Review Articles

Review Articles
Received July 29, 2016; Accepted December 6, 2016

THE ROLE OF CULTURAL SCHEMA IN DEVELOPING

CULTURE-BASED PRODUCT DESIGN

Intan PRAMESWARI*, Haruo HIBINO*, Shinichi KOYAMA*

*Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan

Abstract: Culture is an important aspect to consider when designing a product, both as an inspiration and
influence in the cognitive process of design. The cultural backgrounds of users and designers should be
taken into account in the context of cognitive processing. Cultural schema refers to culture at the cognitive
level, which provides references in the form of knowledge while also shaping perspectives. This study
explores the role of cultural schema in culture-based product design by attempting to identify the
opportunities and constraints posed by culture. Examples were drawn to explain about cultural schema
role in designing products based on cultural artifacts that suggest design context interacted with cultural
schema in design process that results in different interpretation of design from the same cultural artifact.
Keywords: culture, schema, design, opportunities, constraints

1. Introduction design originated (e.g., Japanese design and Scandinavian

In recent times, the borders between cultures have design). Such styles can be evident even in designs that are
become blurred as a result of globalization, creating a not explicitly inspired by culture.
multicultural world [1]. On the other hand, globalization The creative process of design always occurs on the
has also produced a new awareness of local culture in an basis of some amount of prior knowledge [5]. The amount
effort to preserve cultural values and identity. Given the of prior knowledge referenced in the design process
need to express one’s identity—which includes local determines the novelty of the resulting design, whether the
identity and its relationship to culture—there has been a design is an imitation, modification, or innovation. Prior
revival of culture and tradition [2]. The trend toward knowledge itself is interrelated with the culture to which
culture-based design is manifest in the localization and the designer belongs. The retrieval of prior knowledge is a
“glocalization” movements. Localization aims to develop a cognition process that involves schema processing.
design for the culture it originates from while glocalization The challenge of culture-based product design lies in
aims to develop a culture-based design for the global understanding the opportunities and constraints presented
market [3]. by culture. Identifying these opportunities and constraints
Culture provides rich sources of references, inspiration, is an important part of the creative process, and such
and opportunity in developing designs. At the same time, identification can be performed by investigating the
culture can also impose constraints on how the design is schema in the context of culture. In turn, the information
perceived. Cultural beliefs, values, and social practices will be beneficial to understand the influence posed by
frame the way people relate to an object [4]. Different users culture to design development.
with different cultural backgrounds can relate differently to Schema refers to the structure of prior knowledge and
the perceived function of the same object. On the other the cognitive process of interpreting information
hand, the designer’s cultural background also influences [5][6][7][8]. In the context of culture, cultural schema is
design development. This is evident in the development of the structure of prior knowledge shared by the population
design styles based on the cultural group from which the of a cultural group [9]. The content of schema includes

