GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER

Chemical Bond 5. With the valence electron remaining, first complete

-Forces of attraction that hold two or more atoms the octets of the terminal atoms. Then, to the extent
together. possible, complete the octets of the central atoms.
-Bonding between atoms occurs because electron pairs 6. If one or more central atoms is left with an
are shared between atoms. incomplete octet after step 5, move lone pair electrons
form terminal atoms to form multiple covalent bonds to
Valence electron central atoms.
-Outermost electron involve in chemical bonding
Formal Charge
Intermolecular Attractions vs. Bonding -Apparent charges on certain atoms in a Lewis structure
that arise when atoms have not contributed equal
numbers of electrons to the covalent bonds joining
them.

VSEPR Theory
**The distances between bonded atoms are less than
-Electron pairs repel each other whether they are in
those between non-bonded atoms.
chemical bonds (bond pairs) or unshared (lone pairs).
**The forces between bonded atoms are greater than
Electron pairs assume orientations about an atom to
those between non-bonded atoms.
minimize repulsions.
Electron group geometry – distribution of e- pairs.
Lewis Symbol (electron dot symbol)
Molecular geometry – distribution of nuclei.
-use symbol of element to represent nucleus and inner
electrons
Kinetic Molecular Theory
-use dots around the symbol to represent valence
electrons
1. All matter is made of tiny particles.
-pair first two electrons for the s orbital
2. These particles are in constant motion.
-put one electron on each open side for p electrons
3. The speed of particles is proportional to temperature.
-then pair rest of the p electrons
Increased temperature means greater speed.
4. Solids, liquids, and gases differ in distances between
Lewis Theory
particles, in the freedom of motion of particles, and in
1. Valence e- play a fundamental role in chemical
the extent to which the particles interact.
bonding.
2. e- transfer leads to ionic bonds.
States of matter: solid, liquid, gas
3. Sharing of e- leads to covalent bonds.
4. e- are transferred of shared to give each atom a noble
gas configuration
-the octet.

*All the valence e- of atoms must appear.

*Usually, the e- are paired.
*Usually, each atom requires an octet.
-H only requires 2 e-.
*Multiple bonds may be needed.
-Readily formed by C, N, O, S, and P.

Skeletal Structures
-Hydrogen atoms are always terminal atoms. Intermolecular forces of Attraction
-Central atoms are generally those with the lowest
electronegativity. London forces/Van der waals
-Carbon atoms are always central atoms. -The attraction between instantaneous electric dipoles
-Generally structures are compact and symmetrical. on adjacent molecules
-Present in all molecules because everything has an
Strategy for writing Lewis Structure electron cloud

1. Determine the total number of valence electrons that

must appear in the structure.
2. Identify the central atom(s) and terminal atoms.
3. Write a plausible skeletal structure. Join the atoms in
the skeletal structure by single covalent bonds
4. For each bond in the skeletal structure, subtract two
from the total number of valence electrons.
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER
Ion-Ion
- Electrostatic force of attraction between two
oppositely charged ion
Molecular Polarity
A molecule will be nonpolar if:
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are the same
• All of the terminal atoms (or groups) are
symmetrically arranged around the central atom
• The terminal atoms (or groups) have the same charges
• Example: CO2
Polarizability of the atom or molecule refers to the ease
with which the electron distribution can be distorted.
-Generally, the larger the number of electrons and the
larger or more diffused the electron cloud in the atom
or molecule, the greater its polarizability.
-Thus, dispersion forces may be the weakest of A molecule will be polar if:
intermolecular forces that can exist between two • One or more terminal atoms differ from each other.
molecules, but the larger the atoms present, the • At least one polar bond is present.
stronger the dispersion forces. • The terminal atoms are not symmetrically arranged
• The molecule has one slightly positive end and one
Dipole-Dipole slightly negative end.
-sharing of electrons in a bond is covalent but not • Example: H2O
completely even (Polar Covalent)

Properties of Liquids, Solids and IMF

Fluid
Hydrogen bonding - A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
-A dipole-dipole interaction where the H atom is Surface tension
noncovalently attracted to an electronegative atom - is the measure of the elastic force in the surface
-The H must have a large positive delta and the other of a liquid. It is the amount of energy required
atom must have a source of electrons to be attracted to to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a
H unit area.
-Usually negatively charged F, O, N is attracted to the Capillary action
positively charged H - is the tendency of a liquid to rise in narrow
-Very important biologically tubes or be drawn into small openings such as
those between grains of a rock.
- Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a
result of intermolecular attraction between the
liquid and solid materials.
Two types of forces are involved in capillary action:
1. Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction
between like molecules
Schematic Diagram for determining IMF in a substance
2. Adhesion is an attraction between unlike
molecules
Concave meniscus occurs when there is stronger
adhesive force between the container and the liquid
than the liquid’s molecules. The adhesive force
overcomes the cohesive force of the liquid. This
causes the liquid to climb up the sides of the
container. Convex meniscus occurs when there is
stronger cohesive force between the liquid’s
molecules than the adhesive force between the
liquid and the container. This causes the liquid to
create a dome shape on its surface.

