbolic OP-Code • Assembly-Language Program

Location Instruction Comments ORG 0 /Origin of program is location 0
000 LDA 004 Load 1st operand into AC LDA A /Load operand from location A
001 ADD 005 Add 2nd operand to AC ADD B /Add operand from location B
002 STA 006 Store sum in location 006 STA C /Store sum in location C
003 HLT Halt computer HLT /Halt computer
004 0053 1st operand A, DEC 83 /Decimal operand
005 FFE9 2nd operand (negative) B, DEC -23 /Decimal operand
006 0000 Store sum here C, DEC 0 /Sum stored in location C
END /End of symbolic program

• Fortran Program
INTEGER A, B, C
DATA A,83 / B,-23
C=A+B
END
 Assembly Language

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Syntax of the BC assembly language
Each line is arranged in three columns called fields
Label field
- May be empty or may specify a symbolic
address consists of up to 3 characters
- Terminated by a comma
Instruction field
- Specifies a machine or a pseudo instruction
- May specify one of
* Memory reference instr. (MRI)
MRI consists of two or three symbols separated by spaces.
ADD OPR (direct address MRI)
ADD PTR I (indirect address MRI)
* Register reference or input-output instr.
Non-MRI does not have an address part
* Pseudo instr. with or without an operand
Symbolic address used in the instruction field must be
defined somewhere as a label
Comment field
- May be empty or may include a comment
 Rules of the language
1. The LABEL FIELD may be empty or it may specify a
symbolic address.

2. The INSTRUCTION FIELD specifies a machine

instruction or a pseudo instructions.

3. The COMMENT FIELD may be empty or it may include

a comment.
 Rules of the language
4. A Symbolic Address (in LABEL FIELD) consists of
one, two or three, but not more than three alphanumeric
characters.
▪ The first character must be a latter.
▪ Next two may be latter or numerals.
▪ The symbolic address is terminated by a
comma so that it will be recognized by the
assembler.
 Rules of the language
5. The INSTRUCTION FIELD in program may specify one
of the following items:
– A MRI
– A non-MRI (Register ref. or I/O instructions)
– A pseudo instruction with or without operand.
• A MRI occupies two or three symbols separate by
space.
• Example:
ADD ptr /direct-address MRI
ADD ptr I /Indirect-address MRI
 Rules of the language
6. The third field in the program is reserved for
comments.
✓It must be preceded by a slash (i.e. to
recognize the beginning of a comment)
 Assembly Language

PSEUDO-INSTRUCTIONS
ORG N
Hexadecimal number N is the memory loc.
for the instruction or operand listed in the following line
END
Denotes the end of symbolic program
DEC N
Signed decimal number N to be converted to the binary
HEX N
Hexadecimal number N to be converted to the binary

Example: Assembly language program to subtract two numbers

ORG 100 / Origin of program is location 100
LDA SUB / Load subtrahend to AC
CMA / Complement AC
INC / Increment AC
ADD MIN / Add minuend to AC
STA DIF / Store difference
HLT / Halt computer
MIN, DEC 83 / Minuend
SUB, DEC -23 / Subtrahend
DIF, HEX 0 / Difference stored here
END / End of symbolic program
 Ex-or
ORG ---
LDA Y
CMA z = x ⊕ y = xy' + x'y = [(xy')' . (x‘y)']'
AND X
CMA
STA TMP
LDA X
CMA
AND Y
CMA
AND TMP
CMA
STA Z
HLT
X, ---
Y, ---
Z, ---
TMP, ---
END
 Assembler

ASSEMBLER - FIRST PASS -

Source Program - Symbolic Assembly Language Program
Object Program - Binary Machine Language Program
Two pass assembler
1st pass: generates a table that correlates all user defined
(address) symbols with their binary equivalent value
2nd pass: binary translation
❑ To keep track of the location of ORG 100 / Origin of program is location 100
instructions, the assemble uses a LDA SUB / Load subtrahend to AC
memory word called location CMA / Complement AC
counter (LC). INC / Increment AC
First pass ADD MIN / Add minuend to AC
STA DIF / Store difference
LC := 0
HLT / Halt computer
MIN, DEC 83 / Minuend
SUB, DEC -23 / Subtrahend
Scan next line of code Set LC DIF, HEX 0 / Difference stored here
yes
END / End of symbolic program
no no
Label ORG

yes
yes
Store symbol END
in address-
symbol table
together with no Go to
value of LC second
pass
Increment LC
Address Symbol Table
 Assembler

ASSEMBLER - SECOND PASS -

Second Pass
Machine instructions are translated by means of table-lookup procedures;
(1. Pseudo-Instruction Table, 2. MRI Table, 3. Non-MRI Table
4. Address Symbol Table)
Second pass

