Nutrient- Refers to any substance Root nodules – localized swelling in bones.

It come fromdairy products,

required for growth and maintenance roots of certain plants where bacterial poultry, fish, meat, and grains. It
of an organism. cells exist symbiotically with plant contains 4 Cal/G
Types of organism based on mode Mycorrhizae – a symbiotic Fats – used to build cell membranes,
of nutrition: interaction between a young root and steroid hormones, and other cellular
fungus structures; also used to insulate
1. Autotrophs nervous tissue, and also serve as an
 Phosphorous and copper energy source. higher amount of
2. Heterotrophs
transfer energy per gram, 9 Cal/g
Nutritional requirements of Plants:  Plant supplies the fungi with
organic carbon Essential nutrients – include
 Water substances that animals can only get
 Carbon dioxide Calorie - is a unit of energy that from the foods they eat because they
indicates the amount of energy could not be synthesized inside the
Essential nutrients or elements: contained in food. Specially refers to body:
the amount of heat energy required to
Macronutrients: C, H, O, K, Ca, Mg, raise the temperature of 1 kg of water Essential amino acids- needed for
P, S to 1’C. synthesis of proteins and enzymes;
Micronutrients: Fe, B, Cl, Mn, Zn, among the 20 amino acids, 8 could
Nutritional Requirements of not be synthesized by humns:
Mo, Co Animals: lysine, tryptophan,
Routes for the absorption of water Carbohydrates- serve as a major threonine,methionine,phenylalanine
and mineral energy source for the cells in the , leucine, soleucine and valine.
Symplast route – through body. These are usually obtained from Essential fatty acids – used for
plasmodesmata grains, cereals, breads,fruits, and making special membrane lipids; an
vegetables. On average, it contains 4 example is linoleic acid in humans
Apoplast route – along cell walls Cal/g
Vitamins – organic molecules
Specialized absorptive structures: Proteins – can also be used as an required in small amounts from
energy source but the body mainly normal metabolism; examples include
Root hairs – slender extensions of
uses these as building materials for fat-soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and
specialized epidermal cells that
cell structures and asenzymes, water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3,
greatly increase the surface area
hormones, parts of muscles, and B12 C
Trace elements or minerals – 2. Fluid-feeders- suck fluids where wastes are disposed of, it is like
inorganic nutrients needed by the containing nutrients from a living host saclike body cavity e.g. cnidarian
body in minute amounts; these form earthworms that feed through the soil Hydra and in flatworm Planaria
part of enzymes, body tissues, and where they live
body fluids; examples iodine, cobalt, Complete digestive system
zinc, molybdenum, manganese, : mosquitoes,leeches, head, lice,
aphids – essentially like a tube with an
selenium opening at one end for taking in
Food Uptake of Cells Among 3. Filter- feeders – include many (mouth) and an opening at the other
Animals: aquatic animals which draw in water end where unabsorbed waste materials
and strain small organisms and food areeliminated (anus). In between the
Phagocytosis – engulfment of organic particles present in the medium. mouth and anus, are specialized
fragments or big particles e.g. organs that carry out transport,
pseudopod formation in Amoeba : whales and coelanterates processing, and absorption ofdigested
4. Bulk-feeders- eat relatively large nutrients
Pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular
fluid by a cell usingsmall vesicles chunks of food and have adaptations Accessory for digestion in complete
derived from the plasma membrane like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, digestive system:
pincers, etc. that help in securing the
Receptor-mediated endocytosis – food and tearing it to pieces Liver- secretes bile for emulsifying
this relies on membrane receptor fats
recognition of specific solutes which : snakes and cat
are then taken up by the cell via Gall bladder- stores bile produced by
Digestive compartments in animals: the liver.
receptor-coated pits
1. Food vacuoles in unicellular Pancreas- secretes enzymes that
Types of animals based on feeding
mechanisms: organisms – these fuse with breakdown all
lysosomes that contain hydrolytic major food molecules; secretes buffer
1. Substrate-feeders – animals that enzymes. E.g. food vacoule in a
live in or on food against HCl from the stomach;
protozoan like Paramecium. secretes hormones insulin for control
source e.g.earthworms that feed Gastrovascular cavity or of glucose metabolism.
