Chapter 3 SAILINGS

SAILINGS
Mathematical methods are made use of for determining the course, distance
and other relevant details of the passage between two points on the surface of
the earth. Some methods make use of plane trigonometry, while others use
spherical trigonometry.

Before moving on to actual principles and calculations involving sailings, it is

preferable to identify and explain some relevant terms.

3.1 THE TERRESTRIAL SPHERE

Spherical trigonometry is based upon a perfect sphere. Considering the Earth’s

movement in the heavens and for relational purposes, it is assigned a grid
system and reference identifiers. The reference system is based upon
arithmetic, geometric and trigonometric terminology.

The Earth is not a perfect sphere and has the shape of an oblate spheroid. The
earth spins on an Axis and the extremities of its axis are identified as Poles.
These poles are designated North and South and provide the basic direction
reference on the surface of the earth. The true directions are measured as
angles from the line(s) joining the North and South Poles. The imaginary lines
running from north to south poles are called Meridians. The meridian passing
through Greenwich is called the Prime Meridian or Greenwich Meridian and is
assigned 0º. An imaginary line divides the earth in to two halves and is called
the Equator. Meridians are perpendicular to the equator and the equator is a
great circle. Meridians are semi-great circles. Meridian on which the observer is
located is the Upper Meridian. A meridian on the other side of the Earth, i.e.,
180º away from observer, is called the Lower Meridian.

P n - P o le
P a r a l le l A

M e r id ia n B ( lo w e r ) M e r id ia n B ( u p p e r )
A

M e r id i a n A ( u p p e r ) M e r id i a n A ( l o w e r )
C
Qw C e n tr e Qe
E q u a t o r & i t s P la n e

B
P a r a lle l B

A x is

P s - P o le

F ig u r e 3 . 1 . T e r r e s t r ia l R e f e r e n c e s

A circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes through the
centre of the sphere is called the Great Circle. There is only one great circle

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Chapter 3 SAILINGS

possible through two points on the surface of the sphere, unless the points are
180º apart, i.e., the points are at two ends of a diameter, allowing infinite great
circles through the two points, e.g., meridians as great circles through poles.

A circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which does not pass through
the centre of the sphere is called a Small Circle.

Lines running East-West on the Earth’s surface, the plane of which is parallel to
the plane of the equator form small circles known as Parallels of Latitude.

3.1.1 POSITION REFERENCE

On the earth’s surface the position is referred to the plane of the equator and
the plane of the prime meridian.

Latitude of a place is the angle between the plane of the equator and the line
perpendicular to the surface of the earth at that place. It is measured north or
south of the equator from 0º to 90º. (0º is the equator and 90º points are the
poles). This is the Geographic Latitude of a Place (indicated xxº yy´.y).

V e r t i c a l a t p o in t A
A

H o r iz o n t a l a t p o i n t A
( t a n g e n t t o E a r t h 's s u r f a c e a t A )

P la n e o f E q u a to r x y
Qw Qe
C R

x - G e o c e n tr ic L a titu d e
y - G e o g r a p h ic L a titu d e

F ig u r e 3 . 2 . L a t i t u d e s

Geocentric latitude is the arc of a meridian or the angle at the centre of the
Earth between plane of the equator and line from centre of the Earth through a
parallel passing through the place.

Longitude is the arc of the equator or the angle at the poles contained between
the Prime meridian and the meridian through that place. Longitude is measured
between 0º and 180º and is named East or West depending on the relative
location East or West of the Prime meridian respectively (indicated xxxº yy´.y).

Difference in Latitude is the arc of the meridian or angle at the centre of the
Earth between the two parallels of latitude through the two places. It is named
North or South depending on the direction of second place from the first.

Difference in Longitude is the shorter arc of the equator or the smaller angle
at the pole between the meridians passing through the two places. It is named
East or West depending on the direction of second place from the first.

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Pn V ie w fr o m a b o v e N o r th P o le Pn

d .la t A ~ B B
B
A
A
la t
C Qw B la t A Qe
Qw Qe lo n g - B ( W e s t)
d .lo n g B ~ D C la t D

D B d .la t B ~ D
D D
A

lo n g - D ( E a s t )
Ps Ps
N B : I n a ll s k e t c h e s m e r id ia n t h r o u g h A i s t h e P r im e M e r i d ia n

F i g u r e 3 . 3 . L a t i t u d e , L o n g it u d e , d . l a t a n d d . l o n g

Exercise 3.1
Find the d.lat and d.long between the following pairs of positions.

A: 50º 35´ N 000º 00´

B: 61º 28´ N 013º 35´ W
d.lat 10º 53´ N d.long 13º 35´ W

B: 61º 28´ N 013º 35´ W

D: 36º 42´ S 093º 45´ E
d.lat 98º 10´ S d.long 107º 20´ E

D: 36º 42´ S 093º 45´ E

B: 61º 28´ N 013º 35´ W
d.lat 98º 10´ N d.long 107º 20´ W

B: 61º 28´ N 013º 35´ W

E: 61º 28´ N 175º 28´ E
d.lat 00º 00´ d.long 189º 03´ E
- 360º
170º 57´ W (- 170º 57´)

Remember:
d.lat
SAME NAMES – SUBTRACT
DIFFERENT NAMES – ADD
and always name it towards the direction of movement N or S.

d.long
SAME NAMES – SUBTRACT
DIFFERENT NAMES – ADD
and always name it towards the direction of movement E or W. If
result is over 180º, subtract from 360º and reverse the sign as
d.long is the shorter arc or smaller angle.

The earth’s maximum diameter is across the equator and minimum is across
the poles. The difference between these two diameters is about 24 miles and is

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Chapter 3 SAILINGS

so small compared to the average diameter of 6876 international nautical miles

that the earth may be considered a perfect sphere for most practical purposes.

3.1.2 DIRECTION REFERENCE

For navigational purposes the direction on Earth’s surface is measured as an

angle from the meridian where the observer is located. There are two commonly
used systems for indicating direction:
 Quadrantal notation
o The angles are measured from the North to East or West and
South to East or West, 0º to 90º.
 Three figure notation
o The angles are measured clockwise from the North 000º to 360º
(000º and 360º are same and indicate the direction of true North).

000º is North
045º is N 45º E
090º is East
162º is S 18º S
259º is S 79º W
312º is N 48º W

Angles are measured in degrees and minutes. For practical purposes (and
examinations), the courses should be reported to the nearest half degree.

Angle of 45º 12´ north of east is reported as 045º

Angle of 45º 35´ north of east is reported as 045º.5
Angle of 45º 48´ north of east is reported as 046º

True Course is the angle between True Meridian and the ship’s head,
measured between the meridian and the ship’s fore and aft line. Ship’s heading
should not be confused with the true charted tracks, as a correction may have
been applied to the heading.

True Bearing of an object is the angle at the observation point between True
Meridian and the line joining the observation point and the object. Ships obtain
bearings of fixed objects for plotting position, but state bearing from fixed
objects when reporting own or other positions.

Gyro compass points along the meridian to the true north, but it may develop
errors. In the absence of errors, the courses or distances measured are true.
The error needs to be known and applied. As a rule:
Gyro High Steer High
Gyro Low Steer Low

If gyro error is 2º High, and the course to steer is 315º T, the gyro course would
be 317º G. Any bearings observed would have the same error. For the same
error if a gyro bearing is 124º G, the true bearing is 122º T. Similarly, if gyro is
2º Low and the course to steer is 315º T, the gyro course would be 313º T and
a for gyro bearing of 124º G, the true bearing would be 126º T.

