2.

22 NICKEL AND NICKEL ALLOYS

2.22.1 The physical metallurgy of nickel and nickel alloys:
Nickel and nickel-base alloys are often selected because of their excellent corrosion resistance, heat
resistance and high temperature properties, and good low temperature impact toughness. The alloys can
be grouped on the basis of the principal alloying elements. Although national and international
designations are available for the alloys, trade names are more commonly used.

2.22.1.1 Commercially pure nickels:

Nickel is one of the most important of the major industrial metals and is characterised by good resistance
to corrosion and oxidation. It has an FCC crystal structure, a light gray colour, good workability and good
mechanical properties. It forms tough, ductile solid solutions with many common metals. Because of its
high corrosion resistance and hardness, nickel makes an ideal coating for parts subjected to corrosion and
wear. The most important commercial grades of nickel are A nickel, D nickel, E nickel, permanickel and
duranickel. The chemical compositions and applications of some of the commercial nickels and nickel alloys
are shown in Table 2.22.1.
Table 2.22.1. Compositions and applications of commercial nickels and nickel alloys.
Alloy Ni C Mn Fe S Si Cu Cr Al Ti Other
A nickel 99.4 0.1 0.2 0.15 0.005 0.05 0.1 - - - -
D nickel 95.2 0.1 4.5 0.15 0.005 0.05 0.05 - - - -
E nickel 97.7 0.1 2.0 0.10 - 0.05 0.05 - - - -
Duranickel 93.9 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.005 0.55 0.05 - 4.50 0.45 -
Permanickel 98.65 0.25 0.1 0.1 0.005 0.06 0.02 - - 0.45 0.35 Mg
Monel 66.0 0.12 0.9 1.35 - - 31.3 - - - -
K Monel 65.3 0.15 0.6 1.0 - - 29.6 - 2.75 0.45 -
H Monel 63.0 0.1 0.9 1.5 - 3.2 30.5 - - - -
Invar 36.0 - - 63.0 - - - - - - -
Platinite 46.0 - - 54.0 - - - - - - -
Permalloy 78.5 - - 21.5 - - - - - -

• A Nickel: A nickel is the basic material, containing a minimum of 99.0% nickel including cobalt. Cast commercial
nickel contains approximately 2% silicon to improve fluidity and castability. A nickel is used where strength
combined with resistance to corrosion and oxidation is required. Rolled nickel is used in the chemical and soap
industries for the construction of evaporators, jacketed kettles, heating coils, and other processing equipment.
• D Nickel and E Nickel: D nickel and E nickel conform to the composition of A nickel, the important difference
being the inclusion of about 4.5 and 2%, respectively, of manganese replacing a like amount of nickel (see Table
2.22.1). The addition of manganese improves resistance to atmospheric attack at elevated temperatures. The
mechanical strength of D nickel is slightly greater than that of A nickel, and it has better resistance to attack by
sulphur. D nickel is used extensively for spark-plug electrodes, ignition tubes, radio-tube grid wires, and marine-
boiler refractory bolts. Since E nickel has a lower manganese content than D nickel, its mechanical properties are
intermediate between A and D nickel. Typical uses are for spark-plug wires and as electrical lead-in wires for
furnaces.
• Duranickel: Duranickel is a wrought, age-hardenable, corrosion resistant Ni-Al alloy. If offers a combination of
high strength (comparable to that of heat-treated steels) and excellent corrosion resistance. Duranickel springs
are used as laundry clips, jewellery parts, and optical frames. This alloy is also used for instrument parts such as
diaphragms and bellows; and for fish hooks and parts of fishing tackle.
• Permanickel: Permanickel is an age-hardenable, high-nickel alloy having mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance similar to those of Duranickel. In addition, good electrical and thermal conductivity is present. Its
resistance to softening at elevated temperatures is somewhat inferior to that of Duranickel, and it should be used
in place of Duranickel only in applications where higher electrical conductivity and better magnetic properties are
essential.

