From Visual Culture

to Design Culture
Guy Julier

From Visual Culture to Design Culture

The past ten years of academia have seen the establishment of
Visual Culture, Material Culture and, most recently, Design Culture
as scholarly disciplines. Visual Culture partly has emerged from
art history through its incorporation of cultural studies. Material
Culture’s provenance is in a mixture of anthropology, museum
studies, and design history. The term “design culture” has been
1 The Journal of Visual Culture (Sage, used more sporadically, and not just in academia. It also has been
founded 2002) and Visual Culture in employed in journalism and the design industry itself. But if design
Britain (Ashgate, founded 2000). culture is to be consolidated as an academic discipline, what relation-
2 For example, see Malcolm Barnard,
ship would it have to these other categories and, indeed, to design
Approaches to Understanding Visual
Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
practice itself? Given the foci of Visual Culture in images, and that
2001); Richard Howells, Visual Culture: of Material Culture in things, they should, theoretically, provide a
An Introduction (Cambridge: Polity, 2001); scholastic springboard for Design Culture.
Nicholas Mirzoeff, An Introduction to Visual Culture is now firmly established as an academic
Visual Culture (New York: Routledge,
discipline in universities across Europe and the Americas. It sports
1999): Marita Sturken and Lisa
two refereed journals,1 at least five student introductory texts,2
Cartwright, Practices of Looking: An
Introduction to Visual Culture (New York: and three substantial readers.3 Undergraduate and postgraduate
Oxford University Press, 2001); and Visual courses have been established. While differing in their approaches,
Culture: An Introduction, John Walker Visual Culture authors generally include design alongside fine art,
and Sarah Chaplin, eds. (New York: photography, film, TV, and advertising within their scope.4 Visual
Palgrave Macmillan, 1997).
Culture, therefore, challenges and widens the field of investigation
3 For example, see Visual Culture: The
Reader, Jessica Evans and Stuart Hall,
previously occupied by Art History. This project was instigated in the
eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2001); 1970s within the then-called “New Art History.” Proponents turned
Nicholas Mirzoeff, The Visual Culture away from traditional interests in formal analysis, provenance, and
Reader (New York: Routledge, 1998); and patronage to embrace a more anthropological attitude to the visual in
The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader,
society. Henceforth, all visual forms are admissible into the academic
Amelia Jones, ed. (New York: Routledge,
canon—a notion spurred on by the rise of Cultural Studies, Popular
2003).
4 Malcolm Barnard, Art, Design, and Culture Studies, Media Studies and, indeed, Design History. As the
Visual Culture: An Introduction (London: academic discipline of Visual Culture emerged through the 1990s, its
Macmillan, 1998) includes some short central concern was the investigation of the relationship between the
references to design. viewer and the viewed. Nonetheless, despite this apparent openness,
5 See Victor Margolin, “Design History and
this article contends that the methods of Visual Culture have limited
Design Studies” in The Politics of the
Artificial: Essays on Design and Design
use for developing an understanding of the cultural role of contem-
Studies (Chicago: University of Chicago porary design in society. Victor Margolin previously has suggested
Press, 2002). the need for doctoral-level studies of design and culture.5 In essence,

© 2005 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

64 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006
 my ambition is to move beyond Visual Culture and consider the
conditions of, and the procedures for, Design Culture that take
Margolin’s proposition a step or two further.
The principle focus of this article is on the way these disci-
plines situate themselves in relation to their objects of study and
their scope. First, it develops a critique of Visual Culture as a “way of
looking,” exposing its limitations in relation to design. I contend that
the hermeneutic position occupied by some Visual Culture authors,
so far, explains their discomfort and inability to deal meaningfully
with the functions of contemporary design. Secondly, I review the
conditions that may give rise to the superceding of Visual Culture by
a concept of Design Culture, and the meanings it occupies. Finally,
this article proposes a conceptual model that helps to structure how
the study of Design Culture might be pursued.
Given the limitations of space, issues, and debates that have
emerged in Material Culture studies are given less attention in rela-
tion to this problematic. This is not to underestimate its role in the
emergence of a Design Culture conception. Rather, I acknowledge
that the openness with which Material Culture studies are pursued,
alongside Design History and Design Studies, provides an intel-
lectual flexibility that is largely absent within Visual Culture. As
we shall see, the use of the term “design culture” is pluralistic in
academic institutions, and this resonates with similar debates that
have run through design history and design studies. Earlier attempts
to define these fields with specific boundaries, discursive features,
and pedagogic aims have led to a more mature agreement among
its supporters that expresses a reverse situation. Nowadays, these
disciplines and their sub-areas interact in a secure and complex way.6
In seeking to define and propose a conceptual framework for the
study of Design Culture, its debt to these other disciplines, as well
as Visual Culture, is acknowledged.

