Metrology, Tolerance and Quality control

Solution for assignment-1

Name : Gezahegn Melaku
ID number: MTR/587/13

Individual Assignment for Manufacturing Technology MSc first year students Section I and
II
Course: Metrology, Tolerance and Quality control - MAT-513
Instructor: YemaneZemicheal (PhD)
Total Mark: 30%
Last Date for Submission is on 1st March 2021 yemanefana@gmail.com
Direction: write detail information for the given questions

1. Define metrology. Explain the significance of metrology.

Solution
The word metrology is derived from the Greek word ‘metrologia’, which means measure.
Metrology literally means science of measurements. In practical applications, it is the enforcement,
verification, and validation of predefined standards. Although metrology, for engineering purposes,
is constrained to measurements of length, angles, and other quantities that are expressed in linear
and angular terms, in a broader sense, it is also concerned with industrial inspection and its various
techniques. Metrology also deals with establishing the units of measurements and their
reproduction in the form of standards, ascertaining the uniformity of measurements, developing
methods of measurement, analysing the accuracy of methods of measurement, establishing
uncertainty of measurement, and investigating the causes of measuring errors and subsequently
eliminating them.
The importance of metrology as a scientific discipline gained momentum during the industrial
revolution. Continuing technological advancement further necessitated refinement in this segment.
Metrology is practised almost every day, often unknowingly, in our day-to-day tasks. Measurement is
closely associated with all the activities pertaining to scientific, industrial, commercial, and human
aspects. Its role is ever increasing and encompasses different fields such as communications, energy,
medical sciences, food sciences, environment, trade, transportation, and military applications.
Metrology concerns itself with the study of measurements. It is of utmost importance to measure
different types of parameters or physical variables and quantify each of them with a specific unit. Thus,
measurement is an act of assigning an accurate and precise value to a physical variable. The physical
variable then gets transformed into a measured variable. Meaningful measurements require common
measurement standards and must be performed using them. The common methods of measurement are
based on the development of international specification standards. These provide appropriate definitions
of parameters and protocols that enable standard measurements to be made and also establish a common
basis for comparing measured values. In addition, metrology is also concerned with the reproduction,
conservation, and transfer of units of measurements and their standards. Measurements provide a basis
for judgements about process information, quality assurance, and process control.
Design is one of the major aspects of all branches of engineering. A product/system comprising several
elements has to be properly designed to perform the required (desired) function. In order to test whether
functioning of the elements constituting the product/system meets the design expectation, and to finally
assess the functioning of the whole system, measurements are inevitable. Another associated aspect is to
provide proper operation and maintenance of such a product/system. Measurement is a significant
source for acquiring very important and necessary data about both these aspects of engineering, without
which the function or analysis cannot be performed properly.
Hence, measurements are required for assessing the performance of a product/system, performing
analysis to ascertain the response to a specific input function, studying some fundamental principle or
law of nature, etc. Measurements contribute to a great extent to the design of a product or process to be
operated with maximum efficiency at minimum cost and with desired maintainability and reliability.

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Metrology helps extract high-quality information regarding the completion of products, working
condition, and status of processes in an operational and industrial environment. A high product quality
along with effectiveness and productivity is a must, in order to survive economically in this competitive
global market. The task of attaining work piece accuracy in modern industrial production techniques has
gained much significance through constantly increasing demands on the quality of the parts produced.
In order to achieve high product quality, metrology has to be firmly integrated into the production
activity. Hence, metrology forms an inseparable key element in the process of manufacturing. This
needs focus on the additional expense caused throughout the whole manufacturing process, due to
worldwide competition. The quality of the products influences various production attributes such as
continuity, production volume and costs, productivity, reliability, and efficiency of these products with
respect to their application or their consumption in a diverse manner. Thus, it is desirable to use the
resources in an optimal manner and strive to achieve cost reduction in manufacturing.

