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SEASONAL THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE CONCEPTS

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 775

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF CLUJ-NAPOCA

ACTA TECHNICA NAPOCENSIS

Series: Applied Mathematics and Mechanics
Vol. 55, Issue IV, 2012

SEASONAL THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE CONCEPTS

Lavinia Gabriela SOCACIU

Abstract: The energy storage systems can contribute significantly to meeting society`s need for more
efficient, greening use in building heating and cooling, and domestic hot water applications. Another
significant advantage of efficient energy storage is that, although it may have been designed primarily for
the storage of solar energy, it is not restricted to that. This literature review paper attempts to summarize
developments of seasonal solar thermal energy storage, using different storage concepts. The aim is to
provide the basis for development of new intelligent seasonal thermal energy storage possibilities for use
in combination with space heating and domestic hot water applications. Key words: thermal energy
storage, heat storage, storage of thermal energy, seasonal heat storage, technologies for seasonal heat
storage, sensible energy storage, latent energy storage, thermo chemical energy storage.

1. INTRODUCTION A variety of thermal energy storage systems

techniques for heating and cooling applications
Thermal energy storage is required when have been developed over the past decades.
heat demand does not match heat production. Increasing energy demands, shortages of fossil
The interest in large-scale seasonal solar fuels and environmental concerns are
thermal energy storage started with the oil crisis increasing the interest in the development of
in the early seventies. The objectives of economically competitive and reliable means of
seasonal thermal energy storage systems are seasonal storage of thermal energy. Different
designed to collect solar energy during the examples about the efficient utilization of
summer and retain the stored heat for use natural and renewable energy sources, cost
during the winter. These systems contribute savings and increased efficiency achievable
significantly to improving the energy efficiency through the use of seasonal thermal energy
and reducing the greenhouse gas emissions to storage systems can be considered [6],[8].
the atmosphere. One main factor that limits its The main issue impeding solar thermal
application is that it is a cyclic, time-dependent technologies from achieving their full potential
energy source. for space heating (or cooling) and domestic hot
Energy demands in buildings vary on daily, water applications is related to the fact that the
weekly and seasonal basis. These demands can energy source has intermittent nature and its
be matched with the help of thermal energy effective utilization is dependent on the
storage systems that operate synergistically and availability of efficient and effective energy
are carefully matched to each specific storage systems [8].
application. Thermal energy storage systems
have the potential of making the use of thermal 2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS
equipment more effective, and are important STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
means of offsetting the mismatch between
thermal energy availability and demand. Well Classification of solutions storage
designed systems can reduce initial and technologies can be done taking into account
maintenance costs and improve energy several criteria. In figure 1 is presented a
efficiency [8]. classification of solutions storage technologies
776

based on the criterion of the state of the energy Most heat storage concepts with the
storage material. exception of phase change material and thermo
chemical storage have one basic challenge in
common. When heat or cold is charged into or
discharged from the store, there will be
temperature differences in different parts of the
storage volume. It is then of the utmost
importance that the storage medium can
maintain a structured layer, for instance with
the warmest water on the top, and the coldest at
the bottom. The effective storage capacity will
be drastically reduced if mixing occurs and the
overall temperature approaches some sort of
average value over the whole volume [7].
In figure 3 is presented different types of
liquid form for heat storage. The most
commonly used liquid for sensible heat storage
Fig. 1. Classification of thermal energy storage
is water. Nowadays, with the reasonable cost
technology based on the criterion of the state of the and simple implementation, water storage
energy storage material technology is widely used in the solar thermal
engineering field, according to the
The main technological concepts for thermal aforementioned characteristics:
energy storage (heat/cold) are presented in • Water has relatively high specific heat
figure 2. capacity and almost no degradation under
thermal cycling.
• Water has good compatibility with most of
containment material (stable, mild and no
corrosive chemical properties).
• Water is widely available and cheap.