The Periodization and Scope of Visual Culture

The periodization of visual culture7 is understood in two ways.
One is that the visual has come to be the dominant cognitive and
representational form of modernity. This certainly is the position
that was taken by W. J. T. Mitchell8 and Mirzoeff.9 In this account,
6 Ibid. the emergence of a “visual turn” in Western society is the effect of
7 Henceforth, I refer to “visual culture” in the creation of mass consumer markets and urbanization during the
lowercase to mean the field that “Visual
industrial revolution. Indeed, the proliferation of images became a
Culture” (uppercase) as an academic
discipline studies, and likewise for key characteristic of modern social organization.10 From a design
“design culture” and “Design Culture.” point of view, commodities and services needed to be made more
8 W. J. T. Mitchell, Picture Theory (Chicago: self-consciously visual in order to advertise and market them to a
Chicago University Press, 1994). wide, anonymous audience. The Victorians saw the growth of the
9 Nicholas Mirzoeff, An Introduction to
department store, catalogue shopping, mass tourism, and entertain-
Visual Culture (London: Routledge, 1998).
ment as spectacle—all of which hinge on the mediation of visual
10 Jessica Evans, “Introduction” in Visual
Culture: The Reader, Jessica Evans and experience. And, of course, this also was the period of new visual
Stuart Hall, eds. (London: Sage, 1999). technologies such as film, animation, and photography.

Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006 65

 Alternatively, we might view the issue of visual culture as a
hermeneutic one. It is not a question of one era superceding another
or of binary opposites. There isn’t a clear historical break between,
say, a literary era and the visual era. Vision is neither hegemonic
nor non-hegemonic.11 In the first instance, all media are hybrid or,
as Bal claims, “impure.”12 They do not merely engage one expres-
sion—visual, textual, aural, material—but are dissolved within their
mediatory contexts. (One cannot talk of the Internet in terms of either
visual or textual culture but, perhaps, as screen culture.) Therefore,
it does not follow that the advent of a new visual technology—from
oil painting to Internet—means the strict dominance of one cognitive
form over another in any era. Forms of visual presentation emerge
and indeed occupy some discursive prominence at various histori-
cal junctures. An era of visual culture, Mitchell argues, is where the
perception of the visual becomes commonplace; something that is
mentioned casually.13 In doing so, assumptions are automatically
made about the ubiquity and role of the visual in society.
In considering this more nuanced notion of visual culture,
we slip from an essentialist view (the visual is the medium of our
times) to a complex view (we regard the visual as an intrinsic and
important social and cultural expression of our times).
While proponents of the latter position may acknowledge the
visual as part and parcel of a complex, interlocking web of cultural
production, the visual plays a lead role in cultural formation and
representation. They are concerned with images, pictures, visual
things, and what they are doing. The chief focus of interest is on
them as representations and in the relation of viewers and practices
of vision. The dominant transaction of interest is between singular-
ized object and individual viewer, between produced object and
consuming subject. Issues of “scopic regimes,” vision, ways of look-
ing, the gaze, and semiotics dominate the literature. The “reading”
of the image is a central faculty of the discipline.
11 W. J. T. Mitchell, “Showing Seeing: A This ocularcentricism in Visual Culture studies therefore
Critique of Visual Culture” in Journal of renders the viewer almost inanimate in relation to the viewed. A
Visual Culture 1:2 (2002): 165–181. sensibility is embedded in its practices whereby things external to
12 Mieke Bal, “Visual Essentialism and the the subject are seen, analyzed, and contemplated. This rigid process
Object of Visual Culture” in Journal of
of looking is underpinned and promoted by the habit of disembody-
Visual Culture 2:1 (2002): 5–32.
13 W. J. T. Mitchell, “Showing Seeing: A ing images from their primary contexts of encounter.14 Adverts or
Critique of Visual Culture” in Journal of photos are quite literally cut out of newspapers and magazines for
Visual Culture 1:2 (2002): 165–181. analysis, a process that is not dissimilar to practices undertaken
14 Carol Armstrong, “Questionnaire” in within traditional art history that Visual Culture studies critiques.15
October 77 (1996): 26–28.
Furthermore, to date, the traditional objects of interest to scholars of
15 Mirzoeff, however, refutes this notion
Visual Culture have predominantly been static forms. A survey of the
of the “disembodiment” of images. See
Nicholas Mirzoeff, An Introduction to key introductory texts for the discipline reveals the preponderance of
Visual Culture (London: Routledge, 1999). static visual forms such as photography and advertising.