2. Why callipers and dividers are called dimension transfer instruments?

Solution
calipers
For the parts which can’t be measured directly with the scale, assistance of calipers can be taken.
Calipers thus act as accessories to scales. The caliper consists of two legs hinged at top, and the
ends of legs span the part to be inspected. This span is maintained and transferred to the scale. It
would be noted that calipers easily sense diameter (i.e. maximum distance) and transfer the distance
between the faces to the rule in such a way as to reduce sighting errors and increase the reading
accuracy.
Calipers can be either spring type or firm-joint type. Again under spring calipers we can have
outside and inside calipers and under firm-joint calipers we have outside, inside, transfer and
hermaphrodite calipers. In spring calipers, spring tension holds the caliper legs firmly against the
adjusting nut. These are more accurate and permit accurate sense of touch in measuring. Firm joint
calipers work on the friction created at the junction of legs. These become looseafter certain use.
But they are easier to adjust and are particularly suitable for larger work. The various types of
calipers could thus be classified as firm joint calipers and spring calipers

Divider

These are used for scribing arcs and circles. The distancebetween fulcrum roller centre and the
extreme working end of one of legs is known as the nominalsize and these are available in the size
of 100, 200 and 300 mm.

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 Calipers and dividers are called dimension transferinstruments because they are indirect
measuring instruments. They are called indirect measuring instruments because they need
other instrument to read what they measured. In other words as illustrated in figures above
they have not graduation to read what they measured.

3. What are the possible sources of errors in measurements? Briefly explain

them.
Solution
Incomplete definition (may be systematic or random) - One reason that it is impossible to make
exact measurements is that the measurement is not always clearly defined. For example, if two
different people measure the length of the same rope, they would probably get different results
because each person may stretch the rope with a different tension. The best way to minimize
definition errors is to carefully consider and specify the conditions that could affect the
measurement.
Failure to account for a factor (usually systematic) – The most challenging part of designing an
experiment is trying to control or account for all possible factors except the one independent
variable that is being analyzed. For instance, you may inadvertently ignore air resistance when
measuring free-fall acceleration or you may fail to account for the effect of the Earth’s magnetic
field when measuring the field of a small magnet. The best way to account for these sources of
error is to brainstorm with your peers about all the factors that could possibly affect your result.
This brainstorm should be done before beginning the experiment so that arrangements can be made
to account for the confounding factors before taking data. Sometimes a correction can be applied to
a result after taking data to account for an error that was not detected.
Environmental factors (systematic or random) - Be aware of errors introduced by your immediate
working environment. You may need to take account for or protect your experiment from
vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature, and electronic noise or other effects from nearby
apparatus.
Instrument resolution (random) - All instruments have finite precision that limits the ability to
resolve small measurement differences. For instance, a meter stick cannot distinguish distances to a
precision much better than about half of its smallest scale division (0.5 mm in this case). One of the
best ways to obtain more precise measurements is to use a null difference method instead of
measuring a quantity directly. Null or balance methods involve using instrumentation to measure
the difference between two similar quantities, one of which is known very accurately and is
adjustable. The adjustable reference quantity is varied until the difference is reduced to zero. The
two quantities are then balanced and the magnitude of the unknown quantity can be found by
comparison with the reference sample. With this method, problems of source instability are
eliminated, and the measuring instrument can be very sensitive and does not even need a scale.

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Failure to calibrate or check zero of instrument (systematic) - The calibration of an instrument

should be checked before taking data whenever possible. If a calibration standard is not available,
the accuracy of the instrument should be checked by comparing with another instrument that is at
least as precise, or by consulting the technical data provided by the manufacturer. When making a
measurement with a micrometer, electronic balance, or an electrical meter, always check the zero
reading first. Re-zero the instrument if possible, or measure the displacement of the zero reading
from the true zero and correct any measurements accordingly. It is a good idea to check the zero
reading throughout the experiment.
Physical variations (random) - It is always wise to obtain multiple measurements over the entire
range being investigated. Doing so often reveals variations that might otherwise go undetected.
These variations may call for closer examination, or they may be combined to find an average
value. Parallax (systematic or random) - This error can occur whenever there is some distance
between the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a measurement. If the observer’s eye
is not squarely aligned with the pointer and scale, the reading may be too high or low (some analog
meters have mirrors to help with this alignment).
Instrument drift (systematic) - Most electronic instruments have readings that drift over time. The
amount of drift is generally not a concern, but occasionally this source of error can be significant
and should be considered.
Lag time and hysteresis (systematic) - Some measuring devices require time to reach equilibrium,
and taking a measurement before the instrument is stable will result in a measurement that is
generally too low. The most common example is taking temperature readings with a thermometer
that has not reached thermal equilibrium with its environment. A similar effect is hysteresis where
the instrument readings lag behind and appear to have a “memory” effect, as data are taken
sequentially moving up or down through a range of values. Hysteresis is most commonly associated
with materials that become magnetized when a changing magnetic field is applied.
Personal errors come from carelessness, poor technique, or bias on the part of the experimenter.
The experimenter may measure incorrectly, or may use poor technique in taking a measurement, or
may introduce a bias into measurements by expecting (and inadvertently forcing) the results to
agree with the expected outcome. Gross personal errors, sometimes called mistakes or blunders,
should be avoided and corrected if discovered. As a rule, gross personal errors are excluded from
the error analysis discussion because it is generally assumed that the experimental result was
obtained by following correct procedures. The term human error should also be avoided in error
analysis discussions because it is too general to be useful.

