See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/303295848

A theoretical discussion and case study on the development of smart storm

drainage unit for compact cities

Article  in  Jurnal Teknologi · May 2016

DOI: 10.11113/jt.v78.8517

CITATIONS READS

0 1,232

5 authors, including:

Nadeesha Chandrasena Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
4 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS    175 PUBLICATIONS   1,005 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Muhammad Raza Ul Mustafa Zahiraniza Mustaffa

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
99 PUBLICATIONS   472 CITATIONS    102 PUBLICATIONS   219 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Hydraulic modelling of flow resistance in bio-engineered channels View project

Basic study on soil pore water pressure variations response to rainfall View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nadeesha Chandrasena on 19 May 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Jurnal
Full Paper
Teknologi
A THEORETICAL DISCUSSION AND CASE Article history
Received
STUDY ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SMART 13 June 2015
Received in revised form
STORM DRAINAGE UNIT FOR COMPACT 10 September 2015
CITIES Accepted
21 December 2015
Dedimuni Charmaine Nadeesha Chandraseana*,
*Corresponding author
Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof, Muhammad Raza Ul
nadeeshachandrasena@gmail.com
Mustafa, Zahiraniza Mustaffa, Salihi Ibrahim Umar

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 31750, Tronoh, Perak,
Malaysia

Graphical abstract Abstract

A moderate rainfall event can lead to harsh flash floods in most of the
compact cities. Present urbanization happening in these cities creates
an imbalance between generated urban runoff volume and effective
drainage capacity. For the survival of these, it is vital in enhancing the
efficiency of an urban drainage system. However, it is a complicated
task due to the accumulation of solid waste in drainage channels.
These drainage systems are super sensitive to some external factors
caused by their immediate surroundings. This study found out the
impact of the urban form, population agglomeration, floating
population, imminent prone areas of urban sprawl and waste
disposing patterns of settlers can be highly influenced to the efficiency
of a storm drainage system. Hence, Geographical Information System
based computational techniques and weighted fussy sets are being
used to track the attention need areas of the system. These particular
zones to be treated through the design of "Smart Storm Drainage Unit".
By this, it is expected to maintain a clear drainage channel for
transportation of surface runoff all the time. Thus, by Smart Storm
Drainage will be fixed into the breakdown areas or highly sensitive
areas of a drainage system. This paper discusses the impact of
surrounding urban area to the breakdown of drainage system and
fixates the problem by bypassing “Smart Storm Drainage Unit”.
Points of Interruption due to clogging
Keywords: Clogging, Drainage, Compact cities
A Schematic representation of Urban Drainage Cycle

© 2016 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved

1.0 INTRODUCTION manmade factors which trigger the frequent

occurrence of floods. The rate of population growth
has rapidly increased in many countries in the recent
Flooding is the most commonly occurring recurrent
past. More than half of the world's population now
hazard event among all natural disasters[1, 2]. It
living in urban areas[1, 3]. Disastrous pluvial floods
causes enormous damages to socio-spatial settings
pose a serious challenge on the lives of those people.
of the affected cities. There are several significant
A recent World Bank report titled “Cities and