Viscosity
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER
- is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. The - If you begin with a pure solid and add energy to
greater the viscosity, the slower the liquid the system, we can plot the temperature of the
flows. system as a function of time to produce a
Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The heating curve
table below gives viscosities of liquids of some pure
substances. Water has viscosity of 1 centipoise or
0.001 Pa/s at 20 degC.
Vapor Pressure
- The vapor pressure of a liquid is measure of its
“volatility”
- Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure
exerted by the gas-phase molecules over a
liquid
- Vapor pressure is a strong function of
temperature—the higher the temperature, the
higher the vapor pressure
Phase
- A homogeneous part of a system in contact with Phase Diagrams
other parts of the system, but separated by well- - We can plot the different phases of a substance
defined boundaries. as a function of temperature and pressure to
produce a phase diagram

Phase Diagram for Water

Phase Changes
- Changes in the phase of a substance (solid,
liquid, or vapor) occur when the amount of
kinetic energy in the substance is changed when
energy is put into the system from the
surroundings, we get:
Melting—transition from solid liquid
Boiling—transition from liquid vapor
Sublimation—transition from solid vapor
When energy is removed from the system, we get Triple point
condensation, freezing, or deposition The energy - is the combination of pressure and temperature
associated with a phase transition is called the enthalpy at which all three phases of matter are at
of: vaporization, ΔHvap— boiling fusion, ΔHfus-melting equilibrium. It is the point on a phase diagram
sublimation, ΔHsub—sublimation, at which the three states of matter coexist. The
ΔHvap(H2O) = 40.79 kJ mol-1: you must put 40,790 J of lines that represent the conditions of solid-
energy in to boil 1 mole of water at its normal boiling liquid, liquid-vapor, and solid-vapor equilibrium
point meet at the triple point.
Critical point
Molar heat of vaporization and Boiling point - terminates the liquid/gas phase line. It is the set
of temperature and pressure on a phase
diagram where the liquid and gaseous phases of
a substance merge together into a single phase.
Beyond the temperature of the critical point,
the merged single phase is known as a
supercritical fluid.
Specific heat
- is the amount of heat or energy needed to raise
the temperature of one gram of a substance by
1oC. The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/g- oC
(4.18 J/g-oC), one of the highest for many
liquids.
Heating Curves
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER
Heat Change = 75 grams
Solids

Crystalline Solid
- a solid that contains a regular and repeating
atomic or molecular arrangement over large
atomic distances (long-range order)
- ex. metals, ceramics and some polymers
Non-crystalline Solid
Calculate the amount of energy (in kJ) needed
- a solid without long-range ordering atoms or
to heat 346 gram of liquid water from 0oC to
molecules
182oC. Assume that the specific heat of water
- also termed “amorphous” or “vitreous”
is 4.184 J/g OC over the entire liquid range and
- ex. Some ceramics and most polymers
the specific heat of steam is 1.99 J/g OC.
Crystal lattice
- The regular repeating structure of a crystalline
Step 1: Heating of water from 0oC to 100oC
solid.
q1 = mCΔt
Unit cell
= (346 g) (4.184 J/g OC) (100oC – 0oC)
- The smallest subunit of a crystal lattice that can
= 1.45 x 105 J
be repeated over and over to make the entire
= 145 kJ
crystal.
Step 2: Evaporating 346 g of water at 100 oC (a
Types of unit cells:
phase change)
1) Simple/Primitive – atoms are only positioned
q2 = mΔHvap
at the corners
= (346 g) (40.79 kJ)
2) Body-centered – an additional atom is
= 783 kJ
positioned at the center of the unit cell
Step 3: Heating steam from 100oC to 182oC.
3) Face-centered – atoms are positioned
q3 = mCΔt
at the corners, as well at the faces of the
= (346 g) (1.99 J/goC) (182oC – 100oC)
unit cell
= 5.65 x 104 J
4) Base-centered – atoms are positioned at the corners,
= 56.5 kJ
as well at two opposite faces of the cube (usually at the
The overall energy required is given by
top and bottom faces)
qT = q1 + q2 + q3
Crystal System
= 145 kJ + 783 kJ + 56.5 kJ
- A scheme by which crystal structures are
= 985 kJ
classified according to unit cell geometry
- cubic, hexagonal, tetragonal, rhombohedral,
Calculate the amount of heat needed to melt 2.00
orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic
kilogram of iron at its melting point (1,809 K), given
that: Hfus = 13.80 kJ/mol. X-ray Diffraction is a technique used to determine the
atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, wherein
Step 1: Convert 2.00 kg of iron to grams. atoms cause a beams of incident X-rays to diffract into
1000 g many specific directions.
2.00 kg x =2000 g
1 kg
Step 2 : Get the number of moles Types of Solids
Q=n ∆ H
kJ There are different types of solids depending on
Q=(2000 g)( 13.80 ) the bonding and attractive forces that occur
mol
within each type
= 27,600 kJ/mol
= 27,600 kJ/mol
1. Ionic solids:
56 g /mol
- one or more electrons are transferred from a
= 492.9 g
metal to a non-metal, and the resulting ions are
What mass of water would need to evaporate from your held together by electrostatic attraction
skin in order to dissipate 1.7x105 J of heat from your - NaCl, CaCl2, (NH4)3PO4
body? 2. Metallic solids:
- the valence atomic orbitals of the individual
Step 1 : Convert 1.7 105 J to kJ metal atoms combine to form molecular
1.7x105 J = 170,000 J = 170 kJ orbitals in which the electrons are no longer
Step 2 : associated with an individual nucleus, but
Q rather are free to move throughout the entire
n=
∆H metallic solid
- Fe, Ag, Au, Cu, alloys
= 170 Kj / 40.8 Kj/mol 3. Molecular solids:
= 4.16 mol - individual molecules are held together by
= (4.16 mol) (18g/mol) intermolecular attractive forces such as
 GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 REVIEWER
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, or
hydrogen bonding
- H2O(ice), CO, CO2, CH3COCH3 (acetone)
4. Network solids:
- atoms are held together in an network by
covalent bonds with a very specific solid
crystalline structure The network may be either
one-, two-, or three dimensional
- C(diamond), C(graphite), SiO2(quartz), KAlSi3O8
(K-feldspar)
5. Amorphous solids:
- atoms are held together in a three-dimensional
network by covalent bonds, but the solid does
not have a specific crystalline structure
- SiO2(glass), polyethylene, nylon