4. What are the problems associated with precision measurements?

Problems associated with precision are –
 It need highly skilled person due to these it is highly exposed to measurement errors
 It is having also a problem due to the measuring instruments precision.

5. Discuss the need for inspection.

Solution
In order to determine the fitness of anything made, man has always used inspection. But industrial
inspection is of recent origin and has scientific approach behind it. It came into being because of
mass production which involved interchangeability of parts. In old craft, same craftsman used to be
producer as well as assembler. Separate inspections were not required. If any component part did
not fit properly at the time of assembly, the craftsman would make the necessary adjustments in
either of the mating parts so that each assembly functioned properly. So actually speaking, no two
parts will be alike/and there was practically no reason why they should be. Now new production
techniques have been developed and parts are being manufactured inlarge scale due to low-cost
methods of mass production. So hand-fit methods cannot serve the purpose any more. When large
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number of components of same part are being produced, then any part would be required to fit
properly into any other mating component part. This required specialisation of men and machines
for the performance of certain operations. It has, therefore,been considered necessary to divorce the
worker from all round crafts work and to supplant hand-fitmethods with interchangeable
manufacture.
The modern production techniques require that production of complete article be broken up into
various component parts so that the production of each component part becomes an independent
process. The various parts to be assembled together in assembly shop come from various shops.
Rather some parts are manufactured in other factories also and then assembled at one place. So it
is very essential that parts must be so fabricated that the satisfactory mating of any pair chosen
at random is possible. In order that this may be possible, the dimensions of the component part
must be confined within the prescribed limits which are such as to permit the assembly with a
predetermined fit. Thus industrial inspection assumed its importance due to necessity of suitable
mating of various components manufactured separately. It may be appreciated that when large
quantities of work-pieces are manufactured on the basis of interchangeability, it is not necessary
to actually measure the important features and much time could be saved by using gauges which
determine whether or not a particular feature is within the prescribed limits. The methods of
gauging, therefore, determine the dimensional accuracy of a feature, without reference to its actual
size.
The purpose of dimensional control is however not to strive for the exact size as it is
impossible to produce all the parts of exactly same size due to so many inherent and random
sources of errors in machines and men. The principal aim is to control and restrict the variations
within the prescribed limits. Since we are interested in producing the parts such that assembly
meets the prescribed work standard, we must not aim at accuracy beyond the set limits which,
otherwise is likely to lead to wastage of time and uneconomical results.
Lastly, inspection led to development of precision inspection instruments which caused the
transition from crude machines to better designed and precision machines. It had also led to
improvements in metallurgy and raw material manufacturing due to demands of high accuracy and
precision. Inspection has also introduced a spirit of competition and led to production of quality
products in volume by eliminating tooling bottle-necks and better processing techniques.

6. Briefly explain legal and deterministic metrology.

Solution
 Legal Metrology
 
'Legal metrology' is that part of metrology which treats units of measurements,
methods of measurements and the measuring instruments, in relation to the technical and
legal requirements. The activities of the service of 'Legal Metrology' are:
(i)  Control of measuring instruments;
(ii)  Testing of prototypes/models of measuring instruments;
(iii)  Examination of a measuring instrument to verify its conformity to the statutory
requirements etc.
 Deterministic metrology. Deterministic metrology is a new philosophy in which part
measurement is replaced by process measurement. The new techniques such as 3D error
compensation by CNC (Computer Numerical Control) systems and expert systems are
applied, leading to fully adaptive control. This technology is used for very high precision

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manufacturing machinery and control systems to achieve micro technology and

nanotechnology accuracies.