through the soil where they live in ; incomplete digestive system
caterpillars that eat through the – composed of a single opening
leaves where they live on through which food is taken in and
Main Stages of Food Processing:  Sublingual glands Teeth
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or Saliva: Four types of teeth:
feeding
 Mixture of mucus and serous  Incisors- Biting and Cutting
B. Digestion – breakdown of food fluids  Canines- Grasping and Tearing
into particles e.g. enzymatic  Helps to form a food bolus  Pre – Molars- Grinding and
hydrolysis  Contains salivary amylase to Crushing
C. Absorption – passage of digested begin starch digestion  Molars-Grinding and Crushing
nutrients and fluid across the tube  Dissolves chemicals so they
Deglutition (Swallowing)
wall and into the body fluids can be tasted
Three phases
D. Elimination – expulsion of the Regions of a tooth:
undigested and unabsorbed materials Voluntary - Bolus of food moved by
Crown – exposed part
from the end of the gut. tongue from oral cavity to pharynx
 Outer enamel
Organs of the Alimentary Canal: Pharyngeal- Reflex:Upper
 Dentin esophageal sphincter relaxes, elevated
 Mouth  Pulp cavity pharynx opens the esophagus, food
 Pharynx Neck- pushed into esophagus
 Esophagus
 Stomach  Region in contact Esophageal :Reflex:Epiglottis is
with the gum tipped posteriorly, larynx elevated to
 Small intestine
 Connects crown to root prevent food from passing into larynx
 Large intestine
 Anus The Oesophagus
Root
Salivary Glands: Function: to take food from mouth to
 Periodontal membrane
stomach by muscular action called
Saliva-producing glands attached to the bone
peristalsis.
 Root canal carrying
 Parotid glands – located blood vessels and nerves.
anterior to ears
 Submandibular glands
Small Intestine Secretions:  Hemorrhoids:Vein enlargement  Distension of the rectal wall
or inflammation by feces
Mucus - Protects against digestive
enzymes and stomach acids Defecation
Secretions of Large Intestine:
Digestive enzymes  Usually accompanied by
Mucusprovides protection voluntary movements to
 Disaccharidases: Break down  Parasympathetic stimulation expel feces through
disaccharides to increases rate of goblet cell abdominal cavity pressure
monosaccharides secretion caused by inspiration.
 Peptidases: Hydrolyze peptide Pumps
bonds  Exchange of bicarbonate ions GAS EXCHANGE
 Nucleases: Break down nucleic for chloride ions Gas Exchange - enables you to
acids  Exchange of sodium ions for harvest energy from the food
Duodenal glands - Stimulated by hydrogen ions molecules the digestive system
vagus nerve, secretin, chemical or  Bacterial actions produce gases provided you. 
tactile irritation of duodenal mucosa. called flatus 1. Breathing 
2. Transport of gases by the
Large Intestine Movement in Large Intestine
circulatory system
Cecum -Blind sac, vermiform Mass movements 3. Exchange of gases with body
appendix attached cells
 Common after meals The Gas exchange as we breathe is
Colon -Ascending, transverse, often called respiration;
Local reflexes in enteric plexus
descending, sigmoid
—Is the uptake of molecular oxygen
 Gastrocolic: Initiated by
Rectum -Straight muscular tube from the environment and
stomach
the discharge of carbon dioxide to the
Anal canal-  Duodenocolic: Initiated by environment
duodenum
 Internal anal sphincter (smooth —It is often called as respiratory
muscle) Defecation reflex exchange
 External anal sphincter (skeletal
muscle) —Oxygen is needed in tissues
for aerobic respiration to occur and
extract ATP from food
—Carbon dioxide must released to  Adaptations of animals for gas efficient in extracting oxygen
prevent physiological pH in tissues exchange include respiratory from water, whose oxygen
from being acidic. pigments that bind and contents is lower than air
 The part of the animal’s body transport gases Lungs - internal respiratory
where gas exchange with the  The respiratory pigment of surfaces shaped as a cavity or sac;
environment occurs is called vertebrate is hemoglobin lung provide a membrane for
respiratory surface. while that of invertebrate (e.g. gaseous exchange since they are
 Respiratory surfaces are arthropods and mollusks) is not in direct contact with all other
made up of living cells, their hemocyanin parts of the body.