78:5–3 (2016) 85–90 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722 |

86 Dedimuni Charmaine Nadeesha Chandraseana et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 78:5–3 (2016) 85–90

Flooding” revealed that flood events have a cater a population of 100,000. Now the city
disproportionate impact in densely populated population has increased to 650,000.The city of
developing countries. In there, people who live in Colombo is also accommodates 500,000 daily
informal settlements are generally receives the floating population.
hardest hits by urban pluvial floods[4]. Figure 1 shows micro drainage channel, secondary
Presently in the world, more than 30% of the urban drainage channel and receiving water body of the
population lives in informal settlements [1, 3].They study area. due to the migration into city in the last
tend to occupy hazard prone areas in low-lying decades, the land area for canal reservations of the
lands. These settlements are obvious victims of city have been disturbed by illegal developments.
natural hazards especially flash floods that could this caused enormous difficulties in canal
attack a city without pre-warning[5].
maintenance and reduced in the carrying
Properly designed urban drainage infrastructure is
capacities of the canals. Rapid development
considered as a practical solution for flash floods [6-
8]. Regular maintenance of drainage system is happens within the municipality has created more
essential to ensure continued functioning of it. But impervious areas. It caused less infiltration and
most of the countries affected are least capable of increased surface runoff volumes. Dilapidated
financing their drainage infrastructure[9]. For many drainage infrastructure was unable to handle the
countries, investing in the urban drainage alone is increased volume of surface runoff. This situation
considered not an appropriate solution. In many leads to pluvial floods even after a small rainfall
instances, costly upgrading to systems have created event.
more issues than they had before[10, 11].
The following characteristics pertain to the urban
drainage system in compact cities can be clearly
identify as one of the least developed physical
infrastructures[7, 10]. These drainage systems are
commonly dilapidated and over hundreds of years
old [6]. Drainage is one of the least considered
factors in urban development[7, 12]. This tends to
minimize its efficiency and workability. Aside from this,
people still use to dump their solid waste into the
nearest open space and that will end up in a nearby
open drainage [7, 10, 13-17]. This tends to decrease
its drainage capacity[18]. As a result, these areas
become obvious victims of pluvial floods even in a
small rainfall event.
The objective of this paper is to examine the flash
flood handling ability of the drainage system in
compact and high-density cities. Thus, by developing
a novel technical solution, a “Smart Storm Drainage
Unit” to restore the dysfunctional zones of the
drainage system is discussed. The concept of “Smart
Storm Drainage Unit” considers the effects of
urbanization in storm drainage design. Hence, it
examines four novel parameters in urban drainage
management additional to the conventional design
considerations.
a) Changing phase of the city structure/ urban
form
b) Consuming patterns and disposing habits of
settlers
c) Population agglomeration, floating and
commuting population
d) Imminent prone areas of new development

1.1 Description of the Case Study

Figure 1 Micro Drainage Channel, Secondary Drainage
Colombo is the commercial capital city of Sri Lanka. Channel and Receiving Water body of the study area
It is located in the flood plains of the Kelani River [19].
The entire area of this city is situated at 1.5 m above
Mean Sea Level, a very low altitude, resulting in a low The case study area of this research is located in
flow rate in the canal system. The drainage system of Colombo 14 ward. Four Grama Niladhari divisions
the Colombo city has been constructed in 1910, to were considered for this study named Madampitiya,
87 Dedimuni Charmaine Nadeesha Chandraseana et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 78:5–3 (2016) 85–90

