Review Article: Aerogels in Aerospace: An Overview

Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2013, Article ID 406065, 18 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/406065
Review Article
Aerogels in Aerospace: An Overview
Nadiir Bheekhun,1 Abd. Rahim Abu Talib,1 and Mohd Roshdi Hassan2
1
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Propulsion and Thermofluids Group, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
2
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Correspondence should be addressed to Nadiir Bheekhun; minadiir@gmail.com
Received 2 May 2013; Revised 10 September 2013; Accepted 10 September 2013
Academic Editor: Zhimin Liu
Copyright © 2013 Nadiir Bheekhun et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
Aerogels are highly porous structures prepared via a sol-gel process and supercritical drying technology. Among the classes of
aerogels, silica aerogel exhibits the most remarkable physical properties, possessing lower density, thermal conductivity, refractive
index, and dielectric constant than any solids. Its acoustical property is such that it can absorb the sound waves reducing speed to
100 m/s compared to 332 m/s for air. However, when it comes to commercialization, the result is not as expected. It seems that mass
production, particularly in the aerospace industry, has dawdled behind. This paper highlights the evolution of aerogels in general
and discusses the functions and significances of silica aerogel in previous astronautical applications. Future outer-space applications
have been proposed as per the current research trend. Finally, the implementation of conventional silica aerogel in aeronautics is
argued with an alternative known as Maerogel.
1. Introduction the thermal behavior of granular- and fiber-based silica aero-

gel and its composites [9–13]. Despite all these efforts, silica
Aerogels are nanoporous light materials consisting of an
aerogel has been applied only for scientific motives in the
open-cell network with numerous exceptional characteristics
aerospace industry. NASA has conducted many astronautical
which intrigue the intuition of scholars in various areas of
missions using this type of aerogel as a hypervelocity particle
science and technology. Their range of applications is almost
illimitable, tracing their way in different branches such as capture and thermal insulator. The aviation world, both civil
thermal and acoustical insulation, kinetic energy absorption, and military, can also be a promising market niche. For exam-
electronics, optics, chemistry, and biomedicine amongst oth- ple, with the ever-increasing energy consumption and the
ers [1–5]. Within the classes of aerogels, silica aerogel, which is rapidly growing interest from governments around the globe
the porous nanostructured form of silica dioxide, exhibits the for renewable energy sources, high performance thermal
most fascinating properties such as low thermal conductivity insulation materials are required.
(∼0.015 W/mK), low bulk density (∼0.1 g/cm3 ), optical trans- Why silica aerogel is not chosen as a candidate to resolve
parency in the visible spectrum (∼99%), high specific surface this problem? Why the applications remain unrealized in this
area (∼1000 m2 /g), low dielectric constant (∼1.0-2.0), low sector? To the authors’ knowledge, there is no available liter-
refractive index (∼1.05), low sound velocity (100 m/s), and ature that discusses the potential applications of silica aerogel
hydrophobicity [6–8]. This unique combination of character- in the aerospace sector with regards to commercialization.
istics is due to their microstructures consisting of nanosized This paper highlights the evolution of aerogels in general and
pores. discusses the functions and significances of silica aerogel in
Considerable number of papers has been published dur- previous astronautical applications. Future outer-space appli-
ing the past two decades showing not only the enthusiasm cations have been proposed as per the current research trend.
but also the scientific understanding of these nanostructures. Finally, the implementation of conventional silica aerogel in
Today, one of the most focusing areas is the modeling of aeronautics is argued with an alternative known as Maerogel.
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering
using tetrachloride in 1960s. Since then, there were no inter-

ests in aerogels due to the tedious and time-consuming pro-
cedures involved in the synthesis of aerogels and the high
manufacturing cost.
Consequently, commercialization lagged behind by a long
time until in 1968 when a group of researchers headed by
Teichner and Nicoloan in France reformulated a simpler
preparation by applying the sol-gel chemistry to silica aerogel
preparation thereby replacing waterglass used by Kistler with
tetramethyl orthosilicate (TMOS), an alkoxysilane, which
was then removed at supercritical conditions [21]. Aerogels
of silica (SiO2 ), alumina (Al2 O3 ), titania (TiO2 ), zirconia
(ZrO2 ), magnesium oxide (MgO), and combinations of
ZrO2 -MgO, Al2 O3 -MgO, and TiO2 -MgO were produced.
While using that route, these oxides of aerogel were observed
to exhibit higher values in terms of textural characteristics
compared to the ones obtained through the original method.
The surface area was also greater than their corresponding
Figure 1: Matches on aerogel over a flame [17]. pure oxide aerogels [22]. This accomplishment triggered a
new revolution in the science and technology world leading
to intensive studies on this nanoage material. The first sci-
2. Evolution of Aerogels entific application of aerogels was the Cherenkov radiation
detector, developed by Cantin et al. in 1974. Subsequently,
Aerogel, nicknamed as the “blue smoke” or “frozen smoke” mass production started and several cubic meters of mono-
because of its cloudy appearance (see Figure 1), while believ- lithic highly transparent tiles of silica aerogel were produced
ing that it is a recent invention of the nanotechnology due to to equip the TASSO Cherenkov detector [23].
its nanostructure features, is in fact a long-forsaken material The first factory to produce blocks of silica aerogel using
developed by Samuel Stephens Kistler at his time at the Col- TMOS was established in Sweden but got devastated by an
lege of the Pacific in Stockton, CA, USA. In 1931, he made his explosion due to a leak in the autoclave in the presence of
first publication on aerogels in nature [14] wherein he charac- methanol in 1984. The plant was rebuilt and is currently being
terized an aerogel as a gel in which the liquid phase has been operated by Airglass Corporation [24]. Because of its toxicity,
replaced by a gas in such a way that the solid network is being TMOS was compelled to be replaced. Soon, Tewari and Hunt
retained with only a slight or no shrinkage in the gel. The at Berkeley found tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) to be a safer
success of this process was based on one vital step of heating reagent which would not alter the quality of the aerogels [25].
up the gel system in an autoclave above the critical temper- But the process was not safe yet to attain mass production.
atures and pressures of the liquid phase of the gel, which is Hunt continued to investigate for improvements and came up
known as supercritical drying. The resulted supercritical fluid with the idea of replacing the alcohol within the gel by liquid
was allowed to escape leaving behind a highly porous and carbon dioxide before supercritical drying because CO2 is
extremely low-density material. inflammable and requires a lower temperature and pressure
The first aerogel made by Kistler was silica aerogel using to become supercritical [26]. This would reduce any hazard
sodium silicate (water-glass) as the precursor of silica. Along risks and increase the energy efficiency, hence resulting in
time, he synthesized organic and metal oxides aerogels from a cheaper manufacturing cost. At the same time, BASF in
alumina, tungsten oxide, ferric oxide, tin oxide, nickel tar- Germany declared to have developed another CO2 replace-
trate, cellulose, nitrocellulose, gelatin, agar, egg albumen, and
ment route via sodium silicate. They marketed the product as
rubber [15]. He further extended his studies into the physical
Basogel until 1996 [4].
properties of silica aerogel, emphasizing on its structure, den-
sity, and thermal conductivity by varying the mechanical In 1987, the introduction of helium pycnometry for mea-
pressure and filling gases such as air, carbon dioxide, and suring the skeletal density of aerogels provided data such that
chlorofluorocarbon [16]. the density varies with the solvent concentration, pH, and
As a result, silica aerogel was identified as the solid with densifying heat treatment [27]. At the end of the 80’s, Pekala at
the lowest heat conductivity at atmospheric pressure [18]. In LLNL expanded the classes of aerogel by developing organic
1950s, one of Kistler’s patents was allocated to Monsanto Cor- and carbon aerogels from an organic polymer, resorcinol-
poration for large-scale production of silica aerogels for appli- formaldehyde (RF) using the sol-gel method [28]. Tillotson
cations such as thickening agents and thermal materials and Hrubesh developed monoliths of diaphanous silica aero-
under the trademark Santocel [19]. Later, he patented the first gel with the lowest density, 0.003 g/cm3 , and of porosity up to
hydrophobic silica aerogels made by silylation with trichloro- 99.8% using a two-step acid-base process which involved the
methylsilane to produce water repellents [20]. Unexpectedly, substitution of the alcohol with an aprotic solvent, by dis-
Masanto’s project came to an end ceasing all productions with tillation, causing gelation [29]. That was the first aerogel
the introduction of a relatively cheap fumed silica process achievement in the 90’s.
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3
NASA has been using tiles of these aerogels for space chalcogenide nanoparticle building blocks coupled with
exploration since then. Later, it was found that, by heating supercritical drying. The resulting semiconductor had a high
up a RF aerogel to temperatures of several hundred degrees porosity and surface area, and the characteristic quantum-
Celsius in an inert atmosphere (such as nitrogen or argon), confined optical properties were identical to their nanopar-
the polymer which makes up the aerogel is dehydrated leav- ticle components [45]. The next year was the invention of
ing behind an aerogel made of carbon. Unlike silica aerogel, monolithic nanoporous metal foams which possess extremely
carbon aerogel is a conductor of electricity. It was called the low density and high surface area of 0.011 g/cm3 and 270 m2 /
aerocapacitor and characterized as an “electrochemical dou- g, respectively [46]. The metals selected were iron, cobalt,
blecapacitor with high-power density and high-energy den- copper, and silver while other potential ones are still under
sity” [30, 31]. research. Carbon nanotube aerogels were then invented in
Another key development was the subcritical drying 2007 through a new synthesis method comprised of aqueous-
method which was devised to produce low-density silica gel precursors, followed by supercritical drying and freeze
aerogels for thermal insulation [32]. The method involved a drying. The nanotubes can be made more robust by doping
series of aging and pore chemical modification stages to pre- polyvinyl alcohol which would allow them to resist a weight
vent drastic gel shrinkage during the fast drying at ambient of 800 times heavier than their original version. They are also
pressure. The density varies between 0.15 and 0.3 g/cm3 with excellent conductors of heat and electricity [47].
a thermal conductivity of 0.02 W/mK at atmospheric condi- Filed in 2004 and patented in 2007, Halimaton presented
tions. Prakash et al. extended the ambient pressure drying her method to produce pure silica aerogel via a sol-gel
(APD) method to further decrease the manufacturing cost method followed by supercritical carbon dioxide drying.
of silica. A simple dip-coating process consisting of surface However, she used an agricultural waste product, rice husk
modification to induce reversible drying shrinkage was used ash (RHA), as the source of the silica (see Figure 2). The com-
[33]. The precursor was waterglass because of its low cost and mercial term is Maerogel standing for “Malaysian-made Aer-
nonflammability. The resulting aerogel was observed to have ogel” [48]. The texture and physical properties of the latter
comparable density and porosity to that using the supercrit- have been proved to be comparable to traditional silica aero-
ical drying route. Since then, many articles were published gels (see Table 1).
ranging from synthesis to physical properties of silica aerogel Maerogel is produced by first dissolving rice husk ash in
using the APD method, indicating its advantages. How- aqueous sodium hydroxide at a Na2 : SiO2 ratio of 1 : 3.33, to
ever, the route alters and some approaches are more time- produce a sodium silicate solution containing from 1 to 16%
consuming than others because of the lengthy process of by weight of SiO2 . Concentrated sulphuric acid is then added
washing and exchanging solvents [34–39]. to the resulting water-glass solution to convert the sodium
Next was the rapid supercritical extraction (RSCE) which silicate to silica to obtain a silica hydrogel. Next is the aging
speeded up the supercritical heating. Experimented by John process which will allow the gel structure to develop. This can
Poco at LLNL in 1996, this investigation consists of placing be for a period of up to forty days. The water is then displaced
the sol-gel inside a pressurized mold in which the super- with a C1 to C4 alcohol, preferably methanol or ethanol to get
critical conditions were controlled in such a way to avoid an alcogel. The latter is subjected to supercritical drying after
unnecessary expansion and hence cracking [40, 41]. Consid- the alcohol is being replaced by carbon dioxide to obtain an
erable enhancement started taking place at the dawn of this aerogel. The supercritical extraction is preferably carried out
millennium. In 2001, an easy, cheap, and effective method was by placing the alcogel with additional alcohol in an autoclave
developed by Gash and Tillotson to prepare metal oxide aero- fitted with a thermocouple and a temperature controller and
gels by using epoxide-doped gelation agents provided that the slowly raising the temperature in the autoclave until the crit-
corresponding metal ions should have a valency of equal or ical temperature and pressure are reached. The temperature
greater than +3 in their formation oxidation state. The results may be increased, for example, at a rate of 50∘ C/h, for the
were promising and blocks of microporous materials with time necessary to reach the critical temperature. After a
high surface areas were produced [42]. One year later, Lev- certain time, the alcohol vapor is vented through a controlled
entis et al. developed the ultralight mechanically modified leak by gradually reducing the pressure and temperature to
aerogels, called X-aerogels by cross-linking diisocyanates into atmospheric conditions. The temperature may be reduced
the microstructure of silica aerogels. The strength of the latter over a period of, for example, twelve hours. The amount of
was multiplied by 300 whilst its specific compressive strength additional alcohol should be such that there is sufficient alco-
is approximately ten times that of steel [43]. His work was hol in the autoclave for the critical pressure to be reached. The
extended with the assistance of other researchers to inves- aerogels obtained are hydrophilic, having hydroxyl groups on
tigate the polymer cross-linking with other types of aerogel their surface but can be converted to a hydrophobic form by
such as transition metal oxides and organics which would replacing the hydroxyl groups with alkoxy groups. This may
further broaden the applications of aerogels [44]. X-aerogels be achieved, for example, by passing methanol vapor over a
have been accomplished through the addition of a polymer as heated sample of the aerogel. The methylation reaction is
a conformal coating on the silica skeleton. more advantageously to be carried out in a closed system in
On the other hand, semiconductors made of metal chal- which the sample can be placed in a tube enclosed in an
cogenide were reported in 2005 by Mohanan et al. They used external furnace and extending between a flask containing
a method which consisted of oxidation aggregation of metal boiling methanol and a condenser, which is connected back
Table 1: Physical properties of conventional silica aerogel and Maerogel.
Property Conventional aerogel Maerogel Comments

