Computer Architecture & Organization

ELE5361

Chapter 6: Programming The Basic

Computer

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 1
PROGRAMMING THE BASIC COMPUTER

Introduction

Machine Language

Assembly Language

Assembler

Program Loops

Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

Subroutines

Input-Output Programming

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 2 Introduction

INTRODUCTION
Those concerned with computer architecture
should have a knowledge of both hardware and
software because the two branches influence each
other.
Instruction Set of the Basic Computer
Symbol Hexa code Description
AND 0 or 8 AND M to AC m: effective address
ADD 1 or 9 Add M to AC, carry to E M: memory word (operand)
LDA 2 or A Load AC from M found at m
STA 3 or B Store AC in M
BUN 4 or C Branch unconditionally to m
BSA 5 or D Save return address in m and branch to m+1
ISZ 6 or E Increment M and skip if zero
CLA 7800 Clear AC
CLE 7400 Clear E
CMA 7200 Complement AC
CME 7100 Complement E
CIR 7080 Circulate right E and AC
CIL 7040 Circulate left E and AC
INC 7020 Increment AC, carry to E
SPA 7010 Skip if AC is positive
SNA 7008 Skip if AC is negative
SZA 7004 Skip if AC is zero
SZE 7002 Skip if E is zero
HLT 7001 Halt computer
INP F800 Input information and clear flag
OUT F400 Output information and clear flag
SKI F200 Skip if input flag is on
SKO F100 Skip if output flag is on
ION F080 Turn interrupt on
IOF
Computer Arch. & Org.F040 Turn interrupt off
Programming the Basic Computer 3 Machine Language

MACHINE LANGUAGE
• Program
A list of instructions or statements for directing
the computer to perform a required data
processing task

• Various types of programming languages

- Hierarchy of programming languages

• Machine-language
- Binary code
- Octal or hexadecimal code

• Assembly-language (Assembler)
- Symbolic code

• High-level language (Compiler)

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 4 Machine Language

COMPARISON OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

• Binary Program to Add Two Numbers • Hexa
programLocation Instruction Code
Location Instruction
000 2004
0 0010 0000 0000 0100 001 1005
1 0001 0000 0000 0101 002 3006
10 0011 0000 0000 0110 003 7001
11 0111 0000 0000 0001 004 0053
100 0000 0000 0101 0011 005 FFE9
101 1111 1111 1110 1001
006 0000
110 0000 0000 0000 0000

• Program with Symbolic OP-Code • Assembly-Language Program

Loc. Instruction Comments ORG 0 /Origin of program is location 0
000 LDA 004 Load 1st operand into AC LDA A /Load operand from location A
001 ADD 005 Add 2nd operand to AC ADD B /Add operand from location B
002 STA 006 Store sum in location 006 STA C /Store sum in location C
003 HLT Halt computer HLT /Halt computer
004 0053 1st operand A, DEC 83 /Decimal operand
005 FFE9 2nd operand (negative) B, DEC -23 /Decimal operand
006 0000 Store sum here C, DEC 0 /Sum stored in location C
END /End of symbolic program

• Fortran Program
INTEGER A, B, C
DATA A,83 / B,-23
C=A+B
END

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 5 Assembly Language

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Syntax of the BC assembly language
Each line is arranged in three columns called fields
Label field
- May be empty or may specify a
symbolic address consists of up to 3
characters
- Terminated by a comma
Instruction field
- Specifies a machine or a pseudo instruction
- May specify one of
* Memory reference instr. (MRI)
MRI consists of two or three symbols
ADD OPR
separated (direct address MRI)
by spaces.
ADD PTR I (indirect address MRI)
Symbolic address used in the instruction field must be
defined somewhere as a label
* Register reference or input-output instr.
Non-MRI does not have an address part
* Pseudo instr. with or without an operand
Comment field
- May be empty or may include a comment
Computer Arch. & Org.
Programming the Basic Computer 6 Assembly Language

PSEUDO-INSTRUCTIONS
ORG N
Hexadecimal number N is the memory loc.
for the instruction or operand listed in the following line
END
Denotes the end of symbolic program
DEC N
Signed decimal number N to be converted to the binary
HEX N
Hexadecimal number N to be converted to the
binary

