JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL HEALTH, 2020

VOL 9, NO. 1, PAGE 1 – 4

ORIGINAL RESEARCH Open Access

Illustration of alcohol use in classical Farsi-Dari (Persian) literature

Homayun Shahpesandy
Consultant Psychiatrist, Lincolnshire Partnership NHS Foundation Trust, Long Leys Road, Lincoln, LN1 1FS, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT
ARTICLE HISTORY
Alcohol has been known to people of Central Asia for millennia, and in line with local Received May 30, 2020
mythology, wine was used as an anaesthetic for the Caesarean birth of the mythical hero Accepted June 07, 2020
Rostam. In classical Farsi-Dari (Persian) literature, the term alcohol and/or wine is used in Published June 23, 2020
two different contexts; firstly, as an allegory; referring to a ‘divine wine’ and as a source of
spiritual intoxication bringing the consumer closer to his Creator. This school of thoughts is
symbolised by Rumi and Sufi poets; secondly, as a source of physical intoxication, bringing KEYWORDS
the drinker happiness and the ability to forget about everyday concerns. This school of
Alcohol, wine, Farsi-Dari, Persian,
opinions is represented by Khayyam and Manuchehri. From a religious point of view, Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia, self-
alcohol is described as “the mother of all evil”. Nevertheless, there are also a lot of those, medication, anxiety, depression.
who praise wine for its hypnotic properties describing it as ‘a remedy for sleepless nights’,
or for its anxiolytic characteristics, ‘taking away worries and bringing peace to one’s mind’;
and notably for its antidepressant effects declaring ‘there is nothing better than wine to
banish sadness’. The aim of this paper is to review Persian literature of Central Asia and
neighbouring regions between the 10th and 14th centuries with the focus on alcohol and its
illustration in the works of influential authors of the period, including Rudaki, Manuchehri,
Khayyam, Rumi, Hafez, etc.

Introduction ‘Dokhtar e gham’ – daughter of sadness; ‘Esaa ye har dard’ –

Jesus for every pain; ‘Gol e neshaat’ – the flower of happiness;
Alcohol is forbidden in Islam and described as “the mother of ‘Hez e arous’ - the blood of the bride; ‘Jaan bakhsh’ – the
all vice” or ‘the deadliest of the deadliest sins’ [1]. Abu Sahl exhilarator; ‘Khoun e kabouter’ – blood of the dove; ‘Khoun e
Hamdawī of Balkh describes alcohol as ‘the introduction of khaam’ – raw blood; ‘Khoun e naamous’ – the blood of honour;
the book of debauchery, the padlock of the doors of morality ‘Kimya ye jan’– elixir of soul; ‘Pardah soz’ – the veil-burner; ‘Rish
and permanent drinking is the foundation of aberration.' In
e qhaazi’ – the judge’s beard; ‘Ruh parwar’ – the soul-nourisher;
his view, 'adoration of alcohol is the beginning of hatred,
‘Sang e mehak’ – the touchstone (benchmark); ‘Tolqh e rawaan’
and anyone who sits on the beast of alcohol is categorically a
– the elixir of the soul; ‘Zabaan band e kherad’ – the tongue-
deviant' [2]. Notwithstanding of its official prohibition, post-
clamper of sense [4], etc. are a clear testimony of alcohol being
Islamic Persian literature of the period between 10th and 14th
a desired beverage and broadly consumed.
century Anno Domini (AD); reflecting a relatively thriving socio-
economic environment alongside a relative freedom indicates Methods and Objectives
that alcohol was relatively freely consumed, especially by
This is a literature review of Persian poetry and prose focusing
nobilities and rulers, as well as by intellectuals. There were
on alcohol and its illustration in the works of influential
taverns (‘sharabkhana, maykadah, maykhana’) owned largely
authors of the period, including Rudaki, Manuchehri, Khayyam,
by Zoroastrians and other non-Muslims that were recurrently
Jalaluddin Balkhí (Rumi), Hafez, etc. This paper aims to examine
visited [3]. Words such as ‘may’ (wine), ‘mast’ (drunk),
representations of alcohol use in classical Farsi-Dari (Persian)
‘sharabkhana’ (tavern) alongside the ‘sáqhee’ (cupbearer) and
literature between the 10th and 14th century AD in Afghanistan,
‘sháhed’ (beauty) are probably the most common words used
Iran and bordering regions of Central Asia.
in classical Persian literature. The use of terms and pseudonyms
for wine such as ‘Aab e aatash noma’ – fire-showing water ; Results
‘Aab e atashin’ – firing water; ‘Aab e haram’ – the prohibited
Alcohol representation in local mythology and the pre-Islamic
water; ‘Aab e torab’ - water of joy; ‘Aaftaab e zard’ - yellow sun;
era
‘Aatash e be dud’ - smokeless fire; ‘Aatash e mahlul’ - liquefied
fire; ‘Aatash e sayaal’- fire of the soul; ‘Aatash e toba soz’ – the As reported by the Zoroastrian holy descriptions from around
repentance-burning water; ‘Aqhiqh e nab’ – pure onyx; ‘Arous the 5th century BC, the drinking of wine was a relatively common
e khaak’ – bride of the soil; ‘Ashk e taak’ - tear of grape tree; phenomenon in Central Asia and the Middle East. Therefore,
‘Barqh’ – electricity; ‘Dokhtar e aaftaab’ – sun’s daughter; Zoroastrian religious authorities recommended moderate