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Chapter 3 SAILINGS

Relative Bearing is the angle between the ships fore and aft line and the line
joining the observation point and the object. The main purpose of relative
bearings is to know where objects of interest are in relation to own ship. These
bearing can be converted into true bearings by applying ships true heading.
Relative Bearing 135º R (R is always after the degrees)
True Heading 210º T
True Bearing 345º T (if over 360º, subtract 360º)

Relative bearings can be stated from 000º to 360º relative, or 0º to 180º Red or
Green whether the object is on the port or starboard side respectively. G for
green and R for red is always used as prefix, thus R 45º is 315º R.

Magnetic meridians are the lines joining the magnetic poles of the Earth.
Magnetic poles are not at the same place as the Earth’s geographic poles,
hence there is a difference between the magnetic and geographic meridians.
The difference is measured as an angle and is known as Variation. Since the
Earth’s magnetic field is not uniform, variation is different at different places.
Further more, the Earth’s magnetic poles change constantly, the value of
variation at a place is not the same at all times. On navigational charts the value
and the annual change are stated on the compass roses or on lines of equal
magnetic variation – the isogonic lines.

T ru e M a g n e tic M a g n e t ic T r u e
N o rth N o rth N o rth N o rth

V a r ia t io n E a s t M a g n e tic M e r id ia n V a r ia tio n W e s t
a s M a g n e t ic a s M a g n e t ic
N o rth E a s t N o rth W e s t
o f T ru e N o rth o f T ru e N o rth
V a r ia tio n

G e o g r a p h ic ( t r u e ) M e r id ia n

F ig u r e 3 .4 . V a r ia tio n

As the ship is made of mild steel, the magnetism of the ship’s structure creates
a magnetic field of its own, which has an effect at the compass position. This
magnetism causes deviation of the magnetic compass needles. Deviation is
the angle between the magnetic meridian and the line joining North and South
marks on the compass card (pointing to the Compass North). Deviation is
measured East or West from magnetic north. Deviation changes with the ship’s
heading but remains the same for same heading.

Compass Error is the combined effect, i.e., the arithmetic sum, of variation and
deviation. As a rule:
Error East Compass Least
Error West Compass Best
The relationship is demonstrated in the table below and Figure 3.5
True Co Variation Magnetic Co Deviation Compass Co Compass Err
315º T 14º W 329º M 12º W 341º C 26º W
034º T 10º W 044º M 5º E 039º C 5º W

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C o m p a s s N o rth M a g n e tic N o r th
M a g n e tic N o r th C o m p a s s N o rth
C o m p a s s E rro r 2 6 º W T ru e N o rth T ru e N o rth
V a ria tio n 1 4 º W T ru e C o 0 3 4 º T
D e v ia tio n 1 2 º W
C o m p a s s E rro r 5 º W M a g n e tic C o 0 4 4 º M

T ru e C o 3 1 5 º T D e v ia tio n 5 º E C om pass C o 039º C

M a g n e tic C o 3 2 9 º M V a r ia tio n 1 0 º W

C om pass C o 341º C

F ig u r e 3 .5 . C o u r s e , V a r ia tio n , D e v ia tio n a n d C o m p a s s E r r o r

3.1.3 DISTANCES

For general navigational purposes the distances are measured in Nautical

Miles, however there are a number of different units for distance measurement.

The Sea Mile is the length of one minute of arc measured along the meridian in
the latitude of a given position. The one minute of arc (1´) subtends an angle of
1´ at the centre of curvature of that place.

a' Pn b'
X b"
a"

1´
1´ b
c
Qw Qe
c" c' 1´ a

Ps
F ig u r e 3 . 6 . T h e S e a M i l e M e a s u r e m e n t

At a given place X, the centre of curvature of the Earth is c” with the radius of
curvature as c”X. At c” an angle of 1´ subtends an arc a”-b”, with X at its middle.
The arc (a”-b”) is the sea mile in that latitude X. In Figure 3.6, the sea mile, a-b,
is shortest at the equator and is 1842.9 m. At the pole, a’-b’ is the longest and is
1861.7 m. It has a mean value of 1852.3 m at 45º latitude. A standard fixed
length of 1852.3 m is known as the International Nautical Mile. The distance is
stated in minutes of arc and the minute symbol is used to indicate it. Where
there is a fraction involved, the minute symbol should be placed before the
decimal place, thus 25.3 nautical miles is written 25´.3.

Geographical Mile is the length of 1´ of arc measured along the equator. As

the equator is a circle, the length of geographical mile is the same at 1855.4m.
The Statute Mile is a length of 1760 yards (1609.3 m) and is termed Land Mile
as well. A Kilometre equals 1000 m. (In all cases, m stands for metres)

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3.2 PARALLEL SAILING

A ship that steers 090ºT or 270ºT would not change its latitude, provided no
external forces acted on the ship. This means that the departure and arrival
positions are on the same latitude. This type of sailing is called Parallel sailing.
The distance covered by the ship can be related to change of longitude (or vice
versa) and is equal to departure between the two positions along the given
parallel of latitude.

Pn Pn E q u a to r
d .l
on

P a ra l
g

le x'
L a titu l o f L L P a r a lle l o f L a titu d e
de L a titu d e
y'
x'
L a titu d e Pn, L, C
Qw E q u a to C Qe
r C X
Y
X

d .lo
C X = C x = R a d iu s o f E a r t h

ng
L x = C X c o s L a titu d e y'
x'
Y

Ps X
F i g u r e 3 . 7 . P a r a ll e l S a i l in g

When the ship is travelling along any parallel of latitude, x´y´, the d.long is XY.
Numerically the distance x´y´ is less than XY. As an angle, x´y´ and XY are the
same, i.e., d.long is the same. CX is the radius of the earth and Lx´ is the radius
of the parallel and is equal to CX cos Latitude. The nearer the parallel of latitude
is to the pole, the shorter x´y´ becomes, i.e., at higher latitudes and becomes
zero at the pole (90º latitude).

When viewed from the pole, the equator and parallel of latitude are concentric
circles. Hence:
Arc x´y´ / Arc XY = dep / d.long = radius Lx´ / radius CX
or,
dep / d.long = radius Lx´ / radius Cx´ (as CX = Cx´ = Radius)
Since triangle CLx´ is right angled:
Lx´ / Cx´ = cos Latitude
i.e.,
dep / d.long = cos Latitude
or,
departure = d.long x cos Latitude

Parallel sailing makes use of the conversion of departure along the parallel of
latitude into difference of longitude, assuming the earth is a perfect sphere.

Example 3.2
Find the distance travelled by a ship on a course of 090º T at latitude 45º N, if
its longitude changed by 20º. Find the distance if latitude was 60º N.

20º = 20 x 60 = 1200´ of arc

For 45º N:

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dep = d.long cos Latitude

x´y´ = XY cos Latitude
dep = d.long x cos Latitude = 1200 x cos 45º
= 848´.5
For 60º N:
dep = 1200 x cos 60º
= 600´

Example 3.3
A ship in position 41º 10´ S 032º 45´ W is steering a course of 090º T at a
speed of 16 knots. Find the longitude reached after 22 hours of steaming.