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2.22.1.2 Nickel alloys:
The most common alloying elements with nickel are copper, iron, chromium, silicon, molybdenum,
manganese and aluminium.
• Nickel-copper-based alloys:
Copper is completely soluble in nickel and is added to increase formability, decrease price, and still retain
the corrosion resistance of nickel. Monel is the most important of the Ni-Cu alloys, containing
approximately one-third copper and two-thirds nickel. Monel has high corrosion resistance to acids,
alkalies, brines, waters, food products and the atmosphere. It has mechanical properties higher than those
of brasses and bronzes, but lower than those of alloy steels. It also has good toughness and fatigue
strength and finds considerable use in high temperature applications. It does not oxidise at a destructive
rate in sulphur-free environments below 540°C, and for some applications may be used up to 815°C.
Monel has widespread use in the chemical, pharmaceutical, marine, power, electrical, laundry, textile and
paper-equipment fields.
− R Monel contains high sulphur contents to improve machinability. It is produced primarily for automatic screw-
machine work.
− K Monel contains approximately 3% aluminium, which makes the alloy age-hardenable. It is therefore possible to
obtain a nonmagnetic corrosion-resistant material with extra hardness and strength. Some typical applications of
K Monel are marine pump shafts, springs, aircraft instruments, ball bearings and safety tools.
− H Monel and S Monel, containing 3% and 4% silicon, respectively, are casting alloys that combine high strength,
pressure-tightness, nongalling, and antiseizing characteristics with resistance to corrosive attack. Both alloys have
similar mechanical properties, but H Monel, containing less Si, has better machinability. Typical applications
include valve seats, pump liners and impellers.
− Constantan (45%Ni-55%Cu) has the highest electrical resistivity, the lowest temperature coefficient of resistance,
and the highest thermal emf against platinum of any of the Cu-Ni alloys. The first two properties are important
for electrical resistors, while the last property is desirable for thermocouples.
• Nickel-silicon-copper-based alloys:
The best known commercial alloy in this group is Hastelloy D. It contains 10% silicon and 3% copper. It is a
strong, tough and extremely hard casting alloy. It can be machined only with difficulty and is generally
finished by grinding. Its most important characteristic is its excellent corrosion resistance in sulphuric acid
at elevated temperatures. It is used for evaporators, reaction vessels, pipelines, and fittings in the chemical
industry.
• Nickel-chromium-iron-based alloys:
A variety of Ni-Cr and ternary Ni-Cr-Fe alloys are used as electrical resistance alloys. Some nominal
compositions are 80Ni-20Cr (Chromel A, Nichrome V, and others) used as electric heating elements for
household appliances and industrial furnaces, 60Ni-16Cr-24Fe (Chromel C, Nichrome, and others) used as
electrical heating elements for toasters, percolators, waffle irons, heater pads, hair driers, and hot water
heaters, also in high resistance rheostats for electronic equipment and as dipping baskets for acid pickling;
and 35Ni-20Cr-45Fe used for heavy-duty rheostats. Many of the above alloys show good resistance to
oxidation, thermal fatigue, and carburising gases. They are widely used in cast and wrought form for heat
treating equipment, furnace parts, carburising and nitriding containers, cyaniding pots, and other
equipment that must withstand temperatures up to 980°C.
Inconel, with a nominal composition of 76Ni-16Cr-8Fe, combines the inherent corrosion resistance,
strength and toughness of nickel with the extra resistance of chromium to high temperature oxidation. The
first applications for Inconel were in food-processing equipment as heaters, coolers and pasteurisers.
Inconel is outstanding in its ability to withstand repeated heating and cooling in the range of 0°C to 870°C
without becoming brittle and is used for exhaust manifolds and heaters in airplane engines. It is used
extensively in the furnace and heat treating field.
Inconel X is an age-hardenable alloy. Age-hardening is secured by additions of titanium (2.25 to 2.75%) and
aluminium (0.4 to 1%). A considerable portion of its high temperature strength is retained at temperatures

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up to 815°C. Typical applications include parts that require high strength and low plastic flow rates at
temperatures up to 815°C, such as gas turbine superchargers and jet propulsion parts, and springs for
temperatures up to 540°C.

• Nickel-molybdenum-iron-based alloys:
Hastelloy A (57Ni-20Mo-20Fe) and Hastelloy B (62Ni-28Mo-5Fe) are the two most popular alloys in this
group. These alloys are austenitic and do not respond to age hardening. By cold-working, it is possible to
obtain strength and ductility comparable to those of alloy steel. These alloys are noted for their high
resistance to corrosion in hydrochloric, phosphoric and other nonoxidising acids. They are used in the
chemical industry to handle, transport and store acids and other corrosive materials.

• Nickel-chromium-molybdenum-iron alloys:
The remainder of the Hastelloy alloys fall in this group, the best known alloy being Hastelloy C (54Ni-17Mo-
15Cr-5Fe-4W). These alloys are characterised by their high corrosion resistance to oxidising acids such as
nitric and chromic acid. They generally have good high temperature properties, and are resistant to
oxidising and reducing atmospheres up to 1090°C. They are used in the chemical industry when dealing
with strong oxidising acids, for pump and valve parts, spray nozzles and similar applications. Hastelloy X
(47Ni-9Mo-22Cr-18Fe) has outstanding strength and oxidation resistance up to 1200°C. It is used for many
industrial furnace applications and for aircraft parts such as jet engine tail pipes, afterburners, turbine
blades and vanes.

