Subject Name: Measurements and Instrumentation

Subject Code: EC-3005

Semester: 3rd
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UNIT I
Accuracy and Precision, Sensitivity, Linearity, Resolution, Hysteresis, Loading Effect, Measurements of Current,
Voltage, Power and Impedance: DC and AC Ammeter, DC Voltmeter- Chopper type and solid-state, AC voltmeter
using Rectifier. Average, RMS, Peak responding voltmeters, Multi-meter, Power meter, Bolometer and
Calorimeter
Measurement System Performance
There are two categories for instrument and measurement system which are follows:
(i) Static characteristics and (ii} Dynamic characteristics
(i) Static characteristics
When the physical quantities which are either constant or vary very slowly with time in that case the
measurement is in the form of statics characteristics of the instrument and provide quality measurement.
(ii) Dynamic characteristics
When the physical quantities which rapidly varying with time in that case the dynamic relation exists between the
output and input for measurement and is called as Dynamic Characteristics.
. Differential equations are used for such cases.
Static Calibration
Static calibration means comparing not varying quantity with time using some known standard. Calibration
process is performed with either a primary standard or a secondary standard with higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated, or an instrument of known accuracy.
Static Characteristics
The main static characteristics are as follows:
(i) Accuracy (ii) Sensitivity (iii) Reproducibility
(iv) Drift (v) Static error (vi) Dead· Zone
The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable; while qualities (iv), (v) and (vi) are undesirable.
Accuracy and Precision
(i) Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness through which· an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformation to the truth.
The accuracy can be classified in following ways:
a) Point accuracy: Point accuracy is specified at only one particular point of measuring scale and does not provide
accuracy on other points of the scale
b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument has uniform scale then its accuracy is defined in
terms of scale span.
c) Accuracy as percentage of true value: when the accuracy is defined in terms of percentage with respect to
uniform scale then it is called Accuracy as percentage of true value.
(ii) Sensitivity: The sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to the
magnitude of input signal.
Figure 1 shows the calibration curve in linear form and no linear form. Here the sensitivity of the
instrument is defined by slope of calibration curve. If the plot is linear then sensitivity of the instrument
remains same for the entire range and if nonlinear then it varies from point to point. Sensitivity is
expressed by:
� � � � � �ℎ� � ∆ �
�� � = =
� � � � � �ℎ� � � ∆ �

Output, qo Output, qo

Δ o
Δ o
Δ i Δ i
(i) (ii)

Input, qi Input, qi

Figure 1(i) Sensitivity for Straight line, (ii) Sensitivity for non Straight line

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The Deflection factor is inversely proportional to sensitivity and expressed as:

1 ∆ �
� �� � � � = =
� � � � � ∆ �

(iii) Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness through which a given value is repeatedly measured. Perfect
reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift. No drift means that with a given input the
measured values do not vary with respect to time.
(iv) Drift:
Drift may be classified into three categories:
a) Zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage then zero drift occurs.
b) Span drift: If the output varies proportionally with respect to nominal curve and increase for upward
scale with the nominal curve than it is called span drift.
c) Zero and span drift: When the combination of both zero and span drift occurs, then the instrument
shows both drift at the same time.

Output Output Output Zero &Span

Characteristics Span drift drift
with zero drift

Nominal Nominal Nominal

characteristics characteristics characteristics

Input Input Input

(i) (ii) (iii)

Figure 2 (i) Zero drift,(ii) Span drift,(iii)Zero and span drift

(v) Static Error
When the instrument reading do not reach to the true value then error occurs which is termed as static error. The
accuracy of an instrument is measured in terms of its error.
It is never possible to measure the true or exact value of a quantity; it is nearly always possible to give a best
measured value. Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value of the
quantity. Then:
δA =Am - At .......(1)
Where δA = error,
Am =measure value of quantity,
(vi) Dead Zone
If large change in the input quantity for which no output is indicated by instrument is called as dead zone. This is
mainly due to backlash or hysteresis in the instrument.

Precision: It defines the reproducibility of the measurements for the same applied input signal. The term precise
means clearly or sharply defined. High precision is achieved by clearly defined, finely divided, distinct scale and a
knife edge pointer with mirror arrangement to remove parallax.
Indication of Precision
Precision is composed of two characteristics:
(i) Conformity (ii) Number of significant figures
Precision is used in measurements to describe the reproducibility of results.
High precision means accurate reading for repeated results while low precision indicates error in results.
Linearity:
When the output signal is directly proportional to the input signal defines the linearity of measurement. Figure 3
shows the curve between actual curve and it maximum deviation with respect to the straight line.