Example: Assembly language program

ORG 100 / Origin ofto subtract
program two 100
is location
numbers LDA SUB / Load subtrahend to AC
CMA / Complement AC
INC / Increment AC
ADD MIN / Add minuend to AC
STA DIF / Store difference
HLT / Halt computer
MIN, DEC 83 / Minuend
SUB, DEC -23 / Subtrahend
DIF, HEX 0 / Difference stored here
END / End of symbolic program

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 7 Assembly Language

TRANSLATION TO BINARY

Hexadecimal Code
Symbolic Program
Location Content

ORG 100
100 2107 LDA SUB
101 7200 CMA
102 7020 INC
103 1106 ADD MIN
104 3108 STA DIF
105 7001 HLT
106 0053 MIN, DEC 83
107 FFE9 SUB, DEC -23
108 0000 DIF, HEX 0
END

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 8 Assembler

ASSEMBLER -
FIRST PASS -
Assembler
Source Program - Symbolic Assembly Language Program
Object Program - Binary Machine Language Program
Two pass assembler
1st pass: generates a table that correlates all user defined
(address) symbols with their binary equivalent value
First
2nd pass
pass: binary translation
First pass

LC := 0

Scan next line of code Set LC

yes
no no
Label ORG

yes
yes
Store symbol END
in address-
symbol table
together with no Go to
value of LC second
pass
Increment LC

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer
9 Assembler
ASSEMBLER - SECOND PASS -
Second Pass
Machine instructions are translated by means of table-lookup
procedures; (1. Pseudo-Instruction Table, 2. MRI Table, 3. Non-MRI
Table
4. Address Symbol Table)
Second
LC <- pass
0
Done
Scan next line of code
Set LC

yes yes
Pseudo yes no
ORG END
instr.

no no
DEC or
yes no HEX
MRI Convert
operand
Get operation code to binary
and set bits 2-4 Valid no
non-MRI and store
instr. in location
Search address- given by
symbol table for LC
yes
binary equivalent
of symbol address
and set bits 5-16
Store binary Error in
equivalent of line of
yes no instruction code
I in location
given by LC
Set Set
first first
bit to bit to 0
1
Assemble all parts of
binary instruction and Increment LC
store in location
given by LC

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 10 Program Loops

PROGRAM LOOPS
Loop: A sequence of instructions that are executed many times,
each with a different set of data
Fortran program to add 100 numbers: DIMENSION A(100)
INTEGER SUM, A
SUM = 0
DO 3 J = 1, 100
3 SUM = SUM +
A(J)
Assembly-language program to add 100 numbers:
ORG 100 / Origin of program is HEX 100
LDA ADS / Load first address of operand
STA PTR / Store in pointer
LDA NBR / Load -100
STA CTR / Store in counter
CLA / Clear AC
LOP, ADD PTR / Add an operand to AC
I / Increment pointer
ISZ PTR / Increment counter
ISZ CTR / Repeat loop again
BUN LOP / Store sum
STA SUM / Halt
ADS, HLT / First address of operands
PTR, HEX 150 / Reserved for a pointer
HEX 0 / Initial value for a counter
NBR, DEC -100 / Reserved for a counter
HEX 0 / Sum is stored here
CTR, HEX 0 / Origin of operands is HEX 150
ORG
DEC 75150 / First operand
SUM, .
.
.
DEC 23 / Last operand
END / End of symbolic program

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 11 Programming Arithmetic and Logic
PROGRAMMING ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC OPERATIONS
Operations

Implementation of Arithmetic and Logic Operations

- Software Implementation
- Implementation of an operation with a program
using machine instruction set
- Usually when the operation is not included
in the instruction set
- Hardware Implementation
- Implementation of an operation in a computer
with one machine instruction

Software Implementation example:

* Multiplication
- For simplicity, unsigned positive numbers
- 8-bit numbers -> 16-bit product

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 12 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