Fig. 3. Different types of liquid form for heat storage

Due to the relatively developed theoretical

and practical technology, the sensible water
thermal storage technology has not only been
used for short term (diurnal) thermal storage,
Fig. 2. Technological concepts of thermal energy storage but also for long term (seasonal) thermal
 777

storage. Seasonal thermal storage has longer figure 4 it is presented a classification of

thermal storage period, generally three or more different types of solid form for heat storage.
months. Thus, the seasonal energy storage can
fully utilize the temperature differences
between summer and winter, meeting or
supplementing the heating/cooling demands for
both seasons. Different from short term thermal
storage technology, the seasonal thermal
storage keeps the storage material at a lower
temperature than that of short term storage, in
order to reduce the thermal losses during the
long storage period [12].
The advantages of water storage technology
can be summarized as follows:
Fig. 4. Different types of solid form for heat storage
• Water is inexpensive, easy to handle, non-
toxic, non-combustible and widely available.
Direct contact between the solid storage
• Water has a comparatively high specific heat media and a heat transfer fluid is necessary to
and high density. minimize the cost of heat exchange in a solid
• Heat exchangers may be avoided if water is storage medium. The use of rocks for thermal
used as the heat carrier in the collector. storage provides the following advantages:
• Natural convection flows can be utilized • Rocks are not toxic and non-flammable.
when pumping energy is scarce. • Rocks are inexpensive.
• Simultaneous charging and discharging of • Rocks act both as heat transfer surface and
the storage tank is possible. storage medium.
• The heat transfer between air and a rock bed
• Adjustment and control of a water system is is good, due to the very large heat transfer
variable and flexible. area, and the effective heat conductance of
The disadvantages of water storage the rock pile is low, due to the small area of
technology can be summarized as follows: contact between the rocks. Then the heat
• Water might freeze or boil. losses from the pile are low [2].
• Water is highly corrosive.
• Working temperatures are limited to less 3. SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE
than 100°C and often have to be far below SOLUTION
this boiling temperature.
• Water is difficult to stratify. Generally speaking, there are five types of
Freezing and corrosion problems can be met sensible seasonal thermal storage: hot water
by using chemical additives. Water sometimes thermal energy storage, aquifer thermal energy
remains economically competitive at higher storage, gravel-water thermal energy storage,
temperatures despite the need for pressure borehole thermal energy storage, and cavern
containment especially so when it is stored in thermal energy storage.
aquifers. Organic oils, molten salts, and liquid Among these five storage methods, hot
metals circumvent the problems of vapor water thermal energy storage, aquifer thermal
pressure, but have other limitations in handling, energy storage, and cavern thermal energy
containment, cost, storage capacities, useful storage, belong to the type of sensible water
temperature range, etc. thermal storage; borehole thermal energy
The difficulties and limitations relative to storage belongs to the type of sensible solid
liquids can be avoided by using solid materials storage; while gravel-water thermal energy
for storing thermal energy as sensible heat. In storage is a combination of sensible liquids and
sensible solids storage (figure 5).
778

The cost of the sensible heat storage solution roof area and on the vertical walls. It is usually
mainly depends on the characteristics of the built as steel or reinforced pre-stressed concrete
storage material. It is very common to utilize tank, fully or partially buried in the ground
very cheap materials; for liquid such as water, [9],[10],[11].
oils and certain inorganic molten salts and solid
like rocks, sands, pebbles and refractory as the
storage medium. In the case of solids, the
material is invariably in porous form and heat is
stored or extracted by the flow of a gas or a
liquid through the pores or voids.

Fig. 6. Hot-water thermal energy storage

3.2. Aquifer thermal energy storage

Aquifers can be distinguished in water
saturated porous aquifers in sand, gravel or
eskers and fractured aquifers in limestone,
sandstone, igneous or metamorphic rock [11].
Aquifers which are filled with groundwater
have high hydraulic conductivity.
If there are impervious layers above and
below and no or only low natural groundwater
flow, they can be used for heat (and cold)
Fig. 5. Different types of sensible seasonal heat storage storage. In this case, two wells or groups of
wells are drilled into the aquifer and serve for
Sensible heat storage systems are simpler in extraction or injection of groundwater (figure
design than latent heat or thermo chemical 7) [10].
storage systems. However they suffer from the
disadvantage of being bigger in size and cannot
store or deliver energy at a constant
temperature [2].

