July 14

2003

Strategies and Techniques for Designers,

Developers, and Managers of eLearning

T H I S W E E K — M A N A G E M E N T S T R AT E G I E S

We know that learn-

High Attrition Rates in e-Learning:
ers frequently do
Challenges, Predictors, and not complete online
Solutions courses. Reasons
BY MARGARET MARTINEZ offered range from
ou’ve probably heard that people drop out of e-Learning “e-Learning is e-Bor-

Y at very high rates and that nobody knows what to do

about it. But the last part of that statement isn’t really
true. Some organizations and some researchers do know what
to do about it, and we can all benefit from their experience. Let
ing” to “they got
what they needed
and quit.” This arti-
cle explores another
me give you an example.
The University of Phoenix has built its commercial success, possible reason, a
in part, by understanding important learner considerations, mismatch between
especially social issues. Here’s what William Symonds had to learning orientation
say recently about Phoenix Online, in a Business Week article and e-Learning
published in June, 2003: 65% of its learners go on to graduate.”
“... Phoenix Online realized that inter- Clearly, it is important to anticipate design. Use these
action with humans — the professor and issues that cause learners to quit
other learners in the class — was far e-Learning without completing the objec- ideas to develop
more important to success than interac- tives, and to deal with those issues
tion with the digital content. Thus, effectively. Successfully reducing the
your own attrition
Phoenix Online keeps its classes small, dropout rate allows better allocation of
averaging just 11 learners. And to com- delivery resources as well as providing
management plan!
bat the Achilles heel of distance educa- improved return on investment.
tion — a high dropout rate — it offers its Learner attrition and retention (the two
learners plenty of hand-holding, including halves of the drop-out problem) are not A publication of
round-the-clock tech support. The result: Continued on next page

W W W. E L E A R N I N G G U I L D . C O M
 MANAGEMENT / strategies
new challenges. Most colleges and uni- information needed to apply these per-
versities routinely face them, especially sonalization principles and to develop an
Publisher David Holcombe with first-year students who are often attrition management plan for e-Learning
unprepared for self-directed learning. It in your organization.
Editorial Director Heidi Fisk may be a surprise to learn that half of all
Editor Bill Brandon
freshmen today drop out before complet- Introduction
Copy Editor Charles Holcombe
ing their programs. Now, outside the Keeping online learners engaged and
Design Director Nancy Marland world of academia, trainers are finding enrolled is a tough challenge. The reality
that requiring a higher degree of self- is that many learners who function well
The eLearning Guild™ Advisory Board
Ruth Clark, Conrad Gottfredson, John Hartnett, motivation or self-direction in e-Learning in classrooms are not ready for online
Bill Horton, Kevin Moore, Eric Parks, Brenda Pfaus is also associated with higher attrition learning. Typical learners have developed
Marc Rosenberg, Allison Rossett and lower retention. People drop out, a classroom learning ability over time.
and we wonder, “Why?” They know how to interact with teachers
We can learn much from the retention and with other students, and they know
Copyright 2003. The eLearning Developers’ Journal™. how to take tests.
research conducted for universities and
Compilation copyright by The eLearning Guild 2003. All
rights reserved. Please contact The eLearning Guild for colleges. In these institutions, research- Online, learners require an expanded
reprint permission. ers have been able to identify common set of skills to be successful. In the
The eLearning Developers’ Journal is published weekly predictors that correlate completion with same vein, trainers need a different kind
by The eLearning Guild, 525 College Avenue, Suite learner characteristics, experiences, and of design and teaching perspective for
215, Santa Rosa, CA 95404. Phone: 707.566.8990. settings. Many universities and colleges the online world, in contrast to the class-
The eLearning Guild is an operating unit of Focuszone room. These are two sides of the same
have developed attrition management
Media, Inc., 1030 Beatrice Street, Eagan, MN 55121.
plans in order to better understand and coin.
The Journal is included as part of Guild membership. address the dropout problem. Solutions Until the advent of online learning, it
To join the Guild go to www.eLearningGuild.com.
found in higher education have improved was enough to design primarily cognitive-
retention through analysis and placement based solutions, driven by the ways peo-
of students, collaboration between ple process information, and to rely on
The eLearning Developers’ Journal™ is design- administrative departments, learner the instructor to provide the personal
ed to serve the industry as a catalyst for inno- advice and management, and curriculum touch during delivery. Something similar
vation and as a vehicle for the dissemination of to that personal touch is even more
integration.
new and practical strategies and techniques for
Any organization can create an attrition important online. Research suggests
e-Learning designers, developers and man-
management plan to incorporate such that e-Learning outcomes, including com-
agers. The Journal is not intended to be the
solutions, tailored as necessary to gov- pletion rate, improve when the instruc-
definitive authority. Rather, it is intended
ernment or private enterprise situations. tional presentation adapts to the learn-
to be a medium through which e-Learning practi-
tioners can share their knowledge, expertise Such a plan will coordinate strategies for er’s aptitude, expectations, and person-
and experience with others for the general implementation, delivery, and progress ality.
betterment of the industry. measurement across entire learner popu- Good classroom trainers intuitively pay
As in any profession, there are many differ- lations. But plans adapted from higher attention to key human factors, and
J U LY 1 4 , 2 0 0 3 / T H E E L E A R N I N G D E V E L O P E R S ’ J O U R N A L