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 various types of knowledge—both abstract and framework of culture-based design process with schema
concrete—consisting of information, images, ideas, theory approach. The understanding on culture and
scenarios, and so forth. In the context of culture, the cognition in general is imperative to understand the more
knowledge structured inside a schema relates to a cultural specific theme of cultural schema. In turn, understanding on
group’s way of life. Such knowledge is particular to the how schema works and how it could be applied to design is
cultural group and is shared by its members, defining its necessary to understand how cultural schema works and
cultural schema. applied in design.
This study examines the role of cultural schema in the Examples of application of schema and cultural schema
creative process of designing a culture-based product, in product design are discussed to aid the understanding.
based on the assumption that cognitive processes, including
creative processes, are influenced by culture as a cognitive 4. Schema Theory
attribute [10]. The cognition process in designing a product Bartlett defines schema as an organized structure of past
involves the activation of various schemata, including knowledge, experiences, and expectations regarding certain
cultural schema as prior knowledge that acts as a reference. aspects of the world [6]. In other words, schema refers to
The reference of prior knowledge is then identified in terms structures of knowledge that consist of information (objects,
of opportunities and constraints to be either encouraged or events, behavior, images, etc.) and the relationships between
overcome in the effort to develop a new design. each part, which act as references to interpret new
information [7][8]. The content of schema can vary by
2. Objectives individual, depending on the individual’s knowledge and
Culture and design, particularly design strategy in experience. Schemata represent knowledge on all levels,
developing culture-based and culture-oriented design was from abstract to concrete. The schema concept can be applied
widely studied. The studies are mainly focusing on to both abstract concepts (e.g., justice and faith) and very
transformation and application of cultural knowledge to concrete things (e.g., visual appearance) [14].
design [4][11][12]. On the other hand, it is apparent that Schema plays an important role in processing the
culture possess important role on human cognitive and interaction between old knowledge (old information from a
perception [13]. One theory that explains culture in generic schema) and new knowledge (episodic input) to
cognitive level is schema theory, specifically cultural make sense of information. It refers to unconscious cognitive
schema theory. However, cultural schema and its structures and processes that guide knowledge and skill, a
application in design have not widely studied [5]. cognitive shortcut for interpreting and perceiving. The
In light of recent development in design field where human mind constantly draws partial inferences from
new designs are created with culture as inspiration, the incomplete information by fitting new information (episodic
study of cultural schema and its application in design input) into the existing schema (generic schema). The
become more relevant. While it could be argued that the cognitive processing of schema is largely unconscious and
possession of cultural knowledge is enough to develop a automatic [8].
culture-based design, one should take into account the
cognitive process of cultural schema that influence
designer’s and user’ perception. It is widely accepted that
culture in form of cultural schema is a major force in the
process of perceiving and interpreting stimuli, and in turn
producing meaning [5]. Therefore, it was hypothesized that
since cultural schema shapes perception and guides
interpretation, cultural schema posed both opportunity and
constraint in production of meaning. Cultural schema is not
only consist of cultural knowledge that serves as reference
and inspiration in designing a culture-based design, but also
the constraints posed by the cultural-specific perception and
behavior.
This study attempts to explain the role of schema,
particularly cultural schema in developing culture-based
design by developing framework of identification of the
opportunities and constraints that posed by culture. It was
hoped that this study be a meaningful contribution in the
field of design psychology.

3. Method
The method used in this study is literature review.
Literature sources that contribute to this study encompass Figure 1. Schema processing model; adapted from
three main topics. The topics are cultural psychology, Brewer and Nakamura [15]
cognitive psychology, and design.
The topics discussed in this study are how schema work According to Brewer and Nakamura, schema-based
and its application in product design, culture and cognition, information processing involves three elements: generic
cultural schema and its application in design, and