3.1. Hot-water thermal energy storage

The hot-water thermal energy storage has
the widest range of utilization possibilities.
Because of the high specific heat capacity and
the high capacity rates for charging and
discharging it is the most favorable of the four
storage types from the thermodynamic point of
view.
The water filled tank (figure 6) construction
Fig. 7. Aquifer thermal energy storage
of usually reinforced concrete is partly
embedded into the ground and can be built
During charging periods cold groundwater is
almost independently from geological
extracted from the cold well, heated up by the
conditions. It is heat insulated at least in the
 779

heat exchanger and injected into the hot well. In pipes. Stratification should be supported by the
discharging periods the flow direction is charging devices. No load-bearing frame
reversed. Because of the different flow structure is required because forces are taken
directions both wells have to be equipped with down to the side walls and to the bottom by the
pumps, production- and injection-pipes [11]. gravel. The store has heat insulation, at least at
For high temperature heat storage a good the side walls and on the top. Depending on the
knowledge of the mineralogy, geochemistry size and shape bottom insulation can be
and microbiology in the underground is advisable as well. Because of the liner
necessary to prevent damage to the system materials, operating temperatures are limited to
caused by well-clogging, scaling etc [10]. approximately 90 °C.

3.3. Cavern thermal energy storage

One other form of storage is to use natural or
artificial caverns where hot water can be stored.
Such systems are not common due to the
unavailability of suitable caverns.
The important parameters are for the rock to
have low thermal conductivity, high stability
and to be not leachable. Examples are
metamorphic rocks like gneiss, igneous rocks
and some hard sedimentary rocks [4].
Potential structures for cavern thermal
energy storage are tunnels, abandoned mines,
or rock caverns, natural karsts structures and Fig. 8. Gravel-water thermal energy storage
artificially constructed caverns in rock or deep
pits in soil. The storage material usually is a mixture of
When warm/hot water is first filled into the gravel and water, also sand/water or soil/water
cavern, the heat losses to the surrounding rock mixtures are possible. Because of the reduced
mass will be substantial. However, during the specific heat capacity, the volume of the store
first year or two after commissioning, the has to be approximately 50% bigger compared
cavern will have developed a stable thermal to a hot-water heat store to store the same
halo around itself with decreasing temperature amount of heat at the same temperature levels
away from the warm/hot centre. There will still [10],[11].
be a loss of heat, but dry rock is a poor heat
conductor. The heat loss should be less than 3.5. Borehole thermal energy storage
10% during one operational cycle under In borehole thermal energy storage, heat is
favorable conditions. A crucial factor is ground stored directly into the ground; it is transferred
water transport through the rock masses in the to the underground by means of conductive
area, the less the better [7]. flow from a number of closely spaced
boreholes.
3.4. Gravel-water thermal energy storage The boreholes can be equipped with
Gravel-water thermal energy storage (figure different kinds of borehole heat exchangers,
8) are normally buried in the ground and need making the boreholes act as a large heat
to be waterproofed and insulated at least at the exchanger between the system and the ground.
side walls and on the top [8]. To avoid an The most common borehole heat exchangers
expensive tank construction, gravel-water heat are a single U-tube made of plastic pipes.
stores only have a plastic liner separating the Heat or cold is delivered or extracted from
storage material and the surrounding soil [11]. the underground by circulating a fluid in a
Charging and discharging can either take closed loop through the boreholes. The fluid
place by direct water exchange or via plastic consists of water, which is mixed with glycol or
780

alcohol to allow the system to work below the That is because the heat transfer is mainly
freezing point, if so required [3]. driven by heat conduction and not by
Borehole thermal energy storage does not convection. At the borders the temperature
have an exactly separated storage volume. Heat decreases because of the heat losses to the
is charged or discharged by vertical borehole surroundings. The horizontal stratification is
heat exchangers which are installed into a depth supported by connecting the supply pipes in the
of 30–200 m below ground surface (figure 9). centre of the store and the return pipes at the
At the top of the store there is a heat insulation borders [11].
layer to reduce heat losses to the surface.