ent perspectives about the best strategies, education can now be made better. adjust content, presentation, and other
techniques and tools one can employ to accom- e-Learning designs that accommodate factors as needed to promote learning.
plish a specific objective. This Journal will share individual learner profiles through “per- Trainers receive important cues from
these different perspectives and does not posi- sonalization” principles further reduce learner emotions, and from expressions
tion any one as “the right way,” but rather we online dropouts. Recent neuroscience of learner intent. Learner persistence is
position each article as “one of the right ways” advances support the notion of these something that has to be inspired and
for accomplishing a goal. We assume that profiles. Personalization complements nurtured throughout the learning and
readers will evaluate the merits of each article and extends more traditional approach- teaching experience. Online, of course,
and use the ideas they contain in a manner es, including attrition management plans. the usual cues to learner emotions are
appropriate for their specific situation. We Cost-effective technologies exist to iden- not available to an instructor or to an
encourage discussion and debate about articles tify and support key success attributes e-Learning application.
and provide an Online Discussion board for that are important to a learning audi-
each article. ence, and to tap into self-motivation and Definitions
The articles contained in the Journal are all Definitions are important in this dis-
self-direction. Through these technolo-
written by people who are actively engaged in cussion, so here are three terms that
gies, it is possible to identify at-risk
this profession at one level or another — not
learners, improve the quality of the learn- you will see throughout the next few
by paid journalists or writers. Submissions are
ing experience for every student, get the pages.
always welcome at any time, as are sugges-
right message and the right tools to each Attrition refers to a decrease in the
tions for articles and future topics. To learn
person at the right time, and encourage number of learners or students engaged
more about how to submit articles and/or
ideas, please refer to the directions in the side- learner achievement and continuing per- in some course of study. This course of
bar on page 6 or visit www.eLearningGuild.com. formance improvement. study might be a degree plan, or it might
2

This article provides the background simply be a standalone online course.