Apparent density 0.003–0.35 g/cm 3
0.03 g/cm 3 Commonly ∼0.1 g/cm3 for conventional
aerogels; Usually 0.03 g/cm3 for Maerogel
Internal surface area 600–1000 m2 /g 700–900 m2 /g
Mean pore diameter 20 nm 20.8 nm Varies with density
Particle diameter 2–5 nm 5 nm Determined by electron microscopy
Thermal tolerance 500∘ C 500∘ C Shrinkage begins gradually at 500∘ C
Melting point >1200∘ C >1200∘ C
Typical thermal conductivity 0.015 W/mK 0.02 W/mK
Coefficient of thermal expansion 2.0–4.0 × 10−6 2.0–4.0 × 10−6 Determined using ultrasonic techniques
Poisson’s ratio 0.2 0.2 Independent of density
Young’s modulus 106 –107 N/m2 106 –107 N/m2 Insignificant compared to dense silica
Tensile strength 16 kPa 16 kPa For density of 0.1 g/cm3
Fracture toughness 0.8 kPa⋅m0.5 0.8 kPa⋅m0.5 For density of 0.1 g/cm3
Index of refraction 1.0–1.05 1.0–1.05
Dielectric constant ∼1.1 ∼1.1 For density of 0.1 g/cm3
Sound velocity 100 m/s 100 m/s For density of 0.07 g/cm3
Rice husk Reaction

Rice husk with Filtration
ash NaOH
Acid neutralisation Sodium silicate

Silica gel
with H2 SO4 solution
Solvent SC-CO2
Washing Alcogel drying
exchange
Silica aerogel
Figure 2: Schematic procedure of Maerogel preparation from rice husk.
to the flask. The temperature of the furnace may be of the resorcinol-formaldehyde and iron oxide xerogels (ambient-
order of 250∘ C. The samples are preferably outgassed at a dried aerogels). They were “ferromagnetic and superpara-
temperature of about 100∘ C under a reduced pressure of about magnetic” materials being rich in carbon and simultaneously
1.33 × 10−5 kPa for at least 15 hours both before and after the magnetic and metallic [52]. Recently, a superior polymerized
methylation process [48]. aerogel known as polyimide aerogel has been tailored at
Other approaches were defined using RHA at either NASA’s Glenn Research Center in Ohio [53]. Polyimide gels
supercritical or ambient conditions. Tang and Wang provided are produced by cross-linking anhydride-capped-polyamic
a preparation but the value of the surface area was lower than acid oligomers with aromatic triamine in solution and by
that using TEOS/supercritical-ethanol drying. The aerogel chemically imidizing. The subsequent gels are then supercrit-
was not transparent, rather it was white [49]. Following that, a ically dried to form polyimide aerogels. These modified aero-
route which used drying process at atmospheric pressure and gels have densities as low as 0.14 g/cm3 and surface areas as
a temperature of 40∘ C was developed by Li and Wang [50]. high as 512 m2 /g [54, 55]. The mechanical strength of this new
In this method, the hydrosol was modified by a small amount class of aerogel is 500 times higher than the traditional silica
of TEOS which would greatly affect the pore structure and and can provide bulk thermal and acoustical insulation.
hence other physical properties. The porosity, surface area, However, the thermal conductivity is increased by a certain
pore volume, and average pore size were found to be directly factor because of its monolithic nature [53].
proportional to the amount of TEOS added while the density
was inversely proportional. An optimal amount of TEOS was
however achieved [51].
3. Properties of Silica Aerogels
In 2009, the first metal aerogel was made by Leventis et al. The physical properties of an aerogel are highly dependent
It was an iron aerogel created by smelting interpenetrating of on its density and chemical composition. Hence, different
synthesis methods will lead to dissimilar typical values for where

certain properties. This is illustrated in Table 1. In accordance 𝑙𝑔
with the scope of this article, an insight on the thermal, 𝐾𝑛 = , (4)
optical, and mechanical characterizations of silica aerogels 𝜙
has been provided. 𝜅𝐵 𝑇
𝐼mean = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑃 , (5)
√2 𝑔 𝑔
3.1. Thermal Properties. The thermal conductivity of silica
aerogels has forevermore been the focal topic of researchers where 𝐾𝑛 is the Knudsen number, a characteristic quantity
since the beginning. Aerogels can be synthesized into multi- for the gaseous thermal conductivity in a porous system. 𝑙𝑔 is
ple forms: monoliths, grains, powders, and films, conform- the mean free path of the gas molecules, 𝜙 is the characteristic
ing to the desired application. NASA has previously used length of pores, 𝑑𝑔 is the diameter of the gas molecules, Π is
monolithic silica aerogels for the thermal insulation for the porosity, 𝜆 𝑔0 is the thermal conductivity in free air, 𝜅𝐵 is
space applications [56]. The total thermal conductivity 𝜆 𝑡 the Boltzmann constant, 𝑇 is the temperature, 𝑃𝑔 is the gas
for monolithic aerogels is attributable to three heat transfer pressure, and 𝛽 is a constant specific to the gas in the pores,
mechanisms: solid conduction via the solid backbone 𝜆 𝑠 , usually between 1.5 and 2.0 [62].
gaseous conduction through the gas molecules in the porous The gaseous thermal conductivity in silica aerogels is
structure 𝜆 𝑔 , and radiation 𝜆 𝑟 [57]. Convection can be directly proportional to the pressure and pore sizes and indi-
neglected in aerogels due to their nanosized pores [58, 59]. rectly proportional to the density. Besides, the nanoscaled
The solid structure of aerogels is made up of only a small solid structure of aerogels has a significant effect on the gase-
number of silica particles tortuously interlocked in a three- ous thermal conductivity, particularly for pressures between
dimensional network with many dead-ends which therefore 0.01 × 105 Pa and 100 × 105 Pa [63].
impedes the thermal transport [15]. Studies have shown that The impact of radiation on the overall thermal conductiv-
the heat transfer through the solid structure of an aerogel ity of aerogels can be substantial from ambient conditions to
depends on its lattice structure, connectivity, and composi- high temperatures (above 200∘ C) due to their low absorption
tion. Lu et al. equated the solid thermal conductivity with a for the infrared [10]. Radiative conductivity can be calculated
factor depending on the interconnectivity of the particles and by [60]
density [60]. A more convenient equation was provided by Bi 16 2 𝑇3
and Tang et al., in which the solid thermal conductivity 𝜆 𝑠 is 𝜆𝑟 = ( )𝑛 𝜎 , (6)
derived by measuring the sound velocity in the aerogel [61] 3 [𝑒 (𝑇) 𝜌]
as follows: where 𝜎 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 𝑛 is the mean
index of refraction of aerogel, 𝑇 is the absolute temperature,
𝜌 ] 𝑒(𝑇) is the mass specific extinction coefficient, and 𝜌 is the
𝜆𝑠 = 𝜆0 , (1)
𝜌0 ]0 density of aerogel.
It is worthwhile to note that there is an alternative
where 𝜌 is the density of aerogel, 𝜌0 is the density of solid approach to evaluate the effective thermal conductivity of
backbone, ] is the sound velocity in aerogel, ]0 is the sound silica aerogel 𝜆 𝑡 . It uses a concept where the heat transfer
velocity in solid backbone, and 𝜆 0 is the thermal conductivity mechanisms are radiation and a combined solid and gas
of solid backbone. The latter is usually replaced by 𝜆 bulk to conduction. The solid and gas thermal conductivity 𝜆 𝑐 is
simplify the calculation as it cannot be measured straight- developed based on a periodic structure, whilst the radiative
forwardly. However, this substitution may alter the result to conductivity 𝜆 𝑟 is calculated using the diffusion approxima-
some extent. Nevertheless, 𝜆 0 can be obtained by using the tion theory and the Rosseland equation [58, 64, 65].
kinetic theory as follows: The common techniques to measure the thermal conduc-
tivities of silica aerogels are hot-wire probe [69], hot disk ther-
Λ0 mal constant analysers [70], and heat-flux meters [71] or using
𝜆 0 = 𝐶V ]0 , (2) a laser-flash apparatus [72]. However, in these techniques, the
3 heat distribution across the aerogel under study is not uni-
form. Zeng et al. [73] suggested a way out where a thin-film
where 𝐶V is the volume specific heat, ]0 is the mean sound heater made of a 10 nm thick gold film can be used to disperse
velocity of the solid backbone, and Λ 0 is the average inter- the heat evenly. Table 2 summarizes the different approaches
atomic spacing in solid backbone. to predict the thermal conductivity of silica aerogels.
The heat transfer through the gaseous phase is dictated by
the Knudsen effect which expresses the gaseous conduction
3.2. Optical Properties. The transparency and translucency
in a porous medium as a function of the air pressure and the
appearances of aerogels are primarily due to Raleigh scatter-
effective pore dimension [60]. The corresponding equation is
ing, which occurs when the heterogeneities in the solid gel
as follows:
network are much smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
The amount of light scattered from an aerogel is dependent on
Π
𝜆 𝑔 = 𝜆 𝑔0 , (3) these structural inhomogeneities which in turn can be con-
1 + 𝛽 𝐾𝑛 trolled during the supercritical extraction which dictates
Table 2: Approaches to predict the thermal conductivity of silica aerogels (adapted from Jun-Jie et al. [66]).
Model Author Structure representation Method Comments
Volume average as a Cannot be applied for
Lu et al. [60]
Empirical Ignored function of density or aerogels with different
Wang et al. [67]
porosity microstructures
Wei et al. [10] Cannot represent the
Cubic array of Standard equivalent circuit
Lu et al. [65] randomness and
Analytical nanospherical structure method
Wei et al. [10] complexity of aerogels
Standard equivalent circuit Does not require any
3D random DLCA
Jun-Jie et al. [66] with improved analytical empirical parameters as
structure
parallel-series model input
Von Koch snowflake fractal
Spagnol et al. [68] Finite volume method 3D calculations are time
Numerical structure and random
Zhao et al. [12] based on the mesh division consuming
DLCA structure
the spatial arrangements of the gel network. Rayleigh scat- From the early age, transparent silica aerogel has been
tering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the promoted as a hypervelocity particle capture for outer-space
wavelength, that is, the shorter the wavelength of the light, explorations because of its capacity of allowing easy detection
the more it scatters. Therefore, when an aerogel tile is placed of cosmic debris through its framework. Recently, Woignier
against a dark background, it appears slightly bluish and et al. [87] investigated the effect of TEOS concentration and
demonstrates a yellowish coloration when exposed to bright the addition of ammonia as a base catalysis on the optical
surroundings [74, 75]. The second source of light scattering in transmission within the visible spectrum. It was found that
the visible range is due to micrometer-size imperfections of aerogels with a higher concentration of TEOS have a wider
the external aerogel surface which accounts for the blurry transmission window than that with a lower TEOS concen-
appearance of objects viewed through a piece of aerogel [76]. tration which affirms poor transparency in the visible range.
On the other hand, the scattering efficiency is a function of When ammonia is added in the aerogel process, the transmis-
the size of the scattering center. Thus different wavelengths sion is extraordinarily enhanced in the visible range.
will scatter with varying magnitudes. Scattering is observed to Another imperative optical property of silica aerogels is
be intensified when the size of the scattering center becomes the index of refraction. It has been proven that the index of
similar to the wavelength of the incident light [76, 77]. As the refraction, 𝜂, increases with increasing density such that
wavelength increases and the spectrum shifts towards the
infrared range, scatterings become less significant. This phe- 𝜂 = 1 + 2.1 × 10−4 𝜌, (7)
nomenon permits heat radiation to pass through the aerogel
thereby increasing its thermal conductivity [78]. Many times, where 𝜌 (k gm−3 ) is the bulk density of aerogel [1].
the optical properties of aerogels are related with their ther- It can therefore be anticipated that the refractive index for
mal properties, especially when a transparent thermal insu- silica aerogel is very close to one, literally meaning that when
lation system is demanded. A number of studies have been light enters an aerogel, there is no reflective losses. A practical
undertaken to optimize the transparency of silica aerogel application which exploits this property is the Cherenkov
without sacrificing its thermal conductivity. Danilyuk et al. detector which necessitates a medium with a refractive index
[79] found that monolithic aerogel prepared using the two- close to one [88].
step sol-gel method is more transparent than the one synthe-
sized through the one-step approach. Venkateswara Rao and
Pajonk [80] added methyltrimethoxysilane(MTMS) as a 3.3. Mechanical Properties. Silica aerogels are known to be
coprecursor to produce monolithic durable hydrophobic characteristically fragile and brittle because of the interpar-
silica aerogels with high direct optical transmittance and low ticle connections within the pearl-necklace-like fractal net-
diffusion of light. Adachi et al. [81] synthesized new tiles of sil- work, making them inapt for load bearing applications.
ica aerogels by adding a new chemical solvent, dimethyl- Numerous investigations have been carried out to appreciate
formamide (DMF), to improve the optical transparency in and characterize their mechanical properties, as shown in
the refractive index range, 𝜂 = 1.03–1.07. The transmission Table 3. Standard methods to characterize the silica aero-
length exceeded 40 mm at 400 nm wavelength which was gel mechanically include ultrasonic techniques, three-point
twice the value obtained in a previous study [82]. Bhagat et al. bending, and uniaxial compression. The atomic force micro-
showed that when low density TEOS-based silica aerogels is scopy (AFM) is now commonly employed because of its capa-
prepared using methanol as a solvent in combination with bility of measuring the local elastic property of aerogels with
TEOS in a two-step sol-gel process, the optical transmission is only a small loading force. Concurrently, efforts are being
improved to some extent [83]. On the contrary, if opacity is concerted to improve the mechanical strength of aerogels by
preferred, aerogel can be rendered opaque by integrating car- the addition of a second phase. One approach is through
bon or mineral powders into its structure which will absorb incorporating silica fibres into the aerogels. Tests have indi-
the infrared and hence reducing the radiation heat transfer cated that when 10% by weight of these fibres are introduced,
[84–86]. the elastic modulus and strength are increased by 85% and
Table 3: Mechanical studies on silica aerogel.
Methodology Author Analysis Approach/apparatus