Distance covered in 22 hours = 22 x 16 = 352´ = dep

d.long = dep / cos Latitude

= 352 / cos 41º 10´ = 352 / 0.752798
= 467´.6 ÷ 60 = 7º 47´.6 E (E as course is 090º T)
Longitude reached = 032º 45´ W ~ 7º 47´.6 E = 024º 57´.4 W

3.3 PLANE SAILING

Plane sailing is sailing along any rhumb line between positions that are not
situated on the same parallel of latitude or meridian of longitude. In plane sailing
the d.lat, departure, distance and course may be considered as forming the
plane right-angled triangle. Various trigonometric functions can be applied to
obtain few navigational formulae.

D e p a rtu re departure = distance x sin course

d.lat = distance x cos course

tan course = departure ÷ d.lat

d . la t

e
nc
rs e

s ta
Di

Plane sailing is a method of solving d.lat, departure,

Cou

distance and course related problems. As the earth is

not flat, plane sailing provides reasonably accurate
F i g u r e 3 . 8 . P la n e T r i a n g l e results up to a distance of 600´ only.

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 Pn

B
z f
y
e
x
d
Qw A Qe

F i g u r e 3 . 9 . P la n e S a i l i n g
Assume that in Figure 3.9 a rhumb line AB is cutting a number of parallels and
meridians, such that the parallels are an equal d.lat apart. The rhumb line cuts
the parallels at A, d, e, f and B. The meridians through the points cut the
parallels at x, y and z forming right-angled triangles Axd, dye and ezf. In these
triangles, the angles at points x, y and z are right angles. Similarly angles xAd,
yde and zef are equal and are the course angles from Pn, i.e., North Pole. As
the parallels are equal distance apart, lines Ax, dy and ez are also equal in
length.

It is evident that the small triangles are equal in all respects. Since the
triangles are very small, these may be considered as plane right-angled
triangles. In triangle Axd:

For d.lat
Ax = Ad x cos course
multiples of Ax = multiples of Ad x cos course
d.lat = distance x cos course
For departure
xd = Ad x sin course
multiples of xd = multiples of Ad x sin course
dep = distance x sin course
For course
tan course = xd / Ax (or multiples of xd , Ax)
tan course = departure / d.lat

Example 3.4
Find the distance travelled and course steered by a ship that has moved 45´
to the south and 30´ to the west of its initial position.

Here d.lat = 45´ and dep = 30´

tan course = dep / d.lat = 30 / 45 = 0.66667
course = 33º.7 or = S 33º.5 W = 213º.5 T

distance = d.lat ÷ cos course = 45 ÷ cos 33.7 = 54´.1

Example 3.5
If a ship covers a distance of 35´ in a general north easterly direction and
changes its latitude by 20´, find the course that it has steered.

d.lat = distance x cos course

20 = 35 x cos course
cos course = 20 / 35 = 0.57143
course = 55º.1 = N 55º E or 055º T

3.3.1 USE OF MEAN LATITUDE

The earth’s surface is not flat. When a ship is on a rhumb line, other than in a
north-south or east-west direction, the method of calculating the position
reached needs to take into account the curvature of the earth’s surface.

In Figure 3.10, for a rhumb line between positions A and B, the d.long is a”b”.
The departure along the parallel through A is Ab’ and departure through
parallel of B is a’B. As can be seen Ab’ is larger than a’B.
Pn

B
c' a' d'
d
c b'

Qw A Qe
b"

a"
F ig u r e 3 .1 0 . M e a n L a t itu d e

To be able to calculate correctly the position of B, the departure from A to B

should be along a parallel between that of A and B, lets say c’d’.

Where latitudes of A and B are not too high and the d.lat between A and B is
fairly small, this departure can be taken as the latitude at the mathematical
mean between latitudes of A and B, i.e., cd, and is called the Mean Latitude.
Using:
cd = a”b” x cos a”c (a”c = b”d)
departure = d.long x cos mean latitude

As stated earlier, plane sailing should not be applied for distances exceeding
600´. The above formula lacks mathematical accuracy, except where A and B
are on the same parallel of latitude. In low latitudes, the discrepancy due to
curvature of the earth is less. Nautical tables make reference to Middle
Latitude, which is the Corrected Mean Latitude between two parallels, say
c’d’. It is particularly useful in high latitudes as the mere use of Mean Latitude
in these conditions may result in an increased discrepancy in position.
For corrected mean lat:
sec Lat = DMP / d.lat (minutes of arc)

Example 3.6
If a ship departs from position 24º 30´ N 038º 20´ W for 22º 45´ N 039º 35´ W,
Calculate the course and distance travelled by the ship.

24º 30´ N 038º 20´ W

22º 40´ N 039º 35´ W
d.lat = 01º 50´ S dep = 001º 15´ W
(110´) (75´)
mean lat = ½ (24º 30´ + 22º 40´) N = 23º 35´ N

dep = d.long x cos mean lat

= 75 x cos 23º 35´
dep = 68´.74 W

tan course = dep / d.lat = 68.74 / 110 = 0.62487

course = S 32º W = 212º T

distance = d.lat / cos course = 110 / cos 32º = 129´.7

Example 3.7
If a ship departs from position 34º 20´ S 040º 30´ W on a course of 033ºT for
350´, determine the position reached.

d.lat = distance x cos course

= 350 x cos 33 = 293´.5 = 04º 53´.5 N
arrived lat = 34º 20´ S ~ 04º 53´.5 N = 29º 26´.5 S

mean lat = ½ (34º 20´ + 29º 26´.5) S = 31º 53´.25S

dep = distance x sin course

= 350 x sin 33 = 190´.6236623

d.long = dep / cos mean lat

= 190´.6236623 ÷ cos31º 53´.25
= 224´.5 ÷ 60 = 3º 44´.5 E

arrived long = 040º 30´ W ~ 3º 44´.5 E = 036º 45´.5 W

3.3.2 APPLICATION OF TRAVERSE SAILING

Where a ship sails on a number of consecutive legs; the combination is

known as traverse sailing. The individual legs of the ship’s track form part
(hypotenuse) of the plane right-angled triangles. Traverse table can be used
to obtain d.lat and departure for any course for any distance up to 600´. It can
also be used to convert departure to d.long or vice versa. More accurate
results can be obtained using plane sailing formulae through calculation.
Calculation helps avoid the need for interpolation between sets of figures as
opposed to traverse table. Traverse sailing can be very useful where the ship
has steered various legs in a day’s work.

Determination of the final position is achieved by working out the net d.lat and
departure from the start position. This is achievable through a tabular
presentation as demonstrated in Example 4.7.