• Nickel-chromium-molybdenum-copper-based alloys:
The alloys in this group were originally developed as materials resistant to both sulphuric and nitric acids
over a wide range of concentration and exposure conditions. Two casting alloys are Illium B (50Ni-28Cr-
8.5Mo-5.5Cu) and Illium G (56Ni-22.5Cr-6.5Mo-6.5Cu). They provide superior corrosion resistance in
machineable high-strength casting alloys. Typical applications are thrust and rotary bearings, and pump
and valve parts where high hardness is required in corrosive environments. Illium R (68Ni-21Cr-5Mo-3Cu)
is a machineable wrought alloy that provides heat and corrosion resistance. It is used for pump and valve
shafting, hardware items, tubing, sheet and wire.

• Nickel-iron alloys:
As the nickel content of Ni-Fe alloys is increased above 25%, thermal expansion decreases sharply,
becoming almost invariable for ordinary temperature ranges at 36% nickel. Further additions of nickel
result in an increase in thermal expansion (see Figure 2.22.1). The 35% nickel alloy is known as Invar,
meaning invariable, and is used where very little change in size with change in temperature is desirable.
Typical applications include length standards, measuring tapes, instrument parts, tuning forks and special
springs. In the range of 30 to 60% nickel, it is possible to select alloys of appropriate expansion
characteristics to fit particular applications.

Figure 2.22.1. Effect of nickel on the thermal expansion coefficient of iron-nickel alloys at room temperature.

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Alloys containing approximately 28Ni-18Co-54Fe have coefficients of thermal expansion closely matching
those of the standard types of glass. They are used for matched glass-to-metal seals under the trade names
of Kovar and Fernico. A 46% nickel alloy, called Platinite, has the same coefficient of thermal expansion as
platinum.
An alloy containing 36% Ni and 12% chromium, known as Elinvar, has zero thermoelastic coefficient; that is,
the modulus of elasticity is almost invariable over a considerable temperature range. It is used for hair
springs and balance wheels in watches and for similar parts in precision instruments.
Permalloys include several Ni-Fe alloys in the range of 78% nickel that have high magnetic permeability
under the influence of very weak magnetising forces. Permalloys are used as loading coils in electrical
communication circuits.
The aluminium-nickel-cobalt-iron alloys, commonly called Alnico, containing 8 to 12% aluminium, 14 to 28%
nickel, and 5 to 35% cobalt, have outstanding magnetic properties. They are widely used as permanent
magnets in motors, generators, radio speakers, telephone receivers, microphones and galvanometers. By
variation in the percentage nickel and proper additions of cobalt, chromium, copper and molybdenum,
different combinations of magnetic properties can be secured.

• Nickel-base superalloys:
The nickel-base superalloys are initially strengthened by solid solution strengthening from the addition of
cobalt, iron, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and aluminium. The compositions of some of the nickel-
base superalloys are shown in Table 2.22.2. Further strengthening results from a precipitation reaction that
produces a fine intermetallic precipitate of Ni3Al and Ni3Ti. This unique precipitate is referred to as gamma
prime (γ'). An example of gamma prime precipitates is shown in Figure 2.22.2. The strength and hardness
of gamma prime increase with increasing temperature.

Figure 2.22.2. The cuboidal and spheroidal structure of primary and secondary γ’ precipitates (10% oxalic acid etch,
magnification: 10000X).

Another method to improve the elevated temperature properties of nickel-based alloys is to produce a fine
"mechanical" dispersion of insoluble particles with the metal matrix. Mechanical dispersion implies that
the particles do not result from a precipitation reaction within the alloy. Rather, they are mechanically
mixed into the matrix metal. This is usually accomplished in powder form. For example, TD-nickel consists
of 2% thoria (ThO2) uniformly dispersed in a matrix of 98% nickel. This material is, in fact, superior to most
other nickel-based alloys at temperatures above approximately 1090°C.
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 Nickel-base superalloys are used extensively in applications involving aircraft and high temperature
engines, and also land-based power generating systems. Reciprocating engines employ nickel-base alloys
in superchargers and exhaust valves. Even the metalworking industry utilises these alloys in hot-work tool
and die applications, together with heat treatment equipment and fixtures.

Table 2.22.2. Nominal compositions of selected wrought superalloys.

