Addis Ababa science & Technology University

College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

Course Name :Computer Architecture & Organization

Instructor Name : Tayachew Fikire

Mail Address : tayachew.fikire@aastu.edu.et

Major References : William Stallings: Computer Organization and Architecture

 Course contents
• Basic Concepts & computer Evolution
• The Central processing Unit(CPU)
• Memory Systems
• Input/output systems
• Advanced topics (parallel processing , introduction to operating
systems)

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 Course objective
The objective of the course is to enable the student to:
• Understand fundamentals of computer organization and architecture
along with design and simulation of a basic computer system.

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 Learning outcome
At the end of this course students will be able to:
• Distinguish between computer architecture and organization
• Know the different processor architecture ,instruction sets, addressing
modes
• Memory organization and structures in a computer system
• Interfacing techniques of I/O devices with processors

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 Chapter1 :Basic Concepts & computer evolution

Lesson Objective:

• The objective of this lesson is to introduce students the basic concepts

of computer architecture & organization along with computer evolution

• Topics to be covered

• Basic Introduction

• Computer evolution

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 Chapter1 :Basic Concepts & Computer evolution

Learning outcomes:

At the end of this chapter students will be able to:

• Distinguish computer organization and architecture.

• Understand computer structure & function

• Know about the historical background of computer systems

• Understand performance issues of computers

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Part 1 : Basic Concepts

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 Computer architecture & organization
• Attributes of a system • Instruction set, number of
visible to the bits used to represent
programmer various data types, I/O
• Have a direct impact on mechanisms, techniques
Start
the logical execution of a for addressing memory
program

Architectural
Computer
attributes
Architecture
include:

Model categories

Organizational
Computer
attributes
Organization
include:

• Hardware details • The operational units and

transparent to the their interconnections
programmer, control that realize the
signals, interfaces architectural
between the computer specifications
and peripherals, memory
technology used

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 Structure & function

 Hierarchical system
Start  Structure
 Set of interrelated
subsystems  The way in which
components relate to each
 Hierarchical nature of complex other
systems is essential to both
their design and their  Function
Model categories
description  The operation of individual
components as part of the
 Designer need only deal with structure
a particular level of the system
at a time
 Concerned with structure
and function at each level

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 Function
 There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:
 Data processing
Start
 Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of processing requirements is
broad
 Data storage
 Short-term
 Long-term
Model categories
 Data movement
 Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a device (peripheral)
that is directly connected to the computer
 Data communications – when data are moved over longer distances, to or from a
remote device
 Control
 A control unit manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of
its functional parts in response to instructions

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 Structure-Top level

Start

Model categories

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 Structure-CPU

Start

Model categories

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 Structure-Control Unit

Start

Model categories

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 Structural components
There are four  CPU – controls the operation of the
main structural computer and performs its data
components processing functions
of the computer:
 Main Memory – stores data
 I/O – moves data between the
computer and its external environment

 System Interconnection – some

mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O

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 Structural components

CPU  Control Unit

Major structural  Controls the operation of the CPU
and hence the computer
components:
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 Performs the computer’s data
processing function

 Registers
 Provide storage internal to the CPU

 CPU Interconnection
 Some mechanism that provides for
communication among the control
unit, ALU, and registers

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 Multicore Computer Structure

 Central processing unit (CPU)

 Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions
 Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers
 Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit

 Core
 An individual processing unit on a processor chip
 May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system
 Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores

 Processor
 A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores
 Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions
 Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores

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 Cache Memory

 Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory

 Is smaller and faster than main memory

 Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from main
memory that is likely to be used in the near future

 A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using multiple levels of

cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.)
progressively farther from the core

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 Elements of Multi-core computer

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Part 2: History & Evolution of Computers

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 History of Computers

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

 Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic elements and memory
 ENIAC-Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
 Decimal (not binary
 20 accumulators of 10 digits
 Programmed manually by switches
 18,000 vacuum tubes
 15,000 square feet
 140 kW power consumption
 5,000 additions per second

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 History of Computers

First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

 Von Neumann-Machine(IAS computer )
 Stored Program concept
 Main memory storing programs and data
 ALU operating on binary data
 Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and executing
 Input and output equipment operated by control unit
 Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS) computer
 Completed 1952
 Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers

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 History of Computers
Von Neumann-Machine