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schema, episodic input, and instantiated schema. Generic specific to the culture an individual lives in. This knowledge
schema is schema that contains fixed structural content varies across cultures and can influence how people approach
(knowledge, skills, relations, behavior, etc.) as well as slots matters. Examples can include different cultural values or
to accommodate new information input. The input comes one’s preference for the visual style of American comics or
from episodic input, which is information collected from the Japanese manga. Expertise level is highly specialized
environment during exposure to stimuli. The interaction knowledge acquired through extensive learning processes in
between generic schema and episodic input results in relation to a profession or hobby. Examples of expertise
instantiated schema. Instantiated schema that is repeated is knowledge could include the ability to operate CNC
stored in the long-term memory, eventually becoming machines, use video editing software, etc. The culture and
generic schema, which is easier to recall. Without repetition expertise levels in the continuum of knowledge model
as reinforcement, however, instantiated schema stored in the include various uses of tools. In the culture level, the tools
short term memory will be discarded. The experience and include those commonly used in daily life; in the expertise
knowledge structure of a schema is a reference point for level, the tools are those specific to one’s area of expertise
information processing. New information is processed by [17]. However, while the model described in figure 2 is
trying to fit it into the existing schema. Information that fits somewhat rigid, schemata itself are dynamic and it is
the schema is processed faster and enforces the validity of possible a schema could exist across levels. For example,
the schema, thus strengthening the schema and leading to some sensorimotor schema could also exist in cultural level
better memory [15]. For information that does not fit the if it is related to specific habits and behavior of a cultural
existing schema, three outcomes are possible: 1) the schema group, not necessarily related to the use of tools as described
is modified to include the new information, 2) the in the figure.
information is modified to fit the schema, or 3) the
information is discarded as nonsensical [16]. 4.1. Application of schema theory in design
Hurtienne and Blessing [17] developed a model to The nature of schema theory is broad in its application,
describe the hierarchy of knowledge in human minds based from abstract concepts such as faith and justice to more
on the frequency of encoding and retrieval of knowledge. concrete ones such as written law. As such, the field of
The encoding and retrieval of knowledge are inseparable design also benefits from the application of schema theory.
from the concept of schema since knowledge itself is the Schema theory in design refer to design based on existing
content of the schema. knowledge, intuition, and automatic responses of the user,
which are the schemata itself. The use of schema theory in
design enables user to understand and react to the object
quickly and accordingly, which contributes to better usability.
Several examples of the application of schema theory in
product design are discussed in the next section.
4.1.1. Image schema
An example of the application of image schema to
intuitive design in the sensorimotor level is the schema of
space. One representation of space schema is direction (e.g.,
UP and DOWN, LEFT and RIGHT, FRONT and BACK).
The UP and DOWN/LEFT and RIGHT schema has been
used extensively in designing aspects of products [17] (e.g.,
volume buttons on cellular phones). The familiarity of the
schema stems from metaphors related to beliefs that
translated into directions.
Metaphor of UP and DOWN were associated with
Figure 2. Continuum of knowledge model [17]. spiritual belief where UP refers to high places where believed
as the residence of Gods, thus the positive association, and
The frequency and ease of encoding and retrieving DOWN refers to below the earth where it was believed the
knowledge increase from top to bottom in the model (Figure devil resides, thus the negative association (e.g. Semitic
2). Innate knowledge is acquired genetically during the religions where heaven is alluded to reside in the sky; Greek
prenatal stage of development; this is considered universal culture where Mount Olympus was believed to be residence
knowledge that is subconsciously processed, such as reflexes of Gods, and below earth was believed to be where hell
and instinct. Innate knowledge is the most frequently resides; Indonesian native spiritual concept where Gods were
retrieved and encoded type of knowledge. Sensorimotor believed to resides in mountains such as Mount Mahameru;).
knowledge is general knowledge acquired during early The metaphor of UP as positive/increase and DOWN as
childhood and used continuously in interactions with the negative/decrease translates into the directions of the button.
world. Examples of sensorimotor knowledge include the The iPhone 6 has two volume buttons: an upper button (UP)
concepts of gravity, speed, and animation, as well as how to for increasing volume and a lower button (DOWN) for
differentiate faces. Though acquired through learning decreasing volume. The positioning and elevated surface of
processes, sensorimotor knowledge is intuitive. Affordances the buttons make it possible to rely on touch to adjust the
and image schema theory occupy the sensorimotor level of volume. Directional metaphor was also applied to the digital
the knowledge continuum. Cultural knowledge is knowledge representation of volume adjustment, with LEFT
representing negative/decrease and RIGHT representing

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positive/increase. The metaphor stems from the belief that fruit-schema activation also triggers affective responses
RIGHT considered good that originates from the occurrence (like/dislike) in relation to the fruit, prompting the user to act
of right hand as dominant hand in majority of population, accordingly (buy/not buy).
thus regarded as the “good” hand that contributes to the 4.1.3. Affordance
positive association, and vice versa for the left hand. Affordance appeals to sensorimotor intuition. Affordance
in the context of schema theory application refers to
perceived affordance [20] rather than real affordance [21].
Real affordance refers to all possible uses of an object
independent of the user perception [21]. Perceived
affordance involves the process of sense-making by the user
[20]. The process of sense-making involves schema
activation. Regarding perceived affordance, activated
schemata are related to logic and intuition in the context of
usability. In the design context, designers should provide
signifiers to indicate the affordance of an object [20].