Alloy C Mn Si Cr Ni Co Mo W Nb Fe Ti Al B Zr Other
A-286 0.05 1.35 0.50 15.0 26.0 - 1.3 - - Bal. 2.0 0.2 0.015 - -
Inconel 718 0.04 0.10 0.30 18.6 Bal. - 3.1 - 5.0 18.5 0.9 0.4 - - -
IN-120 0.04 - - 21.0 Bal. 14.0 4.0 - 2.0 - 2.5 0.25 0.005 0.05 -
Inconel 901 0.05 0.10 0.10 12.5 42.5 - 5.7 - - Bal. 2.8 0.2 0.015 - -
Nimonic 80A 0.06 0.10 0.70 19.5 Bal. 1.1 - - - - 2.5 1.3 - - -
Inconel X-750 0.04 0.70 0.30 15.0 Bal. - - - 0.9 6.8 2.5 0.8 - - -
D-979 0.05 0.25 0.20 15.0 Bal. - 4.0 4.0 - 27.0 3.0 1.0 0.010 - -
Nimonic 90 0.07 0.50 0.70 19.5 Bal. 18.0 - - - - 2.4 1.4 - - -
René 41 0.09 - - 19.0 Bal. 11.0 10.0 - - - 3.1 1.5 0.005 - -
M-252 0.15 0.50 0.50 20.0 Bal. 10.0 10.0 - - - 2.6 1.0 0.005 - -
Waspaloy 0.08 - - 19.5 Bal. 13.5 4.3 - - - 3.0 1.3 0.006 0.06 -
Inconel 700 0.12 0.10 0.30 15.0 Bal. 28.5 3.7 - - 0.7 2.2 3.0 - - -
Nimonic 105 0.20 1.0 1.0 14.6 Bal. 20.0 5.0 - - 2.0 1.2 4.7 - - -
Udimet 500 0.08 - - 18.0 Bal. 18.5 4.0 - - - 2.9 2.9 0.006 0.05 -
Nimonic 115 0.15 - - 15.0 Bal. 15.0 3.5 - - - 4.0 5.0 - - -
Udimet 700 0.08 - - 15.0 Bal. 18.5 5.2 - - - 3.5 4.3 0.030 - -
TD Nickel - - - - 98.0 - - - - - - - - - 2.0 ThO2
Haynes 188 0.10 1.25 0.40 22.0 22.0 Bal. - 14.0 - 3.0 - - - - 0.08 La
L-605 0.10 1.50 0.50 20.0 10.0 Bal. - 15.0 - - - - - - -

2.22.2 The welding metallurgy of nickel and nickel-base alloys:

Nickel and most nickel-base alloys can be joined by arc welding. Most of the wrought nickel-base alloys are
welded under conditions similar to those used in the arc welding of austenitic stainless steels. Cast nickel
alloys, particularly those of high silicon content, present difficulties in welding. The most widely used
processes for welding the non-hardenable wrought nickel alloys are GTAW, GMAW (with inert shielding
gas) and SMAW. SAW has limited applicability (only used for the solid solution strengthened alloys), as
does PAW. The GTAW process is preferred for the hardenable alloys, although GMAW and SMAW are also
used. Preheating is not necessary unless there is a risk of porosity from moisture condensation. It is
recommended that material containing residual stresses be solution treated before welding to reduce the
stress level. Postweld heat treatment is usually not required to restore corrosion resistance, but thermal
treatment may be required for precipitation hardening, or stress relieving may be necessary to avoid stress
corrosion cracking.
In terms of their weldability, the nickel-base alloys can be grouped according to the means by which the
alloying elements develop the required mechanical properties, namely solid solution strengthening, and
precipitation hardening.
• The solid solution strengthened alloys include the Ni-Cu alloys and the Ni-Fe-Cr alloys. These alloys are readily
fusion welded, normally in the annealed condition. As the heat-affected zone does not harden, heat treatment is
usually not required after welding.
• The precipitation hardening alloys develop their optimal properties through heat treatment (solution annealing
and ageing) to produce a fine dispersion of second phase particles in a nickel-rich matrix. These alloys include the
Ni-Cu-Al-Ti, Ni-Cr-Al-Ti and Ni-Cr-Fe-Nb-Al-Ti alloys. These alloys are always welded in the solution heat treated
condition and may be susceptible to cracking during postweld heat treatment.

