PART I | BUSINESS LOGIC

FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC
Prof. Jessie Joshua Z. Lino, MA
Humanities Department
13 November 2019
Lecture Inclusion:
Definition, Nature, Division, Purpose
Deduction and Induction
What is Abstraction?
SOME LOGICAL PUZZLES
■ You walk into a room with a match. In the room
there is a stove, a heater and a candle. What do
you light first?

■ The match.
Put yourself in the detective's shoes to
solve the case.
Jack tells Jill, "This isn't the $5 bill you left on the the table. I found
it between pages 15 and 16 of Harry Potter.“
Jill retorts, "You're lying and I can prove it." How did Jill know?

■ Harry Potter, like all other books, has odd-numbered pages on

the right. Therefore, pages 15 and 16 are the front and back
of a single page, and nothing could have been found between
them.
■ True or False: When you add to odd numbers the
sum is always odd?

■ False.
■ There was a green house. Inside the green house there
was a white house Inside the white house there was a
red house. Inside the red house there were lots of
babies. What am I?

■ A watermelon.
■ There is a dead man in the center of a field. He carried
with him an unopened package. As he neared the
center of the field, he knew he was going to die. How
did he know he was going to die?

■ The man's parachute did not open.

Re-arrange the letters to spell just one word:

“O O U S W T D N E J R”

■ 'just one word'

Fundamentals of Logic
What is Logic?
■ “Pre-philosophical”
■ Etymology: Logic came from the Greek word logike
which means treatise on matters pertaining to thought.
It was Zeno the Stoic who first introduced the term in
such usage.
■ Logic is always associated with thinking.
Definition of Logic

■ Generally, logic is both the science and the art

of correct inferential thinking.
■ The study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.
(Q: “Does the conclusion follow its premises?”)
■ The science of demonstration. Logic shows the
laws of valid inference by their ultimate causes
and explanation.
Nature of Logic
■ … as a science
– Properly, logic is a science, since it is essentially a rational
system that demonstrates its conclusions.

■ … as an art
– Virtually, logic is an art, inasmuch as the laws or patterns of
valid inference, which it establishes, serve to help reason
proceed with order, ease, and error in the art of inferential
thinking.
Object of Logic

■ Material Object of Logic: concepts and conceptual

structures (e.g. propositions, syllogisms, etc.) taken as
products of the mind.
■ Formal Object of Logic: inferential functions of the
mind. The Validity And Correctness of the Mind.
Divisions of Logic
■ Formal Logic discusses the conceptual patterns or
structures needed for correct and valid inferences. It
deals with how arguments may be considered to be
valid. And it is most accurate as ‘treatise pertaining to
matters of thought.’
■ Material Logic discusses the kinds of matter, that is,
the nature of the terms and premises that are used in
the different kinds of demonstrations. (It is related to
epistemology, and critical thinking).
Deductive Logic

■ What is deduction?
– From universal to particular.
– Deduction is the method by which we infer a
conclusion from universal statements to particular
statements. The conclusion must always be firmly
supported by the premises on order for the argument
to be valid.
Inductive Logic

■ What is induction?
– From particular to universal
– Induction is the method by which we infer a conclusion
from particular statements to universal statements. The
conclusion can be inferred from particular premises,
but never precise as deductive statements.
ARISTOTLE’S ACTS OF MIND/
FACULTIES OF THE INTELLECT
Aristotle’s Acts of the Mind

■ Logic is commonly divided according to Aristotle’s Organon enumerating

three acts of the mind, which provide different elements of its subject
matter and the different bases of the different functions.

■ Three acts of the mind/ faculties of the intellect:

– Simple Apprehension
– Judgment
– Reasoning
Schematic Diagram

Mental
Mental Act External Sign Logical Issue
Product
Simple
Idea Term Predicability
Apprehension
Judgment Enunciation Proposition Predication
Reasoning Argument Syllogism Inference
 FIRST MENTAL ACT:
SIMPLE APPREHENSION
Simple Apprehension

■ Accompanied with curiosity to discover, the mind is urged to

penetrate into the essence of the object in order to comprehend
it.
■ Knowledge begins with “whatness” or quiddity of the object.
■ When the mind grasped the quiddity, the mental act is called
SIMPLE APPREHENSION, or intellection, or ABSTRACTION as it
grasps the essence of things.
Simple Apprehension
Simple Apprehension is the mental act of interpreting the
imaged phantasm, putting meaning to it.

Product of simple apprehension: IDEA

– Ideas are the building block if knowledge and of inference.
– Definition: The idea is the intellectual “image” or representation of a
thing. It is an abstract representation of things, and may be expressed
or defined by meaningful terms.
Ideas vs. Phantasm
■ Phantasms are sensible image existing in the imagination, which
is one of the internal sense-faculties located in the brain. The
phantasm is a sensible representation of the material features
of a thing, usually a kind of pictoral image, bearing a shape or
a figure.
■ The idea is the meaning of the phantasm of things.
Idea Phantasm
Found in the Intellect Found in the Imagination
Universal Individual
Constant Changeable
Abstraction, or the Formation of Concepts
and Terms
■ The mental process involved in the obtention of the idea is
called ABSTRACTION. It is the grasping of the essence, the
formal features or the immaterial reasons that may be found in
things, while living behind the material subjects and particular
individual conditions.
■ Ex. The form of the square/rectangles from material
constructions, the human nature from man, the motherhood of
the mother; i.e. the “whatness” of what.
 Vitamin C
Fruit
Characteristics

Edibility

ABSTRACT ALL ESSENTIAL

QUALITITIES AND
DESCRIPTION

Sweet Taste

Smoothness Color
and Firm
Texture
Logical Properties of the Idea/Term

COMPREHENSION – is the sum total of the attributes or thought

and extension, meaning and application.
EXTENSION – is the sum total of all the individuals, things or
beings or groups to which the idea can be applied. It expresses
denotation or the application of the idea to individuals or things.