Example 3.8
A ship in position 22º 30´ N 061º 40´ E at 1230, is engaged in an exercise and
steers the following courses and speeds for the stated time intervals.
Time Interval Course Speed
1230 – 1300 155º T 14 kts
1300 – 1315 030º T 10 kts
1315 – 1345 340º T 16 kts
1345 – 1430 270º T 10 kts
Determine the ship’s position at 1430, if a current of 040ºT at 3 knots is
known to be setting through out.
net dep
1430 EP
M e r id ia n o r y a x is
ts
3k
@
T

n e t d . la t
0º
04
nt
rre
Cu

1345
1430 D R 2 7 0 º T @ 1 0 k ts

P a r a lle l o f L a t o r x a x is 1230
340
ºT @
16 k
155

ts
ºT @
12

1315
k ts

k ts
10
@
0 ºT

F ig u r e 3 . 1 1 . D a y s W o r k ( E x a m p le 3 . 8 ) 1300
03

Time Course Speed Dist d.lat dep

N S E W
1230 – 1300 155º T 14 kts 7´ 6´.3 3´.0
1300 – 1315 030º T 10 Kts 2´.5 2´.2 1´.3
1315 - 1345 340º T 16 kts 8´ 7´.5 2´.7
1345 - 1430 270º T 10 kts 7´.5 0 0 7´.5
Current – 2 hrs 040º T 3 kts 6´ 4´.6 3´.9
Total 14´.3 6´.3 8´.2 10´.2
 Net d.lat = 8´.0 N Net dep = 2´.0 W

arrived lat = 22º 30´ N ~ 00º 8´.0 N = 22º 38´ N

mean lat = ½ (22º 30´ + 22º 38´) = 22º 34´ N
d.long = 0º 2´.2 W
arrived long = 061º 40´ E ~ 0º 2´.2 W = 061º 37´.8 E

Position at 1430 = 22º 38´ N 061º 37´.8 E

The example above has been solved by using traverse table. Accuracy can
be improved by the use of calculator. If required, additional columns can be
added to the above table, e.g., leeway.

3.4 MERCATOR SAILING

The determination of position reached after sailing along a rhumb line over a
long distance that changes the latitude and longitude simultaneously, i.e., in
directions other than north-south or east-west, has to allow for curvature of
the earth. A method known as Mercator Sailing that makes use of the
difference of meridional parts (DMP) instead of d.lat and d.long instead of
departure provides greater accuracy.

Meridional parts can be obtained from nautical tables. These can be worked
out (for the sphere) using the formula:

Meridional parts = 7915.7045 log10 tan (45º + Latitudeº / 2)

The formulae for working out Mercator course and distance are:

tan course = d.long / DMP

distance = d.lat x sec course (using calculator, which

can register the course to at least six decimal places) or
distance = d.lat / cos course

distance = dep x cosec course (using tables –

especially when course is 60º to 90º, dep should be from corrected
mean latitude)

Example 3.9
Determine the Mercator course and distance between 20º 24´ S 057º 26´ E
and 34º 10´ S 112º 28´ E.
Lat MP Long
Departure position: 20º 24´ S 1242.56 057º 26´ E
Arrived position: 34º 10´ S 2170.41 112º 28´ E
d.lat 13º 46´ S DMP 927.85 d.long 055º 02´ E
(826´) (3302´)

tan course = d.long / DMP = 3302 / 927.85 = 3.558765

 course angle = 74º.30482997
course (to 0º.5) = S 74º.5 E = 105º.5 T

distance = d.lat / cos course = 826 / cos 74º.30482997

= 3053´.4 or 3053´ (to nearest mile)

Example 3.10
If a ship departs from position 46º 14´ N 125º 36´ W on a course of 237º T
and covers 7076´, find the position reached.

course = 237º T = S 57º W

d.lat = distance x cos course = 7076 x cos 57º
= 3853´.9 = 64º 13´.9 S

arrived lat = 46º 14´ N ~ 64º 13´.9 S = 17º 59´.9 S

departure lat 46º 14´.0 N MP 3118.83

arrived lat 17º 59´.9 S MP 1090.885
DMP 4209.715
d.long = tan course x DMP = tan 57º x 4209.715
= 6482´.4 = 108º 02´.4 W

departure long = 125º 36´.0 W

d.long = 108º 02´.4 W
= 233º 38´.4 W
- 360º
arrived long = 126º 21´.6 E
(Subtraction for 360 has only been done because the result was above 180º)

3.5 GREAT CIRCLE SAILING

A great circle is a circle on the surface of a sphere, the plane of which passes
through the centre of the sphere. The great circle divides the sphere into two.

Great circle happens to be the most direct route between two places on the
Earth’s surface. The shorter arc of the great circle between the two places is
the shortest distance between these places. It is identified as arc AB in Figure
3.12. On the surface of the sphere this arc/circle through A and B has the
greatest radius and hence the least curvature.
 Pn
C o -L a t B
d .lo n g = P 1
F Co

tA
B

-L a
rc
e A
ir c l

Co
Co
tC Lat B
re a

In
G
A C
Qw LatA C e n tre Qe
E q u a to r

Ps
F ig u r e 3 .1 2 . G r e a t C ir c le

It is only advantageous to use great circles where the latitudes are high and
d.long is significant. The saving in distance may not be significant in low
latitudes, or with a smaller d.long, or when crossing the equator. However
there are other reasons for using great circle for routing ships. These could be
for avoiding adverse currents or winds, or for taking advantage of favourable
winds or currents.
The calculations involving great circles are solutions of the spherical triangles
with Pole, A and B as its three corners. Spherical triangles have a few
properties, which include:
 All sides are less than 180º
 All angles are less than 180º
 The sum of three angles is more than 180º, but less than 540º
 The largest angle is opposite to the longest side
 The smallest angle is opposite the shortest side
 The sum of any two sides is always greater than the length of the third
side

 In all the great circle calculations, the Earth is assumed to be a perfect

sphere.

In the formulae employed in this section, where two letters are used a side is
indicated and where a single letter is used, it indicates an angle. The three
angles and sides of the spherical triangle are:
P1 d.long
A Initial Course angle
B Final Course angle
PA Co-lat A (It is an arc of meridian through point A)
PB Co-lat B (It is an arc of meridian through point B)
AB Distance (It is an arc of a great circle through points A and B)

The direction of d.long, East or West, should be determined carefully as it is a

component of the course. The calculations are performed relative to one of
the poles, North or South. This pole is referred to as the elevated pole. If both
the latitudes are in the same hemisphere, the pole of that hemisphere is
selected as the elevated pole. Whereas if the latitudes are in different
hemispheres, calculations can be performed from any pole, but it is preferred
to work from the pole of the hemisphere which has the starting position in it,
as naming the initial course would be convenient. Figure 3.13 illustrates the
elevated poles and working of Co-latitudes, PA and PB.

Pn Pn E le v a t e d P o le - S o u t h E le v a t e d P o le - S o u t h
PA = 90 - Lat A PA = 90 + Lat A
PB = 90 - Lat B A PB = 90 - Lat B
A
B A
E le v a t e d P o l e - N o r t h E le v a t e d P o le - N o r t h
PA = 90 - Lat A PA = 90 - Lat A A B B
PB = 90 - Lat B PB = 90 + Lat B B

Ps Ps
F i g u r e 3 . 1 3 . E le v a t e d P o le s

3.5.1 DISTANCE

The cosine method can be employed for distance calculation when using a
scientific calculator.

cos AB = sin PA sin PB cos P1 + cos PA cos PB

The above formula can be adapted using latitudes directly, avoiding the need
for applying co-latitudes, as follows:

cos AB = cos lat A cos lat B cos P1 ± sin lat A sin lat B

If latitudes are in the same hemisphere – ADD (use +), and if the latitudes are
in different hemispheres – SUBTRACT (use -).