A concentric,
Young’s modulus, proportional overlapping-cylinder,
Arvidson and Scull [111]
limit, and yield strength capacitance extensometer is used
to measure the strain
Gronauer et al. [112] Young’s modulus Sound velocity measurements
Woignier and Phalippou Young’s modulus, fracture Three-point flexural and
[113] strength, and toughness three-point bending
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s Ultrasonic and static
Gross et al. [114]
ratio compression
Scherer et al. [115] Bulk modulus Mercury porosimetry
Vickers and Knoop hardness test,
Hardness, compression, tension
Parmenter and Milstein four-point bending, and a
and shear on unreinforced and
[89] displacement-controlled Instron
fiber-reinforced aerogels
1123 testing machine
Stark et al. [116] Young’s modulus Atomic force microscopy
Experimental
Hardness, Young’s modulus, and Microindentation measurements
Moner-Girona et al. [117]
elastic parameter using a Nanotest 550 Indenter
Uniaxial compression and
Martin et al. [118] Young’s Modulus
acoustic velocity
Elastic modulus and internal
Perin et al. [119] Isostatic compression
friction
Young’s modulus and
Miner et al. [120] nonrecoverable strain for Low-range compression tester
hygroscopic silica aerogel
Double-cleavage-drilled-
Subcritical growth domain in
Despetis et al. [121] compression test
hydrophilic silica aerogel
(DCDC)
Takahashi et al. [122] Bending strength Three-point bending
Creep behavior of ceramic
Yang et al. [123] Scanning electron microscope
fiber-reinforced silica aerogel
Wave-vector-dependent Cubic DLCA fractal structure
Hasmy et al. [124]
scattered intensity model
Numerical
Densities of states and dynamic 3D cubic DLCA fractal structure
Rahmani et al. [125]
structure factors model
Creep behavior of ceramic
Yang et al. [123] Power-law creep model
fiber-reinforced silica aerogel
26%, respectively [89]. In addition, the compressive modulus Probably, the most notable application of silica aerogel
and tensile strength of aerogels can be improved by three in astronautics is to capture extraterrestrial materials. This
and five times correspondingly, if 5% by weight of carbon is primarily because it does not constitute elements of great
nanofibres are implemented into the lattice structure [90]. cosmochemical significance as well as inorganic contam-
Liquid-phase cross-linking, vapor-phase cross-linking, fibre inants and secondly owing to its grandiosity in trapping
reinforcing, and reduced bonding can enhance the mechan- particles with high velocities. Yet, researchers are continually
ical properties of aerogel as well [80, 91, 92]. X-aerogels have experimenting on this nanomaterial to improve its physical
been proven to improve considerably the fractal properties of properties to develop a flawless kinetic shock absorber. Most
native aerogels under both quasi-static [43, 93–97] and high- of the time, the modification is made during the synthesis
impact loading conditions [98, 99]. While their strength is process as the aerogel mechanical characteristics highly
superior to silica aerogels, their elasticity and flexibility pro- depend on its bulk density [101, 102].
perties are yet to be tailored for advanced aerospace applica- The mechanical and thermal properties of density-gra-
tions such as structural components and thermal protection dient aerogels for outer-space hypervelocity particle capture
for small satellites, spacecraft, planetary vehicles, and habi- were analyzed by Du et al. (see Figure 3) [103]. Aerogels with
tats. Several cross-linking schemes to mechanically reinforce densities ranging from 40 to 175 mg/cm3 were prepared using
aerogels have been discussed in details in [100]. It is notewor- a tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and ethanol-water solution
thy to state that polymer reinforcement decreases the surface as the precursor and hydrofluoric acid as the catalyst via a
area of the silica aerogel by about half without altering the supercritical drying sol-gel process. Layer-by-layer gelation,
thermal conductivity radically [100]. sol cogelation, and gradient-sol cogelation methods were
0.65
0.60
Thermal diffusion coefficient (mm2 ·s−1 )

0.55
Compression modulus (MPa)
Specific heat capacity (MJ·m−3 ·K−1 )

0.30 0.20
0.50
0.28
0.45 0.18
0.26
0.40
0.24 0.16
0.35
0.22
0.30 0.14
0.25 0.20
0.12
0.20 0.18
0.15 0.16 0.10

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
𝜌 (mg·cm−3 ) 𝜌 (mg·cm−3 )
−100∘ C
25∘ C
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Compression modulus of aerogels with different densities at −100∘ C and 25∘ C [103]. Relationship between thermal diffusion
coefficient and specific heat capacity with density of aerogels [103].
used to prepare the density-gradient aerogels. The dynamic a hypervelocity particle capture compared to traditional
mechanical test showed that the Young’s moduli of the dense collector media, including those exposed on the long-
aerogels at −100∘ C and 25∘ C tend to decrease with decreasing duration exposure facility (LDEF). The defects in these con-
the density with values from 4.6 × 105 to 1.9 × 105 Pa and from ventional collectors were their persistent melting, if not com-
5.0 × 105 to 2.1 × 105 Pa, respectively. The thermal analysis plete vaporization, which prevented any projectiles to be
indicated that the thermal diffusion coefficients and the adhered. Hence, no analysis was possible. Researchers antic-
specific heat capacities decrease with decreasing the densities ipated that this kinetic energy absorption characteristic to
while the thermal conductivities do not change monotoni- aerogel would boost the discoveries of extraterrestrial objects
cally. in low-Earth orbit [105].
One weakness of aerogel as a hypervelocity capture par- Soon after, in September 1992, aerogels were sent on the
ticle could be its crack propagation which can eventually Space Transport System (STS-47) to analyse their ability as a
destroy the entire aerogel lattice when exposed for a long hypervelocity particle capture medium and endurance during
period of time. This is induced by the syneresis effect which is launch and reentry. Five thermal insulated end covers were
the continuation of the hydrolysis and condensation reactions installed on the top of the Shuttle Get Away Special (GAS)
after gelling which leads to the gel shrinkage [87, 101]. Hwang payload canisters to hold the Sample Return Experiment
et al. observed a 10% linear shrinkage caused by syneresis dur- (SRE) of capture cells equipped with panels of silica aerogel
ing the gelation and aging procedures [104]. Woignier et al. with dimensions of 10 cm × 10 cm × 1 cm and densities of the
[87] investigated the influence of the synthesis variables on order 20 mg/mL. Each GAS SRE provided a net total capture
the shrinkage of aerogel during preparation and delivered a surface area of 0.165 m2 . The aerogels successfully survived
good correlation on the mechanical properties with an aim the launch and reentry and returned without any apparent
to acquire an optimized aerogel for outer-space applications. damages. Generally, the capability of a hypervelocity particle
It was revealed that the linear shrinkage decreases with the capture is evaluated by how fast it can decelerate the high-
TEOS concentration and with increasing pH of hydrolysis velocity impacted particles without destroying the latter while
solution. In addition, both elastic modulus and rupture being trapped. At least four large hypervelocity particles were
strength of aerogels rise with a higher concentration of TEOS captured during this preliminary mission. Later on, more
and hence density. than two dozens of particles were caught from STS-60 and
many from others such GAS canisters [106]. One of them was
4. Astronautical Applications of the orbital debris collection experiment on Mir.
Deployed on STS-76 on March 25, 1996, and directed by
Silica Aerogels Langley Research Center, the Mir Environmental Effects
4.1. Hypervelocity Particle Capture. The preliminary studies Package (MEEP) was equipped with an Orbital Debris Col-
conducted at the laboratory where unmolten remnants of lector (ODC) made up of approximately 0.63 m2 of highly
silicate and aluminum projectiles were fired at high speed, porous low-density (0.02 g/cm3 ) silica aerogel arranged in
7 km/s, immediately indicated the superiority of aerogel as two identical trays, Tray 1 pointing into the ram direction
while Tray 2 in the opposite direction, to collect both man-