Definition = Comprehension
Example = Extension
Interrelationship of the Logical Properties

■ Both pertain to the same idea or term.

■ Inversely proportional to each other.
– As comprehension increases, the extension decreases.
Or as extension increases, comprehension decreases.
Classification of Term

■ According to Comprehension
■ According to Meaning or Signification
■ According to Extension
■ According to Definition
■ According to Relation
■ According to Quality
According to Comprehension

Concrete Terms – the idea expresses a subject that is

qualified by a nature or formal feature. Concrete terms
denote existential nature.
Abstract Terms - the idea that expresses only a nature, or
a formal feature without a subject.
According to Signification or Meaning

1. Univocal – a univocal term that is used in an identical

sense. Essential words in a conversation, in order to
make sense, must speak of the same thing, and same
meaning.
2. Equivocal – An equivocal term is a term that expresses
two or more different or unrelated meanings. It is the
opposite of the univocal term, because the term has an
entirely different meaning as applied to a number of
things.
3. Analogous - is partly univocal and partly equivocal in
meaning. Meanings of analogous terms are related to
each other
– By proportion – when a term is applied to unlike objects
because of some semblance between them.
– By attribution – when a term is applied in an absolute sense in
one thing and then attributed in another thing because of
some intrinsic relation with the first.
According to Application or Extension

1. Universal – a universal term is one whose meaning or concept is

extended or applied to each of all the members in a definitely
designated group.
1. Explicit Universals – expressed by quantifiers.
2. Implicit Universals – latent, or implied in the proposition without the use
of quantifiers.
■ Particular – a term whose meaning is applied to only a
position of a given group. It denotes only a part of the
extension of a universal term
■ Singular – signifies a definite individual or group, used
to single out specific individuals or group of individuals.
■ No definite quantifiers except demonstrative pronouns.
Concept according to Definition

■ First Intention
– It is a concept by which we grasp the nature or
quiddity of an object according to its own proper
being. (i.e. the proper nature of things)
Eg. All men are potential fathers.
Film is an art.
– Second Intention
■ It is a kind of concept which presents the mode or manner by
which the mind understands the nature or quality as a logical
reality. (i.e. a nature different to the proper one, but
considered logically valid).
Eg. Inception is a movie that tackles the complexity of the
human mind.
Apple is a name of a famous tech company.
According to Relation

■ Contradictory ideas or terms – these are ideas or terms

wherein one expresses the presence of a nature or attribute,
while the other expresses total absence of such nature or
attribute.
– There is absolute and total opposition with contradictory terms.
Eg. Living and non-living
Organic and Inorganic
Finite and infinite
limited and unlimited
■ Contrary ideas or terms – these are the ideas that are
opposed to one another similar to the opposition between or
within extreme point among objects of a series belonging to a
certain class.
– Contrary terms’ opposition to each other is not complete inasmuch as
there can be a possible intermediary or neutral idea.
Eg. Hot and cold
White and black
beautiful and ugly
■ Privative ideas or terms – these are ideas or terms wherein one expresses
the presence of an attribute while the other idea or term expresses its
absence.
– Such absence is not a simple negative of a property since such attribute
or property is a perfection.
– Notice: There are terms that could possess no contradiction or contrary
term.
Eg. Sight and blindness
Hearing and Deafness
Health and Sickness
■ Correlative Idea or Term – these are ideas or terms whose
meaning are mutually related to each other in such a way that
the meaning=ng of one is in reference to the other and vice-
versa.
– They are always in reference to the other and may be possible to exist
not without the other.
Eg. Mother and child
teacher and student
master and slave
According to Quality

■ Positive – terms that expresses a conceptual feature, a

formal reason, or a thing proper. (eg. Life, plants,
perfection, etc.)
■ Negative – terms that express the absence of
something, or the privation of something, or the lack of
some formal feature or perfection, whether in full or in
part. (eg. Poverty, nothing, blindness, ugly, etc.)
Definition

■ Definition discloses the formal or conceptual comprehension and

extension of an object.
■ From the latin word definire, meaning to lay down conceptual
markers, namely the formal features or reasons of its
comprehension to manifest in a conceptual manner.
■ Definition is the conceptual manifestation either of the meaning
or of the formal features of an object.
Kinds of Definition

■ Nominal Definition – a term is defined by giving its synonym or any

word close to it. It also defines a term by simply giving its
etymological definition.
■ Real definition – explains what a thing is or subject is. It explains the
nature of the object by giving its properties, characteristics, qualities
or features.
– Essential Definition – physically or metaphysically.
– Descriptive Definition – proper set of characteristics, set of external features
or morphology, the properties and the origin of the object.
Rules of Definition

■ The definition must be clearer than the term defined.

■ The definition must contain the term or thing being
defined.
■ Definitions must be affirmative.
■ A definition must be complete.