 MANAGEMENT / strategies
Attrition takes place when a learner
leaves the course of study, for any rea-
son. Institutions of higher learning often
differentiate between the “dropout,” who
never returns and never completes the
course of study, the “stopout,” who
leaves but comes back later to finish,
and the “attainer,” who leaves before
completion but who has nonetheless
achieved some personal goal — a spe-
cific skill, for example. In other settings
(business or government), these distinc-
tions may be made less often. Under-
standing the differences, and identifying
examples of each kind of attrition, could
be useful information in many organiza-
tions in guiding improvement efforts.
Retention refers to the number of
learners or students who progress from
one part of an educational program to
the next. In higher education, this is nor-
mally measured as enrollment from aca-
demic year to academic year. In other
settings, retention may simply be the
inverse of the attrition rate. It may be
defined as the number of learners who FIGURE 1 Tinto’s Retention Model (Adapted by Stephen W. Draper from Tinto, V. (1975)
progress from one module to the next, or Dropout from Higher Education: A Theoretical Synthesis of Recent Research, Review
from one certification to the next. of Educational Research vol.45, pp.89-125.)
Persistence relates to the act of con-
tinuing toward an educational goal. In ongoing analysis of the audience must the cause of withdrawal.
higher education, a “persister” is simply go so far as to determine why some of There is, as yet, no consistent view
one who achieves a degree or certificate the learners are less persistent, suc- among educators of the key factors.
and graduates “on time.” In other institu- cessful, self-directed, or motivated than However, over time, various attrition
tions, persistence may not be the term others. models have been proposed. One of
of choice, and instead the issue is sim- Designers must also understand how these is more often used than the oth-
ply the number of individuals who com- to apply the specific strategies, derived ers, comes close to being a working
plete the required course, modules, or from new research, that support and fos- standard, and forms the basis (or at

T H E E L E A R N I N G D E V E L O P E R S ’ J O U R N A L / J U LY 1 4 , 2 0 0 3
criterion tests. ter greater persistence and self-motiva- least the point of departure) for many
tion. This approach will help to identify attrition management efforts.
Learning design and attrition issues “at risk” learners and provide the solu-
Successful e-Learning designers, tions, interactions, and environments Tinto’s model
instructors, and trainers know that online that will eliminate or minimize the demo- Vincent Tinto’s model is commonly ref-
instruction can encourage persistence tivating elements. If the design is caus- erenced in the learner retention/dropout
and reduce attrition, to the extent that ing attrition because it frustrates or literature. (See Figure 1, above.) The
the design and implementation recognize drains interest, analysis will make this model’s concept is that of “integration”
and tap into how individuals may want to obvious. of multiple influences on attrition. The
learn. Unfortunately, many of today’s model claims that whether a learner per-
e-Learning designs lack appropriate per- Attrition management in higher sists is strongly predicted by that learn-
sonalized support that will help individu- education er’s degree of academic and social inte-
als manage their online experience, stay Traditional theories addressing learner gration.
motivated to finish the course, and learn attrition at institutions of higher learning
satisfactorily. consider various issues, characteristics Attrition management examples
Personality issues must be considered and settings. These usually include There are a number of guidelines and
from the very beginning of the e-Learning demographics, ethnicity, family, econom- examples of attrition management plans
design process, during planning and ics, experiences, background, and relat- and strategies available on the Web.
analysis. An analysis is inadequate if it ed variables. Additionally, studies often Several are included in the sidebar on
does not determine the key personality cite personal reasons such as family page 8. These are:
attributes and sources for learning differ- problems, finances, child care, distrac- • An Examination of the Retention
3