FLOWCHART OF A PROGRAM - Multiplication -

CTR  - 8
P0
X holds the multiplicand
Y holds the multiplier
E0 P holds the product

Example with four significant digits

AC  Y

X = 0000 1111 P
cir EAC
Y = 0000 1011 0000 0000
Y  AC 0000 1111 0000 1111
0001 1110 0010 1101
0000 0000 0010 1101
=0 =1
E 0111 1000 1010 0101
PP+X 1010 0101

E0

AC  X

cil EAC
cil

X  AC

CTR  CTR + 1

0 =0
CTR Stop

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 13 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM - Multiplication -

ORG 100
LOP, CLE / Clear E
LDA Y / Load multiplier
CIR / Transfer multiplier bit to E
STA Y / Store shifted multiplier
SZE / Check if bit is zero
BUN ONE / Bit is one; goto ONE
BUN ZRO / Bit is zero; goto ZRO
ONE, LDA X / Load multiplicand
ADD P / Add to partial product
STA P / Store partial product
CLE / Clear E
ZRO, LDA X / Load multiplicand
CIL / Shift left
STA X / Store shifted multiplicand
ISZ CTR / Increment counter
BUN LOP / Counter not zero; repeat loop
HLT / Counter is zero; halt
CTR, DEC -8 / This location serves as a counter
X, HEX 000F / Multiplicand stored here
Y, HEX 000B / Multiplier stored here
P, HEX 0 / Product formed here
END

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 14 Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM
- Double Precision Addition -

LDA AL / Load A low

ADD BL / Add B low, carry in E
STA CL / Store in C low
CLA / Clear AC
CIL / Circulate to bring carry into AC
ADD AH / Add A high and carry
ADD BH / Add B high
STA CH / Store in C high
HLT

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 15 Programming Arithmetic and Logic
Operations ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM
- Logic and Shift Operations -
• Logic operations
- BC instructions : AND, CMA, CLA
- Program for OR operation
LDA A / Load 1st operand
CMA / Complement to get A’
STA / Store in a temporary location
TMP / Load 2nd operand B
LDA / Complement to get B’
B CMA / AND with A’ to get A’ AND B’
AND / Complement again to get A OR B
TMP
CMA - BC has Circular Shift only
• Shift operations
- Logical shift-right operation - Logical shift-left
operationCLE CLE
CIR CIL

- Arithmetic right-shift operation

CLE / Clear E to 0
SPA / Skip if AC is positive
/ AC is negative
CME / Circulate E and AC
CIR
Computer Arch. & Org.
Programming the Basic Computer 16 Subroutines

SUBROUTINES
Subroutine
- A set of common instructions that can be used in a program many times.
- Subroutine linkage : a procedure for branching
to a subroutine and returning to the main program
Example
Loc. ORG 100 / Main program
100 LDA X / Load X
101 BSA SH4 / Branch to
102 subroutine
103 STA X / Store shifted
104 number
105 LDA Y / Load Y
106 BSA SH4 / Branch to
107 subroutine again STA Y / Store shifted
108 number
HLT
109 X, HEX 1234
10A Y, HEX 4321
10B / Subroutine to shift left 4
10C times
10D SH4, HEX 0 / Store return address here CIL /
10E Circulate left once
10F CIL CIL
110 CIL / Circulate
left fourth time AND MSK / Set AC(13-
16) to zero BUN SH4 I / Return to
main program
Computer Arch. &MSK,
Org. HEX FFF0 / Mask operand END
Programming the Basic Computer 17 Subroutines

SUBROUTINE PARAMETERS AND DATA LINKAGE

Linkage of Parameters and Data between the Main Program and a Subroutine
- via Registers
- via Memory locations
- ….