made and natural hypervelocity particles in the low-Earth
orbit. The ODC was then recuperated by STS-86 after 18
months at the Johnson Space Center.
A wide range of impacts, for example, coorbing flakes,
human waste materials, and cosmic dust, were extracted
from the aerogel collector to analyse their compositions using
SEM-EDS and TEM, and henceforth their potential origins
were suggested. Two primary classes of hypervelocity impact
features were revealed: long, carrot-shaped tracks and shal-
low pits with typical length to diameter (𝐿/𝐷) of 20–40 and
0.5–5, respectively. The majority were carrot-shaped tracks
coming from laboratory impacts, including the presence of
trapped projectile residues at their stations while the pits did
not contain any measurable residues and laboratory analog Figure 4: Tennis-racket collector with aerogel (Image courtesy
due to the high impact velocities causing melting or vaporiza- NASA).
tion of the projectiles. Features of intermediate morphologies
between these two boundaries suggested the existence of
a transitional and evolution of sequence. The third group
was shallower and irregular impact tracks with aspect ratio, pumping the resultant mixture into a gradient density silica
𝐿/𝐷 < 0.5, formed by low-velocity impacts of coorbiting aerogel [128]. It could be anticipated that other density-
flakes and liquid droplets, all human waste products, and dependent characteristics such as thermal, optical, acoustic,
the result of wastewater dumps. However, aerogel could and dielectric of aerogel would vary as per the gradient profile
not yield reliable dynamic data for each particle, including [129]. The latter would prevent the nanopores of the silica
chronological information about the collisions. Nevertheless, aerogel from being damaged by the microscale particles.
the unique ability of aerogel to preserve and trap unmolten When the high-speed particles hit the aerogel, they first
residues at relatively high velocities in low-Earth orbit was bumped into the low-density aerogel and, as they penetrated,
confirmed compared to traditional nonporous media; those the density of the aerogel increased simultaneously slowing
threshold velocities for vaporization were much smaller than them down. The kinetic energy was converted into mechan-
aerogel [105, 107]. ical and thermal energy, which in the end brought the speed
to zero [130].
The most successful aerogel-related mission that has After the rendezvous with the comet in 2004, the collector
unveiled many scientific discoveries is probably the Stardust was withdrawn to the SRC to protect the samples. Two years
Mission. Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in 1999, later, the Stardust capsule reemerged into the Earth’s atmo-
the function of the mission was to carry a hypervelocity par- sphere and landed successfully in Utah. Once again, aerogel
ticle collector which would meet up with a known outer solar proved its superiority of withstanding transition from atmo-
system body (Comet 81P/Wild 2) to capture coma samples spheric pressure to vacuum of space without any damage
and interstellar dust to be brought on Earth for laboratory though the fact that it is brittle. This is due to the open-cell
analysis [108–110]. framework of aerogel which allows interstitial gases to flow
The collector, a “tennis-racket”-shaped metal frame, con- out. The pathways of the impacted projectiles were clear and
sisted of two grids facing in opposite direction, each of them hence analysed since aerogel is transparent. Figure 5 shows
containing one hundred and thirty cells of silica aerogel of that the comets had entered on the right-hand side and finally
different volumes (see Figure 4) [127]. One grid had cubes stopped through in the aerogel. These particles were the
of dimensions approximately 4 cm × 2 cm × 3 cm to capture first materials obtained from a specified celestial body other
cometary particles, whilst the other grid contained aerogel than the Moon and were extracted delicately using a high-
tiles with dimensions 4 cm × 2 cm × 1 cm to seize interstellar speed vibrating glass needle [131]. The discovery involved
materials [56]. When collection was required, the collector mainly high- and low-temperature minerals and unknown
was detached from the protective sample return (SRC) and organics, leaving behind a deduction by the scientists at the
exposed. Compared to the missions stated above, the aerogel Johnson Space Center that the constituents of comets were
created for that assignment had a continuous gradient density much more complex than other extraterrestrial objects, such
profile, starting from 10 mg/cm3 at the impact surface to a as meteorites. Interstellar dusts were also found and extracted
higher value at the bottom depending on the type of the grid. but none were able to be recognized [132–135]. On February
The maximum densities were 50 mg/cm3 and 20 mg/cm3 for 14, 2011, a recycle version of Stardust, called Stardust-NExT,
the cometary grid and interstellar grid, respectively. It was was sent into the space to analyse another comet, Tempel 1,
already recognized that the density depends on the ratio of which was previously visited during the Deep Impact mission
the condensable silica of the solvent used in the aerogel in 2005 [136]. However, the primary objective of Stardust-
precursor solution. That concept was exploited when the NExT was to obtain high-resolution pictures of the nucleus
precursor solution for low-density aerogel was steadily mixed using the NAVCAM camera for further analysis. The mission
with the precursor solution density aerogel while constantly was successful [137, 138].
extracted from the aerogels. A study is ongoing to analyze

these matter, as mentioned by Woignier et al. [87].
During the capture process of a particle, a significant
amount of its kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy
thereby altering or destroying its structure. Recently, a study
was carried out by Jones et al. [144] to measure the tempera-
tures experienced by hypervelocity particles during their cap-
ture in aerogels. Aggregate projectiles made up of magnetic
submicron hematite were employed. The concept used was
when these particles are heated above their Curie temperature
(675∘ C) during the penetration, they lose their magnetism.
Hence, the particles were fired at different velocities to acquire
Figure 5: Comets trapped in aerogel (Image courtesy NASA). different temperatures upon seizure in the aerogels. Their
magnetizations were then observed using an atomic and mag-
netic force microscopy along with an electron paramagnetic
resonance. It was found that the heating of these fine particles
In 2003, another mission was proposed based on a similar aggregates highly depends on the location in the capture
concept as the Stardust Mission of capturing sample in the track where they come to rest. The particles which were fired
outer space, known as the Sample Collection of the Investi- with velocities up to 6.6 km/s were still magnetic. Silica aero-
gation of Mars mission (SCIM). It was levelled as a low- gel, with its highly porous and transparent characteristics,
budget and low-risk program. This Mars Scout mission was remains the ideal material for hypervelocity particle capture.
designated to fly while collecting suspended dust through the
upper Martian atmosphere in a silica aerogel collector which
would then be directed back to the Earth to be analysed 4.2. Thermal Insulation. NASA extended its research on aero-
[139]. The dissimilarity between Stardust Mission and SCIM gel in the field of thermal insulation because of its extremely
is that the latter needed to fly into the atmosphere which low conductivity. Silica aerogel was firstly used as an insulator
would cause substantial heating to the spacecraft during the on the Mars Rover, Sojourner, as part of the Pathfinder mis-
capture of high speed particles. To overcome this problem, sion in 1997. The aerogel was packed in composite boxes,
the silica aerogel collectors would be located at the aft end called Warm Electronics Boxes (WEBs), to protect the pri-
of the aeroshell where heat is minimal. The results of the mary battery pack of the Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer
preliminary experiments showed that the majority of the (APXS) from extremely low temperatures. The operational
hypervelocity particles captured had preserved their physical range of the battery was set to be between −40∘ C to +40∘ C
and chemical features [140]. This mission was however each day with a limit of +55∘ C for not more than five hours.
precluded and was proposed again in 2006 which was again A value of 21∘ C was successfully achieved [145]. Being effi-
declined over the technology of Stardust. Jones investigated cacious, aerogel was chosen again in the Mars Exploration
other potential aerogel-based collectors, for example, carbon, Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity in 2003. Additional devices
alumina, titania, germenia, zirconia, and niobia because of were installed in these robots, for example, Radioisotope
the abundance of silicate mineral present in our solar system Heater Units (RHUs) which would induce extra heat [146]. To
[56]. In addition, the Raman spectrometer was proven to be avoid heat dissipation, aerogel was placed as a barrier to sus-
a handful tool for the identification of the impact particles in tain a temperature variation of up to 100∘ C between the
aerogel [141]. Martial day and night when the temperature is approximately
Some years back, an operation known as the Material +20∘ C and −99∘ C, respectively.
Exposure and Degradation Experiment (MEDET) was initi- To increase the performance of the silica aerogel as an
ated in accord with ONERA, ESA, Centre National d’Etudes insulator, its composition was modified by doping graphite
Spatiales (CNES), and the University of Southampton to with necessary alteration in the drying process to ensure no
investigate the effects of the complex low-Earth orbit space cracking and shrinking [147]. Consequently, the transparent
environment on material properties and material degrada- silica aerogel was converted into an opaque aerogel thereby
tion due to contamination while measuring the local micro- inhibiting significant heat radiation thus minimizing its total
particle flux. The MEDET suite was installed on board the heat transport. The aerogels were then shaped into relatively
European Technology Exposure Facility (EuTEF). The mod- large panels. The two geologists, Spirit and Opportunity,
ule was launched by the STS-122 on February 7, 2008 and were designated for a three-month operation, but the former
retrieved by the STS-128 on September 11, 2009 [142, 143]. roamed nearly seven years until March 2010 covering a total
Aerogel was opted again as a passive detector to capture the distance of 7.7 km. Opportunity, on the other hand, is still on
micrometeoroids and orbital debris particles. Two transpar- the Martial soil and just began her in situ science investiga-
ent tiles of silica aerogels of size 30 × 25 × 45 mm3 were tion at “Whitewater Lake” with a Microscopic Imager (MI)
prepared via a sol-gel process followed by supercritical dry- mosaic, followed by the placement of the APXS [148]. The
ing. The resulting bulk density was 0.087 ± 0.004 g/cm3 . An objective of the mission is to search for water on the Planet
expansive series of impacted particles including metals, glass, Mars [149]. Aerogel is therefore illustrated as an ultralight
and mixed oxides ranging from one to several microns was insulation material which not only resists relatively large
(1) Liquid cooling and ventilation

garment liner (nylon tricot)
(2) Liquid cooling and

ventilation garment liner
(14) Thermal
outer Layer (nylon/spandex) micrometeoroid
garment cover
(orthofabric)
(3) Liquid cooling and ventilation
garment liner water
transport tubing (7–13) Thermal
micrometeoroid
garment liner
(multilayered
insulation—
aluminized
mylar)
(6) Thermal micrometeoroid

(4) Pressure garment bladder garment liner (neoprene
(urethane-coated nylon) -coated nylon ripstop)
(5) Restraint (dacron)