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The main factors that need to be controlled during the welding of nickel and nickel-base alloys include the
following:
• Cleanliness: Cleanliness is very important during the welding of nickel and nickel-base alloys. Oxides, sulphur
compounds and contamination with zinc, lead and carbon can prove to be harmful.
• Metal viscosity: The higher viscosity of nickel-base alloys compared to carbon steel can cause welders to increase
the welding current to improve fluidity of the weld pool. This does not solve the problem. Wider gaps and
weaving patterns are amongst the recommended solutions.
• Penetration: The lower penetration compared to carbon steel requires different joint designs and may require
specialized shielding gas compositions.
• Alloy problems: Special precautions are required when welding precipitation hardening nickel alloys to avoid
postweld cracking.
• Filler metal: The range of nickel alloys is considerable and the alloys have a wider range of component elements
than most other systems. This implies that the choice of filler metal is more significant than in the case of
conventional steel welding.
• Weld corrosion: Highly alloyed weld pools are typical in nickel alloy welds. These pools are subject to alloy
segregation, which can accelerate corrosion of the weld. For this reason overalloyed filler materials are usually
recommended.

Metallurgical problems associated with the welding of nickel and nickel alloys include weld porosity,
embrittlement by sulphur and other contaminants, ductility dip cracking (DDC) and loss of corrosion
resistance due to the formation of intergranular precipitates.

2.22.2.1 Porosity in nickel-base alloy welds:

Porosity in nickel welds can be caused by oxygen and nitrogen from air entrainment or surface oxides, or by
hydrogen from surface contamination. The absorption of nitrogen in nickel follows a pattern similar to that
for iron. For GTAW in argon-nitrogen atmospheres, the solubility of nitrogen increases with shielding gas
nitrogen content up to a limiting value, above which the amount of gas absorbed is constant and
independent of the partial pressure of nitrogen. The welds become porous when the nitrogen content
exceeds about 30 ppm, corresponding to a nitrogen partial pressure of 2.5.10-4 atm. Figure 2.22.3 shows
the nitrogen content as a function of the partial pressure of nitrogen in the shielding gas.

Figure 2.22.3. The nitrogen content of gas metal arc welds in nickel as a function of nitrogen partial pressure in argon-
nitrogen atmospheres.

Addition of hydrogen to argon-nitrogen shielding gas mixtures increases the partial pressure of nitrogen at
which porosity appears, so that with 10% hydrogen in the mixture, the critical nitrogen partial pressure is
increased to 5.10-4 atm. In GTAW nickel is also tolerant of hydrogen in argon-hydrogen atmospheres, such
that porosity does not appear until the hydrogen content of the mixture is 50%. Hydrogen appears to be
absorbed at the arc root and to bubble out at the rear of the weld pool. In so doing it removes a proportion
of the dissolved nitrogen. It is therefore possible to tolerate a higher partial pressure of nitrogen in the arc
atmosphere before porosity occurs.

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Nickel has a higher solubility for oxygen than iron and a lower chemical affinity, such that the steam
reaction is possible (the free energy of formation of nickel oxide is numerically smaller than that of H2O).
The CO reaction (equation (2.22.1)) could also occur.
[O]D + [C]D = CO …(2.22.1)

The oxygen content of GTA welds in steel is typically 0.005 to 0.02%. If the oxygen content of nickel welds
is similar, the tolerable carbon content for avoiding porosity at 1543°C (melting temperature of nickel)
would be 0.017 to 0.0043%. The specified maximum carbon content for normal quality nickel is 0.02%.
Thus, in the absence of deoxidants, porosity due to CO formation is possible.

• Preventing porosity:
Careful cleaning of the base metal surface and the use of filler wire containing deoxidants (aluminium and
titanium) will usually reduce the risk of porosity. When using argon as shielding gas during GTAW or
GMAW, care must be taken to ensure adequate shielding of the weld pool, including the use of a gas
backing system.
Pure nickel, the Ni-30Cu alloy Monel, and (to a lesser degree) the nickel-chromium-iron alloys, are subject
to porosity if the weld does not contain nitride-forming and deoxidising elements. Filler rods and
electrodes for arc welding of these alloys are designed to give a weld deposit containing aluminium,
titanium, niobium, or a combination thereof.
It is evident that porosity may be due to nitrogen evolution, to H2O or CO formation, or to those reactions
occurring in combination. Such porosity may be minimised by the addition of elements such as aluminium
and titanium, that form stable compounds with nitrogen and oxygen, and by avoiding atmospheric
contamination, if necessary preventing the access of air to the underside of the weld.
Porosity in nickel welds may be eliminated in single-pass gas tungsten arc welds by the use of argon with up
to 20% hydrogen as shielding gas, which is consistent with the experimental results described earlier.
Addition of hydrogen to the shielding gas in GMAW, however, causes gross porosity. For steel welding by
the GMAW process, oxygen or CO2 is added to the argon shielding gas to stabilise the arc; with nickel and
its alloys, this causes undesirable oxidation of the weld and results in an irregular weld profile.