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 History of Computers/IAS –Computer

 IAS computer-Details
 1000 x 40 bit words, each word representing
 One 40-bit binary number
 Two 20-bit instructions(i.e. 8 bits opcode &12 bits address)
 Set of registers (Storages in CPU)
 Memory Buffer Register
 Memory Address Register
 Instruction Register
 Instruction Buffer Register
 Program Counter
 Accumulator
 Multiplier Quotient

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 History of Computers/IAS –Computer-Registers

Memory buffer register • Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit
(MBR) • Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Memory address • Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from
register (MAR) or read into the MBR

Instruction register (IR) • Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer • Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a

register (IBR) word in memory

• Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched

Program counter (PC) from memory

Accumulator (AC) and • Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU
multiplier quotient (MQ) operations

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 History of Computers/IAS –Computer

 IAS –Memory formats

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 History of Computers/IAS –Computer

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 History of Computers/IAS –Computer

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 History of Computers/IAS –Computer

 IAS- the FETCH –EXECUTE CYCLE

 FETCH: load the binary code of the instr. from Memory (or IBR)
 Opcode goes into IR
 Address goes into MAR

 EXECUTE : send appropriate control signals to do what the instr. needs to do

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 IAS –Instruction set

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 IAS –Instruction set

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 History of Computers

Second Generation: Transistors

 Smaller

 Cheaper

 Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

 Is a solid state device made from silicon

 Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947

 It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized

computers were commercially available

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 Computer generations

Approximate Typical Speed

Generation Dates Technology (operations per second)
1 1946–1957 Vacuum tube 40,000
2 1957–1964 Transistor 200,000
3 1965–1971 Small and medium scale 1,000,000
integration
4 1972–1977 Large scale integration 10,000,000
5 1978–1991 Very large scale integration 100,000,000
6 1991- Ultra large scale integration >1,000,000,000

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 Second generations Computers

 Introduced:
 More complex arithmetic and logic units and control units
 The use of high-level programming languages
 Provision of system software which provided the ability to:
 Load programs
 Move data to peripherals
 Libraries perform common computations

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 History of Computers

Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

 Discrete component
 Single, self-contained transistor
 Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and
soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards
 Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

 The two most important members of the third generation were

the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8

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 Third generation Computers
 A computer consists of gates,
Integrated memory cells, and
Circuits interconnections among these
elements

 Data storage – provided by  The gates and memory cells

memory cells are constructed of simple
digital electronic components
 Data processing – provided by
gates
 Exploits the fact that such
 Data movement – the paths components as transistors,
among components are used resistors, and conductors can be
to move data from memory to fabricated from a
memory and from memory semiconductor such as silicon
through gates to memory
 Many transistors can be
 Control – the paths among produced at the same time on a
components can carry control single wafer of silicon
signals
 Transistors can be connected
with a processor metallization to
form circuits
35
 Third generations Computers –Elements

key concepts in an integrated circuit

 A thin wafer of silicon is divided into a matrix of

small areas, each a few millimeters square.
 The identical circuit pattern is fabricated in each
area, and the wafer is broken up into chips.
 Each chip consists of many gates and/or memory
cells plus a number of input and output attachment
points.
 This chip is then packaged in housing that protects
it and provides pins for attachment to devices
beyond the chip.
 A number of these packages can then be
interconnected on a printed circuit board to
produce larger and more complex circuits.

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 Moore’s Law

1965; Gordon Moore – co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that could be

put on a single chip was doubling every year

Consequences of Moore’s law:

The pace slowed to a
doubling every 18
months in the 1970’s The cost of Computer
but has sustained that The electrical
computer logic becomes smaller Reduction in
rate ever since path length is
and memory and is more power and Fewer interchip
shortened,
circuitry has convenient to use cooling connections
increasing in a variety of
fallen at a requirements
operating speed environments
dramatic rate

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 Moore’s Law

Growth in transistor count in integrated circuits(DRAM memory )

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 Moore’s Law

Growth in CPU transistor count

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 History of Computers: Later Generations

LSI
Large
Scale
Later Generations Integration
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration

ULSI
Semiconductor Memory Ultra Large
Scale
Microprocessors Integration

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 Generation of Computers

 Vacuum tube - 1946-1957

 Transistor - 1958-1964
 Small scale integration - 1965 on
 Up to 100 devices on a chip
 Medium scale integration - to 1971
 100-3,000 devices on a chip
 Large scale integration - 1971-1977
 3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
 Very Large scale integration - to 1978-1991
—100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip
 Ultra Large scale integration – 1991
 Over 100.000,000 devices on a chip

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 Semiconductor Memory
In 1970 Fairchild produced the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory

Chip was about the size Could hold 256 bits of

Non-destructive Much faster than core
of a single core memory

In 1974 the price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core memory
There has been a continuing and rapid decline in Developments in memory and processor
memory cost accompanied by a corresponding technologies changed the nature of computers in
increase in physical memory density less than a decade

Since 1970 semiconductor memory has been through 13 generations

Each generation has provided four times the storage density of the previous generation, accompanied
by declining cost per bit and declining access time

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 Microprocessors
 The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
 More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer and fewer
chips were needed to construct a single computer processor

 1971 Intel developed 4004

 First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip
 Birth of microprocessor

 1972 Intel developed 8008

 First 8-bit microprocessor

 1974 Intel developed 8080

 First general purpose microprocessor
 Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

4004 8008 8080 8086 8088

Introduced 1971 1972 1974 1978 1979
5 MHz, 8 MHz, 10
Clock speeds 108 kHz 108 kHz 2 MHz 5 MHz, 8 MHz
MHz
Bus width 4 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits 8 bits
Number of
2,300 3,500 6,000 29,000 29,000
transistors
Feature size
10 8 6 3 6
(µm)
Addressable 640 Bytes 16 KB 64 KB 1 MB 1 MB
memory

1970s Intel processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
80286 386TM DX 386TM SX 486TM DX
CPU
Introduced 1982 1985 1988 1989
Clock speeds 6 MHz - 12.5 16 MHz - 33 16 MHz - 33 25 MHz - 50
MHz MHz MHz MHz
Bus width 16 bits 32 bits 16 bits 32 bits
Number of transistors
134,000 275,000 275,000 1.2 million
Feature size (µm) 1.5 1 1 0.8 - 1
Addressable
16 MB 4 GB 16 MB 4 GB
memory
Virtual
1 GB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
memory
Cache — — — 8 kB

1980s Intel processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
486TM SX Pentium Pentium Pro Pentium II
Introduced 1991 1993 1995 1997
Clock speeds 16 MHz - 33 60 MHz - 166 150 MHz - 200 200 MHz - 300
MHz MHz, MHz MHz
Bus width 32 bits 32 bits 64 bits 64 bits
Number of 1.185 million 3.1 million 5.5 million 7.5 million
transistors
Feature size (µm) 1 0.8 0.6 0.35
Addressable
4 GB 4 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
512 kB L1 and 1
Cache 8 kB 8 kB 512 kB L2
MB L2

1990s Intel processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
Core 2 Duo Core i7 EE
Pentium III Pentium 4
4960X
Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013
Clock speeds 450 - 660 MHz 1.3 - 1.8 GHz 1.06 - 1.2 GHz 4 GHz
Bus
wid 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits
th
Number of 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion
transistors
Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22
Addressable
64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2 1.5 MB L2/15
MB L3
Number of cores 1 1 2 6

Recent Intel processors

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 Evolution of Intel Microprocessors
Core 2 Duo Core i7 EE
Pentium III Pentium 4
4960X
Introduced 1999 2000 2006 2013
Clock speeds 450 - 660 MHz 1.3 - 1.8 GHz 1.06 - 1.2 GHz 4 GHz
Bus
wid 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits 64 bits
th
Number of 9.5 million 42 million 167 million 1.86 billion
transistors
Feature size (nm) 250 180 65 22
Addressable
64 GB 64 GB 64 GB 64 GB
memory
Virtual memory 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB 64 TB
Cache 512 kB L2 256 kB L2 2 MB L2 1.5 MB L2/15
MB L3
Number of cores 1 1 2 6

Recent Intel processors

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 The Evolution of the Intel x86
Architecture
 Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM architectures

 Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of design effort on

complex instruction set computers (CISCs)

 An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced instruction set

computer (RISC)

 ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of

the most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on the market

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 Highlights of the Evolution of the
Intel Product Line:
8080 8086 80286 80386 80486
• World’s first • A more • Extension of the • Intel’s first 32- • Introduced the
general- powerful 16-bit 8086 enabling bit machine use of much
purpose machine addressing a • First Intel more
microprocessor • Has an 16-MB memory processor to sophisticated
• 8-bit machine, instruction instead of just support and powerful
8-bit data path cache, or 1MB multitasking cache
to memory queue, that technology and
• Was used in the prefetches a sophisticated
first personal few instructions instruction
computer before they are pipelining
(Altair) executed • Also offered a
• The first built-in math
appearance of coprocessor
the x86
architecture
• The 8088 was a
variant of this
processor and
used in IBM’s
first personal
computer
(securing the
success of Intel

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 ARM
Refers to a processor architecture that has evolved from RISC design
principles and is used in embedded systems

Family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers designed

by ARM Holdings, Cambridge, England

Chips are high-speed processors that are known for their small die size
and low power requirements

Probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture and

indeed the most widely used processor architecture of any kind in the
world

Acorn RISC Machine/Advanced RISC Machine

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 Highlights of the Evolution of the
Intel Product Line:
Pentium
• Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow multiple instructions to execute in parallel

Pentium Pro
• Continued the move into superscalar organization with aggressive use of register renaming, branch
prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution

Pentium II
• Incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to process video, audio, and graphics
data efficiently

Pentium III
•Incorporated additional floating-point instructions
•Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE)

Pentium 4
• Includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia

Core
• First Intel x86 micro-core

Core 2
• Extends the Core architecture to 64 bits
• Core 2 Quad provides four cores on a single chip
• More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip
• An important addition to the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set

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 Embedded Systems
 The use of electronics and software within a product

 Billions of computer systems are produced each year that are

embedded within larger devices

 Today many devices that use electric power have an embedded

computing system

 Often embedded systems are tightly coupled to their

environment
 This can give rise to real-time constraints imposed by the need to
interact with the environment
 Constraints such as required speeds of motion, required precision
of measurement, and required time durations, dictate the timing of
software operations
 If multiple activities must be managed simultaneously this imposes
more complex real-time constraints

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 Embedded Systems

Possible organization of Embedded systems

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 Deeply Embedded Systems
 Subset of embedded systems

 Has a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe both by the programmer and the
user

 Uses a microcontroller rather than a microprocessor

 Is not programmable once the program logic for the device has been burned into ROM

 Has no interaction with a user

 Dedicated, single-purpose devices that detect something in the environment, perform

a basic level of processing, and then do something with the results

 Often have wireless capability and appear in networked configurations, such as

networks of sensors deployed over a large area

 Typically have extreme resource constraints in terms of memory, processor size, time,
and power consumption

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 Application Processors
versus
Embedded Operating Systems Dedicated Processors

 There are two general  Application processors

approaches to developing an  Defined by the processor’s ability
to execute complex operating
embedded operating system systems
(OS):  General-purpose in nature
 Take an existing OS and  An example is the smartphone –
the embedded system is designed
adapt it for the embedded to support numerous apps and
application perform a wide variety of functions

 Design and implement an  Dedicated processor

OS intended solely for  Is dedicated to one or a small
embedded use number of specific tasks required
by the host device
 Because such an embedded system
is dedicated to a specific task or
tasks, the processor and associated
components can be engineered to
reduce size and cost

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 The Internet of Things (IoT)
 Term that refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices, ranging from
appliances to tiny sensors

 Is primarily driven by deeply embedded devices

 Generations of deployment culminating in the IoT:

 Information technology (IT)
 PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by enterprise IT people and
primarily using wired connectivity
 Operational technology (OT)
 Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such as medical machinery,
SCADA, process control, and kiosks, bought as appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily
using wired connectivity
 Personal technology
 Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers exclusively using
wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless connectivity
 Sensor/actuator technology
 Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people exclusively using wireless
connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems

 It is the fourth generation that is usually thought of as the IoT and it is marked by the use of
billions of embedded devices

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 Cloud Computing

 NIST defines cloud computing as:

“A model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient,

on-demand network access to a shared pool of
configurable computing resources that can be
rapidly provisioned and released with minimal
management effort or service provider interaction.”