7. Briefly explain about comparators?

Solution
A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs that are applied to it and
produces an output. The output value of the comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater or
lesser. Please note that comparator falls under non-linear applications of ICs.
An op-amp consists of two input terminals and hence an op-amp based comparator compares the
two inputs that are applied to it and produces the result of comparison as the output. This chapter
discusses about op-amp based comparators

Types of Comparators

Comparators are of two types : Inverting and Non-inverting. This section discusses about these
two types in detail

i)Inverting Comparator

An inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is applied
to its non-inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its inverting terminal. This
comparator is called as inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be compared
is applied to the inverting terminal of op-amp.
The circuit diagram of an inverting comparator is shown in the following figure.

The operation of an inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two

values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on the values of its input voltage Vi and the reference
voltage Vref.
 The output value of an inverting comparator will be −Vsat, for which the input Vi voltage is
greater than the reference voltage Vref.
 The output value of an inverting comparator will be +Vsat, for which the input Vi is less
than the reference voltage Vref.
Example
Let us draw the output wave form of an inverting comparator, when a sinusoidal input signal and a
reference voltage of zero volts are applied to its inverting and non-inverting terminals respectively.

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The operation of the inverting comparator shown above is discussed below −

 During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at the
inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of the
inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during positive half cycle of the sinusoidal
input signal.
 Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present
at the inverting terminal of the op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output value of
the inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during negative half cycle of the sinusoidal
input signal.
The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of an inverting comparator, when
the reference voltage is zero volts

In the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions either
from −Vsat to +Vsat or from +Vsat to –Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input signal is crossing zero
volts. In other words, output changes its value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the
above circuit is also called as inverting zero crossing detector.

ii)Non-Inverting Comparator

A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is

applied to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal. This
op-amp based comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input voltage, which
has to be compared is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following figure

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The operation of a non-inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two

values, +Vsat and −Vsat at the output based on the values of input voltage Vt and the reference
voltage +Vref.
 The output value of a non-inverting comparator will be +Vsat, for which the input
voltage ViVi is greater than the reference voltage +Vref.
 The output value of a non-inverting comparator will bee −Vsat−, for which the input
voltage ViVi is less than the reference voltage +Vref.

Example

Let us draw the output wave form of a non-inverting comparator, when a sinusoidal input signal
and reference voltage of zero volts are applied to the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the
op-amp respectively

The operation of a non-inverting comparator is explained below −

 During the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present at the non-
inverting terminal of op-amp is greater than zero volts. Hence, the output value of a non-
inverting comparator will be equal to +Vsat during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal
input signal.
 Similarly, during the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal input signal, the voltage present
at the non-inverting terminal of op-amp is less than zero volts. Hence, the output value of
non-inverting comparator will be equal to −Vsat during the negative half cycle of the
sinusoidal input signal.
The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of a non-inverting comparator,
when the reference voltage is zero volts.

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From the figure shown above, we can observe that the output transitions either
from +Vsat to −Vsat or from −Vsat to +Vsat whenever the sinusoidal input signal crosses zero
volts. That means, the output changes its value when the input is crossing zero volts. Hence, the
above circuit is also called as non-inverting zero crossing detector.

8. Briefly explain the need to specify tolerance on components.

Solution
Ambiguity is not your friend. If you leave a dimension without a tolerance, no one else will know
the importance, or the unimportance, of that dimension. Not only can a lack of tolerances lead to
improper fits, it will also add to delays and higher costs.
Imagine you are working on a design for a high efficiency windmill. Due to its complexities you
need various custom parts, so you send out manufacturing drawings to various vendors for them to
be made. Several weeks later you receive all the parts, but some do not fit.
One of your special shafts that should be 7/8 in. in diameter does not fit in its mating bearing. What
happened? All the manufacturers were reputable and dealt with precision components, often used in
aerospace applications. So, you grab your Vernier caliper and measure the section of the shaft only
to discover that it has a diameter greater than what you requested, but by only 0.004 in. Yes, four
thousandths of an inch can make a difference.
Any interference, defined here as the diameter of a hole that is smaller than the diameter of a shaft,
will prevent parts from sliding together. They might have to be pressed on. If too large of an
interference exists, it will degrade system performance, especially in bearings.
You specified the diameter of the shaft as 0.875 in., but the machine shop made the part to a 0.879
in. diameter. Why the difference? Some machine shops will apply a standard tolerance of 3 decimal
places (±0.005) to un-toleranced dimensions, especially if they do not know the design intent.
Now, you’ve lost weeks of time while you wait for reworked parts.