plasma membrane must be wet  Blood cannot carry sufficient  Air moves by bulk flow into
to function properly. Thus oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the lung
respiratory surfaces are always dissolved form to meet the  Gases diffuse across the inner
moist. body’s requirements respiratory surfaces of the lungs
  Gas exchange happens in hemoglobin helps enhance its  Pulmonary circulation allows
diffusion capacity the diffusion of dissolved gases
Cell surface or cell membrane – across lung capillaries
Ventilation used in unicellular organisms  In body tissues, oxygen diffuses
Integumentary exchange – refers from blood, interstitial fluid,
 It refers to the movement of to the general body surface or skin cells; the pathway of carbon
the respiratory medium (air used by animals with high surface- dioxide is in reverse
or water) over the respiratory to-volume ratio  All lungs receive deoxygenated
surface External Gills – used by blood from the heart and return
 Bony fishes moves the gill invertebrates that live in aquatic oxygenated blood to the heart
covers (operculum) for water habitats; gills are highly folded,
carrying oxygen to flow across thin-walled, vascularized Amphibians - ventilate their lungs by
the gill epidermis that project outward positive pressure breathing which
from the body e.g. crayfish, forces air down the trachea
 Humans move the muscles of lobster, sea star, nudibranch
the thorax to expand and  Water flows over the gills and Birds- use a system of air sacs as
contract the chest cavity and blood circulates through them blower to keep air flowing through
move air in and out of the lungs in OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS the lungs in one direction only,
Respiratory Pigments or Protein  This mechanism, called preventing the mixing of incoming
countercurrent flow, is highly and outgoing air
Mammals ventilate their lungs by from tissues into the blood Respiratory adaptations to
negative pressure breathing which plasma and RBC  air in Extreme Conditions (Low-
pulls air into the lungs when the alveoli oxygen environments):
volume of the lungs expands as the rib
muscles and diaphragm contract.  7% is dissolved in plasma,  Animals inhabit high altitudes
However, the incoming and 23% binds with hemoglobin have larger hearts and lungs,
outgoing air mix, decreasing the toform and hemoglobin with high
efficiency of ventilation carbaminohemoglobin, and affinity for binding oxygen
70% is in bicarbonate form
Coordination of Gas Exchange and  Many diving animals have
Circulation:  Bicarbonate and carbonic unusually high hematocrits
acid formation is enhanced by (ratio of the volume of packed
 Oxygen Transport the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, RBC to the volume of whole
which is located in the RBC blood) and also muscles with
 Oxygen diffuses down a high amount of myoglobin (an
pressure gradient from the Control of Respiration in oxygen-binding protein found
lungs  blood plasma  red Vertebrates: in the muscle cells
blood cells  binds to
hemoglobin (4 molecules per  Nervous system controls Respiratory Problems and
hemoglobin to form oxygen and carbon dioxide Impact on Public Health:
oxyhemoglobin levels for the entire body by
regulating the rate and depth of  Asthma- Muscles around
 Hemoglobin gives up its breathing bronchioles contract more than
oxygen in tissues where partial usual, increasing resistance to
pressure is oxygen is low,  Brain monitors the pH of the airflow
blood is warmer, partial CSF through sensors
pressure of carbon dioxide is (reflecting carbon dioxide  Emphysema- Abnormal
higher, and pH is lower  concentration in the blood) condition of the lungs marked
these 4 conditions occur in by decreased respiratory
 Secondary control is exerted function; associated with
tissues with high metabolism by sensors in the aorta and smoking or chronic bronchitis
 Carbon Dioxide Transport carotid arteries that monitor or old age
blood levels of oxygen as well
 Carbon dioxide diffuses down as carbon dioxide (via blood  Smoking tobacco products is
its partial pressure gradient pH) one of the leading causes of
death and strongly linked to  Gills on each side covered Respiratory Pump in Fish:
cancer, cardiovascular disease, by single, flap-like  Fish need more efficient
stroke and emphysema. operculum method than terrestrial animals
 Unidirectional system, always
moves one way across gills out
of operculum.
 No mixed of fresh water and
The Gill as a Respiratory respired water, maintaining
Structure: highest possible PO2 at gill
 Buccal cavity can be opened surface 
and closed by opening and
closing the mouth.
 Opercular cavity can be opened Respiration:
and closed by movements of
the operculum.  Water drawn into mouth
 Ram ventilation  Mouth closes and opercula
open
 blood flows in an opposite
direction to the flow of water,  Opercula pulled in, forcing
thus maximizing oxygenation water over gills and out
of blood gill arch opercular openings
countercurrent flow  Gill filaments finely divided
into small LAMELLAE to
 Because the gills are so increase surface area
VASCULAR and have a large  Blood flow through lamellae in
surface area, gas exchange can direction opposite that of water
happen adequately. flow.