Contact Homayun Shahpesandy  Homayun.shahpesandy@nhs.net, Shahpesandy@hotmail.com  Lincolnshire Partnership NHS Foundation

Trust, Long Leys Road, Lincoln, LN1 1FS, United Kingdom.
© 2020 The Authors. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike 4.0 (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/).
 Homayun Shahpesandy

drinking; ‘if you drink, drink moderately and like wise men, Illustrations of alcohol use by rulers and nobilities
because from excessive drinking, sins will grow as plants from
Despite its official prohibition, wine often appears to be
the spring rain’ [1]. Wine was produced in Kapisa near Bagram,
consumed by rulers and aristocrats of the region. King
north of Kabul (the summer capital of the Kushan Empire) from
Kaykawus bin Eskanadr bin Qābus bin Vashmgir (1021 AD –
the 2nd century AD until 10th century AD, and was exported
c. 1084 AD), the Ziarid ruler of Tabarestān (north west Iran)
to India [5-8].
in his Qabusnamah (or as The Mirror for Princes known in
As claimed by Abul Qásem Firdausi (c. 940-1020 AD, Tus, Iran), English literature), advises his son Gilānshah “as far as alcohol
the author of the Sháhnáma (Book of Kings) wine was consumed is concerned, I don’t say drink it, but I also can’t say don’t drink
in ancient Iranian territories for millennia and people of the it because young people don’t take advice seriously. If you
region knew wine even before the discovery of fire. As stated by don’t drink you will succeed in both worlds. Besides you would
Firdausi, after the accidental discovery of fire by king Hushang not be subject to public criticism. However, if you drink try to
and him believing the fire being given to him as a gift from repent, ask God for forgiveness, and express your regret about
God; the king ordered his people to worship fire and that very drinking. If you do not know how to drink, alcohol will become
night ‘they had a feast and drank wine’ [9,10]. Corresponding venom. However, if you know how to drink, it will become an
to the legend, the discovery of fire was subsequently annually antitoxin" [11].
celebrated as the festival of fire “Saddah” (century), which
As claimed by Abul Fadl Baihaqī (995-1077 AD) the author
has still been celebrated in some parts of the Middle East and
of the Tārīkh-e Baihaqī or The History of Beyhaqi, written
Central Asia. Alcohol was consumed during festivals, including
by that provides information on the ruling dynasties of the
the festival of ‘Nau Roz’ or New Year until the 5th century AD
region such as the Samanids, Ghurids, Buyids and mainly
when it was forbidden by king Bahram, the fifteenth king of the
the powerful Ghaznavid empire, ruling a vast region of
Sasanian Empire [9,10]. As narrated by Firdausi, king Bahram
nowadays Afghanistan, Iran, North India and Transoxiana,
had forbidden the wine following an incident when one of
wine is consumed by rulers and aristocrats during the state
his noblemen, called Kebrui, whilst drunk and asleep, a black
holidays, post victorious conquests, but also just for fun [12].
raven pecked his eyes out. Wine was forbidden for a year until;
Bayhaqī gives a rather shocking illustration of a feast of wine
a shoemaker’s son married a rich woman. But the shoemaker’s
and merriment by Abu Sahl Zuzani, chief secretary of Sultan
boy had erectile dysfunction, so his mother advised him to
Mas’ud Ghazanwi organised after the execution of the famous
“drink some wine and when you feel you are ready, go to
statesman, Hasanak the Vizier (Hasanak Mikáili). Hasanak the
her again; you will break her steal once you two are alone -
Vizier served Sultan Mahmud Ghaznawi from 1024 AD to 1030
a pickaxe made of felt cannot split a stone". The boy drank
AD. Nevertheless, he was later charged with infidelity and in the
wine, and the fire of passion flared up in him immediately. The
year 1032 AD, he was executed by hanging in Balkh, Afghanistan.
wine made him bold and he was able to open the recalcitrant
It is believed that Abu Sahl Zuzani was Hasanak's opponent
door. It happened that a lion had escaped from the king’s
and played an essential role in the conspiracy against him.
lion’s den and was wandering around. The cobbler’s son, still
Following his death, Abu Sahl took Hasanak's position. Baihaqī
drunk, ran out and sat on the roaring lion's back and hung on
describes, "I heard that one day he (Bu Sahl) was drinking wine;
by grasping hold of the animal’s ear. When king Bahram heard
he prepared a big party; with several slaves serving and the
of this, he was astonished and inquired what kind of man he
musicians singing. He (Bu Sahl) ordered that Hasanak’s head
was. The boy’s mother told the king what had happened; “This
is secretly brought in and put in a platter covered. He asked
boy of mine is just starting out on life; He had found himself a
the guests whether they wished to have some fresh fruits.
satisfactory wife. Nonetheless, when the time came, well, his
Everybody said yes, we would have some. He said, bring it; they
implementation was just too soft, and he was impotent. So, I
brought the dish, and when they took off the cover, they were all
gave the boy three glasses of good wine to make him the father
astonished. Bu Sahl laughed, and from the glass of wine he had in
of a family. The flappy felt stirred, lifted its head, and turned
his hand, poured some on to the garden. They took the head (of
into a strong, hard bone instead. Three drafts of wine gave
Hasanak) away. When we met the following day, I criticised him
him his strength and glory." The king laughed at the woman’s
for what he had done, he (Bu Sahl) replied to me, oh you Abul
word and allowed wine consumption again. Nevertheless, he
Hasan (Baihaqī), you have the heart of a chicken; that is what one
advised that “a man may drink wine if he is aware of his own
should do with the enemy’s head” [12, 13].
capacity. When wine leads you to pleasure, see that it does
not leave your body weak and incapable” [9,10,1]. Firdausi Perhaps one of the most tragic examples of binge drinking and
indicates that alcohol was also used for its anaesthetic and self-medication with alcohol is a week-long binge drinking of
sedative properties, for medicinal purposes. In accordance the Ghurid king Sultan Ala’ud-Din Husayn, nicknamed "Jahán
with Sháhnáma, alcohol was utilised for the Caesarean birth of Soz” (The World Burner), who ruled central parts of Afghanistan
the mythical hero Rostam. As narrated by Firdausi, Rudabah, from 1149 AD to 1161 AD. When Ala'ud Din's brother Sayf
the princess of Kabul, was pregnant with her baby Rostam; al-Din ascended the throne, he divided the Ghurid kingdom
however, as Rostam was a large baby suffering from foetal between his brothers, Qutbud-Din and Ala’ud Din. Qutbud-Din,
macrosomia, she could not labour physiologically. Hence whose capital was Firozkuh (Ghor, Afghanistan), had quarrels
“a skilled priest came and made the lovely Rudabah drunk with his brothers and took refuge in Ghazna, the capital of
wine. She felt no pain as he cut open her side and turned the Bahramshah, the last Ghaznawid king who ruled from 1117 AD
baby’s head towards the opening. He brought the child forth to 1152 AD [14]. Bahramshah at first treated Qutbud-Din as an
so painlessly that no one in the world had ever seen such a honoured guest, but subsequently, his suspicion being aroused
wonder” [9,10]. by intriguers he poisoned Qutbud-Din. To avenge his brother