Figure 6: Layers in an extravehicular mobility unit (Image courtesy NASA).
temperature fluctuation but also has endurance in harsh a high interstitial void fraction with heat flux perpendicular
environments. to the fibers. Nevertheless, aerogel is still regarded as a capable
In consequence, silica aerogels are being studied to be insulation material to insulate future space suits.
used in space suits which require materials with specific In spacecraft, the accumulation of dense air, ice, water,
specifications to ensure the safety of astronauts in the harsh and liquefied air within the insulation materials is of primary
dust and extreme pressure and temperature conditions [150]. concern. This phenomenon is known as cryopumping. It
The actual extravehicular mobility unit (EMU) is divided into affects the function of the insulator and therefore degrades
five classes of layers as shown in Figure 6. The first inner the performance of the vehicle by increasing the heat transfer
layer ensures that the pressure of the suit is maintained and through the insulation material which increases the lift-off
it is made of polyurethane-coated nylon which is in turn pro- weight and the potential risk for damaging debris. Aerogel
tected from any external pressures by the fabric-restraining has been considered as a potential candidate to act as a heat
dacron layer. The remaining layers form the thermal microm- shield in these cryogenic systems such as liquid-hydrogen
eteoroid garment (TMG) which primarily provide thermal (LH2 ) tanks and liquid-oxygen (LO2 ) feedlines because of
and micrometeoroid protection. The TMG liner is a neo- its fully breathable and hydrophobic characteristics [152].
prene-coated nylon ripstop above the MLI layer consisting of Furthermore, experiments in [153] have shown that liquid
five to seven laminates made of low conductivity aluminized nitrogen (LN2 ) can be prevented from accumulating within
mylar reinforced with nylon scrim spacers. The MLI has an the intertank of the space shuttle by using an insulation sys-
overall low thermal conductivity due to the low radiation tem consisting of a bulk-fill aerogel material. The key phases
absorptivity and high emissivity on its surface and low heat
to assess the performance of cryogenic insulation systems are
conductance between the laminates. The outer orthofabric
at lift-off and reentry into the atmosphere when there are
sustains tear and wear protections in addition. The present
sudden changes in temperature and pressure. For example,
TMG is operative only in hard vacuum milieu such as low
at re-entry, the temperature of the vehicle is over thousand
orbit and the moon where radiation heat transfer is the
predominant mechanism. In the existence of an atmosphere, degrees Celsius while the LH2 and LO2 are essential to be
likewise on Mars, the MLI is ineffective due to the presence of retained below −253∘ C and −183∘ C, respectively in order to
the interstitial gases which errand convection and conduction remain in the liquid form [154].
cooling. A wide variety and permutations of aerogel blankets man-
The performance of different potential fibrous materials ufactured by Aspen Aerogel Inc. and aerogel beads from
were reviewed for possible space suit applications to over- Cabot Corporation have been characterized using insulation
come this problem [151]. It has been found that, to provide test cryostats at the Cryogenics Test Laboratory of NASA
sufficient insulation, the MLI requires an effective thermal Kennedy Space Center. It was noticed that cyropumping
conductivity of 5 mW/mK. The 4DG fiber and aerogel inter- effects were stopped beyond thermal stabilization [155]. Using
stitial void medium combination gave the best insulation these superinsulation materials, lightweight and robust vehi-
performance amongst other systems with a nominal thermal cles can be designed which will ensure the safety of the
conductivity of 7.5 mW/mK. This configuration consists of operations.
Strangely, a manned mission to Mars has been proposed 5.1. Thermal Barrier. The justification of considering silica
which is expected to last for nearly three years. For this, a aerogel as a thermal barrier is due to its favorable characteris-
human friendly architectural design has been planned and tics in operating temperatures, longevity, chemical (aviation
silica aerogel has been selected to provide the necessary fuels and lubricants) and erosion resistance, and mainte-
thermal insulation for the floors, walls, and windows. The nance. A simpler and lighter overall design of the thermal
conceptual design requires that a thin flexible aerogel with insulation system can be achieved which will consequently
low thermal conductivity be used which makes Spaceloft a reduce the assembly cost as fewer materials are needed. More
probable choice [156]. space will be available for other usages. There will be a rise in
the energy efficiency because of the minimization of heat loss
4.3. Cryogenic Fluid Containment. A third function of silica and hence fuel will be saved. That is, the direct operating cost
aerogel is to act as cryogenic fluid containment. This idea was will also decrease. Considering, an aeroengine, silica aerogel
proposed in 2004 when engineers were working on the Satel- can be applied in two modes, depending on the temperature
lite Test of the Equivalence Principle (STEP) mission. The and environment requirements. Firstly, it could be sprayed as
satellite was to be sent into the earth orbit to probe the under- a thin insulative coating to protect unattainable and uneven
lying foundation of Einstein’s theory, the (local) equivalence substrate from high temperatures. The smooth and uniform
of gravitational and inertial mass [157]. The test masses and layer of insulation will cause little resistance to the airflow.
detectors were required to sustain stability from disturbances The thermal responses will be improved which will in turn
such as air drag, magnetic field, and solar pressure in order to increase the performance of the engine while the aircraft is
obtain precise results [158]. This could be achieved by placing cruising at high altitude. Secondly, in compartments where
the measurement instruments in a Dewar containing liquid the vibration is high, flexible light-weight blankets of silica
helium maintained at cryogenic temperatures. Silica aerogel, aerogel with custom thickness can be used. They can be
being highly porous and an open-cell material, was recog- fastened mechanically to prevent any displacing hence inter-
nized to be an excellent container to store the liquid helium ferences problems. Contrary to coatings, blankets are more
while simultaneously preventing any bulk flow to occur. The resistant to contaminations and do not disintegrate easily.
liquid helium coming out of the aerogel would be directed Their maintenance cost is also lower than that of coatings.
to the spacecraft thrusters along the time of the mission. An
aerogel control tide was built in for the helium storage system 5.2. Fire Retardation. The fact of being an inorganic and
[159]. The aerogel was firstly shaped in annular cylinders inflammable material with a continuous operating tempera-
to be encircled around the cylinders inside which was the ture ranging from −273∘ C to 650∘ C and a high melting point
equipment. Later, it was suggested to shape the aerogel into of 1400∘ C makes silica aerogel an excellent firewall compared
parts, into trapezoids [56], rather than one annular cylinder to the existing combustible organic coatings that cause toxic
to facilitate its assembly into any desired structure. The fumes when burning. The components such as pipes, wires,
presence of aerogel in the Dewar gave rise to some doubts. and electronic accessories within the fire zones of an aero-
One of which was whether the aerogel filled with liquid engine can be protected using thin blankets of aerogel whilst
helium would survive a launch vibration environment. A test
simultaneously enabling weight saving compared to conven-
was carried out and it was found that there were no signs
tional metal sheets. Similarly, the adjacent airframe struc-
of damage and degradation. The STEP mission was not
tures will be prevented from being burnt. Aspen Aerogels
launched though; instead NASA selected the 2003 SMEX. The
has investigated on such applications where the insulation
technology was however applied with success on the Gravity
blanket made of silica aerogel with a thickness of 7 mm was
Probe B mission. Nonetheless, there is still an optimistic
exposed to a flame at temperature 1100∘ C for at least 15
vision of bringing aerogel on STEP someday.
minutes (see Figures 7(a) and 7(b)). The temperature on the
cold side did not exceed 150∘ C. Both the fire testing and the
5. Evaluation of Silica Aerogels in Aeronautics outcomes are in accordance with FAR Part § 25.1191 [160] and
AC 20–135 [161]. However, the product, Pyrogel 6350, has
According to the Federal Aviation Regulations, Section
not been commercialized for aeronautical applications until
25.856(a), thermal and acoustical insulation should be pro-
now [162]. In addition, the thermal loss when the blankets
vided by the same material while being simultaneously a
are under constant vibration and gravitational stress through
fire retardant. This applies primarily for the fuselage and the
repeated thermal cycles is still unknown.
current material is fiberglass batting. To hold the fiberglass in
place and to protect it against contamination, insulation cov-
ers are wrapped around [160]. The common plastic covers are 5.3. Acoustics. Sound waves are significantly absorbed
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl fluoride (PVF), through silica aerogels thus reducing the speed of propa-
and silicone-coated fiberglass for high temperature environ- gation to 100 m/s. This is due to their extremely low Young
ment. Silica aerogel, being a superinsulation material and an modulus which is related to the synthesis of the aerogel,
acoustic shock-absorber, can be therefore considered as a more precisely, the interstitial gas type, pressure, and density
thermal/acoustical insulator for this task. But a more realistic [163, 164]. Silica aerogel is now acknowledged as a promising
way to employ aerogel would be by exploiting its remarkable material for acoustic matching layers of high-sensitivity
properties separately for thermal insulation, fire protection, airborne ultrasonic transducers for boosting of airborne
and acoustics purposes in different parts of the aircraft. acoustic waves [165]. Experiments were carried out using
Table 4: Comparison between fiberglass, conventional silica aerogel, and Maerogel.
Material Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Acoustic absorption (dB) Average cost (US$)
Fiberglass 0.0345–0.0040 ∼5 0.2–2.8/m2 [126]
Monolithic silica aerogel 0.0136–0.0038 ∼15 3800/m3 [126]
Monolithic Maerogel 0.0200–0.099 ∼15 ∼750–900/m3
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Aerogel firewall during testing. (Image courtesy Aspen Aerogel). Pyrogel 6350 installed in aircraft engine for fire protection (Image
courtesy Aspen Aerogel).
different sol-gel densities of aerogels to observe the effect of to 80% can be attained in the manufacturing cost of Maer-
the speed of sound through the aerogels. It was found that the ogel. A performance-cost comparison between fibreglass,
sensitivity of a matching layer type of ultrasonic transducer conventional silica aerogel, and Maerogel is shown below.
(ML-UT) could reach twenty times higher than that of a A performance-cost comparison between fiberglass, conven-
conventional one. The aerogel ultrasonic transducer can be tional silica aerogel, and Maerogel is displayed in Table 4.
therefore incorporated into future aeronautical sensing sys-
tems for range findings. Acoustical insulation in aircraft 6. Conclusions
using aerogel can also be considered based on its acoustic
absorption. Forest and Gibiat found that the minimum Based on the above literature, it can be said that the funda-
transmission loss in granular aerogel can be 10 dB higher mental synthesis-structure-property relationships of aerogels
than that of fibreglass with the same thickness [166]. are now comprehended in the research community after
eighty years of tremendous efforts. Different cost-effective
5.4. Cost Analysis. The main limitation of preventing silica manufacturing methods have been developed along the time
aerogel from commercially integrating into the aviation sec- to promote the commercialization of silica aerogels in various
tor is its high cost. Is it worth now to spend on such an high-tech areas. In the aerospace industry, the capture effec-
expensive material for space saving and lighter weight? Can tiveness of silica aerogel as a kinetic energy absorber is already
there be a linear relationship between space saving and cost considered to be superior whilst its potential as a thermal
saving? American Airlines claimed for having saved $422 insulator shows great promise for applications ranging from
million in operating costs through fuel savings in 2011 [167]. cryogenic temperatures in spacecraft to high temperatures in
One way to achieve this is by reducing the take-off weight, for aeroengines. The feasibility tests of insulating space suits with
example, by removing unnecessary items from the aircraft. In aerogel show that a lower thermal conductivity is required
consequence, about 1 million of jet fuel gallons can be saved and yet to be achieved. Silica aerogel as a fiber-reinforced
which would sum up to an amount of approximately $3.63 M blanket has efficaciously fulfilled the necessary criteria of the
annually [168]. Up to now, the actual leading companies for Federal Aviation Regulations for fire retardation in aeroen-
mass production of silica aerogel are the North American- gines while a profound study is still required for acoustical
based industrials Cabot Corporation and Aspen Aerogels. applications in aircraft. With the reinforcement using poly-
Both of which are apprehensive with thermal insulation. The mers, the mechanical properties of silica aerogels can be
former produces silica aerogels mainly in the form of granules tailored to meet the specifications of future astronautical
under the Trademark Nanogel, whilst the second one concen- applications. Often in such cases, the success of the mission is
trates on flexible blankets, registered as Cryogels, Pyrogels, more significant than the budget. However, for aeronautical
and Spaceloft. Recently, there has been Nano Hi-Tech in implementations, the introduction of silica aerogels is ques-
China which is considered to be the third player followed tionable based on the current market manufacturing cost and
by some other relatively small manufacturers like EM-Power the current performance of the existing materials. Maerogel,
(Korea), AIRGLASS AB, and the German ROCKWOOL. which is an ecological and green-technology material, has
Despite the existing market competition, it remains difficult been proposed as a promising substitute due its relatively low
to compensate the price of silica aerogel for other beneficial cost and comparable properties with the conventional silica
factors. On the other hand, it is reported that a reduction up aerogels.
Conflict of Interests [17] Stardust. NASA, January 2013, http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/