 Healthy gills have 2 layers of
epithelial cells  Lenticels- are circular groups of
protruding air-filled cells with
 Irritated gills cause hyperplasia
Internal gills opening (stomata).
(reduction in exchange
 Respiration via 4 pairs of efficiency
gills Pneumatophores -are specialized
root structures that grow out from the
water surface and facilitate the Source: where the sugar starts its water and minerals from roots to
aeration necessary for root journey (either where it is produced or leaves. It involves three basic steps:
respiration in hydrophytic trees such stored).
as many mangrove species. 1. Absorption at the roots.
2. Capillary action in the xylem
Avian Sink: where sugar ends up (either
vessels.
where it is needed or will be stored).
3. Evaporation at the leaf.
Surviving thin air
Xylem
 The high mountain of Casparian Strip
Himalayas mountain claimed  The Casparian strip controls
lives even the world’s top  Xylem tissue transports water water movement into the
mountain climber from roots to leave vascular cylinder of the root.
 The air in the highest peak of  Water cannot move between
Mt. Everest is so low in oxygen  Xylem vessels are dead at cells. It must move through the
maturity cells by osmosis.
that most people would pass out
instantly. Soil particle- Soil solutions are
Phloem chemical and biochemical mirrors
where we can tell the interactions
between plants and microorganisms
 Phloem tissue transports sap
(water and sugar) from Ion exchange process- Ion exchange
“source” to “sink.” involves the movement of cations
 •Phloem vessels are live at (positively charged elements like
maturity, but need companion calcium, magnesium, and sodium) and
cells. anions (negatively charged elements
like chloride, and compounds like
(PLANTS TRANSPO) nitrate) through the soils
Water transport in 3 parts:
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Transpiration (or evapo- Is a fundamental soil property used to
transpiration) is the transport of predict plant nutrient availability and
retention in the soil. It is the potential  But aphids can pierce phloem  •Osmosis moves water into the
of available nutrient supply, not a tissue and suck out sap cells and raises pressure.
direct measurement of available without any problem.  •Pressure moves the sap.
nutrients.  Scientists used aphids to
study the flow of sap in Pressure-flow 1
phloem. The leaf is a source of sugar, since it
makes sugar by photosynthesis.
Glucose and fructose made by
photosynthesis are linked to make
 Cation exchange capacity is
sucrose.
defined as a soil’s total quantity
of negative surface charges Sap:
Pressure-flow 2
Carbonic Acid on Exchange
 Sap consists of sugar dissolved Active transport is used to load
According to this theory, the
in water at high concentrations: sucrose into phloem tubes against a
CO2 released during respiration
usually between 10% and 25%. diffusion gradient.
of root cells combines with
Pressure-flow 3
water to form carbonic acid
 Since this is highly The high concentration of sucrose in
(H2CO3). Carbonic acid
concentrated, plants have to use the sieve tube cells of the phloem
dissociates into H+ and an
active transport to work against causes water to move in by osmosis,
anion HCO3– in soil solution.
a diffusion gradient as part of which raises pressure and causes the
These H+ ions may be
the sap-moving process. sap to move.
exchanged for cations adsorbed
Pressure-flow 4
on clay particles.
Pressure –flow theory: A developing fruit is one example of a
sink. Sucrose may be actively
The trouble with phloem:
transported out of phloem into the
Phloem tissue is living tissue, unlike  The pressure-flow theory fruit cells. In a root, sucrose is
xylem. When scientists studying how explains how sap moves in a converted into starch, which keeps
it works cut into it, the plants plant from source to sink: sugar moving in by diffusion.
responded by plugging up the phloem.  •Sugars begin at a source and Functions of the Circulatory
are pumped into phloem tube
Aphid helpers: System
cells.
 1. Carry Blood - Blood vessels Blue Open: fluid is circulated through an
carry blood from the heart to  Spiders , Crustaceans, some open body chamber.
all tissues of the body and molluscs, octopuses and
back to the heart Closed: fluid is circulated through
squid.
blood vessels.