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Output Actual
curve Idealized straight
line

Maximum
deviation

Input

Figure 3 Curve between Actual and Maximum deviation

� � �� � ℎ � �� �� ℎ �
� � � = ×
� � �

Repeatability:
Repeatability is the degree of closeness through which a given input quantity is measured again and again.
Resolution: When the input is gradually varied from some non-zero value and there is no change in output until a
small increment. This increment is called resolution of the instrument. Threshold: When the input is gradually
varied from zero value and it is found that for the minimum value no output is detected is called the threshold
value.
Range or Span: The minimum & maximum value of a quantity for which an instrument is designed for
measurement is called its range or span.
 Hysteresis
When measured variable is increasing at that point if output curve is decreasing then there maximum output
hysteresis is present. If the same happen in Negative side also then it is called as Maximum input hysteresis as
shown in Figure 4. The hysteresis is normally defined in percentage of the full-scale of input or output reading.

Figure 4 Instrument characteristic with hysteresis

Hysteresis occurs in instruments that contain electrical windings formed by rounding wire on an iron core, due to
the magnetic field. This occurs in devices like the variable inductance displacement transducer or in LVDT.
 Loading Effect:
When the signal is applied for measurement purpose in that case the measuring of quantity is done by various
elements which require some energy for their operation. This energy is extracted from the applied input signal
and due to this the signal gets distorted and the same value is not measured. This is called the loading effect.
1. Chopper Amplifier Type Voltmeter
When the applied input DC voltage is in μ V ange in that case Chopper amplifier type of voltmeter is used for
measurement of DC signal. The figure 5 shows the concept of measuring low DC signal. It consists of two centre
tapped winding transformer at input and output side, two selector switch is used for switching between A and B
terminal at both input and output side with one AC amplifier.

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Input A v2 Output
Secondary A
switch V1 V2 Primary switch
winding AC
Vi B Amplifier winding
B Vo

vi v1 v2
vo

Figure 5 Chopper type DC amplifiers with related waveform

When the DC input having the low voltage is applied at terminal A and then to B, the two voltages are summed
and a Low level of square waveform is generated at secondary side. This increased signal is applied to the AC
amplifier and provided to the primary winding of the output transformer, then the amplified signal is applied to
the centre tapped winding where the selector switch converts the square waveform into amplified DC signal
which can be easily measured . The functional diagram is shown in figure 6.
Chopper
Chopper Demodulator
Modulator

Low
pass
Filter
Low Level
DC Input C C
AC Amplifier
Amplified
DC output

Photo Diode

Ref Voltage

Neon
Oscillator

Neon Neon
Lamp Lamp

Figure 6 Block Diagram of Chopper amplifier

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True RMS Reading Voltmeter

The measurement of complex waveform is done with the help of True RMS Voltmeter. For such type of voltmeter
input is applied to the heater. The heater is heated up and transforms heat energy to the thermocouple. Coupling
thermocouple converts the heat into electrical voltage which is applied to the DC amplifier. DC amplifier amplifies
the DC signal and applied to PMMC instrument for indicating the voltage output. To provide accurate
measurement the output is feedback to the input side where the heater is heated up and balancing thermocouple
converts the DC signal to voltage. The function of feedback loop is to provide balanced condition for measuring
thermocouple which is present in form of non linearity. Figure 7 shows the construction of true RMS voltmeter.

Measuring
Thermocouple

AC Input DC
Voltage V1
Amplifier

PMMC
Indicating
V2 Instrument

Balancing
Thermocouple

Figure 7 Diagram of True rms reading voltmeter

Average Reading AC Voltmeters

Average reading voltmeters are used for measuring AC signals in terms of calibrated rms value on the meter scale.
This measurement can be achieved by using Vacuum tube diode and a resistance which is connected in parallel
with the applied AC voltage as shown in figure 8.

AC voltage to To amplifier and

Vacuum tube R
be measured meter
diode

Figure 8 AC Voltmeter using Vacuum Tube Diode

Vacuum tube diode should have linear volt –current characteristics. This is essential to make current directly
proportional to the applied input signal. The PMMC instrument is used for measurement of input signal.
The average current through the meter will be given by the expression
Vav Vm
I� = = . ∗[ ]Iav
R
Vrms is the rms value of applied voltage. I� � ℎ � � � .
Peak Reading AC Voltmeter:
Peak Reading AC Voltmeter uses semiconductor diode for making measurement in term of DC signal. The half
wave rectifier is used with capacitor connected in parallel form with the applied input signal. The output of
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rectifier is pulsating DC which is applied to the capacitor. The function of capacitor is to pass the AC signal present
in rectified output and blocks the DC signal .This action provides static output which is applied to the load
resistance to measure DC output with the help of PMMC instrument. The circuit arrangement is as shown in figure
9.