ences in the learner population. The tions, and job needs and demands as Literature and Application in Learner
 MANAGEMENT / strategies
Success (Harvey-Smith, 2002) • Key programs, facilities, and resources ry, and brain development that govern
• Community College Survey of Learner • Measures and accountability specific aspects of learning success.
Engagement (CCSSE, 2003) Emotion and intention to learn are pow-
• Retention Revisited (Seidman, 1996). Where do current attrition erful forces — on these two depend how
• Strategic Plan (MSU-Bottineau management plans fall short? well individuals purposefully manage
Administrative Council, 2003) The literature to date does not provide information, plan, and set and accom-
• Strategic Retention Planning (University strong proof or good tests of retention plish goals. These are consistent find-
of Memphis, 2002) and attrition theory. Additional considera- ings in the research. Ultimately, these
tion and integration of important neurobi- are the factors that influence learner per-
Attrition management framework ological characteristics, such as locus of sistence, attrition, and retention.
An attrition management plan should control or goal orientation, is needed.
deal with retention issues based on a Note that most of the examples avail- Whole-brain perspectives
coherent framework combined with a able on the Web do not consider individ- Recent research highlights the strong
more effective method for measuring ual learning differences; they assume impact of three additional factors on per-
progress. An overview of the framework that “one size fits all.” This type of untar- sistence and performance, namely an
should provide a reliable definition of geted approach wastes resources. What individual’s independence, goal orienta-
retention. The framework should link is needed is an integration of convention- tion, and locus of control. These charac-
business or academic strategy and priori- al models offering a more evolved under- teristics also impact factors commonly
ty to a strategy for learning, develop- standing of individual learning differ- associated with learner retention and
ment, and evaluation, and then to a ences based on neurobiological founda- attrition, including engagement, expecta-
learning blueprint. Aspects of the frame- tions. Research is suggesting that locus tions, motivation, self-direction, and atti-
work should include the following ele- of control, measured by Julian Rotter’s tude. Studies are beginning to show that
ments: Locus of Control scale (see the Readings these three factors can be used to dis-
• Business or academic strategy and in the sidebar), is a significant predictor tinguish learners who complete courses
change vision of academic persistence. In my opinion, from those who do not.
• Organization principles, needs, leaving the differing aspects of learner The neurobiology of learning and mem-
resources, and priorities control out of the discussion is an impor- ory is the source of learning differences,
• Individual and team needs tant omission. including differences in persistence.
• Stakeholders goals, priorities and Emotions (e.g., fear, frustration, passion,
needs Learning orientations motivation, and happiness) and inten-
• Key processes, interactions, and Neuroscientists are helping us identify tions (e.g., will, striving, and commit-
activities individual differences in learning, memo- ment) greatly impact personality charac-

San Francisco, California • November 12 — 14, 2003 Pre-Conference Workshops November 11, 2003

The program is divided into three core practice areas that

J U LY 1 4 , 2 0 0 3 / T H E E L E A R N I N G D E V E L O P E R S ’ J O U R N A L

mirror the three main roles that e-Learning producers are

engaged in — Designer | Developer | Manager. The Program
Committee, comprised of volunteer Guild Members, has iden-
tified the most critical topics that address these areas and
those topics will be the focus of all our General Sessions,
Think Tank Sessions, Concurrent Sessions and optional
Pre-Conference Workshops.
Every session is designed to allow time to hear from the
experts, debate and discuss with your peers and explore
The Essential Conference for e-Learning topics to their fullest. In addition to the structured time you
will spend learning in the sessions, you will also have ample
Designers, Developers, and Managers opportunity to network with the other participants in morning
discussion groups, over lunch, and during social activities.
The size and format of the conference will help you develop
important professional connections during the conference
that you can continue in the months and years to follow.

The annual conference of...

Workshop descriptions online now!
Visit www.eLearningGuild.com
4
 MANAGEMENT / strategies
teristics — including locus of control
TABLE 1 Learning orientations model
as well as how learners persist to meet
goals, learn and perform tasks, and Transforming learners
succeed. Transforming learners deliberately use personal strengths, deep desires, strong
An important concept: Locus of emotions, persistent and assertive effort, and sophisticated, abstract or holistic
control thinking ability and strategies to self-manage learning successfully.

Some researchers describe locus of http://www.trainingplace.com/loq/pop_trans1.htm