Fig. 9. Borehole heat exchangers

Fig. 10. Different drilling patterns that may be used in a
borehole thermal energy storage facility
A certain number of heat exchangers are
hydraulically connected in series to a row and One advantage of this type is the possibility
certain rows are connected in parallel, or in a for a modular design. Additional boreholes can
combination serial/parallel depending on the be connected easily and the store can grow with
planned thermal loading and unloading of the e.g. the size of a housing district. The size of
facility. At charging, the flow direction is from the store has however to be between three to
the centre to the boundaries of the store to five times higher than that of a hot water heat
obtain high temperatures in the centre and store to obtain the same heat capacity. Because
lower ones at the boundaries of the store. At of the lower capacity at charging and
discharging the flow direction is reversed. discharging usually a buffer store is integrated
The most important parameters influencing into the system [10].
the borehole thermal resistance are the thermal An important issue in the design of
conductivity of filling material, the number of underground seasonal storage systems using
pipes, pipe position and the pipe thermal borehole heat exchangers is to find cost-
conductivity [9]. The shape of the storage effective methods to construct the borehole
facility, seen at the surface, can be adapted to thermal energy storage field so that heat can be
the shape of the available land area as injected or extracted from the ground without
illustrated in figure 10 [7]. excessive temperature differences between the
Borehole thermal energy storage does not heat carrier fluid and the surrounding ground.
have vertical temperature stratification as the As a result of the limited thermal conductivity
stores discussed above but a horizontal the heat losses are rather moderate and storage
stratification from the centre to the borders. efficiencies of 70% can be reached. In contrast
 781

good thermal contact between the heat temperature of one kilogram of water one
exchangers and the ground is required to allow degree Celsius.
a good heat transfer rate per unit area of the Any latent heat thermal energy storage
heat exchanger tube [9]. system should have at least the following three
Some important parameters for a successful components: a suitable phase change material
borehole thermal energy storage project are: in the desired temperature range, containment
rock with high specific heat, medium to high for the storage substance, and a suitable heat
thermal conductivity, and compact rock mass carrying fluid for transferring the heat
with (virtually) no ground water flow. Other effectively from the heat source to the heat
important parameters are the type of rock storage. Furthermore, the phase change
including grain size and the types of minerals materials undergo solidification and therefore
[7]. Suitable geological formations for this kind cannot generally be used as heat transfer media
of heat storage are e.g. rock or water-saturated in a solar collector or the load [2].
soils. Phase change materials are either packaged
in specialized containers such as tubes, shallow
4. LATENT HEAT STORAGE SOLUTION panels, etc., or contained in conventional
building elements (wall board, ceiling) or
In latent heat storage the principle is that encapsulated as self-contained grains [5].
when heat is applied to the material it changes In figure 11 are illustrated some application
its phase from solid to liquid by storing the heat areas for phase change material in buildings.
as latent heat of fusion or from liquid to vapor This are:
as latent heat of vaporization. When the stored • No.1:Latent heat store for space heating.
heat is extracted by the load, the material will • No.2:Plaster and compound systems with
again change its phase from liquid to solid or high heat storage capacity.
from vapor to liquid. The latent heat of • No.3:Transparent insulation and day lighting
transformation from one solid phase into schemes.
another is small. Solid-vapor and liquid-vapor • No.4:Shading phase change material
transitions have large amounts of heat of compounding system.
transformation, but large changes in volume • No.5:Phase change material in gypsum
make the system complex and impractical. The products and paints.
solid-liquid transformations involve relatively • No.6:Phase change material to buffer
small changes in volume [2]. temperature variations in solar-air-
Phase change materials can therefore be systems.
used as a thermal storage medium for both
heating and cooling. One common application
is buffering of indoor temperature variations,
and this means that heat and cold is stored in a
temperature interval of only a few degrees. The
use of phase change material for temperature
buffering will lead to energy savings, and it is
also expected that the thermal comfort will
improve [7].
Heat storage through phase change has the
advantage of compactness, since the latent heat
of fusion of most materials is very much larger
than their enthalpy change for 1 K or even 0 K.
For example, the ratio of latent heat to specific Fig. 11. Application areas for phase change material in
heat of water is 80, which means that the buildings
energy required to melt one kilogram of ice is Many phase change materials have poor
80 times more than that required to raise the thermal conductivity and therefore require large
782