While working with calculator, it is recommended that all decimal places be

used in calculations and the final result saved in memory or recorded
accurately, as it may be used for subsequent calculations. Generally 5
decimal places give adequate precision, the problem may arise when shifting
the figures from calculator to the paper and vice versa. If the calculator comes
up with a minus sign (-) during the calculations, it should not be disregarded.

Using Haversine formula:

hav AB = hav P1 sin PA sin PB + hav (PA ~ PB)

In all cases the arc AB is calculated in degrees and minutes. The result
should be multiplied by 60 to obtain the distance in nautical miles. The
distance as an answer should be reported to the nearest mile, but the full
value of AB should be used for subsequent calculations, as for the course
calculations.

3.5.2 COURSES
Course – Initial:

cos A = cos PB – cos PA cos AB

sin PA sin AB

Course – Final:

cos B = cos PA – cos PB cos AB

sin PB sin AB

The course angle in a spherical triangle is an interior angle between the

meridian and the great circle track. Depending upon the method of working, it
is related to the pole from which co-lat is applied in a cosine formula.

Pn

M e r id ia n M e r id ia n
d .lo n g = P 1 F in a l C o u r s e A n g le

x F in a l C o u r s e
z
F in a l C o u r s e A n g le x
B y
F in a l C o u r s e y A
B
A x = y x = y z = 180 - x

F ig u r e 3 .1 4 . C o u s e s a n d A n g le s
The navigator has to have the knowledge and skills to convert the interior
angles to Initial and Final Courses. Few basics of geometry are helpful here.
Where two straight lines intersect, opposite angles are equal (x = y in Figure
3.14) and sum of adjacent angles is 180º (x + z = 180º, or z = 180º - x).

If position A is in the Northern hemisphere, with North pole as the elevated

pole, and an initial course angle is 45º, the courses would be 045ºT (N45ºE)
for an East d.long or 315ºT (N45ºW) for a West d.long. If the same angle
happens to be 120ºT, the courses would be 120ºT (S60ºE) for an East d.long
or 240ºT (S60ºW) for a West d.long.

If the final course angle is 45º with a North elevated pole, the final course
would be 135ºT (S45ºE) for an East d.long or 225ºT (S45ºW) for a West
d,long. The sketches in figure 3.15 illustrate different scenarios. When doing
sketches, the meridian of vertex should be drawn as a perpendicular, with
other positions relative to it.
 V e r t e x a f t e r t h e e n d p o s it i o n V e r t e x b e tw e e n s ta r t a n d e n d p o s itio n s V e r t e x b e f o r e s t a r t p o s i t io n

Pn Pn Pn

E a s t d .lo n g

> 90º > 90º

< 90º
Vn Vn Vn
< 90º B < 90º SE SE A < 90º

N o r th e r n H e m is p h e r e
NE B
NE NE SE
A A B

Pn Pn Pn
W e s t d .lo n g

> 90º > 90º

< 90º
Vn Vn < 90º < 90º Vn
B < 90º SW A
NW B SW
NW A SW
NW A B

A SE A SE NE B
SE NE B NE
B
Vs A
E a s t d .lo n g

< 90º Vs Vs < 90º

< 90º
> 90º < 90º
> 90º

S o u th e r n H e m is p h e r e
Ps Ps Ps

SW A A B NW
SW
SW NW
B NW
B < 90º < 90º A
Vs Vs < 90º Vs
W e s t d .lo n g

> 90º < 90º > 90º

Ps Ps Ps

F i g u r e 3 . 1 5 . N a m in g o f G r e a t C i r c l e C o u r s e s

Courses can be determined using the A B C method:

Initial Course: Final Course:

A = tan lat A ÷ tan P1 A = tan lat B ÷ tan P1
B = tan lat B ÷ sin P1 B = tan lat A ÷ sin P1
C=A±B C=A± B
tan Co =1÷ (C cos lat A) tan Co =1÷ (C cos lat B)
(Lat A and B, Same Names Sum, Different Names Difference)

With this method the courses can be named conveniently based upon sign of
C and d.long. In all cases courses should be reported to nearest half degree.
But for subsequent calculations the full value should be used, say the vertex
calculation.

3.5.3 NAPIER’S RULES and TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

 sin of Middle Parts = Product of tan of Adjacent Parts
sin of Middle Parts = Product of cos of Opposite Parts

sin θ = cos (90º - θ) [sin = sine]

cos θ = sin (90º - θ) [cos = cosine]
tan θ = cot (90º - θ) [tan = tangent]
cot θ = tan (90º - θ) [cot = cotangent]
tan θ = 1 ÷ cot θ
tan θ = 1 ÷ tan (90º - θ)
Effort has been made to work all examples with sine, cosine and tangent only.

3.5.4 VERTEX

Vertex is the point along the great circle that is nearest to the pole in the
respective hemisphere, i.e., it is the point where the great circle reaches the
maximum latitude. Each great circle, other than equator, has two vertices –
one in the northern hemisphere VN and one in the southern hemisphere V S. At
the vertex, the course angle is 90º, i.e., 090ºT or 270ºT, dependent upon the
direction of d.long. Vertex is noted as latitude and longitude. Both vertices are
180º apart in longitude.

Pn

P1
P3
P2

I n t e r io r
A n g le E x t e r io r
Vn A n g le

B A

Qw Qe
Q1

F ig u r e 3 .1 6 . V e r t e x a n d E q u a t o r C r o s s in g

In triangle PAV; PA and initial course A are known. d.long APV = P2 needs to
be determined to find the longitude and PV needs to be determined to find the
latitude. In the cartwheel sketch, values have been entered clockwise from V.
Co – stands for complement (90º - angle). It is important to use PA and A for
both calculations – d.long and latitude of vertex – and not any other quantity
that has been determined during the vertex calculation. Any error in the
working would be carried forward to the result.

Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of cos of opposite parts
In T r ia n g le P A V ( P = P n o r P s )
V
sin PV = cos (co - PA) x cos (co - A)
? sin PV = cos lat A x sin A
AV PV
cos lat V = cos lat A x sin A
Co - ?
A P2
PA

cos lat V = cos lat A x sin A

Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of tan of adjacent parts

sin (co – PA) = tan (co – P2) x tan (co - A)

cos PA = cot P2 x cot A
tan P2 = 1
sin lat A x tan A

tan P2 = 1
sin lat A x tan A

If vertex is to be worked relative to position B, the latitude B and the final

course should be used in the above formulae.

Pn Pn Pn

Vn Vn C o u rs e a t E q Vn
C r o s s in g
90 - Lat V

Q1
Qw C C Qw C L a titu d e V
Q2 Q1
Q2 Qe
Qe

Vs Vs Vs

Ps Ps Ps
3 D V ie w V ie w f r o m t h e V e r t e x M e r id ia n V ie w 9 0 º f r o m t h e V e r t e x M e r i d ia n
F i g u r e 3 . 1 7 . R e l a t io n s h ip o f G r e a t C ir c l e V e r t e i c e s a n d E q u a t o r C r o s s i n g

Having calculated one vertex, other can simply be determined by reversing

the sign of latitude and applying a d.long of 180º to the meridian of the first
vertex (and not changing sign of longitude, unless one longitude is 090º).
3.5.5 CROSSING THE EQUATOR

Each great circle, other than equator, crosses the equator at two points.
These points are 180º apart in longitude and are at 90º in longitude from
either vertex.
 Vn

180º

Q1
Q2 Q2
90º 90º 90º 90º

Vs

180º 180º
F i g u r e 3 . 1 8 . G r e a t C i r c l e V e r t ic e s a n d E q u a t o r C r o s s i n g

If the vertex is known, this point is at a d.long of 90° from the vertex longitude.
Care has to be taken to apply the d.long in the correct direction east or west
of the vertex meridian.