control as a concept that considers how
some people feel that they have high Performing learners
control of managing their lives (an inter- Performing learners are lower-risk, semi-skilled to skilled learners who rationally,
nal locus of control) while other people systematically, and capably use psychological processes, strategies, preferences,
feel that they must rely on forces outside and self-regulated learning skills to achieve learning objectives and tasks. In con-
of themselves (an external locus of con- trast to transforming learners, performing learners are more selective about how
trol). hard they work on learning goals. They prefer focusing on the process and steps
People with a strong internal locus of towards attaining worthwhile, to them, goals.
control tend to be highly motivated, and
believe that they can make a difference http://www.trainingplace.com/loq/pop_perf1.htm
in the outcome of a situation. Those with
a strong external locus of control see Conforming learners
their lives as being directed by luck and
Compared to transforming or performing learners, conforming learners are comply-
forces outside of their control. They may
ing learners who prefer to more passively accept knowledge, store it, and reproduce
believe that change brings risk and fear
it to conform, follow simple steps to complete assigned tasks, and please others.
of the unknown; they may blame others
for the outcomes of their behavior. While http://www.trainingplace.com/loq/pop_conf1.htm
most people fall in a range between the
two, several researchers have found that Resistant learners
drop-outs scored higher in external locus
In contrast to the other three learning orientations, resistant learners lack a fun-
of control, that is, they felt they were
damental belief that (1) achieving learning objectives set by others is of any value
more controlled by external events.
or worth the effort, (2) they can learn and enjoy achieving goals set by others, or
Learning orientation model (3) academic learning and achievement can help them achieve personal goals or
initiate desired changes. A resistant learner’s personal goals strongly conflict
Learning orientation theory (summa-
with learning goals set by others.
rized at http://www.trainingplace.com/
source/research/overview.htm) repre- http://www.trainingplace.com/loq/pop_resist1.htm
sents human learning variability from a
whole-brain perspective. Learning orienta-

T H E E L E A R N I N G D E V E L O P E R S ’ J O U R N A L / J U LY 1 4 , 2 0 0 3
tions represent a comprehensive set of Conforming, and Resistant. These orien- to negative or positive responses, condi-
psychological factors (conative, affective, tations describe the range of learning tions, resources, results, expectations,
cognitive, and social) that influence how approaches (e.g., differing locus of con- and experiences.
individuals approach learning. (Editor’s trol) within any learner population. They
Note: See Dr. Martinez’ article, “What are summarized in Table 1, above. Extending the attrition
is Personalized Learning?” in The You can find more learning orienta- management model
eLearning Developers’ Journal, May 7, tions research information at http:// What additional considerations are
2002.) This perspective is more robust www.trainingplace.com/source/research there when implementing an attrition
than the primarily cognitive explanations /index.html management plan? With the long-term
of learning differences (e.g., learning These profiles show the degree to goal to reduce attrition, such a plan
styles) because it highlights the domi- which learners, following beliefs, values, should also improve learner motivation,
nant developing, guiding, and managing emotions, and intentions to learn, gener- independence, persistence, satisfaction
influences of emotions and intentions on ally commit effort and self-manage the and accomplishment. It is important to
cognitive and social processes. Personal- learning process to attain goals, monitor find the right balance between maximiz-
ization without including a whole-person or assess learning progress, and use ing individualized learning opportunities
neurological foundation is unsatisfactory reflection to improve future learning and accomplishment of business, educa-
and incomplete. opportunities. Depending on the specific tional, and performance goals. It is not
The Learning orientation model (sum- learning circumstances and the individ- enough to simply talk about attrition and
marized at http://www.trainingplace.com ual’s ability, a learner may cover a range persistence problems! These problems
/source/research/lomatrix.htm) pres- of tasks with a single learning orientation should be managed with a formalized
ents profiles for four dominant learning or they may move downwards or upwards attrition management plan offering tar-
5

orientations: Transforming, Performing, on the table of orientations in response geted strategies for implementation,
 MANAGEMENT / strategies
management, and measured progress. whole-brain activity, learning processes, The next step is to use the “brain
When developing models for today’s and social interactions. This is to be research” foundations to develop an
more personalized online learning, there done in the context of instructional attrition management plan. In other
are two steps to take. The first is to goals, learner purpose, motivation, inde- words, consider those “personalization
explore, understand, and use some of pendence, persistence, and self-direct- characteristics” that particularly impact
the new information about extraordinary ed learning. attrition and persistence. This plan
should provide a framework within which
one can analyze and differentiate audi-
ences, identify key success attributes,
Do you have an predictors, and retention issues, track
attrition rates, and provide and evaluate
interesting story to tell? solutions that support retention and min-
imize attrition.