Stadium watta Kimbula ela and Nagalagam Street. commercial and residential establishments. It could
This is one of the densely populated low-income flow through an artificial or a natural drainage
residential areas of the city. It consists of dilapidated network till it leads to a wastewater treatment plant
drainage infrastructure which was constructed over or a receiving water body. The effluent water flow of
100 years ago, for a gridiron pattern settlement a waste water treatment plant too will ultimately end
development. This area is regularly affected by up in a receiving water body. Water in the receiving
pluvial floods and flash floods due to blockage in water body will again connect with the hydrological
micro drainage channels. The slum upliftment cycle. Therefore, operationally the urban drainage
program is currently in progress and the pattern of cycle can be defined as a continuous exchange of
urban settlement is about to be changed. storm water and wastewater between the
hydrological cycle and the urban drainage network.
Urban flash floods occur as a result of interruptions to
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW AND the urban drainage cycle. Haphazard dumping of
solid waste, floodplain encroachment and
METHODOLOGY
reclamation of low-lying lands for development
purposes, etc. are identified as primary causal factors
2.0 Why do Drainage Systems Fail in Densely
of such interruptions in the cyclic process of drainage
Populated Compact Cities?
water. Due to these causal factors, the cyclical
process of the urban drainage network tends to
The combination of unplanned urbanization and
break at several points.
haphazardly dumped solid waste makes drainage a
complicated issue for compact cities. Urban
drainage systems in densely populated compact
cities are often filled with garbage and sediments
since people still use the urban drainage as a
garbage dumping space irrespective of the
economic status of the countries [7, 10]. Ironically
while solid waste produces flash floods by blocking
drainages, in the aftermath of any flood event;
another stock of solid waste is generated as flood
debris [16]. If not removed properly, this debris will act
as the immediate cause of the next flash flood.
Tucci [7] has studied urban drainage issues in
developing countries situated in the humid tropical
climate zone for twenty years. According to his
conclusions; densely populated Asian cities can be
vulnerable to flash floods due to unplanned
urbanization and floodplain encroachments. Many
of the urban squatter settlements are built in flood-
prone areas and steep hillsides. These shelters are
built out of improvised materials. They shift to Points of Interruption due to clogging
permanent building materials after some time, but
the shelters are still not provided with basic physical Figure 2 A Schematic representation of Urban Drainage
infrastructures such as water supply, waste disposal, Cycle
and drainage. These squatter settlements are usually
made without building approvals by the Municipal
authorities. Thus, Municipal authorities are not bound
2.2.1 Detecting System Breakdowns with Reference to
to provide infrastructure facilities for settlers in those
Urban Drainage Cycle
areas. Therefore, squatters obviously tend to dispose
of their waste in the nearest drain or open space.
Development oriented physical impacts cause
interruptions to the natural circulation of urban
2.2 Description of the Urban Drainage Cycle drainage water [20]. Here it is identified as "breaking
of the circulation process of urban drainage cycle".
The natural hydrological cycle starts with This subheading describes how to detect the system
precipitation. It forms raindrops and creates overland breakdowns of urban drainage cycle which caused
flow. Overland flow is subjected to initial loss by by development-oriented physical impacts.
evaporation. It again matters to ground recharge by
infiltration. The rest is conveyed as natural overland 2.2.2 How Impervious Cover Affects the Urban
flow. Drainage Cycle
The Urban drainage cycle begins with the natural
overland flow supplemented with a quantity of Imperviousness of the ground increases with the
synthetic wastewater discharges from industrial, development. As imperviousness increases,
88 Dedimuni Charmaine Nadeesha Chandraseana et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 78:5–3 (2016) 85–90

groundwater recharge volumes decreased. It considered in the development of the integrated

eventually leads to increased runoff volumes and urban drainage cycle management model. It is
peak flows [21]. intended to be developed in three stages based on
the factors impacting the urban drainage cycle.
imperviousness  runoffvolume (1)
2.2.6 Generation of Present and Future Impervious
1 Landscape Scenarios
imperviousness  (2)
Infilt. volume
Primary data obtained from urban development
authority and the land Reclamation Corporation will
Runoff volume increases proportionally to
be used to generate the past and present impervious
imperviousness. In rapidly developing cities,
cover changes into a digital map. This trend will be
enormous volumes of rainfall will be converted as
used to project the prospective changes of present
overland flow. Moreover, it would be a considerable
and future impervious cover percentages of the
increase in the rate of discharge of overland flow.
area.
The increase of such, demands an additional
drainage capacity for conveyance. Failure of 2.2.7 Generation of Population Agglomeration
accommodating the increased surface runoff Scenarios
volumes, maximize the risk of flooding.
Projected total population will be calculated in 10-
2.2.3 How Asymmetrical Form of Present Urban
year intervals to mark the congested areas in cities.
Structure Affects the Urban Drainage Cycle
Future population agglomerations and floating
population (E.g.: location of proposed industrial sites,
Existing drainage systems in most of the compact
shopping complexes, administrative complexes) can
cities are dilapidated and inefficient. Those were
be plotted using the details available in urban
constructed for a Gridiron shaped urban locality [13,
development plans of the respective cities. Urban
22, 23]. Present urban form of most of the compact
drainage requirements in these areas need more
cities is entirely different from Gridiron pattern. This
attention since development will obviously contribute
happens due to unplanned urbanization and rapid
to an increase in the percentage of urban litter from
changes in socio-spatial settings. As a result, existing
these areas.
urban drainage networks in many colonized cities
An observational study would be used to assign
have become operationally dysfunctional. This is a
solid waste disposing patterns. This approach will
crucial factor to consider in evaluating the flood
allow critical areas to be mapped. Urban litter
handling ability of drainage networks. As a result of
percentage in storm drains will be estimated by using
the changes in urban form, drainage systems breaks
the undermentioned formula. Armitage (1998)
the cycle process of surface runoff conveyance.
[24]developed this formula for calculating the
clogged solid waste percentage in drainage canals.
2.2.4 How Population Agglomeration Affects the
Urban Drainage Cycle
T   f sci .(Vi  Bi ).Ai (3)