Figure 3. Application of LEFT-RIGHT schema in the

iOS user interface [18]

4.1.2. Visual image schema

Visual representations of various objects, situations, and
ideas are included in the knowledge structure that constructs
a schema. The image association concept is widely used in
product design. UX designers, for example, employ image Figure 5. Affordance signifier application in a door
association in user interface design. Figure 4 shows the user handle [22]
interface of an iPhone. The displayed icons correspond to
their use. Specifically, the flashlight, clock, calculator, and Figure 6 shows two different approaches to a door handle
camera icons correspond to their respective functions: a that appeal to the user’s intuition regarding how to operate
source of light, time (show time, alarm, timer, stopwatch), the handle. The door handle acts as signifiers directive on the
number calculation, and picture taking. These icons are based door handle’s usability. The flat panel signifies operation by
on physical objects that are part of the schema of activities pushing. In contrast, the vertical bar signifies a pulling
related to the objects, manifested in graphic representations operation. The acts of pushing and pulling are intuitive in
of those objects associated with their functions. Such relation to the signifiers. The flat panel leaves no room for an
association activates the schema for understanding the interpretation other than pushing since other operations are
functions represented by the icons. physically impossible. Meanwhile, the vertical bar indicates
the possibility of operation by gripping and pulling based on
the shape and direction of the bar’s protrusion.

5. The Cognition of Culture and Cultural Schemata

Culture and cognition are interdependent. While
cognitive psychology focuses on individual minds and
behaviors, individuals belong to groups/populations. As
such, a large part of an individual’s cognitive activity is
directed toward other individuals of the same
group/population as they interact. Individual cognitive
Figure 4. Example of image association in packaging
activity manifests in such forms as conversation, media
design [19].
messages, and material culture [8]. Thus, cognitive activity
is the main factor in the formation of sociality and culture
Figure 5 shows packaging designs for fruit-flavored
[16]. On the other hand, phenomena occurring in
drinks that use image association. The shape, color, and
groups/populations influence the development and
graphic design of the packaging represent fruits that are
application of individual cognition. Culture is constantly
associated with the flavor of the drink inside. The fruit
modified through cognitive processes of its cultural group
schema content includes the shape, color, and flavor of the
members, while its members absorb culture through
fruit. Designing the packaging based on the visual
learning and enculturation process. In other words, culture
appearance of the fruit activates the fruit schema and gives
is the effect and manifestation of human cognitive ability.
information —based on previous knowledge regarding the
Contemporary human societies culturally frame every
represented fruit—about the drink’s flavor. For the user,
aspect of human life, especially cognitive activity. Thus,