3.5.5.1 Longitude of Equator Crossing

However, if vertex is not required, the longitude can be determined directly. In
triangle PAQ1 in Figure 3.16, PA is known and so is the initial course angle A.
In this case a side of 90º is being used with Napier’s Rules. The result may
have to be taken off from 180º in order to obtain the correct meridian East or
West of position A (see Example 3.12). Note that course A is an exterior
angle. In case where course A is the interior angle of the triangle (where
crossing point lays on the track between A and B – see Example 3.11), a
minus ( - ) should be applied to the right hand side of the equation. The angle
(P3) so obtained is the d.long between A and Q 1 and the direction is always
from A to Q1.

Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of tan of adjacent parts

I n T r ia n g l e P A Q 1 ( P = P n o r P s ) sin (co – PA) = ( - ) tan P3 x tan (Co - A)

PQ1 cos PA = ( - ) tan P3 x cot A
tan P3 = ( - ) cos PA ÷ cot A
? ?
P3 PQ 1A tan P3 = ( - ) sin lat A x tan A

PA Q 1A
A

tan d.long P3 = ( - ) sin lat A x tan A

d.long APQ1 = P3 should be applied to longitude of A to obtain longitude

where great circle track crosses the equator.

3.5.5.2 Course at Equator Crossing

If the vertex is known, this course is 90° minus latitude of vertex. Care has to
be taken when naming the course; in the correct direction of progress of track.
For example, when crossing from N to S with E d.long, course = S xxº E.
However, if vertex is not required, the course can be determined directly. In
triangle PAQ1, PA is known and so is the initial course angle A.

Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of cos of opposite parts

sin PQ1A = cos (co - PA) x cos (co - A)

sin PQ1A = cos lat A x sin A

sin PQ1A = cos lat A x sin A

3.5.6 LATITUDE AT A MERIDIAN

The great circle track is transferred to a Mercator chart as a series of short

rhumb lines. For this reason, meridians are selected with a d.long of 5º to 10º,
depending upon the speed of the ship. Latitudes are determined for these
meridians using Napier’s Rules.
Pn

P x1
P x2

Vn X1
X2
B A

Qw Qe

F i g u r e 3 . 1 9 . G r e a t C ir c l e W a y p o in t s

In triangle PVX, PV is known (co-lat of Vertex). The second value known is

d.long between longitude of the vertex and the longitude of the meridian in
question, i.e., angle VPX = PX. The side PX needs to be determined, which is
the co-lat of the parallel at X.

Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of tan of adjacent parts

I n T r ia n g l e P A Q 1 ( P = P n o r P s )

V (V = V n o r V s )
sin (co - PX) = tan PV x tan (co - PX)
VX PV
cos PX = tan PV x tan lat X
tan lat X = cos PX x tan lat V

PXV ? Px
PX

(X = X 1 o r X 2 , e tc )

tan lat X = cos d.longPX x tan lat V

The above method makes use of the position of vertex. In a particular
question if vertex is not required to be worked out, a direct formula can be
used to obtain this latitude.

tan lat X = (tan lat A x sin d’long BX ) + / - (tan lat B x sin d’long AX)
sin d’long AB

Latitudes same names : use plus. Latitudes different names : use minus

Example 3.11
A ship in position 04º 45´ N, 081º 13´ W, is to follow a great circle track to 41º
48´ S, 176º 35´ E. Find:
Distance
Initial and Final Courses
Position of Vertex in the Southern hemisphere
Longitude where GC crosses the equator
Course when GC crosses the equator
Latitude where GC crosses the 120º W meridian.

A Lat 04º 45´ N PA 85º 15´ Long 081º 13´ W

B Lat 41º 48´ S PB 131º 48´ Long 176º 35´ E
d.long (P1) 102º 12´ W

P2
Pn P1
P3 Vs B

Px
X

Px
P1
Q1 Pn
A P2
A
P3
Qe & Q1
Qw
M e r id ia n
P r im e

X
V i e w f r o m P n t o V i s u a l is e t h e M e r i d i a n s
B
Vs
F ig u r e 3 .2 0 . S k e tc h E x a m p le 3 .1 1 .

Distance
cos AB= (sin PA sin PB cos P1) + (cos PA cos PB)
= (sin 85º 15´ sin 131º 48´ cos 102º 12´) + (cos 85º 15´ cos 138º 48´)
= - 0.21219086
AB = 102.2507733 = 102 15.05 x 60 = 6135´.1

Dist = 6135´

Initial Course
cos A = cos PB – cos PA cos AB
sin PA sin AB
 = [cos 131º 48´ – (cos 85º 15´ cos 102º 15´.05)]
÷ (sin 85º 15´ sin 102º 15´.05)
= -0.666372396
A = 131º.7876982 = 131º 47´.3
Course = 132º T or S 48º W

Using A B C:
A = tan lat A = tan 04º 45´ = -0.01796547N
tan d.long P1 tan 102º 12´
B = tan lat B = tan 41º 48´ = 0.914762279S
sin d.long P1 sin 102º 12´
C = A~B = - 0.896796808 S
tan Co A = 1 = 1
C x cos lat A 0.932727749 x cos 4º 45´
= 1.118922731
= 48º 12´.7
Course = S 48º W

Final Course
cos B = cos PA – cos PB cos AB
sin PB sin AB
= [cos 85º 15´ – (cos 131º 48´ cos 102º 15´.05)]
÷ (sin 131º 48´ sin 102º 15´.05)
= - 0.080471926
B = 94º 36´.9 (this is the interior angle. Exterior angle = 180º - 94º 36.9)
= 85º 23´.1
Course = 274º.5 T or N 85º.5 W

Using A B C:
A = tan lat B = tan 41º 48´ = - 0.193311952N
tan d.long P1 tan 102º 12´
B = tan lat A = tan 04º 45´ = 0.085013547N
sin d.long P1 sin 102º 12´
C = A~B = - 0.108298405 N
tan Co B = 1 = 1
C x cos lat B -0.108298404 x cos 41º 48´
= - 12.38637637
= - 85º 23´.1 ( - sign indicates that it is an exterior angle)
Course = N 85º.5 W

Vertex
cos lat V = cos lat A x sin A
= cos 04º 45´ x sin 131º.7876982
= 0.74305834
lat VS = 42º 00´.4 S

tan P2 = 1
sin lat A x tan A

= 1
 sin 4º 45´ x tan 131º.7876982
= - 10.79261029
= - 84º 42´.4 ( - sign indicates it is an exterior angle)
= 84º 42´.4 E
long VS = 081´ 13´ W ~ (180º – 84º 42´.4) (to apply westerly)
= 176º 30´.6 W

Longitude at Equator crossing

tan d.long P3 = - sin lat A x tan A
= - sin 4º 45´ x tan 131º.7876982
= 0.09265599
= 5º 17´.6 W (see 3.5.5.1)
long Q1 = 081´ 13´ W ~ 5º 17´.6 W
= 086º 30´.6 W

Check from Vertex Meridian:

= 176º 30´.6 W ~ 90º = 086º 30´.6 W

Course at Equator crossing

sin PQA = cos lat A x sin A
= cos 4º 45´ x sin 131º.7876982
= 0.743058264
= 47º 59´.6
course = S 48º W
Check from Vertex Latitude:
= 90º ~ 42º 00´.4 S = S 47º 59´.6 W = S 48º W

Latitude at 120º W
d.long PX = Vertex meridian ~ 120º W
= 176º 30´.6 W ~ 120º W = 56º 30´.6
tan lat X = cos d.long PX x tan lat V
= cos 56º 30´.6 x tan 42º 00´.4
= 0.496951508
lat X = 26º 25´.5 S

These problems can be worked out using templates which only require entry
of figures into cells. The templates can be created on computer spreadsheets
as well.