Densely populated cities in compact cities act as

development hubs. Generally, they consist of mixed
developments. Administrative, industrial, and In this formula;
commercial establishments are scattered over the T = Total litter loads clogged in waterways (m3/yr)
cityscape without considering the formal zoning fsci = street cleaning factor for each land use (This
plans. There is a considerable volume of floating number varies from 1.0 for regular street cleaning to
population that travels back and forth to the city for about 6.0 for non-existent street cleaning / complete
regular activities such as employment and collapse of services)
administrative matters. A significant number of low- Vi = vegetation load for each land use (varies from
income settlements could also be found stagnated 0.0 m3/ha*yr for poorly vegetated areas to about 0.5
on hydrological sensitive areas. These m3/ha*yr for densely vegetated areas)
agglomerations result in significant negative effects Bi = basic litter load for each land use
to the urban drainage cycle such as disposing of (Commercial 1.2 m3/ha*yr; industrial 0.8 m3/ha*yr;
solid waste into critical areas. residential 0.01 m3/ha*yr)
Ai = area of each land use (ha)
2.2.5 Mapping of Drainage Network Breakdowns
Using Geographical Information System Software 2.2.8 Building Sensitivity Scenarios of the Urban
Drainage Network by Application of Fussy Logic
The increase in a number of impervious areas, Approach to Develop Cause and Effect Function for
asymmetrical form of present urban structure, an Urban Drainage Network
population agglomerations and solid waste disposing
patterns are four novel parameters that will be A fuzzy logic is an intelligence system that is used to
89 Dedimuni Charmaine Nadeesha Chandraseana et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 78:5–3 (2016) 85–90

approximate a crisp output from an input features This design will be fixed to restore the breakdown
based on fuzzy rules [25-27]. One of the application zones of a drainage network. This decision is based
of fuzzy logic system is to develop a cause and effect on the outcomes of Geographical Information
function for an urban drainage network. In order to System (GIS) maps and fussy sets evaluation of the
analyze the effects on urban drainage network sensitivity of the surrounding environment to the
caused by the factors belong to the immediate drainage network failures. It is expected that these
urban environment, for instance, population outputs will map the critical areas and attention
agglomeration, floating population, imminent prone need spots of the urban drainage network in a
areas of urban sprawl and waste disposing patterns compact city.
of settlers will be evaluating through fussy set theory. Smart Storm Drainage will be a location specific
In this application the fuzzy set theory and related entity. It is intended to design this considering
functions are used to illuminate the sensitivity factors following characteristics of the locality.
which are not expressed in numerical or deterministic
values. Markopoulos[26] has used this method to i. The pattern of flash flood occurrence
map uncertainty causing factors in urban water ii. The pattern of solid waste disposal
management. iii. Failing factors of existing storm drainage system
Fuzzy logic system consists of three basic elements
namely, fuzzier, inference engine and deffuzifier[28]. 3.1.1 Usability of the Design of the City of Colombo
Fuzzier: used to calculate the degree of membership Sri Lanka
of the input variable in the input sets.
Inference engine: is the mechanism used to integrate Technical details of present storm water drainage
the antecedent with consequent based on IF/THEN system in the city of Colombo, Sri Lanka as
statements. follows[29];
Deffuzifier: is the fuzzy element used to determine
the crisp output from the inference engine fuzzy Average rainfall November 2013 =375mm/h
output. Area of Colombo Municipal Council = 37 000 m2
Therefore, in this work, fuzzy logic system, in Matlab Runoff coefficient for urban area = 0.6
environment, will be applied to estimate the crisp
output and the output of the analysis will be used to Runoff volume = rainfall X Area X Runoff coefficient
generate GIS maps that indicate attention needed Runoff volume = 8,325,000 m3
areas of the urban drainage system.
Different levels of uncertainties or sensitivity factors This would amount to a volume of 8,325,000 m3 from
can be numerically expressed as fuzzy sets a 375 mm of rainfall.
themselves.
Drainage capacity calculation;
 X : A  [0,1] (4)
Total length of drainage area
(4) of CMC is 350,000 m.
Where; µ(x): A = Membership function, “A” represent The drainage section is rectangular and the
the member of the universe x dimensions varying from 1m-0.6m. Average width
and depth of micro drain canal is about 1m.