2 J Behav Health • 2020 • Vol 9 • Issue 1

 Illustration of alcohol use in classical Farsi-Dari (Persian) literature

Qutbud-Din, in 1148 AD, Sayfud-Din marched on Ghazna with no better remedy than wine for sadness in this terrible world.'
a large army; Bahramshah fled to India. Sayfud-Din occupied Sanai describes wine as ‘the hand of Moses, full of miracles,' or
the city, took possession of the throne and soon disbanded a as ‘having a resurrecting power of Jesus bringing the dead back
great part of his army. On the approach of winter, when the to life,' or as ‘wisdom; and ‘food for the soul,' saying ‘it is only
roads to Ghor were blocked with snow, and the arrival of the wine that takes care of man in this miserable world’ [20].
reinforcements was impossible, Bahramshah, at the instigation
of his subjects, suddenly returned to Ghazna, took Sayfud-Din Abu’l Bath Omar Khayyam (c. 1047-1123 AD, Nishapur, Iran),
and his followers captive, and put them to death in the year the genius mathematician, astrologist, philosopher, and poet
1149/1150 AD. Sultan Ala’ud Din Husayn (Jahan Soz) furious is advocating drinking, describing wine as a painkiller. Khayyam
at the loss of the second brother, sent a threatening quatrain claims wine frees man from the materials and ideological
to the chief judge of Ghazna and assembled a large army, concerns, stating “drink wine, as it will free you from having
marched on Ghazna and proceeded to make good his threats. too little or too much, it will free you from fights of 72 nations.
He defeated Bahramshah and compelled him to return to India. Do not abstain from this elixir, a gulp of which cures a thousand
Sultan Ala’ud-Din (The World Burner) occupied Ghazna and, pains’ [21, 1]. Equally, Afzalluddin Khaqhani (c.1121 AD,
for seven days and nights, gave it up to slaughter, pillage and Shirwan, Azerbaijan, died in c.1190 AD in Tabriz, Iran) is of the
destruction. Bosworth [15] referring to Juwzjani’s “Tabaqāt-i view that “the only credit and capital of one’s life is their youth,
Nāseri”, estimates the total number of people killed to be more and the rest of life is nothing’. He appears to be suffering
than 60,000 people. Sultan Ala’ud-Din killed the men, took from depression as he admits to self-medication with wine,
captive the women and children, and caused the bodies of all praising its “soul-nourishing” assets. Khaqhani calls; “give me
the kings of Ghazna except those of Sultan Mahmud, Sultan that elixir of life; that pure wine, that soul-nourishing gem, the
Masoud and Sultan Ibrahim, to be exhumed and burned. During only medicine for my heart full of sorrow and my eyes full of
the seven days of massacre and plunder, he was drinking and tears” [1]. Ali Anwari (born in 1126 AD, Abivard, Turkmenistan,
making merry in the royal palace of Ghazna. At the end of this died in 1189, Balkh, Afghanistan) describes wine as the “food
period, when he put a stop to the slaughter, he ordered his for man’s spirit” because of its antidepressant effects and of
minstrels to sing verses that he had composed for the occasion its ability to remove the ‘rust of sadness from the soul’ and
[16]. “The world knows that I am the king of the world. I am ‘turning a housefly into a falcon’ [22]. Anwari openly admits to
the light of the dynasty of Abbasyans. I am Ala'ud Din Husayn, excessive alcohol consumption, and reading his poetry one gets
son of Husayn; long live my kingdom. When I sit on the throne a sense that he may be addicted to alcohol. Anwari’s poems
of reign; no matter on earth or sky, like Alexander (the Great), I are strongly indicative of him self-medicating with wine. Ilyas
conquer the entire world; in every state, I appoint a new ruler. bin Yusuf Nizami, (1141-1209 AD) born in Ganja, Azerbaijan,