2. Exchange Nutrients, waste Green
products and gases -  Some segmented worms, Open system
Nutrients and oxygen diffuse some leeches and some
from blood vessels to cells. marine worms  Arthropods and most mollusks
Waste product and carbon Violet have an open circulatory
dioxide from the cells where  Marine worms including system.
they are produced, to blood peanut worms,penis worms
vessels.  Hemolymph is contained in a
and brachiopods
3. Transport - Hormones, body cavity, the hemocoel. A
Circulatory system-
components of immune series ofhearts circulates the
Transporting gases, nutrients,
fluid.
system, molecules,enzymes, wastes, and hormones
nutrients, waste and gases Closed system:
transported in the blood to all Circulatory systems generally have
areas. three main features:  Vertebrates, annelidworms, and
4. Regulate blood pressure - a few mollusks have a closed
 Fluid (blood or hemolymph)
normal range circulatory system.
that transports materials
5. Direct blood flow - Direct
blood to tissues when  Blood is moved through blood
 System of blood vessels
increase blood flow is needed vessels by the heart’s action. It
for homeostasis. does not come in direct contact
 A heart to pump the fluid
with body organs.
through the vessels
The chemistry of the different Blood is made up of four
colours of blood: Types of circulatory systems:
major components.

Red Animals that have a circulatory

Plasma: the liquid portion.
system have one of two kinds:
 Humans and Majority of
other vertebrates Red blood cells
 White cells.  RBCs live about 4 months. have a short lifespan, usually
Iron from hemoglobin is about 10 days.
Platelets. recycled in the liver and
spleen. Blood clotting:
Red blood cells:
 The hormone erythropoeitin,  Platelets aggregate at the site
 RBCs lose their nucleus at
made by the kidneys, of a wound.
maturity.
stimulates the production of
 Make up about 99% of the RBCs in red bone marrow.  Broken cells and platelets
blood’s cellular component. release chemicals to stimulate
White cells: thrombin production.
 Red color is due to hemoglobin.
 White blood cells defend  Thrombin converts the
against disease by recognizing protein fibrinogen into sticky
proteins that do not belong to fibrin, which binds the clot.
the body.
Classes of blood vessels:
 White cells are able to ooze
through the walls of capillaries Arteries and arterioles carry
Hemeglobin: to patrol the tissues and reach blood away from the heart.
the lymph system.
 Hemoglobin is a complex Veins and venules carry blood
protein made up of four protein
to the heart.
strands, plus iron-rich heme
groups. Platelets:

 Each haemoglobin molecule  Platelets are cell fragments Capillaries allow exchange of
can carry four oxygen atoms. used in blood clotting. nutrients, wastes and gases.
The presence of oxygen turns
hemoglobin bright red.  Platelets are derived from Arteries:
megakaryocites. Because
RBC Lifespan:
they lack a nucleus, platelets Arteries are thick-walled, and lined
with smooth muscle.
Arterioles:  Low pressure in the venules lungs. Contractions of the atria
allows the capillary beds to send blood through a valve to
Arterioles can constrict to direct drain into them. the ventricles.
and control blood flow. They may,
for example, increase or decrease Veins Ventricles: receive blood from
blood supply to the skin. atria, contract to send blood to
Veins have thinner walls than body or lungs.
Capillaries: arteries.
Two chambered heart:
 Body tissues contain a vast Atherosclerosis
network of thin capillaries.  The simplest vertebrate
 LDL cholesterol forms heart is the two-
 Capillary walls are only one plaques in arteries, triggering chambered heart, seen in
cell thick, allowing exchange inflammation. fishes.
of gases, nutrients, and
wastes.  The immune system forms a  A single atrium receives
hard cap over the plaque, blood from the body cells.
 Capillaries are so fine that partially blocking the artery. A ventricle sends blood to
RBCs must line up single-file Caps can rupture, creating the gills to collect oxygen
to go through them. clots that can close off an
artery. Three chambered heart:

The Vertebrate Heart  Separate atria allow some

separation of oxygenated and
Vertebrate hearts are deoxygenated blood, which
separated into two types of was an advantage for land
chambers: organisms (reptiles,
Venules:
amphibians).
 Venules are thin-walled
 Though blood can mix in the
collectors of blood. Atria (singular: atrium):
ventricle, mixing is minimal.
receive blood from body or
 Some reptiles have partial  The sinoatrial (SA) node is into functioning mature
separation of the ventricle. nervous tissue that times systems (phenotype).
heart beats.
Four chambered heart:  is terminated by death.