Example: Subroutine performing LOGICAL OR operation; Need two parameters

Loc. ORG 200
200 LDA X / Load 1st operand into AC
201 BSA OR / Branch to
202
203 subroutine OR HEX 3AF6 / 2nd operand
204 stored here STA Y / Subroutine
205 returns here HLT
206 X, HEX 7B95 / 1st operand stored
207 here
208 Y, HEX 0 / Result stored here
209 OR, HEX 0 / Subroutine OR
20A CMA / Complement
20B 1st operand
20C STA TMP / Store in
20D temporary location
20E LDA OR I / Load 2nd
20F operand
210 CMA / Complement
2nd operand
AND TMP / AND complemented
Computer Arch. & Org.
Programming the Basic Computer 18 Subroutines

SUBROUTINE - Moving a Block of Data -

/ Main program
BSA MVE / Branch to subroutine
HEX 100 / 1st address of source data
HEX 200 / 1st address of destination data
DEC -16 / Number of items to move
HLT
MVE, HEX 0 / Subroutine MVE
LDA MVE I / Bring address of source
STA PT1 / Store in 1st pointer
ISZ MVE / Increment return address
LDA MVE / Bring address of destination
STA PT2 / Store in 2nd pointer
ISZ MVE I / Increment return address
LDA MVE / Bring number of items
STA CTR / Store in counter
LOP, ISZ MVE / Increment return address
LDA PT1 I / Load source item
STA PT2 I / Store in destination • Fortran subroutine
ISZ PT1 I / Increment source pointer

ISZ PT2 / Increment destination pointer SUBROUTINE MVE (SOURCE, DEST, N)

ISZ CTR / Increment counter DIMENSION SOURCE(N), DEST(N)
BUN LOP / Repeat 16 times DO 20 I = 1, N
BUN MVE I / Return to main program 20 DEST(I) = SOURCE(I)
PT1, -- RETURN
PT2, -- END
CTR, --
Computer Arch. & Org.
Programming the Basic Computer 19 Input Output Program

INPUT OUTPUT PROGRAM

Program to Input one Character(Byte)

CIF, SKI / Check input flag

BUN CIF / Flag=0, branch to check again
INP / Flag=1, input character
OUT / Display to ensure correctness
STA CHR / Store character
HLT
CHR, -- / Store character here

Program to Output a Character

LDA CHR / Load character into AC
COF, SKO / Check output flag
BUN COF / Flag=0, branch to check again
OUT / Flag=1, output character
HLT
CHR, HEX 0057 / Character is "W"

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 20 Input Output Program

CHARACTER MANIPULATION

Subroutine to Input 2 Characters and pack into a word

IN2, -- / Subroutine entry

FST, SKI
BUN FST
INP / Input 1st character
OUT
BSA SH4 / Logical Shift left 4 bits
BSA SH4 / 4 more bits
SCD, SKI
BUN SCD
INP / Input 2nd character
OUT
BUN IN2 I / Return

Computer Arch. & Org.

Programming the Basic Computer 21 Input Output Program

PROGRAM INTERRUPT
Tasks of Interrupt Service Routine
- Save the Status of CPU
Contents of processor registers and Flags

- Identify the source of

Interrupt Check which flag
is set

- Service the device whose flag is

set (Input Output Subroutine)

- Restore contents of processor

registers and flags

- Turn the interrupt facility on

- Return to the running program

Load PC of the interrupted
program
Computer Arch. & Org.
Programming the Basic Computer 22 Input Output Program

INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE

Loc.
0 ZRO, - / Return address stored here BUN
1 SRV / Branch to service routine CLA /
100 Portion of running program
101 ION / Turn on
102 interrupt facility LDA X
103 ADD Y / Interrupt
occurs here
104 STA Z / Program
returns here after interrupt
200
/ Interrupt service routine
SRV, STA SAC / Store content of AC
CIR / Move E
into AC
STA SE
/ Store
content of E
SKI / Check
input flag
BUN NXT /
Flag is off, check next flag INP / Flag is on,
input character
OUT / Print
character
STA PT1 I
/ Store it in
input buffer ISZ PT1 / Increment
input pointer
NXT, SKO / Check output flag BUN
EXT / Flag is off, exit
LDA PT2 I / Load character from
output buffer OUT / Output character
ISZ PT2 / Increment output pointer EXT,
LDA SE / Restore value of AC
CIL / Shift it to E
LDA SAC / Restore
Computer Arch. & Org. content of AC ION / Turn