Because of the thugs of Ghazna; like the river Nile, I create a although agrees with Anwari that “while wine cures man’s
river of blood" [17]. After spending another week in mourning sorrow’, nevertheless, contrary to Anwari believes one should
for his brothers, he returned to Ghor destroying on his way all the refrain from drinking because it will turn the falcon of a brain
fine buildings erected by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna [15-17]. into a weak sparrow” [23].
Illustrations of alcohol use for self-medication Shamsuddin Mohammad Hafez (born in 1327 AD, Shiraz,
Iran), the exceptional poet, who was also called the "second
Abdullah Rudaki (c. 895-941 AD, Rudak, Tajikistan) the ‘father’ of
Khayyam” [1] because, like Khayyam, he laments about
Farsi-Dari literature outlines 'wine reveals a man's honour: the
tenuousness of life affairs and its infidelity when he guides
true nature of a person; wine separates a man of good nature
the reader: “Come, for the palace of hope (world) is mighty
from bad nature, and wine reveals whether a person is astute or
frail in foundation; Bring wine, for the foundation of life is on
injudicious.' Furthermore, Rudaki praises hypnotic properties
the wind. Let me give you a piece of advice; learn and practice
of wine, defining wine as a remedy for insomnia or “a cure for
sleepless eyes” [18]. Similarly, Abul Najm Ahmad Manuchehri, it. Do not seek constancy in this weak-natured world; for this
(born in Damghan, Iran, died in Ghazni, Afghanistan in c.1040 crone is the bride of a thousand grooms [24]. At other times,
AD), the famous poet in the court of Sultan Masood of Ghazna, Hafez is clearly complaining of suffering from sadness, and
praises wine for its hypnotic, anxiolytic and antidepressant uses alcohol to self-medicate the sorrow. He admits: “If wine
properties. In Manuchehri's view, wine is a remedy for insomnia, did not make our heart forget its sorrow; the dread of events
saying ‘the night has come, and I am tortured by sleeplessness; would carry our foundation away. If reason does not anchor
hey friend, bring the thing (wine) that is the remedy of my itself in drunkenness; how can it pull the ship (of life) out of this
sleeplessness". Manuchehri laments of intrigues of the world maelstrom of calamity? Alas everyone loses the game secretly
that he compares to a 'mad dog.' Hence, he shouts, “Hey wine! to the fate; no one has ever won a hand from this charlatan. I
I devote my body and soul to you; because you have torn away am the medicine man of love, drink wine, because this potion
the sorrow from my heart”. Manuchehri advises, "you should brings peace to your mind and takes away worries" [24].
not worry for the world in vain as your sorrow will not lessen Hafez recommends alcohol for its antidepressant properties
its pain. Crush this world and have a mouthful of it, before the and instructs ‘If you wish to free yourself from sadness and
world squeezes and swallows you. This world is like a mad dog stop your heart’s bleeding’; fill your cup of wine’ [25]. At
that would bite you; you would never catch or hit him. Ignore times, Hafez expresses passive suicidal thoughts “I want some
its plots, as you would never resolve it. Instead, pour wine into intoxicating wine that would knock me out; so, I may rest
your cup as there is nothing better than wine to free man from for a moment from the world and its troubles’ [24]. Hafez
the claws of the world’ [19]. Likewise, Abul-Majd Majdud Sanai complains: ‘In the whirligig of life, helpless, and with bleeding
Ghaznavī (c. 1080 – 1041AD, Ghazni, Afghanistan), the great heart, I am getting nowhere; Disgraced and degraded to the
Sufi poet in the early stages of his life, wrote ‘wise men found level of dust but cannot get a piece of loaf. If I bite once at