AC voltage Diode To amplifier

Input R and
C
Meter

Volts Rectified Voltage at the

terminals of Resistance R

Time

Figure 9 Diode Rectifier with related waveform

When the positive half cycle is applied across the diode it becomes forward biased and acts as a closed switch.
The current flows through the device and positive going cycle is present at the output side. In negative half cycle
the diode is reversed biased and it acts as open switch.
1. Rectifier type Voltmeter
Bridge rectifier consists of four diodes which are connected in the form of the bridge. The AC input voltage is
applied to step down transformer which is provided to the bridge rectifier to convert AC signal to average DC
signal. The resistance R is connected across the bridge. The DC signal measured across the resistance is directly
proportional to the applied input signal. The bridge rectifier circuit is shown in figure 10.
Operation:
For the first positive half cycle of the input AC voltage diodes D1 and D2 becomes forward biased and current flows
from positive terminal to D1 to R to D2 and reaches to negative terminal, whereas diodes D3 and D4 remains in
reverse biased condition and no current flows through it.

D1 D3

VS R Vo
Vmsinωt
D4 D2

Figure 10 Bridge rectifier circuit diagram

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For the negative half cycle the diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and current flows in same direction from D3 to
R to D4 to negative terminal, whereas diodes D1 and D2 remains in reverse biased condition and no current flows
through it.
Hence with the help of bridge rectifier the positive and negative going cycles i.e. AC signal is converted into
positive going cycles i.e. DC signal.
 Electronic Multi meters
Electronic multi meter is the measuring instrument which is used for measurement of AC, DC voltages and
current. With the help of multi meter resistance can also be measured. The multi meter uses the application of
differential amplifier. The differential amplifier is implemented by using FET as semiconductor device. Multi meter
consists of following elements:
• Balanced-bridge with DC amplifier and indicating meter
• RANGE s itch is used to limit the value of the applied input voltage to the desired value for measurement
• Rectifie to con e t an AC input voltage to a proportional DC value
• to measure the resistance, internal battery and additional circuitry is provided
• FUNCTION s itch is used to select the various measurement functions of the instrument
working of individual Components
Balanced Bridge DC amplifier
Figure 11 shows the balanced bridge DC amplifier which uses FET for various measurements.
Two FETs are used to make the circuit stable with the help of resistances which are connected in the form of
bridge. Resistors R1 and R3 together with ZERO adjust resistor R2, form the lower arms of the bridge. The meter is
connected between the source terminals of the FETs, representing two opposite corners of the bridge. Without an
input signal, the gate terminals of the FETs are at ground potential as well the bridge is in balanced condition and
the indicator shows the null deflection.

Range
+ DC Supply

Q1 Q2

Rs
+
R1 R3
DC Input
C R
- Zero
R2

Figure 11 Balanced Bridge dc amplifiers with input attenuator and indicating meter
With no any input is applied to instrument and it shows deflection on indicator then with the help of ZERO
adjustment using R2 potentiometer the null deflection is set.
Output Indication
When a positive voltage is applied to the gate of FET Q1 its drain current increases which causes the voltage at
across bridge to rise. Due to rise in voltage as compared with Q2, the bridge becomes unbalance and meter
indicates the reading which is directly proportional to applied input signal.
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Measurement of Low Power

Bolometer:
Bolometer is an instrument which is used for measurement of low microwave power in the range of 0.01mW to
10 mW. The microwave power in terms of heat energy is sensed by RTD which has positive temperature
coefficient of resistance and converts the heat energy into electrical resistance. The resistance is converted into
electrical voltage with the help of Wheatstone bridge. The RTD is inserted into one arm of the bridge where
other three arms are fixed resistance. When the bridge all the resistances of each arm are equal, then the output
voltage is null. When microwave power is applied on RTD its resistance changes, results in unbalancing the
bridge, hence potential difference is created across the bridge. The resultant output voltage is directly
proportional to applied input power.
For making the bridge in balanced condition auxiliary RTD is used in parallel with the battery, which maintains
the bridge into null condition when power is not applied. Figure 12 shows the circuit diagram of Bolometer.

mA
R7

R1 R2
R6

Battery
G
RTD
R3 RTD R5

Microwave power

Figure 12 Bolometer for low power measurement

Calorimeter:
Calorimeter is an instrument used for measurement of medium microwave power between the ranges of 10mW
to 1W. Water is used for measurement of microwave power, where microwave power is transferred to the water
and the difference of outlet temperature to inlet temperature is directly proportional to applied microwave
power.
It consists of one waveguide; glass tube inserted into waveguide, water pump, flow meter and thermometer fro
measurement of temperature. Water is pumped with water pump and provided to glass tube which is placed
into the waveguide which senses the temperature and provided to outlet. The flow of water is measured with
the help of flow meter.

Flow Outlet
meter temperature Inlet
Water temperature
out

Microwave power Pump

input

Waveguide Glass tube for

water flow
Water
in
Figure 12 Calorimeter for medium power measurement
P=4.187 V d Cp T watts
P is power; V is rate of flow of calorimeter; D is specific gravity; Cp is specific heat

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