66 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006

 How one looks and how looking is represented may be
a multifaceted performance. Indeed, Martin Jay identified three
common historical forms. The first is embedded in the perspectival-
ist Cartesian relationship between viewer and viewed that relates
to Renaissance painting. Here a single, static position for the viewer
is expected. Second, observational empiricism that was embedded
in Dutch seventeenth century art does not make the assumption of
three-dimensional space external to the viewer, but revels in the
particularity of surface detail. Third, the multiple and open pictur-
ing of visual phenomena prevalent in baroque art demands the
viewer to piece together visual objects into a coherent narrative.16
These are useful starting points for exploring visual encounter, and
may be transferred into the exploration of designed objects and
environments. However, Jay’s argument, it seems, still positions the
practice of viewing in the foreground as the prior function that such
objects fulfill. Furthermore, his interest is in whatever is, quite liter-
ally, within the frame rather than around or behind it. The notion
that such artifacts also function as things in space or circulation, or
in individual or collective reproduction, memory, or aspiration, is
absent.

Contemporary Design and the Limitations of Visual Culture

As visual information has become ephemeral and immediate, so
the ground on which culture is played out has shifted up a gear.
The growing ubiquity of design as a self-consciously distinguish-
ing feature in everyday life expands the grounds on which visual
values lie. As Scott Lash notes, “Culture is now three-dimensional,
as much tactile as visual or textual, all around us and inhabited,
lived in rather than encountered in a separate realm as a representa-
tion.”17 He describes an architectonic, spatially-based society, and
information is reworked in these planes. Culture is no longer one
of pure representation or narrative, where visual culture conveys
messages. Instead, culture formulates, formats, channels, circulates,
contains, and retrieves information. Design, therefore, is more than
just the creation of visual artifacts to be used or “read.” It is also
about the structuring of systems of encounter within the visual and
material world.
Academics at the core of Visual Culture studies are not oblivi-
ous to this development. Hal Foster’s recent writings, in particular,
resonate with Lash’s “architectonic” conception of culture. Foster
places himself at the end of discursive tradition that recognizes the
16 Martin Jay, “Scopic Regimes of remaking of space in the image of the commodity—itself a prime
Modernity” in Vision and Visuality, Hal story of capitalist modernity. This tradition, he claims, runs from
Foster, ed. (New York: Dia Art Foundation, the work of Georg Simmel, through Sigfried Karcauer and Walter
1988).
Benjamin, the situationists, to David Harvey and Saskia Sassen.18 In
17 Scott Lash Critique of Information
(London: Sage, 2002), 149. the same way that the commodity and sign appear as one (through,
18 Hal Foster, Design and Crime (And Other for example, branding), so, he contends, does the commodity and
Diatribes) (London: Verso, 2002), 23. space. This is nowhere more evident than in the use of design to

Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006 67

 define the cultural value of locations—place branding in other
words. Thus, for Foster, Frank O. Gehry’s design for the Guggenheim
Museum in Bilbao creates a spectacle that is “an image accumulated
to the point where it becomes capital.”19 This observation closes the
loop instigated by Guy Debord, arguing that the spectacle was
“capital accumulated to the point where it becomes an image.”20
Here design is used to establish symbolic value over a location; or,
as Foster would have it, image and space are “deterritorialized.”21
Equally, Camiel Van Winkel speaks of a “regime of visibil-
ity ... that permeates all levels of culture and society ... [so that] ...
increasingly works of art and other cultural artefacts are no longer
simply made but designed ... a productive model dominates that is
all about styling, coding, and effective communication with an audi-
ence.”22 In agreement with Van Winkel, Bryson argues that, as they
proliferate, “A primary experience in everyday life is that of being
engulfed or overwhelmed by images.”23 Together with Foster, these
Visual Culture writers resonate a profound and enervated anxiety as
to what to do about design in contemporary culture.
At the heart of these narratives concerning the instrumen-
talization of design in the commodification, corporatization, and
formatting of culture is a telling diffidence and anxiety as to how to
deal with this. The imperative of modern capitalism to make things
19 Ibid., 41. visual in order to commodify them implies a flip side—that more
20 Guy Debord, The Society of the Spectacle and more things are passed from a non- or pre-visual state into this
(Cambridge, MA: Zone Books, 1967), 24. aestheticized state. There is an implied “before” and “after” here and,
21 Hal Foster, “The ABCs of Contemporary
equally, there is an implied “them” and “us.” “They” are the forces
Design” in October 100 (Spring, 2002):
198. and objects of modern capitalism and design therein, and “we” are
22 Camiel Van Winkel cited in Norman viewers and subjects of them. Visual Culture then becomes a project
Bryson, “Visual Culture and the Dearth in how to deal with this asymmetry.
of Images” Journal of Visual Culture 2:2 The commentaries of Van Winkel and Foster therefore seem
(2003): 229–32, 230.
to assume an alienated position on the part of the subject. In this
23 Norman Bryson, “Visual Culture and
account, modernity has entailed a shift from a bodily, practical rela-
the Dearth of Images” Journal of Visual
Culture 2:2 (2003): 229–32, especially tionship with the world to a more abstract and intellectual one, and
230. the “disembedding of aspects of life from the social relationships
24 James G. Carrier, “Mind, Gaze, and and activities with which they have previously been implicated.”24
Engagement: Understanding the This process began, according to Marx, with the passivization and
Environment” Journal of Material Culture
routinization of labor and the process of objectification, whereby
8:1 (2003): 5–23.
25 Karl Marx, Karl Marx: Early Writings, T. human values are invested into alien processes of capital, exchange,
B. Bottomore, trans. and ed. (New York: and the commodity.25 This discourse emerges in Weber’s account of
McGraw-Hill, 1964). the spread of legal-rational thought and the resultant processes of
26 George Ritzer, The McDonaldization of disenchantment that forms the basis of Ritzer’s “McDonaldization
Society (London: Sage, 1996).
thesis.”26 Systems are orchestrated and routinized for maximum
27 Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man
perceived efficiency, leaving the consumer as a passive participant.
(New York: Vintage Books, 1976).
28 John Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure Equally, it has influenced studies of alienation from the urban milieu
and Travel in Contemporary Societies promoted by Richard Sennett27 that subsequently has influenced John
(London: Sage, 1990). Urry28 in his conception of “the tourist gaze.” Here, the conceptual