What to cover in an attrition man-

Get It Published in... agement plan for e-Learning
The plan should cover key points,
including strategies to:
• Consider the impact of emotions and
intentions on learning, persistence,
and self-motivation to learn.
• Identify causes for non-completion.
• Determine predictors that correlate
learner settings, situations, and char-
This publication is by the people, for the people. acteristics (e.g., independence, self-
That means it’s written by YOU the readers and members of The eLearning Guild! direction, and self-motivation) with
We encourage you to submit articles for publication in the Journal. learner retention, accomplishment, and
Even if you have not been published before, we encourage you to submit a query completion of courses and academic
if you have a great idea, technique, case study or practice to share with your peers programs. For example, frequency and
in the e-Learning community. If your topic idea for an article is selected by the edi- quality of contact with faculty, staff,
tors, you will be asked to submit a complete article on that topic. Don’t worry if you and peers has repeatedly been shown
have limited experience writing for publication. Our team of editors will work with to be a good predictor of learner per-
you to polish your article and get it ready for publication in the Journal. sistence for learners with low locus of
By sharing your expertise with the readers of the Journal, you not only add to the control or conforming learners.
• Implement and manage the transition
collective knowledge of the e-Learning community, you also gain the recognition of
from instructor-led to online learning.
your peers in the industry and your organization.
• Predict and track potential and actual
J U LY 1 4 , 2 0 0 3 / T H E E L E A R N I N G D E V E L O P E R S ’ J O U R N A L

How to Submit a Query persistence with some accuracy.

• Apply results to improve policy making,
If you have an idea for an article, send a plain-text email to our editor,
budgets, and resource allocation.
Bill Brandon, at bill@eLearningGuild.com, with the following information in the body
• Improve and direct curriculum and
of the email:
learner support programs towards
• A draft of the first paragraph, written to grab the reader’s attention and identify improved quality, increased enrollment,
the problem or issue that will be addressed. and learner retention (e.g., transition
• A short outline of your main points addressing the problem or resolving the programs, counseling, and support for
issue. This could be another paragraph or it could be a bulleted list. special populations).

• One paragraph on your background or current position that makes you the one
A good attrition management plan needs to:
to tell this story. • Be flexible enough to change as the
• A working title for the article. needs change.
• Your contact information: name, job title, company, phone, email. This informa- • Ensure that the plan’s substance and
tion is to be for the writer of the article. We are unable to accept queries from foundation is the learner.
agents, public relations firms, or other third parties. • Ensure positive workplace, learning,
and social settings — in which learn-
All of this information should fit on one page. If the topic fits our editorial plan, Bill ers and learning is valued.
will contact you to schedule the manuscript deadline and the • Measure and report to management,
publication date, and to work out any other details. learners, and stakeholders.
• Represent core values and expected
6

Refer to www.eLearningGuild.com for more details.

outcomes.
 MANAGEMENT / strategies
Summary and recommendations ly matters, instructors, finances, full-time
jobs, dissatisfaction, and lack of direc-
e-Learning requires a higher degree of
self-motivation, self-directed learning,
Personalization com- tion or reasons to complete.
Today, non-traditional attrition studies
and greater persistence and commitment plements and extends more are considering the impact of psychologi-
from the learner. These requirements
cal factors (such as locus of control and
can create the serious problem of high traditional approaches, goal orientation) on persistence (i.e.,
attrition rates and costs if not recognized
goal-directed behavior). In the new mod-
and managed strategically. Too many including attrition manage- els, the traditional factors associated
learners lack adequate preparation for
with retention and attrition may become
the rigors of e-Learning and are less like- ment plans. Cost-effective secondary or contributing factors (albeit
ly to complete programs or courses. A
still important factors).
better understanding of “at risk” learners technologies exist to identi- The whole-person factors are being
is critical.
studied as a primary or dominant influ-
Over the years, many models of per- fy and support key success ence on persistence. For example, highly
sistence have evolved to address attri-
goal-oriented learners persist and seek
tion and retention issues, particularly attributes that are impor- education as a means to accomplish
focusing on learner’s reasons for drop-
specific objectives and accomplish-
ping out. These models, primarily univer- tant to a learning audience, ments. In contrast, “at risk” learners
sity- and college-based, examine which
have lower levels of persistence towards
factors relate to persistence. Identified and to tap into self-motiva- completion. With the growing recognition
as predictors, these factors are the typi-
about the need for targeted learner sup-
cal reasons learners give for dropping tion and self-direction. port or remedies for more personalized
out, including ability, academic and fami-
Continued on page 9