heat exchange area. Others are corrosive and instance vaporization of water. At the charging
require special containers. Latent heat storage process is energy withdrawn from the system
materials are more expensive than the sensible for instance by condensing water.
heat storage media generally employed, like Another reaction is adsorption of water
water and rocks. These increase the system vapor in a zeolite material. Zeolites are alumina
cost. silicates with high micro-porosity and open
Due to its high cost, latent heat storage is structure. When dry zeolite material comes in
more likely to find application when: contact with water vapor, the water vapor will
• High energy density or high volumetric enter the internal crystal lattice and causes a
energy capacity is desired, e.g., in habitat reaction that leads to the release of heat. The
where space is at a premium, or in process is reversed by heating the zeolite
transportation where both volume and material to more than 100 0C when the water is
weight must be kept to a minimum. driven off (desorption). The adsorption and
• The load is such that energy is required at a desorption processes can be repeated almost
constant temperature or within a small range indefinitely without any significant
of temperatures. deterioration of the zeolite material [7].
• The storage size is small. Smaller storage For a bond reaction to be considered for
has higher surface area to volume ratio and energy storage, the following conditions should
therefore cost of packing is high. be met:
Compactness is then very important in order • The reaction should be run near equilibrium,
to limit the containment costs. Similarly, i.e. reversible.
heat losses are also more or less proportional • The reactant, with or without addition of a
to the surface area. Compactness is also an photo-sensitizer, should be able to use as
important factor to limit the heat losses in much of the solar spectrum in the terrestrial
storages of small capacities [2]. atmosphere as possible.
• The energy stored in the bond energy should
5. THERMOCHEMICAL HEAT be large enough.
STORAGE SOLUTION • The reactants should be cheap [2].
An important factor to be considered in bond
Energy may be stored in systems composed process is the recovery of the reagents or the
of one or more chemical compounds that intermediary chemicals. It is estimated that in
absorb or release energy through bond each chemical cycle, recovery yields of 99.9 or
reactions. There are many forms in which even 99.99 % have to be achieved if the bond
energy can be stored through bond reactions. process are to be viable [2].
Bond storage involves an endothermic Thermo chemical heat storage is more
reversible reaction, which can be reversed when complex than other thermal energy storage
required to release heat. The chemical produced systems, but they are also more flexible.
can often be stored cold (without losses) and
can often be transported easily [2]. 6. SUMMARY OF THERMAL ENERGY
Several reversible chemical processes, all of STORAGE
them involving two media, are being
investigated for their suitability as a means of So far, the development of seasonal storage
thermal storage. has been aimed at heating large district system
One concept is using a salt, such as sodium stores instead of single house solutions, in order
sulphide and water. The salt can be dried using to fulfill technical viability and cost
for instance solar heat. This will accumulate effectiveness by using large storage volumes.
thermal energy, and this energy can be Compared to small solar domestic hot water
recovered by adding water vapor to the salt. systems for single-family houses, the solar heat
Energy at a low temperature level has to be cost can be cut at least in third. Long-term
provided in order to discharge the storage, for storage systems prove being more effective in
 783