photo/aerogel.html.
The authors have no conflict of interests to declare. [18] S. S. Kistler and A. G. Caldwell, “Thermal conductivity of silica
aerogel,” Industrial & Engineering Chemistry, vol. 26, pp. 658–
Acknowledgment 662, 1934.
[19] C. E. Carraher Jr., “General topics,” Polymer News, vol. 30, no. 2,
The first author wishes to express his appreciation to the Min- pp. 62–64, 2005.
istry of Higher Education of Malaysia for their financial [20] G. M. Pajonk, “Some applications of silica aerogels,” Colloid and
support. Polymer Science, vol. 281, no. 7, pp. 637–651, 2003.
[21] S. J. Teichner and G. A. Nicoloan, “Method of preparing inor-
ganic aerogels,” US patent no. 3,672,833, 1972.
References
[22] S. J. Teichner, G. A. Nicolaon, M. A. Vicarini, and G. E. E.
[1] J. Fricke and T. Tillotson, “Aerogels: production, characteriza- Gardes, “Inorganic oxide aerogels,” Advances in Colloid and
tion, and applications,” Thin Solid Films, vol. 297, no. 1-2, pp. Interface Science, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 245–273, 1976.
212–223, 1997. [23] G. Poelz and R. Riethmüller, “Preparation of silica aerogel for
[2] J. Fricke and A. Emmerling, “Aerogels—recent progress in Cherenkov counters,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods, vol.
production techniques and novel applications,” Journal of Sol- 195, no. 3, pp. 491–503, 1982.
Gel Science and Technology, vol. 13, no. 1–3, pp. 299–303, 1999. [24] Airglass AB, January 2013, http://www.airglass.se/.
[3] M. Schmidt and F. Schwertfeger, “Applications for silica aerogel [25] P. H. Tewari and A. J. Hunt, “Process for forming transparent
products,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 225, no. 1–3, pp. aerogel insulating arrays,” US patent no. 4,610,863, 1986.
364–368, 1998. [26] P. H. Tewari, A. J. Hunt, and K. D. Lofftus, “Ambient-tempera-
[4] G. Herrmann, R. Iden, M. Mielke, F. Teich, and B. Ziegler, “On ture supercritical drying of transparent silica aerogels,” Materi-
the way to commercial production of silica aerogel,” Journal of als Letters, vol. 3, no. 9-10, pp. 363–367, 1985.
Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, pp. 380–387, 1995. [27] T. Woignier and J. Phalippou, “Skeletal density of silica aero-
[5] Y. K. Akimov, “Fields of application of aerogels,” Pribory i Tekh- gels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 93, no. 1, pp. 17–21,
nika Eksperimenta, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 5–19, 2003. 1987.
[6] A. C. Pierre and G. M. Pajonk, “Chemistry of aerogels and their [28] R. W. Pekala, “Organic aerogels from the polycondensation of
applications,” Chemical Reviews, vol. 102, no. 11, pp. 4243–4265, resorcinol with formaldehyde,” Journal of Materials Science, vol.
2002. 24, no. 9, pp. 3221–3227, 1989.
[7] C. A. M. Mulder and J. G. Lierop, “Preparation, densification [29] T. M. Tillotson and L. W. Hrubesh, “Transparent ultralow-den-
and characterization of autoclave dried SiO2 gels,” in Aerogels, J. sity silica aerogels prepared by a two-step sol-gel process,” Jour-
Fricke, Ed., pp. 68–75, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1986. nal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 145, pp. 44–50, 1992.
[8] L. W. Hrubesh, “Aerogels: the world’s lightest solids,” Chemistry [30] S. T. Mayer, R. W. Pekala, and J. L. Kaschmitter, “The aerocapac-
and Industry, no. 24, pp. 824–827, 1990. itor: an electrochemical double-layer energy-storage device,”
[9] S. R. Hostler, A. R. Abramson, M. D. Gawryla, S. A. Bandi, and Journal of the Electrochemical Society, vol. 140, no. 2, pp. 446–
D. A. Schiraldi, “Thermal conductivity of a clay-based aerogel,” 451, 1993.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 52, no. 3-4, [31] R. W. Pekala, S. T. Mayer, J. L. Kaschmitter, and F. M. Kong,
pp. 665–669, 2009. “Carbon aerogels: an update on structure, properties, and appli-
[10] G. Wei, Y. Liu, X. Zhang, F. Yu, and X. Du, “Thermal conductiv- cations,” in Sol-Gel Processing and Applications, Y. A. Attia, Ed.,
ities study on silica aerogel and its composite insulation mate- pp. 369–377, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1994.
rials,” International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 54, [32] D. M. Smith, R. Deshpande, and C. J. Brinker, “Preparation of
no. 11-12, pp. 2355–2366, 2011. low-density aerogels at ambient pressure,” in Better Ceramics
[11] G. Wei, Y. Liu, X. Du, and X. Zhang, “Gaseous conductivity through Chemistry V, M. J. Hampden-Smith, W. G. Klemperer,
study on silica aerogel and its composite insulation materials,” and C. J. Brinker, Eds., vol. 271 of MRS Proceedings, pp. 567–572,
Journal of Heat Transfer, vol. 134, no. 4, Article ID 041301, 5 1992.
pages, 2012. [33] S. S. Prakash, C. J. Brinker, A. J. Hurd, and S. M. Rao, “Silica
[12] J.-J. Zhao, Y.-Y. Duan, X.-D. Wang, and B.-X. Wang, “A 3-D aerogel films prepared at ambient pressure by using surface der-
numerical heat transfer model for silica aerogels based on the ivatization to induce reversible drying shrinkage,” Nature, vol.
porous secondary nanoparticle aggregate structure,” Journal of 374, pp. 439–443, 1995.
Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 358, no. 10, pp. 1287–1297, 2012. [34] F. Shi, L. Wang, and J. Liu, “Synthesis and characterization of
[13] J.-J. Zhao, Y.-Y. Duan, X.-D. Wang, and B.-X. Wang, “An analyt- silica aerogels by a novel fast ambient pressure drying process,”
ical model for combined radiative and conductive heat transfer Materials Letters, vol. 60, no. 29-30, pp. 3718–3722, 2006.
in fiber-loaded silica aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, [35] T.-Y. Wei, T.-F. Chang, S.-Y. Lu, and Y.-C. Chang, “Preparation
vol. 358, no. 10, pp. 1303–1312, 2012. of monolithic silica aerogel of low thermal conductivity by
[14] S. S. Kistler, “Coherent expanded aerogels and jellies,” Nature, ambient pressure drying,” Journal of the American Ceramic Soci-
vol. 127, no. 3211, p. 741, 1931. ety, vol. 90, no. 7, pp. 2003–2007, 2007.
[15] S. S. Kistler, “Coherent expanded aerogels,” Journal of Physical [36] S. D. Bhagat, Y.-H. Kim, K.-H. Suh, Y.-S. Ahn, J.-G. Yeo, and J.-
Chemistry, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 52–64, 1932. H. Han, “Superhydrophobic silica aerogel powders with simul-
[16] S. S. Kistler, “The relation between heat conductivity and struc- taneous surface modification, solvent exchange and sodium ion
ture in silica aerogel,” Journal of Physical Chemistry, vol. 39, no. removal from hydrogels,” Microporous and Mesoporous Materi-
1, pp. 79–85, 1935. als, vol. 112, no. 1–3, pp. 504–509, 2008.
[37] P. M. Shewale, A. Venkateswara Rao, A. Parvathy Rao, and S. [54] H. Guo, M. A. B. Meador, L. McCorkle et al., “Tailoring prop-
D. Bhagat, “Synthesis of transparent silica aerogels with low erties of cross-linked polyimide aerogels for better moisture
density and better hydrophobicity by controlled sol-gel route resistance, flexibility, and strength,” ACS Applied Materials &
and subsequent atmospheric pressure drying,” Journal of Sol- Interfaces, vol. 4, no. 10, pp. 5422–5429, 2012.
Gel Science and Technology, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 285–292, 2009. [55] M. A. B. Meador, E. J. Malow, R. Silva et al., “Mechanically
[38] S.-W. Hwang, T.-Y. Kim, and S.-H. Hyun, “Effect of surface strong, flexible polyimide aerogels cross-linked with aromatic
modification conditions on the synthesis of mesoporous crack- triamine,” ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, vol. 4, no. 2, pp.
free silica aerogel monoliths from waterglass via ambient- 536–544, 2012.
drying,” Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, vol. 130, no. 1– [56] S. M. Jones, “Aerogel: space exploration applications,” Journal
3, pp. 295–302, 2010. of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, vol. 40, no. 2-3, pp. 351–357,
[39] S.-K. Kang and S.-Y. Choi, “Synthesis of low-density silica gel at 2006.
ambient pressure: effect of heat treatment,” Journal of Materials
[57] J. Fricke, X. Lu, P. Wang, D. Büttner, and U. Heinemann, “Opti-
Science, vol. 35, no. 19, pp. 4971–4976, 2000.
mization of monolithic silica aerogel insulants,” International
[40] J. F. Poco, P. R. Coronado, R. W. Pekala, and L. W. Hrubesh, Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 35, no. 9, pp. 2305–2309,
“A rapid supercritical extraction process for the production of 1992.
silica aerogels,” in Microporous and Macroporous Materials, J. S.
Beck, D. R. Corbin, M. E. Davis, L. E. Iton, and R. F. Lobo, Eds., [58] J. J. Zhao, Y. Y. Duan, X. D. Wang, and B. X. Wang, “Radiative
vol. 431 of MRS Proceedings, pp. 297–302, 1996. properties and heat transfer characteristics of fiber-loaded silica
aerogel composites for thermal insulation,” International Jour-
[41] T. B. Roth, A. M. Anderson, and M. K. Carroll, “Analysis of a
nal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 55, no. 19-20, pp. 5196–5204,
rapid supercritical extraction aerogel fabrication process: pre-
2012.
diction of thermodynamic conditions during processing,” Jour-
nal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 354, no. 31, pp. 3685–3693, [59] G. R. Cunnington, S. C. Lee, and S. M. White, “Radiative prop-
2008. erties of fiber-reinforced aerogel: theory versus experiment,”
[42] A. E. Gash, T. M. Tillotson, J. H. Satcher Jr., L. W. Hrubesh, and Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, vol. 12, no. 1, pp.
R. L. Simpson, “New sol-gel synthetic route to transition and 17–22, 1998.
main-group metal oxide aerogels using inorganic salt precur- [60] X. Lu, R. Caps, J. Fricke, C. T. Alviso, and R. W. Pekala, “Cor-
sors,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 285, no. 1–3, pp. 22– relation between structure and thermal conductivity of organic
28, 2001. aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 188, no. 3, pp.
[43] N. Leventis, C. Sotiriou-Leventis, G. Zhang, and A.-M. M. 226–234, 1995.
Rawashdeh, “Nanoengineering strong silica aerogels,” Nano [61] C. Bi and G. H. Tang, “Effective thermal conductivity of the
Letters, vol. 2, no. 9, pp. 957–960, 2002. solid backbone of aerogel,” International Journal of Heat and
[44] L. Leventis, S. Mulik, and C. Sotiriou-Leventis, “Crosslinking Mass Transfer, vol. 64, pp. 452–456, 2013.
3D assemblies of silica nanoparticles (aerogels) by surface- [62] O.-J. Lee, K.-H. Lee, T. Jin Yim, S. Young Kim, and K.-P. Yoo,
initiated free radical polymerization of styrene and methyl- “Determination of mesopore size of aerogels from thermal con-
methacrylate,” Polymer Preprints, vol. 48, pp. 950–951, 2007. ductivity measurements,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol.
[45] J. L. Mohanan, I. U. Arachchige, and S. L. Brock, “Porous semi- 298, no. 2-3, pp. 287–292, 2002.
conductor chalcogenide aerogels,” Science, vol. 307, no. 5708, pp. [63] Y. Duan, J. Lin, X. Wang, and J. Zhao, “Analysis of gaseous
397–400, 2005. thermal conductivity models for silica aerogels,” CIESC Journal,
[46] B. C. Tappan, M. H. Huynh, M. A. Hiskey et al., “Ultralow-den- vol. 63, pp. 54–58, 2012.
sity nanostructured metal foams: combustion synthesis, mor-
[64] G. Wei, Y. Liu, X. Zhang, and X. Du, “Radiative heat transfer
phology, and composition,” Journal of the American Chemical
study on silica aerogel and its composite insulation materials,”
Society, vol. 128, no. 20, pp. 6589–6594, 2006.
Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 362, pp. 231–236, 2013.
[47] M. B. Bryning, D. E. Milkie, M. F. Islam, L. A. Hough, J. M. Kik-
kawa, and A. G. Yodh, “Carbon nanotube aerogels,” Advanced [65] G. Lu, X.-D. Wang, Y.-Y. Duan, and X.-W. Li, “Effects of non-
Materials, vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 661–664, 2007. ideal structures and high temperatures on the insulation prop-
erties of aerogel-based composite materials,” Journal of Non-
[48] H. Halimaton, “Silica aerogels,” US patent no. 20070276051A1,
Crystalline Solids, vol. 357, no. 22-23, pp. 3822–3829, 2011.
2007.
[49] Q. Tang and T. Wang, “Preparation of silica aerogel from rice [66] Z. Jun-Jie, D. Yuan-Yuan, W. Xiao-Dong, and W. Bu-Xuan,
hull ash by supercritical carbon dioxide drying,” The Journal of “Experimental and analytical analyses of the thermal conduc-
Supercritical Fluids, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 91–94, 2005. tivities and high-temperature characteristics of silica aerogels
[50] T. Li and T. Wang, “Preparation of silica aerogel from rice hull based on microstructures,” Journal of Physics D, vol. 46, no. 1,
ash by drying at atmospheric pressure,” Materials Chemistry and Article ID 015304, 2013.
Physics, vol. 112, no. 2, pp. 398–401, 2008. [67] J. Wang, J. Kuhn, and X. Lu, “Monolithic silica aerogel insulation
[51] A. Tadjarodi, M. Haghverdi, and V. Mohammadi, “Preparation doped with TiO2 powder and ceramic fibers,” Journal of Non-
and characterization of nano-porous silica aerogel from rice Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, pp. 296–300, 1995.
husk ash by drying at atmospheric pressure,” Materials Research [68] S. Spagnol, B. Lartigue, A. Trombe, and V. Gibiat, “Modeling of
Bulletin, vol. 47, no. 9, pp. 2584–2589, 2012. thermal conduction in granular silica aerogels,” Journal of Sol-
[52] N. Leventis, N. Chandrasekaran, C. Sotiriou-Leventis, and A. Gel Science and Technology, vol. 48, no. 1-2, pp. 40–46, 2008.
Mumtaz, “Smelting in the age of nano: iron aerogels,” Journal of [69] D. Haranath, G. M. Pajonk, P. B. Wagh, and A. V. Rao, “Effect of
Materials Chemistry, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 63–65, 2009. sol-gel processing parameters on thermal properties of silica
[53] M. A. Meador and H. Guo, “Polyimide aerogel thin films,” Pat- aerogels,” Materials Chemistry and Physics, vol. 49, no. 2, pp.
ent application LEW-18864-1, 2012. 129–134, 1997.
[70] G.-S. Kim and S.-H. Hyun, “Synthesis of window glazing coated Science and Engineering, vol. 2013, Article ID 484153, 6 pages,
with silica aerogel films via ambient drying,” Journal of Non- 2013.
Crystalline Solids, vol. 320, no. 1–3, pp. 125–132, 2003. [88] T. Sumiyoshi, I. Adachi, R. Enomoto et al., “Silica aerogels in
[71] J. F. Poco, J. H. Satcher Jr., and L. W. Hrubesh, “Synthesis of high high energy physics,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 225,
porosity, monolithic alumina aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystal- no. 1–3, pp. 369–374, 1998.
line Solids, vol. 285, no. 1–3, pp. 57–63, 2001. [89] K. E. Parmenter and F. Milstein, “Mechanical properties of silica
[72] V. Bock, O. Nilsson, J. Blumm, and J. Fricke, “Thermal proper- aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 223, no. 3, pp.
ties of carbon aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 179–189, 1998.
185, no. 3, pp. 233–239, 1995. [90] M. A. B. Meador, S. L. Vivod, L. McCorkle et al., “Reinforcing
[73] J. S. Q. Zeng, P. C. Stevens, A. J. Hunt, R. Grief, and D. Lee, polymer cross-linked aerogels with carbon nanofibers,” Journal
“Thin-film-heater thermal conductivity apparatus and mea- of Materials Chemistry, vol. 18, no. 16, pp. 1843–1852, 2008.
surement of thermal conductivity of silica aerogel,” Interna- [91] A. V. Rao, M. M. Kulkarni, D. P. Amalnerkar, and T. Seth, “Sur-
tional Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 39, no. 11, pp. 2311– face chemical modification of silica aerogels using various alkyl-
2317, 1996. alkoxy/chloro silanes,” Applied Surface Science, vol. 206, no. 1–4,
[74] W. C. Wanqing Cao and A. J. Hunt, “Improving the visible trans- pp. 262–270, 2003.
parency of silica aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. [92] A. V. Rao, G. M. Pajonk, S. D. Bhagat, and P. Barboux, “Compar-
176, no. 1, pp. 18–25, 1994. ative studies on the surface chemical modification of silica aer-
[75] Q. Zhu, Y. Li, and Z. Qiu, “Research progress on aerogels as ogels based on various organosilane compounds of the type R
transparent insulation materials,” in Challenges of Power Engi- nSiX4-n,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 350, pp. 216–
neering and Environment, K. Cen, Y. Chi, and F. Wang, Eds., pp. 223, 2004.
1117–1121, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2007. [93] G. Zhang, A. Dass, A.-M. M. Rawashdeh et al., “Isocyanate-
[76] A. Emmerling, R. Petricevic, A. Beck, P. Wang, H. Scheller, and crosslinked silica aerogel monoliths: preparation and character-
J. Fricke, “Relationship between optical transparency and nano- ization,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 350, pp. 152–164,
structural features of silica aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline 2004.
Solids, vol. 185, no. 3, pp. 240–248, 1995. [94] N. Leventis, “Three-dimensional core-shell superstructures:
[77] M. Reim, G. Reichenauer, W. Körner et al., “Silica-aerogel gran- mechanically strong aerogels,” Accounts of Chemical Research,
ulate—structural, optical and thermal properties,” Journal of vol. 40, no. 9, pp. 874–884, 2007.
Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 350, pp. 358–363, 2004. [95] M. A. B. Meador, L. A. Capadona, L. McCorkle, D. S. Papa-