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cognitive ability and activity are undoubtedly related to to cultural schema.
human psychological states [16][23][24]. Cultural variation Cultural schema refers to thematized, widely shared
is the effect of similarities in the biological element of schemata, and it is the smallest unit of culture that can be
humans—especially their cognitive abilities, which analyzed [8]. Furthermore, cultural schemata are defined as
evolved differently as a result of different historical and patterns of basic schemata that construct the meaning
ecological conditions [16]. Across populations, there are system of a cultural group [27]. In principle, cultural
differences in social, political, and economic circumstances, schema and individual schema do not differ, except that
which create variation in the content of human minds cultural schemata are shared by certain groups instead of
(theories, values, beliefs) [24]. individuals [9]. Cultural schema contributes to cultural bias,
Culture is the sum of mental representations, their stereotypes, and prejudice due to its shared characteristics.
public expressions, and resultant behaviors in certain At the individual level, culture is shaped by the
contexts, which are always in continuous interaction with internalization of social activity through learning processes.
each other [5]. Culture encompasses mental, behavioral, Arguably, internalization and learning processes occur
and physical realms [5][25][26], which can be further through repeated experience and exposure to cultural
described in terms of three levels of the spatial dimensions elements (e.g., social environment, objects, language,
of culture: the inner level, which consists of values, beliefs, beliefs, values). Repeated experience forms a generic
preferences, and other psychological attributes; the structure in an individual’s mind [15] and becomes a
intermediate level, which consists of behaviors, activities, subconscious knowledge schema through frequent encoding
and languages; and the outer level, which consists of and retrieval processes [17]. Culture as cognitive attribute
objects, materials, and artifacts [25][26]. The intermediate in an individual’s mind is schemata consisting of various
and outer levels express the inner level in the physical images, behaviors, and information acquired through
world. One’s behavior (intermediate level) is the expression sociocultural interaction and environments. In turn, the
of values, norms, beliefs, etc., that are internalized at the cultural schemata guide the individual perception and
inner level. Various tools and artifacts (outer level) are behavior.
created to facilitate human needs (inner level) and activities The “sharedness” of schema is the defining
(intermediate level). Since the levels are dynamic and characteristic that categorizes a schema as cultural schema
influence each other, the relationships among them are [28]. Though not all schemata in one’s cognition are
reciprocal. cultural, a large part are. In terms of sharedness, schemata
could be recognized by three categories: a universal schema
is shared across the human population, consisting of innate
knowledge (see Figure 2) [17] that develops regardless of
culture and experience. Thus, universal schema is the most
widely shared. Meanwhile, cultural schema is subject to
culture-specific experiences and is thus shared specifically
among the members of a cultural group. Individual schema
is subject to individual experiences and is thus more
detailed and personalized. Conversely, individual schema is
highly variable while cultural schema is more general, and
universal schema has low variability.
Shore [29] classifies cultural schema into two
categories: externalized schema, which is the public
representation of schema in the form of cultural artifacts,
Figure 6. Three levels of the spatial dimension of culture and internalized schema, which refers to cognitive
[25] representations of externalized schema. These two
categories constantly interact with and modify each other.
5.1. Cultural Schema This concept is similar to the spatial dimension of culture
From the overview of culture as cognitive attribute, it theory proposed by Siu [25] and Ardila [26] (see Figure 2).
could be inferred that culture in cognitive level exists as However, in Shore’s classification of cultural schema,
structures of schemata that resides in inner level of the intermediate-level variables are included as externalized
spatial dimension of culture [25]. Referring to the spatial schema since they express internalized schema. In the
dimension of culture, attributes that resides in intermediate context of cultural schema and its role in design, the spatial
level and outer level are representations and expressions of dimension of culture theory is more appropriate in
cultural schema. consideration of the three levels of design features: visceral,
Schema theory functions as a bridge between theories of behavioral, and reflective [30].
culture and psychology [16]. Culture itself is interdependent Cultural schema should not be confused with cultural
with schema since schema formation results from cognitive knowledge. Cultural knowledge is a part of cultural schema
activity involving interactions with physical and social that also includes culture-specific perception. The activation
environments in the culture one belongs to. On a larger of cultural schema is interdependent with the context of the
scale, above individual schema, there is cultural schema, stimuli [31]. The nature of schema is largely unconscious
which works at the social or cultural level. Some [6] and therefore difficult to investigate. However,
similarities across populations in a society can be attributed investigation can be attempted via schema activation in
response to stimuli corresponding to the three levels of the

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 spatial dimension of culture (inner, intermediate, and outer; cultural knowledge in creating the cultural artifact by
see Figure 6) [25]. activating the appropriate schema. Cultural artifact
According to the discussion, it could be inferred that production is practiced by designers and involves design and
cultural schema possess several characteristics unique creative processes [5]. However, it is important to note that in
compared to the individual schema: cultural schema is the process of developing new design based on cultural
specific to a cultural group and shared among the members artifact, interpretation also plays a role in deciphering
of those cultural group. However, since environment plays attributes of cultural artifact that applicable to the production
an important role in shaping culture, it is possible that of new design. Thus, in context of developing design based
similar schemata could form in different cultural groups due on cultural artifact the process of interpretation and
to similarities in environment. production are not mutually exclusive, rather it is a chain of
5.2. Cultural schema in the product design context process.
Cognitive process between different cultures can vary in a. Examples: production of cultural artifact
the procedures the mind uses to solve an otherwise typical Siu [25] provides examples of how culture affects the
problem. The existence of artifacts with various designs is design of objects and materials based on the spatial theory of
one result of cognitive activity attempting to solve problems. culture (Figure 6). Siu uses the example of Chinese eating
For example, seating facilities ranging from short stools to culture and its manifestation in objects surrounding the
dining chairs were created to solve problems related to eating activity. As a culture that holds the family in high
human activity. A short stool enables the user to be more regard, the activity of families having meals together is an
comfortable in an activity requiring the user to squat for a important part of daily life (inner level). The importance of
prolonged time. Meanwhile, a dining chair enables the user having meals together increases on special occasions such as
to be more comfortable during extended meals. Theoretically, festival days and new-year celebrations. The importance of
meals are not necessarily extended periods, but some togetherness manifests in the act of sharing meals placed in
cultures perceive mealtime as a time to socialize (e.g., the center of the table (intermediate level, behavior). In turn,
European culture); thus, the meal experience needs to be the culture of sharing meals placed in the center of the table
pleasant and comfortable. One effort toward making the manifests in the round design of dinner tables (outer level,
meal experience pleasant and comfortable was the design of objects). Round tables with rotating centers—which make it
dining chairs with added features, such as cushioned seats easier for family members to share meals—are also popular
and backrests. [25].
Through its system of representation, culture is The production of round dining table with rotating center
fundamental in the production and reception of meaning [5]. was a result of schema activation in terms of “eating”
Representation manifests in both tangible and intangible schema of Chinese culture that involves a structure consisted
ways. Tangible representations of culture are the physical of “togetherness” and “behavior of sharing meals”. Such
objects or tools that aid human life. In the context of product designs differ, for example, from the preferences of
design, products that contain embedded cultural content are European cultures, which tend to favor rectangular tables.
considered cultural artifacts. Cultural artifacts are part of the Other examples can be drawn regarding the use dining room
outer level of culture (see Figure 6) [25]. Cultural artifacts chairs in Chinese and European cultures, and the absence of
are inseparable from the cognitive process of activating chairs in Japanese and Korean cultures [32].
cultural schema in their production and interpretation.