reducing fossil fuels use and complying with decisions should be based on an economic
CO2 emission policies. Which of the optimization of the different possibilities. After
technologies described above is selected construction the stores have start-up times
depends very much on the local hydro- between three and five years, depending on the
geological site conditions. Hot water storage storage concept, to reach normal operating
tank are technically feasible and work well. conditions. Within this time, the surrounding
However, construction costs and thermal losses ground is heated up and the heat losses of the
are still too high. The main cost for hot-water store are higher than during long-term
storage tanks is caused by the concrete operation [11].
construction, ground works, insulation, and the A summary of the main parameters of the
use of steel liners to reduce water permeability. different concepts for seasonal sensible heat
Considerable cost reductions can be obtained storage is shown in table 1.
with the development of high-density concrete
materials. For gravel-water stores, insulation Table 1
Comparison of storage concepts
and ground works account for significant part Storage concept Hot-water Gravel-water
of the costs. Moisture protection of the
insulation is important for both concepts. Storage medium Water Gravel-water
Heat capacity 60-80 30-50
Natural aquifers are a cost effective seasonal [kWh/m3]
storage concept but require water saturated Storage volume 1m3 1.3-2m3
sand layers with high permeability without for 1 m3 water
ground water movement. Well construction is equivalent
the predominant part of the costs for aquifer Geological -stable ground -stable ground
heat stores. The installation work for borehole requirements conditions, conditions,
-preferably no -preferably no
heat exchangers, including material and drilling ground water, ground water,
works, causes nearly half of the costs for -5-15m deep. -5-15m deep.
borehole heat stores [9],[10],[11]. Storage concept Aquifer Borehole
For all thermal energy storage concepts, a Storage medium Sand/Water- Soil/Rock
geological investigation has to be made in the gravel
pre-design phase. The decision to use a certain Heat capacity 30-40 15-30
type mainly depends on the local conditions [kWh/m3]
and, primarily, on the geological and hydro- Storage volume 2-3m3 3-5m3
for 1 m3 water
geological situation in the ground below the equivalent
respective construction site. The highest Geological -natural aquifer -drillable ground,
demands with regard to this are made by requirements layer, high -ground water
borehole and aquifer heat stores. The legal hydraulic favorable,
requirements have to be checked in the pre- conductivity, -high heat
-confining layers capacity,
design phase as well. on top and below, -high thermal
In most countries the usage of the ground for -no or low natural conductivity,
heat storage has to be approved by the local ground water -low hydraulic
water authorities to make sure that no interests flow, conductivity,
regarding drinking water are affected. This can -suitable water -natural ground
chemistry at high water flow less
also become necessary if the ground temperatures, than 1 m/a,
surrounding a storage tank is heated up by heat -20-50m -30-200m deep.
losses. thickness.
For the choice of a suitable storage concept
for a specific plant all relevant boundary
conditions have to be taken into account: local 11. REFERENCES
geological situation, system integration,
required size of the store, temperature levels, [1] Dincer, I., Evaluation and selection of
power rates, legal restrictions etc. Finally, energy storage systems for solar thermal
784

applications, International Journal of Energy [7] Nielsen, K., Thermal energy storage: A
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[2] Ercan Ataer, O., Storage of thermal energy, at NTNU and SINTEF 2002-2006, 2003
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of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), ground solar thermal energy storage –
Developed under the auspices of the review of systems and applications,
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2006, http://www.eolss.net Kassel (DE), 28.08-02.09.2011
[3] EU Commission SAVE Programe & Nordic [9] Pavlov, G.K., Olesen, B.W., Seasonal solar
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Keyworth, Nottingham British Geological Steinhagen, H., Central solar heating plants
Survey, 2006 with seasonal storage in Germany, Solar
[5] Fatih Demirbas, M., Thermal energy Energy 76 (2004) 165-174
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different absorbtion couples, [12] Sunliang, C., State of the art thermal
http://intraweb.stockton.edu/eyos/energy_stu energy storage solutions for high
dies/content/docs/effstock09/Session_6_2_T performance buildings, Master`s thesis,
hermochemical_storage/50.pdf University of Jyvaskyla, Finland, 2010

Concepte de stocare a energiei termice sezoniere

Abstract: Sistemele de stocarea energiei pot contribui în mod semnificativ la satisfacerea nevoilor societăţii cu privire
la eficientizarea şi ecologizarea sistemelor de încălzire şi răcire ale locuinţelor, precum şi în utilizarea apei calde
menajere. Un alt avantaj semnificativ al eficienţei stocării energiei, se referă la faptul că deşi au fost proiectate iniţial
pentru stocarea energiei solare, ele nu se rezumă numai la aceasta. Această lucrare încearcă să sintetizeze evoluţia
stocării energiei termice sezoniere utilizând diferite concepte de stocare a acesteia. Scopul este de a oferi o bază pentru
dezvoltarea de noi posibilităţi inteligente de stocare a energiei termice sezoniere pentru a fi folosite în aplicaţii atât la
încălzirea spaţiilor de locuit cât şi la prepararea apei calde menajere.

Lavinia-Gabriela Socaciu, PhD., Teacher Assistant, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca,

Mechanical Engineering Department, lavinia.socaciu@termo.utcluj.ro

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