3.0 UPCOMING RESEARCH AND PROSPECTS Drainage capacity = length X width X depth
= 350x 103 m x 1 m x 1 m
3.1 Development of Smart Storm Drainage Unit
= 350, 000 m3
The next phase of this research study is to develop Drainage capacity: Runoff volume = 0.0420
the solid waste resistant “Smart Storm Drainage Unit”. = 4%
The “Smart Storm Drainage Unit” is a novel method of
constructing a drain by adding an upper layer with a
suitably perforated bottom to collect and separate
solid wastes disposed into the drain. Thus, by ensuring 4.0 CONCLUSIONS
storm water handling capacity during excessive
precipitation events to provide adequate The existing drainage system of the Colombo
conveyance of storm water to prevent pluvial Municipal Council can only handle 4% of runoff
flooding. Solid waste collection layer is equipped with volume generated in the city. The rest is handled by
removable perforated containers to; natural retention systems. In general, storm drainage
a. collect and trap solid waste system and a retention system will be able to
b. function as manual collection points of solid accommodate 40% of the surface runoff volume.
waste Therefore, the natural retention system of the city
c. the inbuilt sensor technology used to inform cannot handle 36% of runoff as an individual entity.
garbage collectors/ neighborhood when the So, it is essential to increase the hydraulic capacity of
waste container need to be emptied existing urban drainage system.
 90 Dedimuni Charmaine Nadeesha Chandraseana et al. / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 78:5–3 (2016) 85–90