Figure 8. Zaisu: legless chairs resulting from Japanese

floor-sitting culture [33]

Figure 7. Cognitive process of the interpretation and Floor-sitting culture is prevalent in Japanese and Korean
production of cultural artifacts [5] culture [32]. The sitting schema for Japan and Korea differs
from other cultures in that sitting in formal setting does not
Figure 7 illustrate the cognitive process of interpretation necessarily require a chair. A chair in this context is legged
and production of cultural artifacts. Interpretation and tool that supports human weight in the act of sitting. However,
production of cultural artifact involve activation of schema as this culture does not stop the production of a cultural artifact
interaction of cognition (thinking) and cultural knowledge. that facilitates more comfortable floor-sitting behavior in the
The interpretation of cultural artifacts involves a process of form of zaisu (Figure 8). Zaisu is an interpretation of a chair
analysis and understanding by the user. The interpretation in the context of floor-sitting behavior in Japanese culture,
process refers to prior knowledge in the form of cultural manifested as a legless seat with back support [34].
knowledge that activates schemata related to the cultural As a comparison, Indonesia have similar floor-sitting
artifact. The cultural artifact production process also refers to culture “lesehan” that does not produced artifact similar to

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zaisu. Thus it could be inferred that the production of zaisu is in the form of information resulting from the activation of
culture specific to Japanese and Korean culture. However, schemata in the interpretation process as generic schema
zaisu was widely adopted in Indonesia due to the similarity of and new information in the form of design problems results
the sitting culture. The adaptation of zaisu is not exclusive to in instantiated schema in the form of information of
cultures with similar sitting culture, but widely adapted in opportunities and constraints which would be applied to
interior design due to the popularity of Japanese aesthetics. develop new design.

Figure 9. Kobokan: a handwashing bowl [35]