Example 3.12
A ship has to follow a great circle track from 32º 54´ N, 141º 48´ E to 36º 42´
N, 120º 37´ W. Calculate the distance, initial and final courses, position of
vertex and the latitude where the track crosses the 180º meridian.
 3.6 COMPOSITE GREAT CIRCLE

There are occasions when a limit is imposed on a ship, or master may not
want to proceed to higher latitude. In order to obtain the shortest possible
distance, a composite route is followed, which is a combination of one or two
great circle legs and a parallel leg.

The limits on the maximum latitude a ship may sail to may be imposed due to:

 Load Lines
 Charter Party Clauses
 Insurance – Trading Warranties
 Crew Agreement Clauses
 Routing advice
 Recommended route
 Need to avoid dangers
 Need to avoid unfavourable weather

The limiting latitude happens to be the vertex of the great circles. Since the
course at the vertex is 90º, the Napier’s Rules may be used to perform
calculations.
Pn

In T r ia n g le P A V 1 ( P = P n o r P s )
P3 P1
P2 V1
L im it i n g
?
V2 L a t it u d e V1
AV1 PV1
A
B ? Co - ?
A P1
PA

Qw Qe
F ig u r e 3 . 2 1 . C o m p o s i t e G r e a t C i r c l e

In triangle PAV1, sides PA and PV1 are known. Side AV1 gives the first
distance, angle A the initial course and angle P1 the d.long. Remember to only
work with PV1 and PA.

For distance:
Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of cos of opposite parts
sin (co - PA) = cos PV1 x cos AV1
cos AV1 = cos PA ÷ cos PV1
cos AV1 = sin lat A ÷ sin lat V1

cos AV1 = sin lat A

sin lat V1
For course:
Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of cos of opposite parts
sin PV 1 = cos (co - PA) x cos (co - A)
cos lat V1 = sin PA x sin A
sin A = cos lat V1
cos lat A

sin A = cos lat V1

cos lat A

For d.long:
Using Napier’s Rule: sin mid part = product of tan of adjacent parts
sin (co – P1) = tan PV1 x tan (co - PA)
cos P1 = cotan lat V1 x cotan PA
cos P1 = tan lat A
tan lat V1
cos P1 = tan lat A
tan lat V1

Readers should attempt to derive equations for triangle PBV2. In this case the
d.long would be the angle P3.

The third leg, V1V2, can be calculated using the parallel sailing formula.
d.long P2 = d.long P – (P1 + P3)
distance V1V2 (dep) = d.long P2 x cos limiting lat

Total distance AB = AV1 + V1V2 + V2B

Example 3.13
Find the distance, initial course and final course along the composite great
circle track between Cape Agulhas (34º 54´ S, 020º 01´ E) and Cape Leewin
(34º 26´ S, 115º 04´ E) applying 40º S as limiting latitude.
cos AV1 = sin lat A cos BV2 = sin lat B
sin lat V1 sin lat V2
= sin 34º 54´ ÷ sin 40º = sin 34º 26´ ÷ sin 40º
= 0.890100967 = 0.879679276
= 27º 06´.8 = 28º 23´.8
Distance = 1626´.8 Distance = 1703´.8

sin A = cos lat V1 sin B = cos lat V2

cos lat A cos lat B
= cos 40º ÷ cos 34º 54´ = cos 40º ÷ cos 34º 26´
= 0.934027545 = 0.928781131
= 69º 04´.3 = 68º 14´.7
Course = S 69º E Course = N 68º E

cos P1 = tan lat A cos P3 = tan lat B

tan lat V1 tan lat V2
= tan 34º 54´ ÷ tan 40º = tan 34º 26´ ÷ tan 40º
= 0.831378821 = 0.817029513
= 33º 45´.5 E = 35º 12´.7 W
d.long P2 = d.long P – (P1 + P3)
= 95º 03´ – (33º 45´.5 + 35º 12´.7)
= 26º 04´.8
distance V1V2 (dep) = d.long P2 x cos limiting lat
= (26º 04´.8 x 60) x cos 40º
= 1198´.7
Total distance AB = AV1 + V1V2 + V2B
= 1626´.8 + 1198´.7 + 1703´.8 = 4529´.3
= 4529´

3.7 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

3.7.1 USE OF GNOMONIC CHART

Gnomonic charts are based upon perspective projection of the surface on to the
tangent plane of the sphere. These charts are for polar-regions, high latitudes
covering ocean areas and port plans.

A straight line drawn on a gnomonic chart represents a great circle. The

meridians will not be parallel unless the tangent point of projection is on the
equator. As the meridians are at an angle, rhumb lines will not appear as
straight lines. Similarly angles are also distorted, except at the tangent point of
the projection.

The ocean charts cover a very large area and are of a small scale. The
graduations are different and need care when plotting or reading off position.
Meridians and parallels are drawn as solid lines at five degree intervals. The
intersections of intermediate meridians or parallels are indicated by crosses at
their junction points. Some charts have 30´ marked as dots. In Figure 3.22, the
position of 36º 30´ S, 020º 15´ E has been plotted.

36º 30´ S

020º 15´ E

Figure 3.22. Position on Gnomonic Chart

Gnomonic chart is a valuable tool for deciding on the route to be taken without
performing calculations. Once the track is plotted on a gnomonic chart, the
master and navigators can see at a glance the maximum latitude to be reached
and whether the track would take the ship close to any charted hazards. It can
also be seen whether the limiting latitude is being crossed or not.
 B
A
Figure 3.23. Plotting of Great Circle and Composite Tracks
A great circle track from Position A: 36º 30´ S, 020º 15´ E to Position B: 35º 30´ S, 136º 30´ E is created by joining A to B with a
straight line. It would be noticed that the maximum latitude reached is 54º 10´ S.
Example 3.14

A composite great circle track between the same positions with limiting latitude of 40º S, reaches the parallel at 052º 30´ E and
leaves it at 105º 30´ E. These points should only be used to make routing decisions. When calculating distances on these
routes, the calculations should be performed using the appropriate formulae.
In case of composite tracks, the points where the limiting latitude will be joined
and left on a composite great circle track can be identified. As the scale of the
charts is very small, the tangents to the limiting latitude parallel should be drawn
with care. When reading the longitude in case of vertex, if it is not possible to
make out the meridian, then two pints where the track cuts a common parallel
should be marked carefully. The longitude of these marks should be
determined. The required meridian is half the d.long between these two
meridians. In no chase should a linear measurement be used to determine the
longitude.