2.22.2.2 Hot cracking:

Factors controlling solidification cracking in nickel-base alloys include the alloy composition, welding
process and welding conditions. The occurrence of solidification cracking limits the application of
submerged arc welding for nickel-base alloys, both with respect to applicable alloys and welding conditions.
More generally, this type of cracking leads to restriction of weld shape, welding speed and technique.
Solidification cracking of nickel and nickel alloys is caused by contamination with sulphur, lead, phosphorus,
and a number of low-melting elements such as bismuth. These contaminants form intergranular films that
cause severe embrittlement at elevated temperatures. Hot cracking of weld metal may result from such
contamination, but more frequently it occurs in the HAZ and is caused by intergranular penetration of
contaminants from the metal surface (as shown in Figure 2.22.4). Sulphur is a common constituent of
cutting oils used in machining and is therefore frequently present on metal surfaces. Grease, oil, paint,
marking crayons, temperature-indicating sticks or dirt may contain one or more of the harmful ingredients.
Damaging elements may also be present on the surface of nickel that has been in service and requires weld
repair.
Prior to any welding or brazing process where heat is applied, the metal surface must be cleaned. New
material is scratch-brushed using a stainless steel wire brush for a distance of at least 25 mm on either side
of the joint, and then degreased with carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene or other solvent. Metal that
has been in service needs more drastic treatment. It is ground, shot blasted or pickled in the region
adjacent to the weld, and then degreased as before. During fabrication, suitable steps must be taken to
minimise the danger of contamination, in particular by establishing clean working conditions and by
annealing either in electric furnaces or in furnaces fired with sulphur-free fuel. Cracking may occur in the

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weld or HAZ of nickel and high-nickel alloys that have been work-hardened or age-hardened. Material
should therefore be in the annealed or solution-treated condition before welding.

Figure 2.22.4. The hot cracking of nickel due to sulphur contamination of the surface. (Magnification: 100x).

Welds made in silicon-bearing 18Cr-38Ni alloys are likely to suffer from hot cracking if a matching filler
metal is used. This alloy should be welded with a low-silicon 80Ni-20Cr type filler, avoiding dilution.
Chromium-containing nickel-base alloys are less susceptible to damage by sulphur than commercially pure
nickel and Monel. Nevertheless, it is essential with all these alloys to ensure that all sulphur contamination
has been removed from the surface prior to welding.
Nickel alloys may also be susceptible to liquation cracking in the reheated weld metal regions or the parent
metal heat-affected zone (as shown in Figure 2.22.5). This type of cracking is controlled by factors outside
the control of the welder (such as grain size or impurity content). Some alloys are more sensitive than
others.

Figure 2.22.5. Liquation cracking in a nickel-base alloy.

2.22.2.3 Ductility dip cracking:

Ductility dip cracking (DDC) is an elevated temperature solid-state phenomenon that occurs in fully
austenitic weld metal (in particular the nickel-base alloys) at temperatures below the effective solidus
temperature of the weld metal. DDC is characterised by separation of migrated grain boundaries under the
influence of thermally-induced strain (during processing or welding) at temperatures within the susceptible
ductility dip temperature range. Examples of DDC in Inconel 690 filler metal (filler metal 52) is shown in
Figure 2.22.6.
Although the exact mechanism of DDC still needs to be clarified, it appears to be associated with the
movement or migration of grain boundaries at elevated temperatures. During migration, impurity and
interstitial elements are swept into the boundary, decreasing grain boundary cohesion and lowering
ductility. This promotes grain boundary sliding and separation under the influence of thermally-induced
strain.
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 Figure 2.22.6. Ductility dip cracking.

Factors that exacerbate cracking include:

• Large austenite grain sizes: A coarse weld metal grain size promotes segregation of impurities and
solute elements to the grain boundaries by reducing the total grain boundary area.
• Grain boundary morphology: Long, straight migrated grain boundaries appear to be more susceptible
than “tortuous” or twisting grain boundaries. Tortuous grain boundaries have the following advantages
over straight boundaries:
− less of the grain boundary is orientated in directions favourable to boundary separation;
− the total grain boundary area per unit length is increased, making the boundary more resistant to applied
strain; and
• reduced impurity and solute segregation, resulting in enhanced grain boundary cohesion and less grain
boundary sliding.
• Restraint: DDC is often associated with heavy sections, where higher levels of inherent restraint cause
an increase in the level of thermally-induced strain during welding.
• Multiple-pass welding: Multiple thermal cycles promote additional grain boundary movement and
higher levels of segregation.
• Grain boundary orientation relative to the applied strain: The majority of cracks form within grain
boundaries orientated at an angle of between 45° and 90° to the applied strain.
• Impurities: The presence of sulphur and hydrogen are detrimental, reducing the threshold strain below
which DDC cannot occur. Sulphur segregates to the migrated grain boundaries, decreasing grain
boundary cohesion, whereas hydrogen causes embrittlement.
Ductility dip cracking can be controlled by:
• Using filler metal that produces a consistent distribution of precipitates and/or eutectic constituents to
pin the grain boundaries against migration and to increase grain boundary tortuosity. Tortuous grain
boundaries provide a mechanical locking effect which prevents adjacent crystals from sliding past one
another on applied strain. Reduced grain boundary motion in the presence of precipitates also results
in reduced segregation as less impurities are swept into the boundary regions. In this respect, the
presence of carbides plays an important role. Carbides pin grain boundaries, thereby inhibiting grain
boundary migration and grain growth, and increase the tortuosity of the grain boundaries. Higher
carbon contents in the presence of Nb and/or Ti promote beneficial MC-type carbide formation.
• Controlling or eliminating impurities (especially S, P and H).
• Utilising high welding speeds. It has been shown that ductility increases with an increase in welding
speed. This seems to be associated with finer grain sizes, which reduce segregation effects.
2.22.2.4 Oxide inclusions and lack of inter-run fusion:
AS the oxide layer on the surface of the nickel-base alloy has a much higher melting temperature than the
base metal, it may remain solid during welding. Any oxide trapped in the weld pool will form inclusions. In
multiple-pass welds, oxide or slag on the surface of the weld bead will not be consumed in the subsequent
run and may cause lack-of-fusion imperfections.
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Before welding, surface oxide (particularly if it was formed at a high temperature, must be removed by
machining or abrasive grinding. It is not sufficient to wire brush the surface as this serves only to polish the
oxide. During multiple-pass welding, surface oxide and slag must be removed between runs.
The normal method of cleaning is to degrease the surface, remove all surface oxide by machining, grinding
or scratch brushing and finally degrease

2.22.2.5 Other potential problems:

Although welding does not normally increase susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking, stress corrosion
cracking may be possible if the weld metal or heat-affected zone is exposed to caustic soda, fluorosilicates
or hydrofluoric acid.
Postweld heat treatment cracking (also known as strain-age or reheat cracking) is likely to occur during
postweld ageing of precipitation hardenable alloys, but can be minimized by pre-weld treatment. Solution
annealing is commonly used, but over-ageing given the most resistant condition. Alloy 718 was specifically
developed to be resistant to this form of cracking.

2.22.2.6 Properties of the welded joint:

• Mechanical properties
The mechanical properties of properly made welds in annealed nickel and nickel alloys, other than the age-
hardening types, are equal to those of the parent metal. Age-hardening alloys are normally welded in the
solution-annealed condition and age-hardened after welding. With the optimum combination of parent
and filler metal compositions, joints of strength close to that of the fully heat treated parent metal can be
obtained. Age-hardening treatments for nickel alloys are in the temperature range of 580°C to 700°C. A
number of filler alloys for the non-aging materials contain sufficient titanium, aluminium or niobium to
make the weld deposit harden if held within this temperature range, so that stress-relieving joints at 580°C
to 650°C will result in some degree of weld hardening. Such hardening is not usually harmful in a non-
corrosive environment, but its potential effect must be considered. If a non-aging deposit is required for
nickel-chromium-iron alloys, an 80Ni-20Cr filler may be used. Welding fully heat-treated age-hardened
alloys is only possible under conditions of minimum restraint and, to restore the full properties, solution
treatment by aging must be repeated after welding.

• Corrosion resistance:
Pure nickel and many of the nickel alloys are used for corrosion-resistant duties. Pure nickel has good
resistance to caustic solutions, while the Ni-Mo and Ni-Cr-Mo alloys withstand some of the most severely
corrosive environments encountered in chemical plants. These alloys are welded using the argon-shielded
processes with electrodes that produce a deposit of matching composition, modified where necessary by
the addition of deoxidisers. The corrosion resistance of such welds is generally adequate, but the base
metal must, for exposure to severe conditions, be formulated to avoid intergranular precipitation due to
the weld thermal cycle.
Considering Ni-Cr-Fe alloys in general, the effect of increasing the nickel content is to reduce susceptibility
to transgranular stress corrosion cracking and to increase susceptibility to intergranular attack. Figure
2.22.7 shows this effect in terms of weight loss in a standard intergranular corrosion test as a function of
nickel content. By the same token it is necessary, as the Ni content increases, to reduce the carbon content
to lower values in order to maintain intergranular corrosion resistance. It may also be necessary to add
vanadium as a stabilising element. Sensitisation is generally due to carbide precipitation, but in the more
complex alloys and in those alloys containing molybdenum, intermetallic compounds or phases may also
precipitate in the grain boundaries. Commercially pure nickel may also suffer weld decay and a low-carbon
type (nickel 201) is used for more severe environments. Intergranular attack of nickel-base alloys has been
found in a number of acid media, but it has also been observed in high-temperature water and in alkaline
solutions. The standard test for detecting sensitisation in these alloys is a mixture of sulphuric acid and
ferric sulphate, as specified in ASTM A262.