[78] A. J. Hunt, “Light scattering for aerogel characterization,” Jour- dopoulos, and N. Leventis, “Structure-property relationships in
nal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 225, no. 1–3, pp. 303–306, 1998. porous 3D nanostructures as a function of preparation condi-
tions: isocyanate cross-linked silica aerogels,” Chemistry of
[79] A. F. Danilyuk, E. A. Kravchenko, A. G. Okunev, A. P. Onuchin, Materials, vol. 19, no. 9, pp. 2247–2260, 2007.
and S. A. Shaurman, “Synthesis of aerogel tiles with high light
[96] M. A. B. Meador, E. F. Fabrizio, F. Ilhan et al., “Cross-linking
scattering length,” Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics
amine-modified silica aerogels with epoxies: mechanically
Research A, vol. 433, no. 1, pp. 406–407, 1999.
strong lightweight porous materials,” Chemistry of Materials,
[80] A. Venkateswara Rao and G. M. Pajonk, “Effect of methyltrime- vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 1085–1098, 2005.
thoxysilane as a co-precursor on the optical properties of silica
[97] N. Leventis, S. Mulik, X. Wang et al., “Polymer nano-encapsu-
aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 285, no. 1–3, pp.
lation of templated mesoporous silica monoliths with improved
202–209, 2001.
mechanical properties,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol.
[81] I. Adachi, Y. Ishii, H. Kawai, A. Kuratani, and M. Tabata, “Study 354, no. 2–9, pp. 632–644, 2008.
of a silica aerogel for a Cherenkov radiator,” Nuclear Instruments
[98] H. Luo, G. Churu, E. F. Fabrizio et al., “Synthesis and charac-
and Methods in Physics Research A, vol. 595, no. 1, pp. 180–182,
terization of the physical, chemical and mechanical properties
2008.
of isocyanate-crosslinked vanadia aerogels,” Journal of Sol-Gel
[82] I. Adachi, S. Fratina, T. Fukushima et al., “Study of highly trans- Science and Technology, vol. 48, no. 1-2, pp. 113–134, 2008.
parent silica aerogel as a RICH radiator,” Nuclear Instruments [99] H. Luo, H. Lu, and N. Leventis, “The compressive behavior
and Methods in Physics Research A, vol. 553, no. 1-2, pp. 146–151, of isocyanate-crosslinked silica aerogel at high strain rates,”
2005. Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 83–
[83] S. D. Bhagat, H. Hirashima, and A. Venkateswara Rao, “Low 111, 2006.
density TEOS based silica aerogels using methanol solvent,” [100] J. P. Randall, M. A. B. Meador, and S. C. Jana, “Tailoring
Journal of Materials Science, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 3207–3214, 2007. mechanical properties of aerogels for aerospace applications,”
[84] M. A. Worsley, J. H. Satcher, and T. F. Baumann, “Enhanced ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 613–626,
thermal transport in carbon aerogel nanocomposites contain- 2011.
ing double-walled carbon nanotubes,” Journal of Applied Phys- [101] P. Etienne, J. Phalippou, T. Woignier, and A. Alaoui, “Slow crack
ics, vol. 105, no. 8, Article ID 084316, 2009. growth in aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 188,
[85] D. Lee, P. C. Stevens, S. Q. Zeng, and A. J. Hunt, “Thermal char- no. 1-2, pp. 19–26, 1995.
acterization of carbon-opacified silica aerogels,” Journal of Non- [102] T. Woignier, F. Despetis, A. Alaoui, P. Etienne, and J. Phalippou,
Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, pp. 285–290, 1995. “Mechanical properties of gel-derived materials,” Journal of Sol-
[86] J. Kuhn, T. Gleissner, M. C. Arduini-Schuster, S. Korder, and Gel Science and Technology, vol. 19, no. 1–3, pp. 163–169, 2000.
J. Fricke, “Integration of mineral powders into SiO2 aerogels,” [103] A. Du, B. Zhou, J.-Y. Gui et al., “Thermal and mechanical prop-
Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, pp. 291–295, 1995. erties of density-gradient aerogels for outer-space hypervelocity
[87] T. Woignier, L. Duffours, P. Colombel, and C. Durin, “Aerogels particle capture,” Acta Physico—Chimica Sinica, vol. 28, no. 5,
materials as space debris collectors,” Advances in Materials pp. 1189–1196, 2012.
[104] S.-W. Hwang, H.-H. Jung, S.-H. Hyun, and Y.-S. Ahn, “Effective [122] R. Takahashi, S. Sato, T. Sodesawa, T. Goto, K. Matsutani, and
preparation of crack-free silica aerogels via ambient drying,” N. Mikami, “Bending strength of silica gel with bimodal pores:
Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 139– effect of variation in mesopore structure,” Materials Research
146, 2007. Bulletin, vol. 40, no. 7, pp. 1148–1156, 2005.
[105] F. Hoerz, G. Cress, M. Zolensky, T. H. See, R. P. Bernhard, and J. [123] X. Yang, Y. Sun, and D. Shi, “Experimental investigation and
L. Warren, “Optical analysis of impact features in aerogel from modeling of the creep behavior of ceramic fiber-reinforced SiO2
the orbital debris collection experiment on the MIR station,” aerogel,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 358, no. 3, pp.
NASA TM-1999-209372, 1999. 519–524, 2012.
[106] P. Tsou, “Silica aerogel captures cosmic dust intact,” Journal of [124] A. Hasmy, M. Foret, E. Anglaret, J. Pelous, R. Vacher, and R.
Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, pp. 415–427, 1995. Jullien, “Small-angle neutron scattering of aerogels: simulations
[107] F. Hörz, M. E. Zolensky, R. P. Bernhard, T. H. See, and J. L. and experiments,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, pp.
Warren, “Impact features and projectile residues in aerogel 118–130, 1995.
exposed on Mir,” Icarus, vol. 147, no. 2, pp. 559–579, 2000. [125] A. Rahmani, P. Jund, C. Benoit, and R. Jullien, “Numerical study
[108] H. A. Ishii, J. P. Bradley, Z. R. Dai et al., “Comparison of comet of the dynamic properties of silica aerogels,” Journal of Physics:
81P/Wild 2 dust with interplanetary dust from comets,” Science, Condensed Matter, vol. 13, no. 23, pp. 5413–5426, 2001.
vol. 319, no. 5862, pp. 447–450, 2008. [126] Alibaba, January 2013, http://www.alibaba.com/.
[109] D. E. Brownlee, P. Tsou, K. L. Atkins et al., “Stardust: finessing [127] Stardust. NASA, January 2013, http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/
expensive cometary sample returns,” Acta Astronautica, vol. 39, tech/aerogel.html.
no. 1–4, pp. 51–60, 1996. [128] J.-Y. Gui, B. Zhou, Y.-H. Zhong, A. Du, and J. Shen, “Fabrication
[110] D. E. Brownlee, P. Tsou, J. D. Anderson et al., “Stardust: comet of gradient density SiO2 aerogel,” Journal of Sol-Gel Science and
and interstellar dust sample return mission,” Journal of Geophys- Technology, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 470–475, 2011.
ical Research E, vol. 108, no. 10, pp. 1–15, 2003. [129] S. M. Jones, “A method for producing gradient density aerogel,”
Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 255–
[111] J. M. Arvidson and L. L. Scull, “Compressive properties of silica
258, 2007.
aerogel at 295, 76, and 20 K,” in Advances in Cryogenic Engi-
neering Materials, R. P. Reed and A. F. Clark, Eds., pp. 243–250, [130] G. Domı́nguez, A. J. Westphal, S. M. Jones, and M. L. F. Phillips,
Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1986. “Energy loss and impact cratering in aerogels: theory and
experiment,” Icarus, vol. 172, no. 2, pp. 613–624, 2004.
[112] M. Gronauer, A. Kadur, and J. Fricke, “Mechanical and acoustic
properties of silica aerogel,” in Aerogels, J. Fricke, Ed., pp. 167– [131] H. A. Ishii, G. A. Graham, A. T. Kearsley, P. G. Grant, C. J.
173, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 1986. Snead, and J. P. Bradley, “Rapid extraction of dust impact tracks
from silica aerogel by ultrasonic microblades,” Meteoritics and
[113] T. Woignier and J. Phalippou, “The aerogel glass conversion,” Planetary Science, vol. 40, no. 11, pp. 1741–1747, 2005.
Revue de Physique Appliquée, vol. 24, pp. 179–184, 1989.
[132] G. J. Flynn, P. Bleuet, J. Borg et al., “Elemental compositions
[114] J. Gross, G. Reichenauer, and J. Fricke, “Mechanical properties of comet 81P/wild 2 samples collected by stardust,” Science, vol.
of SiO2 aerogels,” Journal of Physics D, vol. 21, no. 9, pp. 1447– 314, no. 5806, pp. 1731–1735, 2006.
1451, 1988.
[133] S. A. Sandford, J. Aléon, C. M. O. Alexander et al., “Organics
[115] G. W. Scherer, D. M. Smith, X. Qiu, and J. M. Anderson, “Com- captured from comet 81P/wild 2 by the stardust spacecraft,”
pression of aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 186, Science, vol. 314, no. 5806, pp. 1720–1724, 2006.
pp. 316–320, 1995. [134] M. E. Zolensky, T. J. Zega, H. Yano et al., “Mineralogy and
[116] R. W. Stark, T. Drobek, M. Weth, J. Fricke, and W. M. Heckl, petrology of comet 81P/Wild 2 nucleus samples,” Science, vol.
“Determination of elastic properties of single aerogel powder 314, no. 5806, pp. 1735–1739, 2006.
particles with the AFM,” Ultramicroscopy, vol. 75, no. 3, pp. 161– [135] K. D. McKeegan, J. Aléon, J. Bradley et al., “Isotopic composi-
169, 1998. tions of cometary matter returned by stardust,” Science, vol. 314,
[117] M. Moner-Girona, E. Martı́nez, A. Roig, J. Esteve, and E. no. 5806, pp. 1724–1728, 2006.
Molins, “Mechanical properties of silica aerogels measured by [136] M. F. A’Hearn, M. J. S. Belton, W. A. Delamere et al., “Deep
microindentation: influence of sol-gel processing parameters impact: excavating comet tempel 1,” Science, vol. 310, no. 5746,
and carbon addition,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 285, pp. 258–264, 2005.
no. 1–3, pp. 244–250, 2001. [137] T. E. Economou, S. F. Green, D. E. Brownlee, and B. C. Clark,
[118] J. Martin, B. Hosticka, C. Lattimer, and P. M. Norris, “Mechani- “Dust flux monitor instrument measurements during Stardust-
cal and acoustical properties as a function of PEG concentration NExT Flyby of Comet 9P/Tempel 1,” Icarus, vol. 222, no. 2, pp.
in macroporous silica gels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, 526–539, 2013.
vol. 285, no. 1–3, pp. 222–229, 2001. [138] J. Veverka, K. Klaasen, M. A’Hearn et al., “Return to Comet
[119] L. Perin, A. Faivre, S. Calas-Etienne, and T. Woignier, “Nanos- Tempel 1: overview of Stardust-NExT results,” Icarus, vol. 222,
tructural damage associated with isostatic compression of silica no. 2, pp. 424–435, 2013.
aerogels,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 333, no. 1, pp. [139] L. A. Leshin, A. Yen, J. Bomba et al., “Sample collection for
68–73, 2004. investigation of mars (SCIM): An early mars sample return
[120] M. R. Miner, B. Hosticka, and P. M. Norris, “The effects of ambi- mission through the mars scout program,” in Proceedings of
ent humidity on the mechanical properties and surface chem- the 33rd Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Lunar
istry of hygroscopic silica aerogel,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Planetary Institute, 2002, abstract no. 1721.
Solids, vol. 350, pp. 285–289, 2004. [140] L. A. Leshin, B. C. Clark, L. Forney et al., “Scientific benefit of
[121] F. Despetis, P. Etienne, and S. Etienne-Calas, “Subcritical crack a mars dust sample capture and earth return with SCIM,” in
growth in silica aerogel,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. Proceedings of the 34th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science
344, no. 1-2, pp. 22–25, 2004. Conference, Lunar Planetary Institute, 2003, abstract no. 1288.
[141] M. J. Burchell, J. A. Creighton, M. J. Cole, J. Mann, and A. T. [159] P. W. Worden, “STEP payload development,” Advances in Space
Kearsley, “Capture of particles in hypervelocity impacts in aero- Research, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 259–267, 2007.
gel,” Meteoritics and Planetary Science, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 209– [160] FARS, 14 CFR 25.1191: Firewalls, U.S Government Printing
221, 2001. Office, 2001, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CFR-2001-
[142] A. Tighe, S. Gabriel, D. Goulty et al., “Materials exposure and title14-vol1/CFR-2001-title14-vol1-sec25-1191/content-detail
degradation experiment (MEDET),” in Proceedings of the Con- .html.
ference and Exhibit on International Space Station Utilization, [161] FAA AC 20-135—Powerplant Installation and Propulsion Sys-
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2001. tem Component Fire Protection Test Methods, Standards and
[143] V. Rejsek-Riba, V. Inguimbert, S. Duzellier, C. Pons, M. Crepel, Criteria, Federal Aviation Administration, 1990, http://www.faa
and A. P. Tighe, “Spectrometers results of material exposure and .gov/regulations policies/advisory circulars/index.cfm/go/
degradation experiment onboard international space station,” document.information/documentID/22194.
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 38–44, 2011. [162] Aspen Aerogels, January 2013, http://www.aerogel.com/.
[144] S. M. Jones, M. S. Anderson, G. Dominguez, and A. Tsapin, [163] J. Fricke, “Aerogels—highly tenuous solids with fascinating pro-
“Thermal calibrations of hypervelocity capture in aerogel using perties,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 100, no. 1–3, pp.
magnetic iron oxide particles,” Icarus, vol. 226, no. 1, pp. 1–9, 169–173, 1988.
2013. [164] L. Forest, V. Gibiat, and T. Woignier, “Evolution of the acoustical
[145] H. Eisen, L. Wen, G. Hickey, and D. Braun, “Sojourner mars properties of silica alcogels during their formation,” Ultrasonics,
rover thermal performance,” in Proceedings of the International vol. 36, no. 1–5, pp. 477–481, 1998.
Conference on Environmental Systems, 1998, SAE paper no. [165] H. Nagahara, T. Suginouchi, and M. Hashimoto, “Acoustic
981685. properties of nanofoam and its applied air-borne ultrasonic
[146] K. S. Novak, C. J. Phillips, G. C. Birur, E. T. Sunada, and M. transducers,” in Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium,
T. Pauken, “Development of a thermal control architecture for pp. 1541–1544, 2006.
the mars exploration rovers,” in Proceedings of the Conference on
[166] L. Forest, V. Gibiat, and A. Hooley, “Impedance matching and
Thermophysics in Microgravity; Commercial/Civil Next Genera-
acoustic absorption in granular layers of silica aerogels,” Journal
tion Space Transportation, Human Space Exploration, pp. 194–
of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 285, no. 1–3, pp. 230–235, 2001.
205, American Institute of Physics, 2003.
[167] Smartplant, “American Airlines flies past fuel conservation
[147] G. Hickey, “Thermal insulation for Mars surface exploration,”
goal,” 2012, http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/business-brains/
NASA TRS 97-0683, 1997.
american-airlines-flies-past-fuel-conservation-goal/24630.
[148] Opportunity. NASA, January 2013, http://www.nasa.gov/mis-
[168] American Airlines, “Fuel Smart,” January 2013, http://www
sion pages/mer/opportunity-update.html.
.aa.com/i18n/amrcorp/newsroom/fuel-smart.jsp.
[149] Mars Rovers. NASA, January 2013, http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa
.gov/overview/.
[150] L. Trevino and E. Orndoff, “Advanced space suit insulation
feasibility study,” in Proceedings of the International Conference
on Environmental Systems, pp. 913–920, American Institute of
Physics, Tucson, Ariz, USA, 2000.
[151] H. L. Paul and K. R. Diller, “Comparison of thermal insulation
performance of fibrous materials for the advanced space suit,”
Journal of Biomechanical Engineering, vol. 125, no. 5, pp. 639–
647, 2003.
[152] J. E. Fesmire, “Aerogel insulation systems for space launch appli-
cations,” Cryogenics, vol. 46, no. 2-3, pp. 111–117, 2006.
[153] J. E. Fesmire and J. P. Sass, “Aerogel insulation applications for
liquid hydrogen launch vehicle tanks,” Cryogenics, vol. 48, no.
5-6, pp. 223–231, 2008.
[154] Basics of Space Flight, January 2013, http://www.braeunig.us/
space/propel.htm.
[155] B. E. Coffman, J. E. Fesmire, S. White, G. Gould, and S. August-
ynowicz, “Aerogel blanket insulation materials for cryogenic
applications,” in Proceedings of the Joint Cryogenic Engineering
and International Cryogenic Materials Conferences, pp. 913–920,
American Institute of Physics, Tucson, Ariz, USA, July 2010.
[156] J. Kozicki and J. Kozicka, “Human friendly architectural design
for a small Martian base,” Advances in Space Research, vol. 48,
no. 12, pp. 1997–2004, 2011.
[157] T. J. Sumner, J. Anderson, J.-P. Blaser et al., “STEP (satellite test
of the equivalence principle),” Advances in Space Research, vol.
39, no. 2, pp. 254–258, 2007.
[158] P. Worden, R. Torii, J. C. Mester, and C. W. F. Everitt, “The step
payload and experiment,” Advances in Space Research, vol. 25,
no. 6, pp. 1205–1208, 2000.
Journal of International Journal of International Journal of Smart Materials Journal of
Nanotechnology
Corrosion
Polymer Science
Research
Composites
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014
Journal of
Metallurgy
BioMed
Research International
Hindawi Publishing Corporation Hindawi Publishing Corporation
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014
Nanomaterials
Submit your manuscripts at
http://www.hindawi.com
Journal of Journal of
Materials
Nanoparticles
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014
Nanomaterials
Journal of
Advances in The Scientific International Journal of