104º 20´ E
T ra c k
100º 30´ E
R e q u ir e d v a l u e 1 0 2 º 2 5 ´ E
P a r a lle l

F ig u r e 3 . 2 4 . S e le c t in g t h e r e q u ir e d m e r id ia n o f V e r te x

Once the route has been decided, the gnomonic chart can assist with plotting
the selected great circle or composite route to a Mercator chart. After deciding
on the d.long interval, the latitudes can be read off from the gnomonic chart. It is
good practice to select the whole longitude degrees at 5º or 10º intervals and
not a d.long from the start position. These waypoints can then be transferred to
Mercator chart for plotting of a succession of small rhumb lines. It is very
important to know the route the ship would be following even on small scale
ocean charts. It is poor practice to follow GPS bearing to next waypoint without
having any route plotted on an ocean chart. The plotting of tracks on the charts
is always done after careful scan of the charts for hazards. Similarly, the
practice to use Mercator plotting sheets for position fixing instead of the
navigational chart on ocean passages should never be allowed.

095º E 100º E 105º E 11 0 º E

F i g u r e 3 . 2 5 . W a y p o i n t s o n M e r c a t o r C h a r t f o r p lo t t i n g R h u m b L i n e T r a c k s

3.7.2 MODIFYING THE ROUTES

It may be necessary to modify the recommended route in order to comply with

over riding operational conditions.

Example 3.14
A ship is on a voyage from Brisbane (Australia) to Valparaiso (Chile). The
master wishes to take advantage of the shortest possible route without
contravening Load Line Rules. The ship is loaded to the Summer marks. 245
tonnes of fuel and water must be consumed, before the ship can enter the
Winter zone at 33ºS. The ship has a service speed of 16 knots and consumes
25 tonnes of fuel and water per day.

Departure position 26º 49´ S 153º 10´ E

Landfall position 33º 00´ S 071º 37´ W

Calculate the shortest legal distance for the voyage.

V1 X B

P2
P1 P3

Ps
F ig u r e 3 .2 6 . S k e tc h E x a m p le 3 .1 4

Time required to consume 245 tonnes = 245 / 25 = 9.8 days

Distance to be travelled in this time = 9.8 x 24 x 16 = 3763´.2

For distance:
cos AV1 = sin lat A
sin lat V1
cos AV1 = sin 26º 49´ / sin 33º = 0.828323229
AV1 = 34º 04´.4 x 60 = 2044´.4

For d.long:
cos P1 = tan lat A
tan lat V1
cos P1 = tan 26º 49´ / tan 33º = 0.77840407
P1 = 38º 53´.1 E

Remaining distance to sail along parallel of 33º S = 3763´.2 – 2044´.4

= 1718.8

d.long (P2) = dep / cos lat = 1718´.8 / cos 33º = 2049´.4 = 34º 09´.4 E

long X = long A ~ (P1 + P2) = 153º 10´ E ~ (38º 53´.1 + 34º 09´.4)
= 226º 12´.5 – 360º =133º 47´.5 W

PX = 90º – 33º 00´ = 57º

PB = 90º – 33º 00´ = 57º
P3 = 133º 47´.5 W ~ 71º 37´ W = 62º 10´.5

cos XB = (cos P3 x sin PX x sin PB) + (cos PX x cos PB)

= 0.624944715
 XB = 51º 19´.3 x 60 = 3079´.3

Distance = 3763´.2 + 3079´.3 = 6842´.5

Answer = 6843´

Note: The landfall position latitude and the limiting latitude are the same. Some
individuals make the mistake of continuing to proceed along the parallel of
latitude. Remember that parallel is not a great circle and hence is not short.
However, if this question involved limiting latitude other than for Load Line
reasons, then the only choice would have been to proceed along the parallel,
once it was reached after the first composite great circle leg.

Example 3.15
A ship has to undertake a passage from Cape Town (33º 53´ S, 018º 26´ E) to
Adelaide, South Australia (34º 38´ S, 138º 23´ E), through South Indian Ocean
during the month of January. The charter party limits the ship from crossing the
parallel of 40 S. Identify the route to be followed from extract of Ocean
Passages and calculate the distance on the route in compliance with CP
instructions.
C a pe Tow n
A d e l a id e
A X

M 40º S S

S t o A d e l a i d e - R e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s G r e a t C ir c le .
R o u t e m o d i f ie d - X t o A d e l a id e - C o m p o s i t e
a n d M t o X P a r a lle l
Ps
F ig u r e 3 . 2 7 . S k e t c h E x a m p l e 3 . 1 5

The ship proceeds to WPT A (36º 45´ S, 019º 00´ E) and thence to WPT M (40º
00´ S, 055º 00´ E) following rhumb lines. From WPT M, the ship proceeds along
the parallel of 40º S up to the point when it can follow the last leg as a
composite great circle.

Note: Since the ship cannot cross 40º S parallel, WPT S is not really material. It
would be appropriate to determine a new point from where to commence the
final composite great circle leg. Once this new point is known, the d.long
between WPT M and this new point can be used to determine the parallel
distance. A little thought given to the problem and sketch can help avoid a few
unnecessary steps.

Leg 1
Cape Town 33º 53´ S 018º 26´ E
WPT A 36º 45´ S 019º 00´ E
d.lat 02º 52´ S, d.long 000º 34´ E
172´ 34´

Mean lat = 33º 53´ S + ½ (02º 52´) = 35º 19´ S

dep = d.long x cos Mean lat = 34 x cos 35º 19´ = 27´.74

tan co = dep / d.lat = 27´.74 / 172´ = 0.161296289

Co = S 9º.162680246 E

Distance = d.lat / cos co = 172´ / cos 9º.162680246 = 174.2

Leg 2
WPT A 36º 45´ S MP 2359.87 019º 00´ E
WPT M 40º 00´ S MP 2607.64 055º 00´ E
d.lat 03º 15´ S DMP 247.77 d.long 036º 00´ E
(195´) (2160´)

tan co = d.long / DMP = 2160´ / 247.77 = 8.717762441

Co = S 83º.45629729 E

Distance = d.lat / cos co = 195´ / cos 83º.45629729 = 1711´.1

Leg 3
cos P3 = tan lat B
tan lat V2
= tan 34º 38´ / tan 40º = 0.823159436
P3 = 34º 35´.9 W

Long of point = 138º 23´ E ~ 34º 35´.9 W = 103º 47´.1 E

d.long leg 3 = 103º 47´.1 E ~ 055º 00´ E = 48º 47´.1 (x 60) = 2927´.1

Distance (dep) = d.long x cos lat = 2927´.1 x cos 40º = 2242´.3

Leg 4
cos BV2 = sin lat B
sin lat V2
= sin 34º 38´ / sin 40º = 0.884152901

BV2 = 27º.85254331 (x 60) = 1671´.2 Distance = 1671´.2

Total distance = 174´.2 + 1711´.1 + 2242´.3 + 1671´.2 = 5798´.8 = 5799´

CONCLUSION

This chapter has covered the calculations involved in sailings, along with few
practical hints. It is very important to practice these and learn the calculations.
The results of calculations and plotting are an essential element of the planning
of the route.