 You get economies of scale, professional network

management, and professional security management

 The individual or company only needs to pay for the storage

capacity and services they need

 Cloud provider takes care of security

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 Cloud Computing
 Refers to the networks and network management functionality that must be in place to
enable cloud computing

 One example is the provisioning of high-performance and/or high-reliability networking

between the provider and subscriber

 The collection of network capabilities required to access a cloud, including making use of
specialized services over the Internet, linking enterprise data center to a cloud, and using
firewalls and other network security devices at critical points to enforce access security
policies

Cloud Storage
 Subset of cloud computing

 Consists of database storage and database applications hosted remotely on cloud servers

 Enables small businesses and individual users to take advantage of data storage that scales
with their needs and to take advantage of a variety of database applications without having
to buy, maintain, and manage the storage assets

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 Cloud Computing

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Part 3 : Computer Performance Issues

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 Designing for Performance
 The cost of computer systems continues to drop dramatically, while the performance and capacity of
those systems continue to rise equally dramatically

 Today’s laptops have the computing power of an IBM mainframe from 10 or 15 years ago

 Processors are so inexpensive that we now have microprocessors we throw away

 Desktop applications that require the great power of today’s microprocessor-based systems include:
 Image processing
 Three-dimensional rendering
 Speech recognition
 Videoconferencing
 Multimedia authoring
 Voice and video annotation of files
 Simulation modeling

 Businesses are relying on increasingly powerful servers to handle transaction and database
processing and to support massive client/server networks that have replaced the huge mainframe
computer centers of yesteryear

 Cloud service providers use massive high-performance banks of servers to satisfy high-volume,
high-transaction-rate applications for a broad spectrum of clients

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 Microprocessor Speed
Techniques built into contemporary processors include:

• Processor moves data or instructions into a

Pipelining conceptual pipe with all stages of the pipe
processing simultaneously

• Processor looks ahead in the instruction code

fetched from memory and predicts which
branches, or groups of instructions, are likely to be
Branch prediction processed next
• This is the ability to issue more than one
Superscalar execution instruction in every processor clock cycle.
(In effect, multiple parallel pipelines are
used.)

• Processor analyzes which instructions are

Data flow analysis dependent on each other’s results, or data, to
create an optimized schedule of instructions
• Using branch prediction and data flow analysis,
some processors speculatively execute instructions
Speculative execution ahead of their actual appearance in the program
execution, holding the results in temporary
locations, keeping execution engines as busy as
possible

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 Performance Balance

Increase the number

 Adjust the organization and of bits that are
retrieved at one time
architecture to compensate by making DRAMs
“wider” rather than
for the mismatch among the “deeper” and by
using wide bus data
capabilities of the various paths

components
Reduce the frequency
 Architectural examples of memory access by
incorporating
include: increasingly complex
and efficient cache
structures between
the processor and
main memory

Change the DRAM Increase the

interface to make it interconnect
more efficient by bandwidth between
processors and
including a cache or memory by using
other buffering higher speed buses
scheme on the DRAM and a hierarchy of
chip buses to buffer and
structure data flow

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 Improvements in Chip Organization
and Architecture
 Increase hardware speed of processor
 Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size
 More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate
 Propagation time for signals reduced

 Increase size and speed of caches

 Dedicating part of processor chip
 Cache access times drop significantly

 Change processor organization and architecture

 Increase effective speed of instruction execution
 Parallelism

Prepared by: Tayachew Fikire Computer architecture & organization 65

 Problems with Clock Speed and Login
Density
 Power
 Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed
 Dissipating heat

 RC delay
 Speed at which electrons flow limited by resistance and capacitance of metal
wires connecting them
 Delay increases as the RC product increases
 As components on the chip decrease in size, the wire interconnects become
thinner, increasing resistance
 Also, the wires are closer together, increasing capacitance

 Memory latency
 Memory speeds lag processor speeds

Prepared by: Tayachew Fikire Computer architecture & organization 66

 The use of multiple
processors on the same chip
provides the potential to

Multicore increase performance

without increasing the clock
rate

Strategy is to use two simpler

processors on the chip rather
than one more complex
processor

With two processors larger

caches are justified

As caches became larger it

made performance sense to
create two and then three
levels of cache on a chip

Prepared by: Tayachew Fikire Computer architecture & organization 67