The eLearning Guild’s Advisory Board

A leading organization needs focused leadership. The eLearning Guild is proud to have the
support and guidance of these industry leaders serving on its Advisory Board:

T H E E L E A R N I N G D E V E L O P E R S ’ J O U R N A L / J U LY 1 4 , 2 0 0 3
Ruth Clark Conrad Gottfredson John Hartnett Bill Horton Kevin C. Moore
Author and Principal, Principal President Author and Principal Co-Founder
Clark Training & Conduit Tecknowledgy BlueMissile, Inc. William Horton Tier 1 Performance
Consulting Consulting Solutions

Eric Parks Marc J. Rosenberg Allison Rossett Brenda Pfaus

President President Professor and Author President
ASK International, Marc Rosenberg and San Diego State Spectra Interactive
Inc. Associates University Learning
7
 MANAGEMENT / strategies

SIDEBAR References and readings

References
Martinez, M. (2002). What is Personalized Learning? The eLearning Martinez, M. & Bunderson, C. (2001). Foundations for Personalized
Developer’s Journal, May 7, 2002, 1-7. Web Learning Environments. Journal of Asychronous Learning
Networks, 4(2). Retrieved June 20, 2003, from http://www.aln.org/
Tinto, V. (1993). Taking Learner Retention Seriously: Rethinking the publications/magazine/v4n2/bunderson.asp
First Year of College. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved June 20,
2003, from http://soeweb.syr.edu/Faculty/Vtinto/Files/ Martinez, M. (2003a). Learning Orientations Research (Overview).
AACRAOSpeech.pdf Retrieved June 20, 2003, from http://www.trainingplace.com/
source/research/overview.htm

Readings Martinez, M. (2003b). Learning Orientations Model: Descriptions for

Four Learning Orientations. Retrieved June 20, 2003, from
Cahill, L. & McGaugh, J. (1998). Mechanisms of Emotional Arousal and
http://www.trainingplace.com/source/research/lomatrix.htm
Lasting Declarative Memory, Trends in Neurosciences, 21, 294-299.

MSU-Bottineau Administrative Council (2003). Strategic Plan. Retrieved

Cronbach, L. & Snow, R. (1977). Aptitudes and Instructional Methods:
June 20, 2003, from http://www.misu-b.nodak.edu/Strategic_Plan-
A Handbook for Research on Interactions. New York: Irvington
2003.doc
Publishers.

Parker, A. (1999). A Study of Variables that Predict Dropout from

Community College Survey of Learner Engagement (CCSSE, 2003).
Distance Education. International Journal of Educational Technology,
Newsletters. Retrieved June 20, 2003, from
1(2). Retrieved June 20, 2003, from http://www.ao.uiuc.edu/
http://www.ccsse.org/retention/highlights.html
ijet/v1n2/parker/index.html
Davidson, R. (2000). Cognitive Neuroscience Needs Affective
Parker, A. (2002). Identifying Predictors of Academic Persistence in
Neuroscience (and Vice Versa). Brain and Cognition, 42, 89-92.
Distance Education. United States Distance Learning Journall, 17(1).
Retrieved June 20, 2003, from http://www.usdla.org/
Dille, B. & Mezack, M. (1991). Identifying Predictors of High Risk
html/journal/JAN03_Issue/article06.html
Among Community College Telecourse Learners. The American Journal
of Distance Education, 5(1), 24-35.
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8
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