 The SA node causes atria to
 The four-chambered contract, and sends the signal Asexual production:
heart, seen in birds and to the atrioventricular (AV)
mammals, allows Mode of reproduction that does
node to signal the ventricles
complete separation of not involve the use of gametes
to contract.
oxygenated and or sex cells.
deoxygenated blood. Blood pressure:
Gametes/Sex cells –
 Complete separation is Systolic pressure = pressure
necessary to support a fast when the heart contracts.  Gametes are an organism's
metabolism found in reproductive cells.
homeotherms. Diastolic pressure = pressure
between heart beats.  They are also referred to
Dual pump operation: as sex cells.
Reproduction:
1.Atria contract ,forcing blood into  Female gametes are called
the ventricles. The production of offspring by ova or egg cells, and male
organized bodies. gametes are called sperm.
2. Then the ventricles contract
forcing blood through arteries to Development:  Haploid cells
the lungs and the rest of the body.
 Biological development,  One each of chromosome
3. The cycle ends as the heart the progressive changes in
relaxes. size, shape, and function  produced through a type
during the life of an of cell division called
organism by which its meiosis
genetic potentials
(genotype) are translated Sexual production:
Mode of production that involves n fungi, algae, and protozoa and inv Oogamy-  is the familiar form
the use of gametes or sex cells. olves the formation of spores by the of sexual reproduction. It is a form
spontaneous division of a cell into f of anisogamy (heterogamy) in
our or more daughter cells, each of  which the female gamete (e.g. egg
which contains a part of the origina cell) is significantly larger than the
Types of Asexual reproduction: l nucleus. male gamete and is non-motile. The
male gametes are typically
1. Binary Fission - involving the Aggregation – highly motile and are usually
division of body into two or more
tasked with all of the travel
equal parts Massing of materials together as necessary to bring the respective
in clumping. gametes together.
ex. Paramecium
Union – The joining Heterogamy - Fusion of dissimilar
Paramecium- genus of or amalgamation of two or
microscopic, single-celled, and free gametes. In oogamy, a large
more bodies. immotile gamete, the egg is
living protozoans.
fertilized by a small motile gamete,
Isogamy - Fusion of similar
2. Budding - where a new the sperm.
gametes which are usually motile
individual arises as an outgrowth
(bud) from its parent, develops ex. animal sperm and egg
ex. Chlamydomonas producing
organs like those of the parent, and gametes or Spirogyra undergoing Bisexual reproduction - Type of
then detaches itself. conjugation sexual reproduction involving the
ex. Hydra union of gametes from two
Cell fusion -  cellular process in
genetically different parents
which several
3. Fragmentation- uninuclear cells (cells with a ex. in humans, and
single nucleus) combine to form papaya(Papaya – the flowers
 breaking of the body piece
a multinuclear cell which contain both reproductive
which develops into a exact
complete adult. organs, pistil as well as stamen)
Chlamydomonas-  is
among others.
a genus of green alga
4. Sporulation -
a type of reproduction that occurs i
Hermaphrodite - An individual Stage of the life cycle of a plant Flower - Reproductive structure
with both male and female that is haploid; stage that produces in flowering plants; made up of
reproductive tissues. In animals gametes via mitosis; these gametes four major whorls
“self fertilization” is not common. fuse to form a zygote that develops
In worms, a hermaphrodite needs a into a sporophyte. Whorls- a pattern of spirals or
male to donate sperms in order to concentric circles.
fertilize the oocytes in its body. Gametophyte - is the sexual phase
in the life cycle of plants and algae.
ex. barnacles; worms
Sporophyte- is the diploid 4 major whorls:
Asexual reproduction multicellular stage in the life cycle of
Number of parents involved- one a plant or alga. 1. Sepals - The outermost
whorls of a flower;
Gametes- No need gamete for Angiosperms  collectively called the calyx
union
 seed-bearing vascular plants. 2. Petals - Whorl inner to the
Genetic composition of offspring- sepals; may be brightly
genetically identical to parent  Their reproductive structures colored in some; collectively
(clone) are flowers in which the called the corolla
ovules are enclosed in an
Sexual reproduction: ovary.  3. Stamen - Whorl inner to the
petals; the male reproductive
Number of parents involved- two  Angiosperms are found in structure of the flower; bears
almost every habitat from the male sporangia (also
Gametes- Present; sperm has to forests and grasslands to sea known as microsporangia)
fertilize egg margins and deserts. 