LC := 0
Done ORG 100 / Origin of program is location 10
Scan next line of code
Set LC LDA SUB / Load subtrahend to AC
yes yes CMA / Complement AC
Pseudo yes no INC / Increment AC
ORG END
instr. ADD MIN / Add minuend to AC
no no STA DIF / Store difference
yes no
DEC or
HEX
HLT / Halt computer
MRI Convert MIN, DEC 83 / Minuend
Get operation code
operand
to binary
SUB, DEC -23 / Subtrahend
Valid
and set bits 2-4
non-MRI
no and store DIF, HEX 0 / Difference stored here
in location
Search address-
instr.
given by LC END / End of symbolic program
symbol table for yes
binary equivalent
of symbol address
and set bits 5-16
Store binary Error in
equivalent of line of
yes no instruction code
I in location
given by LC
Set Set
first first
bit to 1 bit to 0

Assemble all parts of

binary instruction and Increment LC
store in location given by LC
 Assembly Language

TRANSLATION TO BINARY

Hexadecimal Code
Location Content Symbolic Program

ORG 100
100 2107 LDA SUB
101 7200 CMA
102 7020 INC
103 1106 ADD MIN
104 3108 STA DIF
105 7001 HLT
106 0053 MIN, DEC 83
107 FFE9 SUB, DEC -23
108 0000 DIF, HEX 0
END
 * Program Loops *
Assembly-language program to add 100 numbers:
ORG 100 / Origin of program is HEX 100
LDA ADS / Load first address of operand
STA PTR / Store in pointer
LDA NBR / Load -100
STA CTR / Store in counter
CLA / Clear AC
LOP, ADD PTR I / Add an operand to AC
ISZ PTR / Increment pointer
ISZ CTR / Increment counter
BUN LOP / Repeat loop again
STA SUM / Store sum
HLT / Halt
ADS, HEX 150 / First address of operands
PTR, HEX 0 / Reserved for a pointer
NBR, . -100
DEC / Initial value for a counter
.
CTR, . 0
HEX / Reserved for a counter
SUM, HEX 0 / Sum is stored here
ORG 150 / Origin of operands is HEX 150
DEC 75 / First operand

DEC 23 / Last operand

END / End of symbolic program
 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

FLOWCHART OF A PROGRAM - Multiplication -

CTR  - 8
P0
X holds the multiplicand
Y holds the multiplier
E0 P holds the product

Example with four significant digits

AC  Y

X = 0000 1111 P
cir EAC
Y = 0000 1011 0000 0000
0000 1111 0000 1111
Y  AC 0001 1110 0010 1101
0000 0000 0010 1101
=0 =1 0111 1000 1010 0101
E 1010 0101
PP+X

E0

AC  X

cil EAC
cil

X  AC

CTR  CTR + 1

0 =0
CTR Stop
 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM - Multiplication -

CTR  - 8
P0 ORG 100
LOP, CLE / Clear E
E0 LDA Y / Load multiplier
CIR / Transfer multiplier bit to E
AC  Y STA Y / Store shifted multiplier
SZE / Check if bit is zero
cir EAC BUN ONE / Bit is one; goto ONE
BUN ZRO / Bit is zero; goto ZRO
Y  AC ONE, LDA X / Load multiplicand
ADD P / Add to partial product
=0 =1 STA P / Store partial product
E
CLE / Clear E
PP+X ZRO, LDA X / Load multiplicand
CIL / Shift left
E0
STA X / Store shifted multiplicand
ISZ CTR / Increment counter
AC  X BUN LOP / Counter not zero; repeat loop
HLT / Counter is zero; halt
cil EAC
cil CTR, DEC -8 / This location serves as a counter
X, HEX 000F / Multiplicand stored here
X  AC Y, HEX 000B / Multiplier stored here
P, HEX 0 / Product formed here
CTR  CTR + 1 END

0 =0
CTR Stop
 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM
- Double Precision Addition -

LDA AL / Load A low

ADD BL / Add B low, carry in E
STA CL / Store in C low
CLA / Clear AC
CIL / Circulate to bring carry into AC(0)
ADD AH / Add A high and carry
ADD BH / Add B high
STA CH / Store in C high
HLT
AL, --
AH, --
BL, --
BH, --
CL, --
CH, --
 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM
- Logic and Shift Operations -
• Logic operations
- BC instructions : AND, CMA, CLA
- Program for OR operation
LDA A / Load 1st operand
CMA / Complement to get A’
STA TMP / Store in a temporary location
LDA B / Load 2nd operand B
CMA / Complement to get B’
AND TMP / AND with A’ to get A’ AND B’
CMA / Complement again to get A OR B
• Shift operations - BC has Circular Shift only
- Logical shift-right operation - Logical shift-left operation
CLE CLE
CIR CIL

- Arithmetic right-shift operation

CLE / Clear E to 0
SPA / Skip if AC is positive
CME / AC is negative
CIR / Circulate E and AC
 Subroutines

SUBROUTINES
Subroutine
- A set of common instructions that can be used in a program many times.
- Subroutine linkage : a procedure for branching
to a subroutine and returning to the main program
Example
Loc. ORG 100 / Main program
100 LDA X / Load X
101 BSA SH4 / Branch to subroutine
102 STA X / Store shifted number
103 LDA Y / Load Y
104 BSA SH4 / Branch to subroutine again
105 STA Y / Store shifted number
106 HLT
107 X, HEX 1234
108 Y, HEX 4321
/ Subroutine to shift left 4 times
109 SH4, HEX 0 / Store return address here
10A CIL / Circulate left once
10B CIL
10C CIL
10D CIL / Circulate left fourth time
10E AND MSK / Set AC(0-3) to zero
10F BUN SH4 I / Return to main program
110 MSK, HEX FFF0 / Mask operand
END
 Subroutines

SUBROUTINE PARAMETERS AND DATA LINKAGE

Linkage of Parameters and Data between the Main Program and a Subroutine
- via Registers
- via Memory locations
- ….