Such a scenario can be avoided. While many machine shops use due diligence to verify non-
toleranced dimensions, it is critical to understand the importance of tolerances, and how to use them
correctly. Since parts need to be made either from larger pieces of material or built up from a
powder or liquid, there’s no guarantee they will be exactly the size you want.

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Fig . “Tolerance stack” will affect a part. Although every length dimension has the same tolerance, the tolerance
between surfaces B and D can be as large as ±0.15 ( 1(b)) or as low as ±0.05 ( 1(c)), depending on the placement
of the dimensions. It is up to you to decide which lengths are critical to the part’s function

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9. Explain the terms interchangeable manufacture and interchangeable assembly.

Solution
An interchangeable part is one which can be substituted for similar part manufactured to the same
drawing.
In earlier times production used to be confined to small number of units and the same operator
could adjust the mating components to obtain desired fit. With time the concept of manufacturing
techniques kept on changing and today the same operator is no more responsible for manufacture
and assembly too. With economic oriented approach, mass production techniques were inevitable,
that led to breaking up of a complete process into several smaller activities and this led to
specialisation. As a result various mating components will come from several shops, even a small
component would undergo production on several machines. Under such conditions it becomes
absolutely essential to have strict control over the dimensions of portions which have to match with
other parts. Any one component selected at random should assemble correctly with any other
mating component, that too selected at random. When a system of this kind is ensured it is
known as interchangeable system. Interchangeability ensures increased output with reduced
production cost.
In interchangeable system, every operator being concerned only with a limited portion of
overall work, he can easily specialise himself in that work and give best results leading to superior
quality. He need not waste his skill in fitting the components by hit and trial and assembly time is
reduced considerably. In the case of big assemblies, several units to manufacture individual parts
can be located in different parts of country depending on availability of specialised labour, raw
material, power, water and other facilities and final assembly of all individual components
manufactured in several units can be done at one place. The replacement of worn out or defective
parts and repairs is rendered very easy and the cost of maintenance is very much reduced and shut
down time also reduced to minimum
This type of manufacturing mainly concerned to manufacture standard pates
Example
Blts , nuts, keys, gears etc
Interchangeability Assembly: In Interchangeability Assembly when a large number of omponents
are to be produced then it is not economical to produce both the mating components by the same
operators. In Interchangeability Assembly to get required economy it is also the assumption to
produce with in the minimum componenttime.
This type is possible in the mass production system in the mass production system there is a
division of labor. the components are produced in one or more batch by using different operations
on different machines. by this method of operation, conditions, in order to assemble the mating
components with a desired, fit the strict control is needed.
In this system, the parts that are manufactured is done with specified tolerance limit. When a
system of this kind of operation is done with high output and when the components are assembled
correctly. with any other mating compounded that to selected at random then the system is called
interchangeable or Interchangeability assembly. The manufacturing of components in such
conditions is called interchangeable manufacture

10. With an example, briefly explain the selective assembly approach.

Solution

SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY :

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Selective Assembly: Selective Assembly refers to a concept where sub-components are assembled to
form a final assembly. Assembly dissembles the old concept of inspection, when the component is used
subjected into two types like useful or not. if there is useful requirements present in it then it used to
assembly. if not it will be scrubbed. In this type of assembly, the components are divided into different
groups according to the size and dimensions, By this division there is an advantage in assembly, like
every component is used to match with the corresponding component to make the assembly.
In the Selective assembly  the minimum value increases and maximum value decreases respectively, for
clearance and interference fit. But for transition fit maximum value for clearance and interference fit
decreases.

ADVANTAGES OF SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY IN MANUFACTURE :

 Selective assembly is the fair,clear and low cost  method in manufacturing.

 It increases the efficiency
 This gives high quality in assembly.
 Cost of manufacturing is reduced.
 Scrab rate in manufacturing reduces by this method.
 It reduces the machining cost. and increases the efficiency of fit without reducing the tolerance
zone.