a. Anther - Part of the
Genetic composition of offspring-  Angiosperms display a huge stamen that contains
Generally are hybrids of parents variety of life forms the microsporangia that
including trees, herbs, develops into pollen
Hybrid - The offspring resulting grains
submerged aquatics, bulbs
from the cross between parents of
and epiphytes.
different species or sub-species.
 b. Filament - Part of the 1. Perfect / Bisexual – II. Pollination
stamen that serves as
the stalk of the anther has both stamens and carpels, A. Transfer of pollen
and may be described as grain from the anther to the
4. Pistil or carpels - Innermost "bisexual" or stigma
whorl of the flower; the female "hermaphroditic“. e.g   those
reproductive structure of the of tomatoes, morning glories, B. May be animal-aided or
flower; bears the female sporangia snapdragons, petunias, lilies wind-aided
(also known as the and irises.
megasporangia) Pollen grain - The immature
2. Imperfect / Unisexual - male gametophyte that
a. Stigma - pollen grain contain only one sex organ. develops within the anthers
derived from the of stamens.
microsporangium attaches i. Staminate flower
during pollination. III- Double fertilization
ii. Carpellate flower
b. Style - serves as the stalk IV – Embryo development
of the stigma; leads to the e.g asparagus, spinach, (embryogenesis)
ovary willow and cottonwood.
V. Maturation of ovary and
c. Ovary - base of the pistil; I. Gametophyte - ovule
contains one or more ovules; Development through
gametogenesis (plant) A. Ovary matures into
becomes the fruit. fruit while the ovule becomes
d. Ovule - Contains the Male gametophyte - The the seed. The seed may
female sporangia or microsporangium in the become dormant for some
megasporangia; eventually anther contains numerous time.
becomes the seed microsporocytes.
VI. Seed germination
Types of flowers based on Female gametophyte - The
megasporangium in the ovule i. Epigeal germination-
the presence of
contains megasporocytes. germination occurs when the
reproductive whorls: cotyledon emerges above
ground, thereby exposing the 1.Gametogenesis- Stage of 6.Growth- Stage of
hypocotyl of the plumule. development that yields development characterized by
haploid gametes an increase in size of an
ii. Hypogeal germination- individual
Hypogeal germination occurs 2.Fertilization- Stage of
when the cotyledon remains development that results in a
below ground, thereby unicellular diploid zygote
concealing the hypocotyl.
3.Cleavage- Stage of
VII. Seedling growth to development involving a Monozygotic twins- Also
mature plant series of mitotic divisions to known as identical twins;
produce a multicellular result from the union of a
A. Primary meristems blastula from a unicellular sperm and egg to form a
differentiate to become the zygote single zygote that splits up
different plant tissues during the first cleavage
4. Gastrulation- Stage of stage.
Haploid (n) condition- development involving
When a cell has only half the morphogenetic movements of Dizygotic twins - Also
chromosome number or only the cells to produce a gastrula known as fraternal twins;
one set of chromosomes with distinct germ cell layers; results from the development
in vertebrates, this will result of two or more separate
Diploid (2n) condition- in three layers: the outermost fertilization events where the
When a cell has the full ectoderm; the inner resulting zygotes develop
chromosome number or two endoderm, and the middle almost simultaneously
sets of chromosomes layer, the mesoderm
Male Reproductive System-
Totipotent cell- A cell that is 5. Organogenesis- Stage of
capable of differentiating to development where the 1. Testis- Where sperms are
become any kind of cell different germ layers produced
differentiate into specific
Stages of animal Penis - This is the male organ
organ systems
development: used in sexual intercourse.