b. Example: interpretation of cultural artifact

Figure 9 shows a small bowl. Small bowls are generally
perceived as containers for liquids such as soup. However,
in Indonesian culture, such a bowl activates a
culture-specific schema where the bowl’s perceived Figure 10. Design process using a cultural artifact as a
function is to wash one’s hands before eating (kobokan). reference.
There are widely reported anecdotes about people
unfamiliar with Indonesian culture drinking the water in a The examples discussed in this chapter is the
kobokan. This cultural schema stems from the Indonesian interpretation of a cultural artifact that is pincuk that
cultural practice of eating with one’s hands. In this example, resulted in inspiration to design new products. Pincuk is a
an eating habit specific to Indonesia is a cultural schema food container made from banana leaves that widely used in
whose content includes using a small bowl as a Indonesia. The wide and flat banana leaves is folded to
handwashing tool. Cultures with the eating habit that utilize form conical shape and held together by wooden or bamboo
tools such as spoon, fork, knife and chopstick have no stick. Pincuk is used primarily as container in street foods
schema of handwashing bowl. In turn, Indonesians due the cheap material (banana leaves) and its conical shape
adopting tools in dining, but the use of handwashing bowl that provides easiness of use to be takeaway food container.
persist as cultural schema that activated in interpretation The attributes of pincuk was identified according to the
process when users are faced with a small bowl with clear three levels of design: visceral (visual attractiveness),
water along with a meal. It could be inferred that the use of behavioral (usability and experience) and reflective (image
a small bowl can vary depending on the user’s perception. and symbol) [30]. In visceral level, the visual attributes of
In this case, the differing variable of perception is culture pincuk are identified as shape (conical), texture (raised
since culture influences how humans perceive the world parallel lines of banana leaves), and color (green of banana
and make inferences. leaves). In behavioral level, the attributes are identified as
5.3. Cultural artifact as a reference in the design process the usability (held in palm of hand) and experience
Cultural artifacts also serve as references in designing (take-away eating experience). Reflective level attributes
culture-based products. Using a cultural artifact as a are the image (cheap, due to association in street food) and
reference involves processes of both interpretation and symbol (sustainability due to the use of banana leaves, a
production as illustrated in figure 7. Cultural schema as sustainable material).
prior knowledge acts as a point of reference in the product
design process[5].
The process of designing a product with a cultural
artifact as a reference first involves interpretation through
the activation of schemata. The result is that information
about the cultural artifact regarding its visual, behavioral,
and symbolic value is referenced in the production of a new
cultural artifact. The interpretation process provides
information regarding the constraints and opportunities
posed by culture in relation to the artifact. In the process of
producing a cultural artifact, the information resulting from
Figure 11. Pincuk: traditional Indonesian food container
the interpretation process undergoes transformation,
[36]
elaboration, and rejection [5]. Corresponding to the process
shown in Figure 2, the interaction between cultural schema
Cultural schema plays a part in these identification

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particularly in perception of banana leaves as material. laminated bamboo [37].
Banana leaves is ubiquitous in Indonesia and traditionally
used in various food packaging. The abundance of banana
leaves contributes to its low price, thus banana leaves is
widely used in the presentation of street food. The
association with street food impacts the image of banana
leaves as cheap, thus correlates with the cheap image of
pincuk. The perception of banana leaves as cheap is not
necessarily shared by the member of other cultures, for
example Western cultures where banana plants are scarce,
thus banana leaves is perceived as exotic.

Figure 12. Tableware inspired by pincuk produced by

Jenggala[37]

Figure 14. Interpretation process of pincuk as cultural

artifact

Figure 14 illustrates the process of interpretation of

pincuk in two context that resulted in two different product
outcomes. These two different product outcomes showed
the schema processing involved in the production process,
where cultural schema interacts with new information in the
form of a design problem. The tableware shown in Figure
13 was created by Jenggala [37], a renowned Bali-based
company that markets its products globally. It can be
Figure 13. Tableware inspired by pincuk as part of inferred that in designing a product that could be marketed
laminated bamboo exploration experiment [38] globally, the cultural schema-specific usability of pincuk
was considered a constraint; thus, the shape was modified
The attributes of pincuk that was identified in reflective, for more general usability. The tableware shown in Figure
behavioral, and reflective levels are the source of 13, however, experimented with using laminated bamboo as
inspiration in designing new product as described in the material, while also promoting the traditional usability of
following examples. In visceral level, Figure 12 shows a pincuk as part of a cultural conservation effort [38]. These
tableware set that identified the pincuk aesthetic as an two examples suggest that despite using the same cultural
opportunity for design application in the production process artifact for reference (generic schema), new information in
(elaboration) in form of color and texture that mimics the form of design problems and intention (episodic input)
banana leaves; In behavioral level, pincuk usability, resulting in different perceived opportunities and
however, was considered a constraint (rejection). The constraints (instantiated schema), which in turn can affect
usability of pincuk where pincuk was to be held in palm of the design production process, thus resulting in different
hand is rejected, thus the conical shape was modified to product designs or new cultural artifacts.
accommodate more conventional setting where the bowls is
placed in table surface. In reflective level, the symbolic 6. Identifying Opportunities and Constraints in the
value of sustainability was retained by using ceramic Cultural Schema
material, which is also considered sustainable, while Cultural schema reinforces stereotypes and prejudice,
rejecting the image of cheapness by using ceramics instead and can hinder organic thinking [31]. While an
banana leaves that associated with cheap street food, thus understanding of cultural schema is beneficial for designing
elevating the product image (transformation). While the culture-based products by providing information about how
color and texture of banana leaves was considered an users interpret artifacts, references in terms of behavior,
opportunity, the association of cheapness in actual banana visual preferences, symbolic values, etc., are also beneficial
leaves was considered a constraint. In contrast, Figure 13 for identifying constraints posed by cultural schema.
shows a tableware set that identified pincuk’s usability as an As illustrated by the different perceived functions of the
opportunity—aside from its aesthetic (conical shape) and small Indonesian bowl (kobokan; Figure 9), cultural schema
symbolic value (sustainability)—by using sustainable can pose a constraint in terms of how to perceive affordance.