Development of the "Smart Storm Drainage Unit" is [10] Lamond, J., Bhattacharya, N., and Bloch, R. 2012. The Role
considered as the significant outcome of this Of Solid Waste Management As A Response To Urban
Flood Risk In Developing Countries, A Case Study Analysis.
research study. This design will be increase the [11] Parkinson, J. and Mark, O. 2005. Urban Stormwater
hydraulic capacity of existing urban drainage system. Management In Developing Countries. IWA publishing.
Furthermore, the Fuzzy logic approach and GIS [12] Taleb, M. A. 2012. Comparative Study of Urban Area
based spatial decision support system can also assist Extension and Flood Risk in Dhaka City of Bangladesh,
to storm flow management, hydro catchment Global Journal of Human Social Science. Geography &
Environmental GeoSciences. 12: 37-40.
management, and low-lying area management. The [13] Caljouw, M., Nas, P. J., and Pratiwo, M. 2005. Flooding in
aforesaid analysis will lead the formulation of policy Jakarta: Towards a blue city with improved water
guidelines on urban drainage. It can play a credible management, Bijdragen tot de taal-, land-en
role in municipal urban drainage management and volkenkunde/Journal of the Humanities and Social
design. Sciences of Southeast Asia. 161: 454-484.
[14] Chandrasena, D. C. N., Khamaruzaman Wan Yusof, M.,
Once the “Smart Storm Drainage Unit” is designed and R. U. Mustafa. 2014. An Investigation on Failure
and tested in hydraulics laboratory, it is planned to Mechanisms of Urban Drainage System in Colonised Asian
be physically constructed in Madampitiya and Cities. 13th International Conference on Urban Drainage
Nagalam Street area of ward 14 of the City of (ICUD 2014), Kuching, Malaysia.
Colombo. This design element is expected to act as [15] Gupta, A. K. and Nair, S. S. 2011. Urban Floods In
Bangalore And Chennai: Risk Management Challenges
a solid waste management entity as well as the And Lessons For Sustainable Urban Ecology. Current
pluvial flood mitigation object. It is anticipated that Science(Bangalore). 100: 1638-1645.
this could be incorporated into sustainable drainage [16] Melosi, M. V. 2004. Garbage In The Cities: Refuse Reform
networks of future urban development areas to And The Environment. University of Pittsburgh Pre.
ensure effective solid waste management and [17] Nijman, J. 2010. A study of space in Mumbai's slums,
Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 101: 4-
pluvial flood control abilities. 17.
[18] C. Zurbrugg. 2002. Urban Solid Waste Management In
Low-Income Countries Of Asia How To Cope With The
Garbage Crisis. Presented for: Scientific Committee on
Acknowledgment Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) Urban Solid Waste
Management Review Session, Durban, South Africa. 1-13.
[19] Niroshinie, M., Babel, M., and Herath, S. 2011. A
First author would like to express her gratitude to
Methodology To Analyze Extreme Flooding Under Future
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for academic and Climate Change Scenarios For Colombo. Soc. Soc.
financial support. Manage. Syst. 1-10.
[20] Karnib, A., Al-Hajjar, J., and Boissier, D. 2002. An Expert
System To Evaluate The Sensitivity Of Urban Areas To The
Functioning Failure Of Storm Drainage Networks. Urban
References Water. 4: 43-51.
[21] How Urbanization Affects the Water Cycle, a publication
[1] UN, International Migration Report. 2002. of California Water and Land Use Partnership. 2007.
[2] Alfieri, L., Salamon, P., Pappenberger, F., Wetterhall, F., http://www.coastal.ca.gov/nps/watercyclefacts.pdf.
and Thielen, J. 2012. Operational Early Warning Systems [22] Hassan, A. S. 2009. The British Colonial ‘Divide And
For Water-Related Hazards In Europe. Environmental Rule’concept: Its Influence To Transport Access In Inner
Science & Policy. 21: 35-49. City of George Town, Penang, Transportation. 36: 309-324,.
[3] UN-Habitat. 2013. STATE OF THE WORLD’S CITIES 2012/2013. [23] Van der Heiden, C. 1990. Town planning in the Dutch
[4] Jha, A. K., Bloch, R., and Lamond, J. 2012. Cities And Indies. Planning Perspective. 5: 63-84.
Flooding: A Guide To Integrated Urban Flood Risk [24] Armitage, N. and Rooseboom, A. 2000. The Removal Of
Management For The 21st Century: World Bank Urban Litter From Stormwater Conduits And Streams:
Publications. Paper 2- Model Studies Of Potential Trapping Structures.
[5] Rana, A. 2011. Avoiding Natural Disaster In Megacities– Water S. A. 26: 189-194.
Case Study For Urban Drainage Of Mumbai, VATTEN. 67: [25] Zimmermann, H.-J. 2001. Fuzzy Set Theory—And Its
55-59. Applications. Springer Science & Business Media.
[6] Karamouz, M., Hosseinpour A., and Nazif S. 2010. [26] Makropoulos, C., Butler, D., and Maksimovic, C. 2003,
Improvement Of Urban Drainage System Performance Fuzzy Logic Spatial Decision Support System For Urban
Under Climate Change Impact: Case Study. Journal of Water Management. Journal of Water Resources Planning
Hydrologic Engineering. 16: 395-412. and Management. 129: 69-77.
[7] Tucci, C. 2001. Urban Drainage In Humid Tropics. Volume I [27] Tseng, M.-L. and Lin, Y. H. 2009. Application of Fuzzy
In Maksimovic, C, Urban Drainage In Specific Climates. DEMATEL To Develop A Cause And Effect Model Of
[8] Tucci, C. E. 2001. Urban Drainage Issues In Developing Municipal Solid Waste Management In Metro Manila.
Countries, Urban Drainage In Humid Tropics. 23-40. Environmental Monitoring And Assessment. 158: 519-533.
[9] Maksimović, Č., Prodanović, D., Boonya-Aroonnet, S., [28] Zimmermann, H. J. 2010. Fuzzy Set Theory, Wiley
Leitao, J. P., Djordjević, S., and Allitt, R. 2009. Overland Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics. 2: 317-
Flow And Pathway Analysis For Modelling Of Urban Pluvial 332.
Flooding. Journal of Hydraulic Research. 47: 512-523. [29] Ariyananda, T. 2013. Controlling Floods In Colombo City
Through Rain Water Harvesting, In The Island, Ed.

View publication stats