11. Define the following terms:

(a) Basic size
Solution
This is the size in relation to which all limits of size are derived. Basic or nominal size is defined as
the size based on which the dimensional deviations are given. This is, in general, the same for both
components.
It is determined solely from design calculations. If the strength and stiffness requirements need a
50mm diameter shaft, then 50mm is the basic shaft size. If it has to fit into a hole, then 50 mm is
the basic size of the hole. Figure below illustrates the basic size, deviations and tolerances.

(b) Zero line

Solution
This line is also known as the line of zero deviation. The convention is to draw the zero line
horizontally with positive deviations represented above and negative Error! Hyperlink reference
not valid.deviations indicated below. The zero line represents the basic size in the graphical
representation.
(c) Tolerance zone
Solution
The tolerance that is bound by the two limits of size of the component is called the tolerance zone.
It refers to the relationship of tolerance to basic size.

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It is an imaginary area or volume within which the controlled feature of the manufactured
component must be completely contained

(d) International tolerance grade

Solution
Tolerance grades are an indication of the degree of accuracy of the manufacture. Standard tolerance
grades are designated by the letter IT followed by a number, for example, IT7. These are a set of
tolerances that varies according to the basic size and provides a uniform level of accuracy within
the grade.
(e) Tolerance class
Solution
It is designated by the letter(s) representing the fundamental deviation followed by the number
representing the standard tolerance grade. When the tolerance grade is associated with letter(s)
representing a fundamental deviation to form a tolerance class, the letters IT are omitted and the
class is represented as H8, f7, etc.
(f) Upper and lower deviations
Solution
Upper deviations
It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of the size and the corresponding basic
size.
Lower deviations
It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of the size and the corresponding basic
size.
Hole Shaft
Upper deviation (E′ cart superior) ES es
Lower deviation (E′ cart inferior) EI ei

12. Explain why special attention should be given to GO gauges compared to NOT GO gauges
during the design of gauges.
13. The tolerances for a hole and shaft assembly having a nominal size of 40 mm are as follows:

Determine
a) Maximum and minimum clearances
Solution
Hole Shaft
basic size of hole = 40 mm basic size of shaft = 40 mm
upper deviation ‘ES’ = +21 upper deviation ‘es’ = -40
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lower deviation ;EI’ = 0 lower deviation ;ei’ = -75

basic size of hole = 40.000 basic size of shaft = 40.000

high limit of hole = 40.021 high limit of shaft = 39.96
low limit of hole = 40.000 low limit of shaft = 39.925

Maximum clearances =high limit of hole - low limit of shaft

40.021 - 39.925=0.096

Minimum clearances = low limit of hole - high limit of shaft

40.000 - 39.96 = 0.04

b) Tolerances on shaft and hole

Solution
Tolerance on hole = HLH – LLH
40.021 -40=0.021
Tolerance on shaft = HLS – LLS
(40 – 0.04) – (40 – 0.075)= 0.035

c) Allowance
Solution
Allowance = Maximum metal condition of hole − Maximum metal condition of shaft
= LLH – HLS
40.021 – 39.96 = 0.061
d) MML of hole and shaft
e) Type of fit
Solution
The type of fit is a clearance fit. It is a fit that gives a clearance between the two mating parts.
14. Discuss the major applications of CMMs. List the types of CMMs.
Solution
Application of CMMs
The CMM is sophisticated equipment, which offers tremendous versatility and flexibility in modern
manufacturing applications. It uses the fundamental principles of metrology to an extent that is not
matched by any other measurement instrument. However, its use is limited to situations where
production is done in small batches but products are of high value. It is especially useful for
components of varied features and complex geometry. In addition to these factors, a CMM is a
good choice in the following situations:
1. A CMM can easily be integrated into an automated inspection system. The computer controls
easy integration in an automated environment such as an FMS or a CIM. The major economic
benefit is the reduction in downtime for machining while waiting for inspection to be completed.
2. A CMM may be interfaced with a CNC machine so that machining is corrected as the work piece
is inspected. A further extension of this principle may include computer-assisted design and
drafting (CADD).
3. Another major use (or abuse?) of CMMs is in reverse engineering. A complete 3D geometric
model with all critical dimensions can be built where such models do not exist. Once the geometric
model is built, it becomes easier to design dies or mouldsfor manufacturing operations. Quite often,
companies create 3D models of existing critical dies or moulds of their competitors or foreign
companies. Subsequently, they manufacture the dies, moulds, or components, which create a grey
market for such items in the industry.
Types of CMMs