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The same constraint is not limited to affordance. As shown transformation and rejection, has the same mechanism as
in Figure 2, sensorimotor and cultural knowledge exist on the model in Figure 1.
different levels. According to the model, affordance exists In the framework, cultural schema acts as generic
on the sensorimotor level. However, it was argued that schema while episodic input represents stimuli related to
affordance is subject to culture [20]. Schemata within the the design process. The interaction between cultural schema
continuum of knowledge can influence each other across and stimuli activates schemata that result in instantiated
levels. schema in the form of opportunities and constraints.
In designing a culture-based product, the two aspects of Instantiated schema is dependent on the interaction between
cognitive processing (interpretation and production) in generic schema and episodic input. Thus, the opportunities
schema activation regarding the cultural artifact are and constraints posed by cultural schema are subject to the
inseparable. The processing involved in interpretation and context of the design process, even though the cultural
production activates schemata that give insight into the schema itself is constant.
opportunities and constraints posed by the cultural schema. The framework illustrated in figure 15 resulted in
Opportunities and constraints are perceived differently in instantiated schema in form of information of opportunities
the context of new information in the form of the design and constraints posed by cultural schema. These
problem and the design intention. information is to be applied to design process which
involve synthesis and appropriaton[5] of the information to
produce new design features (Figure 10). The identification
of opportunities and constraints posed by cultural schema in
context of the design problem and intention could provide
more insight on designing new design that effective,
efficient and incited satisfaction on its user.

7. Conclusion
Culture encompasses the cognitive, behavioral, and
physical realms. By definition, cultural schema resides in
the cognitive realm but is expressed through behaviors and
material objects and artifacts. In turn, interaction with the
world—including social behavior and material
interaction—modifies cultural schema. Opportunities and
constraints posed by culture are investigated by activating
cultural schema through exposure to stimuli. Identifying
opportunities and constraints is vital for transforming
Figure 15. Identification framework for culture into design. Information regarding opportunities
opportunities and constraints. should be applied in design while constraints should be
overcome.
Figure 7 shows the design process using a cultural This study attempted to explain the cognitive processes
artifact as a reference, where the artifact is interpreted and involved in designing a culture-based product by examining
the resulting information is used as a basis for designing a the interpretation and production of cultural artifacts. Based
new artifact. However, culture encompasses not only on the interpretation and production of a cultural artifact
artifacts (outer level) but also behavior, language, and through the activation of schema, a framework was
tradition (intermediate level), as well as values, beliefs, and constructed in an attempt to identifying the opportunities
preferences (inner level) (Figure 6) [25]. These three levels and constraints posed by culture. The framework was
contain cultural schemata that are potential sources of constructed in accordance with schema processing using
inspiration for culture-based design. Therefore, a more three variables: generic schema, episodic input, and
generalized framework for identifying opportunities and instantiated schema. Future studies should test the ease and
constraints based on schema processing theory is needed to efficacy of identifying the opportunities and constraints
accommodate references other than cultural artifacts. Such posed by cultural schema by conducting experiments based
a framework is developed based on the three-variables on the framework.
model of schema processing (i.e., generic schema, episodic
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