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Nickel-base filler metal is used for joining austenitic Cr-Ni steels to carbon steel and low-alloy steel,
particularly when the joint is to be given a postweld heat treatment. Where a Cr-Ni filler (say type 309 or
310) is used for such joints, the welds are likely to embrittle by σ-phase formation and by carbon migration
from the ferritic steel to the weld deposit. Nickel-base filler metal does not suffer either of these
deficiencies. There is, however, the moderate hardening effect described earlier, and in most instances the
weld metal will be sensitised and may not be suitable for exposure to corrosive environments.

Figure 2.22.7. The influence of nickel content on the intergranular corrosion of Ni-17Cr-Fe alloys. Tested for 70 hours
in 5N HNO3 + 1 g/ Cr at 108°C.

• Oxidation and creep resistance:

A number of nickel-base and cobalt-base alloys have useful oxidation-resistance and creep-resistance
properties, and at the same time retain adequate ductility after periods of aging at elevated temperature.
They are used for gas-turbine parts and in high-temperature furnaces for the petrochemical industry.
Incoloy 800, for example, is specified for furnace tubes, headers and transfer lines in locations where there
is a risk of thermal movement. Incoloy 800 behaves like a high-nickel steel when fusion welded, in that a
matching filler metal composition is too susceptible to solidification cracking for practical use. Nickel-base
Ni-Cr-Fe filler alloys are therefore used to weld alloy 800, and the rupture strength of the weld metal is
lower than that of the parent material. When this type of weld is subject to severe strain in service, failure
may occur in the form of creep cracking in the weld metal.

2.22.2.7 Welding processes and procedures:

Nickel and nickel-base alloys may be welded by nearly all the available welding processes. Those alloys that
are employed for corrosion resistance (for example commercially pure nickel, Monel, and Hastelloy) are
normally joined using coated electrodes or GTAW. In GMAW and SAW it is necessary to restrict heat input
rates to avoid solidification cracking, particularly with the complex nickel alloys. In some instances, fusion
welding is practicable in the flat position only. Gas-turbine alloys are welded by the GTAW and EBW
processes and also by resistance welding. Oxy-acetylene welding is normally not used due to the difficulty
in satisfactorily controlling the air-gas ratio. Recommended filler metals for welding nickel and nickel-base
alloys are given in Table 2.22.3.

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 Table 2.22.3. Filler metals recommended for various nickel alloys.

Filler designations
Alloy BS EN ISO Comments
AWS A5.14 Trade names
18274

Pure nickel

Nickel 200 Ni 2061 ERNi-1 Nickel 61 Matching filler metal normally contains 3%Ti

Nickel Copper

Matching filler metal contains additions of

Monel 400 Ni 4060 ERNiCu-7 Monel 60
Mn, Ti and Al

Nickel Chromium

Brightray S Ni 6076 - NC 80/20 Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Fe filler metals may be used

Nimonic 75 Ni 6076 - NC 80/20 Ni-Cr and Ni-Cr-Fe filler metals may be used

Nickel-Chromium-Iron

Usually welded with Ni-Cr-X alloys, but more

Inconel 625
Alloy 800 Ni 6625 ERNiCrMo-3 nearly matching consumables are available
Thermanit 21/33
which contain higher C and also Nb

Alloy 600 Ni 6082 ERNiCr-3 Inconel 82 Matching filler metal contains Nb addition

Matching filler metal can be used but Inconel

Alloy 718 Ni 7718 ERNiFeCr-2 Inconel 718 625 is an alternative consumable offering
increased crack resistance

Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum

Filler metal is also used widely for cladding

Alloy 625 Ni 6625 ERNiCrMo-3 Inconel 625
and dissimilar welds

Hastelloy C-22 Ni 6022 ERNiCrMo-10 Hastelloy C-22

Nickel-Molybdenum

Corrosion resistant alloys require matching

Hastelloy B-2 Ni 1066 ERNiMo-7 Hastelloy B-2
fillers

Mechanical properties required in joints

High
Hastelloy X, dictate whether matching precipitation
Temperature Ni 6002 ERNiCrMo-2
Waspaloy hardening fillers or solid solution alloys such
Alloys
as Inconel 625 are used

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