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(a) Moving level cantilever arm type (b) Moving bridge type

(c) Column type (d) Moving RAM horizontal arm type

(e) Gantry type

15. What are the special properties possessed by lasers that make them suitable for metrology
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applications?
Solution
In recent times, laser-based interferometers are becoming increasingly popular in metrology
applications. Traditionally, lasers were more used by physicists than engineers, since the
frequencies of lasers were not stable enough. However now, stabilized lasers are used along with
powerful electronic controls for various applications in metrology. Gas lasers, with a mixture of
neon and helium, provide perfectly monochromatic red light. Interference fringes can be observed
with a light intensity that is 1000 times more than any other monochromatic light source.

16. Relationship between fits and tolerances? Describe the Hole basis and Shaft basis?
Solution
Fits
The relation between two mating parts is known as a fit. Depending upon the actual limits of the
hole or shaft sizes, fits may be classified as clearance fit, transition fit and interference fit.
I) clearance fit
It is a fit that gives a clearance between the two mating parts.

II) Transition fit

This fit may result in either interference or a clearance, depending upon the actual values of the
tolerance of individual parts.
III) Interference fit
If the difference between the hole and shaft sizes is negative before assembly; an interference fit is
obtained.

Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be
expected in some value. Whilst it is not, strictly speaking, a static characteristic of measuring
instruments, it is mentioned here because the accuracy of some instruments is sometimes quoted as
a tolerance figure. When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a
manufactured component from some specified value.

Hole basis and Shaft basis

In working out limit dimensions for the three classes of fits; two systems are in use, viz., the hole
basis system and shaft basis system.
Hole basis system
In this system, the size of the shaft is obtained by subtracting the allowance from the basic size of
the hole. This gives the design size of the shaft. Tolerances are then applied to each part separately.
In this system, the lower deviation of the hole is zero. The letter symbol for this situation is ‘H’.
The hole basis system is preferred in most cases, since standard tools like drills, reamers, broaches,
etc., are used for making a hole.
Shaft basis system
In this system, the size of the hole is obtained by adding the allowance to the basic size of the shaft.
This gives the design size for the hole. Tolerances are then applied to each part. In this system, the
upper deviation of the shaft is zero. The letter symbol for this situation is ‘h’. The shaft basis
system is preferred by (i) industries using semi-finished shafting as raw materials, e.g., textile
industries, where spindles of same size are used as cold-finished shafting and (ii) when several parts
having different fits but one nominal size is required on a single shaft.
Figure given below shows the representation of the hole basis and the shaft basis systems
schematically. Table given below next to the figure gives equivalent fits on the hole basis and shaft
basis systems to obtain the same fit.

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Application of various types of fits in the hole basis system is given in Table 1
Table 1. Equivalent fits on the hole basis and shaft basis systems

17. Describe Maximum material condition (MMC) and Least material condition
(LMC).
Solution
Maximum material condition (MMC)
This is the maximum limit of an external feature; for example, a shaft manufactured to its high
limits will contain the maximum amount of metal. It is also the minimum limit of an internal
feature; for example, a component that has a hole bored in it to its lower limit of size will have the
minimum amount of metal removed and remain in its maximum metal condition, (i.e., this
condition corresponds to either the largest shaft or the smallest hole). This is also referred to as the
GO limit.

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Least material condition (LMC).

This is the minimum limit of an external feature; for example, a shaft will contain minimum
amount of material, when manufactured to its low limits. It is also the maximum limit of an internal
feature; for example, a component will have the maximum amount of metal removed when a hole is
bored in it to its higher limit of size, this condition corresponds to either the smallest shaft or the
largest hole. This is also referred to as the NO GO limit.

18. Describe Tolerances and their specifications.

 Tolerance is the allowable deviation from a standard, eg: the range of variation permitted in
maintaining a specified dimension in a machined piece.
 Tolerance: It is the difference between between the upper limit and lower limit of a
dimension

Specification of Tolerances

i)Dimensional tolerance
ii) Geometric tolerance

i)Dimensional tolerance
the total amount by which a specified dimension is permitted to vary
Specification of DT
Unilateral Tolerance: In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of
the basic size, i.e. tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.

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Bilateral Tolerance: In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of
the basic size, i.e. the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size.

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