Materials Science and Engineering
Scientifica
Hindawi Publishing Corporation Hindawi Publishing Corporation
World Journal
Biomaterials
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014
Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of
Nanoscience
Coatings
Crystallography
Ceramics
Textiles
http://www.hindawi.com
http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 http://www.hindawi.com Volume 2014 Volume 2014

Review Article: Aerogels in Aerospace: An Overview

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review Article: Aerogels in Aerospace: An Overview

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Review Article: Aerogels in Aerospace: An Overview

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Correspondence should be addressed to Nadiir Bheekhun; minadiir@gmail.com

Received 2 May 2013; Revised 10 September 2013; Accepted 10 September 2013

Academic Editor: Zhimin Liu

1. Introduction the thermal behavior of granular- and fiber-based silica aero-

using tetrachloride in 1960s. Since then, there were no inter-

Table 1: Physical properties of conventional silica aerogel and Maerogel.

Property Conventional aerogel Maerogel Comments

Rice husk Reaction

Acid neutralisation Sodium silicate

Figure 2: Schematic procedure of Maerogel preparation from rice husk.

synthesis methods will lead to dissimilar typical values for where

Table 3: Mechanical studies on silica aerogel.

Methodology Author Analysis Approach/apparatus

Thermal diffusion coefficient (mm2 ·s−1 )

Specific heat capacity (MJ·m−3 ·K−1 )

0.15 0.16 0.10

while Tray 2 in the opposite direction, to collect both man-

extracted from the aerogels. A study is ongoing to analyze

(1) Liquid cooling and ventilation

(2) Liquid cooling and

(6) Thermal micrometeoroid

(5) Restraint (dacron)

Table 4: Comparison between fiberglass, conventional silica aerogel, and Maerogel.

Conflict of Interests [17] Stardust. NASA, January 2013, http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/

Advances in The Scientific International Journal of

Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of Journal of

You might also like