68 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006

 emphasis is on tourism as a form of spectacular consumption in
which sites are arranged for visual pleasure. Tourist spaces are
produced and viewed as an alien “other.”
Meanwhile, the emergence of a range of visual technologies
during the 1990s perhaps has broken this relationship between
viewer and viewed. Among these, the idea of virtual reality in its raw
state (before it was sublimated into applications such as computer
games) indicated a direction for an alternative conception of how we
might handle visual culture. The discourse of “immersion”—where
the subject “steps into” the object—signifies a paradigmatic shift of
the ground on which visual culture might be played out. Thinking
about virtual reality shifts us away from an ocularcentrism into an
account that takes on board the embodied nature of engagement.29
Furthermore, virtual reality becomes an, albeit extreme, metaphor
for change in the rules of engagement between subject and object.
In the new conditions of design culture, cognition becomes as much
spatial and temporal as visual. Information is presented within
architectonic planes rather than in the bounded, two-dimensional
space of representation. The processes of encounter go further and
are more complex than the analytical tools of Visual Culture can fully
aid. The last decade has seen the ascendance of a range of overlap-
ping and interdependent visual technologies. These promise not so
much convergent media, but rather, simultaneous and concurrent
experiential moments. The same visual information may be gener-
ated and encountered via a range of platforms: picture phones, DVD
cameras, Webcams, and LED and plasma screens.
Meanwhile, the insistence on the singularization of the objects
of analysis within Visual Culture accounts for the discipline’s inabil-
ity to make substantial contributions to the study and understanding
of design. The presumption is that visual objects are intrinsically
alienating. To follow a parallel Material Culture studies argument,
their singularization through consumption is what interrupts and
reverses this process of alienation. Its quest for meaning is in the
investigation of the transactional relationship between seeing and
the thing seen. But this leaves out the possibility, even more prob-
able in design culture, that it can be encountered through a range of
media or even that its multiple reproduction itself produces mean-
ing. By extension, it does not necessarily follow that the primary
experience of design is that of being overwhelmed or engulfed by it.
Indeed, the multiplication of its artifacts may even be what makes it
29 My thanks to Melanie Chan, Ph.D. candi-
meaningful. So how are the ways that the term “design culture” is
date at Leeds Metropolitan University,
“Discourses of Virtual Reality,” with
articulated signal an alternative approach to Visual Culture? How
whom discussion has led me to this posi- might we construct a model of analysis that respects the specifities
tion. as well as the more general effects of design culture?

Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006 69

 Towards Design Culture
Daniel Koh is a Singapore-based art director. He maintains a
personal Website (www.amateurprovokateur.com) that profiles his
own design work and that of others. He divides his own into two
categories: “commercial” and “noncommercial” work. A page is
devoted to “design culture.” Here, Koh has listed more than one-
hundred and twenty links to the work of designers to “showcase
their sensibilities ... and to stimulate the creativity within the design
community.”30 Profiles of practitioners in Caracas, Montreal, New
York, London, Amsterdam, Rome, Krakow, Tokyo, and Singapore
are included in this gallery.
I asked him what he meant by the words, “design culture.”
He replied, “[It is] a term I define as designers think and work
through different mediums. Different thought processes/approach
but one common objective: to communicate. Design is a way of life;
it’s all around us. We should all make things better.”31 According
to Koh, “design culture” is located in communication. It is both
something designers do, but also is something that is “all around.”
“Design culture,” then, is part of the flows of global culture. It is
located within network society, and is also an instrument of it. It
expresses an attitude, a value, and a desire to improve things.
Koh’s brief exposition of “design culture” provides a neat
synthesis of many of the positions that have been taken up in rela-
tion to this term. Here are its main occurrences to date.
Design Culture as process. This is, perhaps, the most established
usage, and stems from architectural and design criticism. In particu-
lar, it describes the immediate contextual influences and contextually
informed actions within the development of a design. A close term
that throws light on this is the Italian usage of “cultura di progetto.”
The word “progetto” implies something broader than simply the
form-giving within design, but extends to the totality of carrying
out design; for example, from conceiving and negotiating artifacts
with clients, to studio organization, to the output of the design and
to its realization. Within all these there is an implied interest in the
systems of negotiation—often verbal—that conspire to define and
frame design artifacts. Anna Calvera broadens this understanding
by placing the idea of studio activity into a framework of immediate
influences.32 Thus, the project process is understood to be produced
within and by a network of everyday knowledge and practices that
30 Daniel Koh,
surround the designer.
www.amateurprovakateur.com
(accessed 1/21/04). Design Culture as context-informed practice. This usage is
31 Daniel Koh, personal e-mail communica- concerned with a wider notion of “design culture as process,” to
tion with author, 1/21/04. imply collectively-held norms of practice shared within or across
32 Anna Calvera, “Historia e historias del contexts. More specifically, this usually refers to the way that
diseño: la emergencia de las historias
geographical context may influence the practice and results of
regionales.” (Keynote paper given at
“La Emergencia de las Historias design. This can fall in two ways. One is how the everyday specific
Regionales” conference in Havana, Cuba, features of a location—availability of materials and technologies,
June 7–9, 2001). cultural factors that affect business activities, climate, local modes of

70 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006

 exchange, and so on—produce particularized actions. This might be
contrasted with perceived globalized, dominant, mainstream forms
of practice. The second may equally engage a consciousness of differ-
ence or peripherization, but views design culture as a platform for
communication. Design culture thus becomes a forum (supported
chiefly by the Web, but also by other channels such as magazines and
conferences) by which globally diasporic actors connect, communi-
cate, and legitimate their activities.
Design Culture as organizational or attitudinal. Here, the focus
remains tightly within the scope of the producer-agents of design,
33 For example, see Scott Lash and John though not exclusive to designers per se. It stems from manage-
Urry, Economies of Signs and Spaces ment studies and sociological texts that have sought to analyze
(London: Sage, 1994) and R. Scase and and provide models for the human resources within innovative
H. Davis, Managing Creativity: The industries.33 Thus flexible, horizontally-networked, transaction-rich
Dynamics of Work and Organization
activities that, in particular, deal in symbol products become domi-
(Milton Keynes: Open University Press,
2000). nant in this discourse. Within this, creative industries have begun
34 See N. Oudshoorn, E. Rommes, and to serve as paradigms for wider shifts in business organization,
M. Stienstra, “Configuring the User as both internal and external. Team-working, creative empowerment
Everybody: Gender and Design Cultures and innovation become keywords in this situation. Furthermore, in
in Information and Communication
seeking coherence between the internal ethos of a company and its
Technologies,” Science, Technology
interactions with its public, the role of brand stewardship becomes
& Human Values 29:1 (2004): 30–63;
Gavin Cawood, “Design Innovation and increasingly important. Within this mode, then, the idea of a “design
Culture in SMEs,” Design Management culture” as an attitudinal and organizational spine within a company
Journal 8:4 (1997); and Paul A. Rodgers that concerns itself with both innovation and formal coherence has
and Megan Strickfaden, “The Culture been used.34 Leading on from this, it may also be used to signify the
of Design: A Critical Analysis of
“cultural capital” of a company—its facility to qualify, critique, and
Contemporary Designers’ Identities’”
(2003). Paper given at “Design Wisdom” thus deliver distinction and differentiation.
Fifth European Academy of Design Design Culture as agency. If the term can be used as an attitu-
Conference, Barcelona; available at dinal marker of an organization to maximize its market position, this
www.ub.es/5ead. may also be appropriated into attempts to reform the aims, practices,
35 For example, Bruce Mau’s “Massive
and effects of design toward greater and more direct social and envi-
Change” project at the School of
ronmental benefit. Here, the emphasis also is in design culture as
Design at Toronto City College was
subtitled “The Future of Design Culture” a “way of doing things,” but attempts to be active in changing the
(www.massivechange.com; accessed 1/ practices of those outside its stewards. Therefore, it takes context as
21/04), although the “culture” word was circumstance but not as a given: the world can be changed through a
later dropped (www.massivechange.com; new kind of design culture.35 Certainly the term is not used, however,
accessed 11/4/04). See also www.vtt.fi/
to signify a cultural capital for commercial advantage. But it does
virtual/ndc/ for its “New Design Culture”
project at the University of Jyväskylä, imply the notion of a design practice that is “encultured” in the sense
Finland. that it strives for a higher moral ground.
36 For example, Paul Chatterton and Robert Design Culture as pervasive but differentiated value. Leading on
Hollands, in Urban Nightscapes, Youth from this last observation, one might detect a spirit of openness, or
Cultures, Pleasure Spaces, and Corporate
almost random connection, in the same way that magazine-thumb-
Power (London: Routledge, 2003), write
ing, Web-surfing, and conference-networking produce chance “pick-
of the corporatization of urban night
life that produces an agglomeration of ups.” Within this is the quality of immersion in a specific (designerly)
designer bars and clubs that are, none- ambience.36 So, again, there is the notion of design providing a label
theless, highly differentiated. of distinction. But simultaneously the locations, artifacts, or practices

Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006 71

 that harbor design as carrying cultural value become ever wider and
more various. Design culture represents a conceptual breadth that
goes beyond traditionally used notions of “excellence” or “innova-
tion.”37
What these definitions share with Visual Culture is their
openness in terms of scope. Design culture, while incorporating
agency, is not tied to paternalistic notions of “good design” in the
same way that Visual Culture breaks from High Art/Popular Culture
distinctions.
Equally, the same duality in terms of periodization result.
On the one hand, the emergence of design culture goes hand-in-
hand with the massification of design production and consumption
in the late-twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. By 1994, the
Netherlands Design Institute was optimistically predicting a growth
of the European design market from $9.5b. to $14b. by 2000.38 In the
UK, the number of first-year design students increased by thirty-
five percent, from 14,948 to 20,225, between 1994 and 2001.39 It is in
this decade that we see the emergence of the terms “creative indus-
tries” and “cultural industries”—of which design forms a signifi-
cant proportion—and measurements and forecasts of them taking
place. According to a 1998 European Commission report, “cultural
employment”—that is work in advertising, design, broadcast, film,
internet, music, publishing, and computer games—grew by twenty-
four percent in Spain (1987–94), while employment in Germany of
“producers and artists” grew by twenty-three percent (1980–94).40
On the other hand, what is described here is a qualitative
change in terms of how design is practiced, circulated, and perceived.
As with Visual Culture, we are not talking about the replacement of
one cognitive process by another. Rather, a shift takes place wherein
design takes up a central role, as commonplace, in creating and
articulating value, structuring the circulation of information and
forming everyday practices. In either case, it seems apt to regard
design culture as a key result and expression of our times.

A Model for Studying Design Culture

37 This is how Ellen Lupton conceived The recent uses of the term “design culture” suggest a dual role for
“design culture” for the National Design it. One is in its appreciation of multiple contexts in structuring form
Museum, Cooper-Hewitt exhibition and expression. Another reflects a new sensibility and attitudinal
of 2002, “Design Culture Now” (Ellen position in terms of how design is practiced. Having critiqued the
Lupton personal e-mail to the author,
inadequacies of a “Visual Culture” approach in the context of design,
1/8/04).
38 Netherlands Design Institute’s Design how can the relationships between design artifacts, values, and users
Across Europe: Patterns of Supply and be effectively studied? And how can this understanding be used as a
Demand in the European Design Market form of agency in order to feed into design action? How can, in other
(Amsterdam: Vormgevingsinstitut, 1994), words, the study of Design Culture be both analytical and genera-
9.
tive? (See Diagram 1.)
39 Design Council’s Design in Britain 2003–
I have previously presented Design Culture as engaging
2004 (London: Design Council, 2003).
40 David Hesmondhalgh, The Cultural the interrelationships of the domains of designers, production, and
Industries (London: Sage, 2002), 90. consumption with the design object, image, or space. 41 The quest