Example: Subroutine performing LOGICAL OR operation; Need two parameters

Loc. ORG 200
200 LDA X / Load 1st operand into AC
201 BSA OR / Branch to subroutine OR
202 HEX 3AF6 / 2nd operand stored here
203 STA z / Subroutine returns here
204 HLT
205 X, HEX 7B95 / 1st operand stored here
206 z, HEX 0 / Result stored here
207 OR, HEX 0 / Subroutine OR
208 CMA / Complement 1st operand
209 STA TMP / Store in temporary location
20A LDA OR I / Load 2nd operand
20B CMA / Complement 2nd operand
20C AND TMP / AND complemented 1st operand
20D CMA / Complement again to get OR
20E ISZ OR / Increment return address
20F BUN OR I / Return to main program
210 TMP, HEX 0 / Temporary storage
END
 Subroutines

SUBROUTINE - Moving a Block of Data -

/ Main program
10 BSA MVE / Branch to subroutine
11 HEX 100 / 1st address of source data
12 HEX 200 / 1st address of destination data
13 DEC -16 / Number of items to move
14 HLT
15 MVE, HEX 0 / Subroutine MVE
16 LDA MVE I / Bring address of source
17 STA PT1 / Store in 1st pointer
18 ISZ MVE / Increment return address
19 LDA MVE I / Bring address of destination
20 STA PT2 / Store in 2nd pointer
21 ISZ MVE / Increment return address
22 LDA MVE I / Bring number of items
23 STA CTR / Store in counter
24 ISZ MVE / Increment return address
25 LOP, LDA PT1 I / Load source item
26 STA PT2 I / Store in destination
27 ISZ PT1 / Increment source pointer
• Fortran subroutine
28 ISZ PT2 / Increment destination pointer SUBROUTINE MVE (SOURCE, DEST, N)
29 ISZ CTR / Increment counter DIMENSION SOURCE(N), DEST(N)
30 BUN LOP / Repeat 16 times DO 20 I = 1, N
31 BUN MVE I / Return to main program 20 DEST(I) = SOURCE(I)
32 PT1, -- RETURN
33 PT2, -- END
34 CTR, --
 Input Output Program

INPUT OUTPUT PROGRAM

Program to Input one Character(Byte)

CIF, SKI / Check input flag

BUN CIF / Flag=0, branch to check again
INP / Flag=1, input character
OUT / Display to ensure correctness
STA CHR / Store character
HLT
CHR, -- / Store character here

Program to Output a Character

LDA CHR / Load character into AC
COF, SKO / Check output flag
BUN COF / Flag=0, branch to check again
OUT / Flag=1, output character
HLT
CHR, HEX 0057 / Character is "W"
 Input Output Program

CHARACTER MANIPULATION

Subroutine to Input 2 Characters and pack into a word

IN2, -- / Subroutine entry

FST, SKI
BUN FST
INP / Input 1st character
OUT
BSA SH4 / Logical Shift left 4 bits
BSA SH4 / 4 more bits
SCD, SKI
BUN SCD
INP / Input 2nd character
OUT
BUN IN2 I / Return
 Input Output Program

PROGRAM INTERRUPT
Tasks of Interrupt Service Routine

- Save the Status of CPU

Contents of processor registers and Flags

- Identify the source of Interrupt

Check which flag is set

- Service the device whose flag is set

(Input Output Subroutine)

- Restore contents of processor registers and flags

- Turn the interrupt facility on

- Return to the running program

Load PC of the interrupted program
 Input Output Program

INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE

Loc.
0 ZRO, - / Return address stored here
1 BUN SRV / Branch to service routine
100 CLA / Portion of running program
101 ION / Turn on interrupt facility
102 LDA X
103 ADD Y / Interrupt occurs here
104 STA Z / Program returns here after interrupt
/ Interrupt service routine
200 SRV, STA SAC / Store content of AC
CIR / Move E into AC(1)
STA SE / Store content of E
SKI / Check input flag
BUN NXT / Flag is off, check next flag
INP / Flag is on, input character
OUT / Print character
STA PT1 I / Store it in input buffer
ISZ PT1 / Increment input pointer
NXT, SKO / Check output flag
BUN EXT / Flag is off, exit
LDA PT2 I / Load character from output buffer
OUT / Output character
ISZ PT2 / Increment output pointer
EXT, LDA SE / Restore value of AC(1)
CIL / Shift it to E
LDA SAC / Restore content of AC
ION / Turn interrupt on
BUN ZRO I / Return to running program
SAC, - / AC is stored here
SE, - / E is stored here
PT1, - / Pointer of input buffer
PT2, - / Pointer of output buffer