www.jbehavioralhealth.com 3
 Homayun Shahpesandy

a bone, I get a thousand bites into my bones. I am miserable [6] Mahajan VD. Ancient India. Ram Naga New Delhi S. Chand
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by complaining of his hopelessness to determine the mystery
[8] Chopra PN, Puri BN, Das MN, Pradhan AC. A comprehensive
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place and appreciate the chance given to you; for the bandit [10] Ferdausi A. Shahnameh The Persian Book of Kings. A New
(of time) is in ambush of your life’ [24]. Translation by Dick Davis with a foreword by Azar Nafisi. London.
Penguin Books, 2007; pp. 4, 7, 104-106, and 623-26.
Discussion [11] Kaykavus bin Eskandar bin Qabus. Qabus Namah (Mirror for
From a wider perspective, the term alcohol and/or wine in Princes); edited by Nafisi S. Tehran. Matbea Majles; 1933; p. 47.
Farsi-Dari literature, from a wider standpoint is used in two [12] Bayhaqī, Abul Fadl Mohammad bin Hussain. Tarīkhe Bayhaqī.
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151-152.
host of the tavern became my heartmate; my blood turned
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are the key representatives of this perspective. It seems that
[16] Edward GB. Revised Translation of the Chahar Maqala (“four
Persian speaking poets glorifying wine, were familiar with
discourses”) of Nizami-i-Arudi of Samarkand followed by an
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