72 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006

Diagram 1
Designer

object
space
image

Production Consumption

Domains of Design Culture

of the scholar of Design Culture was to explore how each of these

nodes affected the other—how these relationships were material-
ized through practices in the design profession and of production
and consumption. Rather than draw a line between what have been
regarded as more traditional approaches to Design History and
Design Studies (where the principle focus was on the processes
and norms of action within design practice are studied) and more
41 Guy Julier, The Culture of Design recent concerns of Material Culture (where the role of the consump-
(London: Sage, 2000). tion of artifacts as part of everyday is emphasized), my aim was to
42 Victor Margolin, “Building a Design explore the dynamics and interrelationships of these concerns. In
Research Community” in Design
essence, I was, as an erstwhile design historian and in agreement
Plus Research, Proceedings of the
with Margolin,42 attempting to break the stand-off between design
Politecnico di Milano Conference, S.
Pizzocaro, A. Arruda, and D. De Moraes, history and a larger culture of design research that had yet to be
eds. (Milan: Politecnico di Milano, addressed.
May 18–20, 2000); available at http: This nodal framework favors a straightforward conception
//pcsiwa12.rett.polimi.it/~phddi/uk/01/ wherein singularized artifacts are placed at the center of analysis.
dpr00/intro.htm.
Perhaps some resonance with a “Visual Culture” paradigm of
43 Silvia Pizzocaro, “Research, Theory,
and Design Culture: A Knowledge
enquiry is detectable here. Meanwhile, in her exploration of the
Growing within Complexity” in Design relationships of design research, theory, and design culture, Sylvia
Plus Research, Proceedings of the Pizzocaro is more demanding. She encourages the design researcher
Politecnico di Milano Conference, S. to embrace an open-ended sensibility in the face of the increasing
Pizzocaro, A. Arruda, and D. De Moraes,
complexity of design environments.43 This attitude owes something
eds. (Milan: Politecnico di Milano,
to Margolin’s notion of a product milieu that he defined as “the
May 18–20, 2000); available at http:
//pcsiwa12.rett.polimi.it/~phddi/uk/01/ aggregate of objects, activities, services, and environments that
dpr00/intro.htm. fills the lifeworld.”44 In stark opposition to the exponents of Visual
44 Victor Margolin, “The Product Milieu and Culture that I have reviewed in this article, these scholars of design
Social Action” in Discovering Design: research and design studies have moved toward the structuring of
Explorations in Design Studies, Richard
a systematic approach to understanding the dynamics and effects
Buchanan and Victor Margolin, eds.
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
of material and immaterial relationships that are articulated by
1995), 122. and through the multiple artifacts of design culture. In doing so,

Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006 73

 they suggest a movement toward a “knowing practice” of design—
whether in terms of design action or reception. While acknowledg-
Value
ing a debt to their thinking, and by way of development from my
previous diagram, I present diagrammatically, with each element
subsequently discussed, a revised conceptual framework for Design
Culture. (See Diagram 2.)
Circulation Practice Value. The designer’s role is in the creation of value. This
most obviously is commercial value, but also may include social,
cultural, environmental, political, and symbolic values. Clearly, it
is not restricted to notions of “good design” as value.45 It involves
Domains of Design Culture the origination of new products and product forms, but also their
value augmentation. It is an expanded field of activity that orches-
Diagram 2 trates and coordinates material and nonmaterial processes results.
A key feature of this value creation is the reproduction of “product
nodes,” whereby cultural information is filtered through a range of
platforms and moments. The establishment of multiple coordinates
for the networked reproduction of this cultural information might
be termed a “designscape.” Creative action may indeed originate,
position, and differentiate, product forms and “product nodes” to
increase value. But systems of measurement and accountability are
also embedded in this domain.
Circulation. A range of straightforward elements underpin and
shape the productive processes of design culture, including available
technologies, environmental, and human factors. But nonmaterial
elements such as existing knowledge networks, legislation, politi-
cal pressures, economic fluctuations, and fiscal policies are also
contextual factors that these draw on. Beyond design manufacture
or production issues—whether we are talking about material or
information products—”downstream” flows of product information
and distribution are channeled, formatted, interrupted, or facilitated
to influence their movement and/or reception through the system of
provision. Within this, the specificities that create a “fit” or disjunc-
ture of global/local nexus invariably play crucial roles.
Practice. The engagement of design products, processes,
45 By “products” I mean not only manufac- and systems in everyday life is not merely a function of consumer
tured goods, but also services that are culture in its traditional sense. Beyond individual, privately-orien-
marketed or provided as products (e.g., tated activities of use, ownership, and maintenance focused on
airlines, healthcare, leisure provisions,
the domestic sphere are layers of socially-constituted activities in
insurance, etc.).
46 Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (London: which individuals are carriers of collectively held practices, and may
Duckworth, 1994). comprise sets of conventions and procedures.46 Alternatively, prac-
47 Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory tice may be conceived as specific types and ranges of activities that
of Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge Bourdieu termed as “fields.”47 Here, different practices are governed
University Press, 1974) and Pierre
by their specific, respective rules. Practice involves routinized behav-
Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice
ior that is both individually enacted but also socially observable.
(Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992). I wish
to thank Dale Southerton, University of Consumption, therefore, is a part of practice. Things are bought and
Manchester, for getting me to think about put to use, environments are visited, Websites are perused in fulfill-
practice rather than consumption. ing practice.