2.Epididymis- Where sperms 8. Bulbourethral glands- walls, blood vessels; and the
are temporarily stored Paired glands that produce endometrial lining
clear, viscous secretion
3.Scrotal sac/scrotum - known as pre-ejaculate that 5.Endometrial
Supports the testis and helps to lubricate the urethra lining/endometrium-
epididymis for sperm to pass through, Innermost lining of the uterus
neutralizing traces of acidic where the embryo implants
urine in the urethra, and helps and develop
flush out any residual urine or
4. Vas deferens - Where the 6.Fallopian tubes- Also
foreign matter
sperm passes through from known as oviducts; paired
the testis before it joins the Female reproductive tubes that are connected to
urethra . system: it produce female the uterus and terminate near
egg cells. the ovaries; this is where
5. Urethra - Connected to fertilization takes place
the urethra and the urinary 1. .Clitoris- The homologue
bladder; serves as (equivalent) of the penis in 7.Ovaries- Female gonads
passageway of both sperm females that release the oocytes
and urine and terminates in during ovulation, which are
the external urinary meatus of 2.Vagina- Main entrance to then caught by the fimbrae of
the penis. the female reproductive tract; the fallopian tubes in order
receives the penis during for the oocytes to pass on to
6. Seminal vesicle - Secretes sexual intercourse the fallopian tubes
fluid that forms part of the
semen. 3.Cervix- Where the vagina Human Embryogenesis
ends; projection of the uterus
7. Prostate gland - Secretes into the vagina; leads to the Morula- A human blastula
fluid that also provides uterus made up of a solid ball of
alkalinity to the semen; it also cells
contains proteolytic enzymes, 4.Uterus- Also known as the
citric acid, phosphatases, and womb; where the embryo Blastocyst- A human blastula
lipids develops; with thick muscular composed of the inner cell
mass, which becomes the -Menstru means "monthly a consequence of estrogen
embryo, and the secretion
trophoectoderm, which - There are four major
becomes the placenta hormones (chemicals that 3.Secretory phase- Part of
stimulate or regulate the the menstrual cycle of the
Implantation- Process where activity of cells or organs) uterus; corresponds to the
the blastocyst implants itself involved in the menstrual luteal phase of the ovaries;
in the endometrium; this cycle:follicle-stimulating the endometrium undergoes
signals the start of pregnancy hormone, luteinizing final changes before it
hormone, estrogen, receives the embryo during
Gestation- Carrying of the and progesterone. implantation
embryo inside the female
reproductive tract, 2. Luteal phase- Part of the Contraception- Process that
specifically the uterus; can menstrual cycle of the ovary blocks any one of the
last up to 9 months in humans after the oocytes are released following stages of
from the follicles; reproduction in humans:
Human embryo-
Corresponds to the first two Uterine Cycle: (1) release and transport of
months of gestation gametes;
1. Menstrual phase- Part of
Human fetus- Corresponds the menstrual cycle of the (2) fertilization;
to the months 3-9 of human uterus; also known as the
gestation “period’’ (3) implantation;

Menstrual Cycle 2.Proliferative phase- Part (4) actual completion of

of the menstrual cycle of the development of the
Ovarian Cycle: uterus; corresponds to the embryo/fetus
latter part of the follicular
1. Follicular phase- Part of phase of the ovaries (days 8- Types of Contraception:
the menstrual cycle of the 14) when the endometrium
ovary in humans where the heals and begins to thicken as
follicles begin to mature
1. Ovulation-suppressing 3. Cervical cap- Type of 6. Suppressing methods
methods- prevents the oocyte barrier method that covers the
to mature cervix and blocks passage of 1. Implantation-Type of
the sperm into the uterus contraception that prevents
2. Oral contraceptives- the blastocyst from being
Type of contraception taken 4.Chemicals implanted in the
in by women to prevent them endometrium
from ovulating 1. Spermicidal jelly or
foam- Type of barrier Intra-uterine devise (IUD)-
e.g Alesse, Apri, Aranelle, method that kills the sperm Type of implantation-
Aviane, Enpresse, Estrostep, on contact; they are placed suppressing method that
Lessina, Levlen, Levlite inside the vaginal canal physically blocks the
blastocyst form implanting
3. Barrier methods- Type of into the endometrium
contraception that prevents
fertilization 5. Surgical methods- A Morning-after pill- Type of
special type of contraception implantation-suppressing
Barrier Methods: preventing fertilization that method that blocks the action
involves surgery of hormones that prepare the
1. Condom- Type of barrier uterus to receive the embryo
method that is inserted on the Surgical methods:
male penis to prevent release 7.Abortion- Type of
of sperm into the female 1. Vasectomy- Type of contraception that involves
reproductive tract surgical method for men; the deliberate removal of the
entails cutting the vas embryo/fetus before it
2. Diaphragm- Type of deferens completes gestation .
barrier method that blocks the
cervix, thereby preventing the 2.Tubal ligation- Type of 8. Coitus interruptus- Type
passage of the sperm into the surgical method for women; of contraception that requires
uterus entails cutting the fallopian the man to remove the penis
tubes before ejaculation
9. Abstinence- Type of
contraception where the man
and the woman do not engage
in sexual intercourse