74 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006

 Qualitative change in what drives the design profession and
the meaning of design in society adds weight to the “contempora-
neanity” of a design culture concept that takes us beyond Visual
Culture studies. The rise of branding as the key focus and driver of
much design practice signals two clear challenges. One is that design
culture requires its observers to move beyond visual and material
attributes to consider the multivarious and multilocational networks
of its creation and manifestation. Brand management rhetoric tells
us that producer agents—be they corporations, institutions, or indi-
viduals—are responsible for controlling a coherent brand message
throughout its circuit of culture, from production through mediation
to consumption to consumer feedback. If a brand is typified into a
clear, simple message—which is often crystallized as a slogan—then
this should be reflected in all of its manifestations. This might include
the way corporate workers dress, talk, and act with customers and
clients. Branding obviously extends into more traditional, designed
elements such as promotional literature graphics or the design of
retail spaces, reception areas, Websites, or other points of corporation
and consumer interface. In this way, the systems of branding inhabit
much of the space of design culture, turning information into an “all-
around-us” architectonic form.
The rise of branding may partially account for the grow-
ing interdisciplinarity of design within the profession as designers
seek, and clients demand, greater integration of product, graphic,
and interior design in order to create coherent and complete design
solutions. It also explains the design profession’s increased integra-
tion with marketing, management, and public relations mentioned
earlier. Branding is, by no means, the only driver and expression of
contemporary design culture, but it is indicative of design culture’s
multidimensional qualities.
I use branding for illustrative purposes, but do not necessar-
ily foresee its domination as permanent. Ultimately, value production
in design hinges on articulating “the cultural reconstruction of the
meaning of what is consumed”48 by various means. Value is continu-
ally adjusted in response to changing everyday and global practices,
as well as systems of product and information circulation.
Traditional surveys of consumption focus on the social role
of goods in private, everyday life. Even where the relationships of
consumed goods are synthesized into an exploration of concepts of
48 Ben Fine and Ellen Leopold, The World of
lifestyle, discussion invariably falls into matters of personal choice.
Consumption (London: Routledge, 1992),
4. However, design is mobilized and encountered at both material and
49 The distinction between “practice” nonmaterial expressions distributed across a range of platforms.
and “field” is debatable. See Alan Service-orientations in private and public sectors, for example
Warde, “Practice and Field: Revising in corporate consumption, health provision, or leisure practices,
Bourdieusian Concepts” (Centre for
provide structures of engagement that are acted on at different
Research on Innovation and Competition
Discussion Paper 65, Department of bodily and mental levels. In effect, design culture contributes to the
Sociology, University of Manchester, structuring of practice and the formation of the rules of engagement
2004). of its related field49 through the provision of interrelated elements

Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006 75

 that give meaning to these. The competition between brands, for
example, reflects and contributes to their distinctions through
providing differentiated rules of engagement. Brands currently
articulate fields of their respective practices.
The academic study of Design Culture allows for the deep
analysis of such systems. In embracing their complexity in creative
and imaginative ways, it provides cues for further design interven-
tion into them. It breaks from the singularized “way of looking”
endemic within Visual Culture studies, while maintaining a zest
for understanding the social meanings of artifacts. Meanwhile, in
synthesizing the methods and sensibilities of Design History, Design
Studies, and Design Research, it provides a conceptual framework
that addresses contemporary problematics of design and its social
meanings in the contexts of complexity.50
To embrace Design Culture as an academic discipline
requires, therefore, a different sensibility than that of Visual Culture.
In the first instance, it forces one to move beyond the enervated posi-
50 See Mark C. Taylor The Moment of
tion of the detached or alienated observer overwhelmed by images.
Complexity: Emerging Network Culture
Instead, a Design Culture enquiry traces a cartography that exposes
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2001). and analyses the linkages of artifacts that constitute information
51 For an excellent discussion of the flows and the spaces between them. Second, while one might dwell
relationship of design and critique, on individual artifacts, this process requires these to be seen relation-
see Gunther Kress, “Design and ally to other artifacts, processes, and systems. Third, it may be mobi-
Transformation: New Theories of
lized not merely as analysis, but as a generative mode that produces
Learning” in Multiliteracies: Literacy
Learning and the Design of Social
new sensibilities, attitudes, approaches, and intellectual processes
Futures, Bill Cope and Mary Kalantzis, in design practice.51 In this way, it promises a critical and knowing
eds. (London: Routledge, 2000). pathway toward the amelioration of this runaway world.

76 Design Issues: Volume 22, Number 1 Winter 2006