From the Age of Symbolism to Expressionism

Symbolism
Symbolism was both an artistic and a literary movement that suggested ideas through symbols
and emphasized the meaning behind the forms, lines, shapes and colors. Symbolism can also be seen as
being at the forefront of modernism, in that it developed new and often abstract means to express
psychological truth and the idea that behind the physical world lay a spiritual reality. Symbolists could
take the ineffable, such as dreams and visions and give it form.
Symbolism in the visual arts had its sources in early 19 th century Romanticism’s emphasis on the
imagination, rather than reason, and the themes first evident in the writer Charles Baudelaire’s Les
Fleurs du Mal. Additional sources include the personal visions of painter and poet William Blake, the
aestheticism of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in England, and the poetic, allegorical, moody dream
worlds created by Edward Burne-Jones, Dante Gabriel Rosetti, and the Pierre Puvis de Chavannes.
Symbolism was in many ways a reaction against the moralism, rationalism and materialism of
the 1880s. This fin-de-siècle period was a period of malaise – a sickness of dissatisfaction. Artists felt a
need to go beyond naturalism in art, and like other forms of art and entertainment at the time, such as
ballet and the cabaret, Symbolism served as a means of escape.

Symbolist Theory and Albert Aurier

An offshoot of the literary Symbolism that influenced visual art was the field of art criticism,
particularly that f Albert Aurier. In 1891 he wrote, in what became essentially a Symbolist manifesto that
art should be:
1. Ideiste (Ideative)…. Expressing an idea.
2. Symbolist since it expresses that idea through form
3. Synthetic since it expresses those forms and signs in a way that is generally understandable
4. Subjective since the object… is only an indication of an idea perceived by the subject
5. And as a result it will also be Decorative….. since decorative painting is at once an art that is
synthetic, symbolist and ideative.

Concepts and Styles

The period in which the Symbolists worked as marked by confusion regarding moral, social,
religious, and intellectual attitudes. The world was expanding beyond European norms; socialism no
longer consisted of the benevolent intentions with which it set out. The relationship between love and
marriage was being questioned, as was religion. Artists in particular felt that they were isolated and
separate from the bourgeoisie. Yet the idea of the spiritual was very important in the development of
Symbolism and reflected the anti-materialist philosophies that were concerned with mysticism (a direct
connection and unity with the ultimate reality). An interest in the occult was related to this concept, as
was a taste for the morbid and perverse, as this period is often described as one of “decadence” (a
period of artistic or moral decline as seen in the preference for the artificial over the natural- and by
extension, the idea that even humanity was in decline). English writer Oscar Wilde’s works and the
French writer Joris-Karl Huysman’s A Rebour (Against Nature), as well as the art of many of the
Symbolists, reflect this decadence.
The most important art of the symbolist is Death and the Masks by James Ensor.
Art Nouveau (emphasis on natural forms and structure)
Art Nouveau, ornamental style of art that flourished between about 1890 and 1910 throughout
Europe and the United States. Art Nouveau is characterized by its use of a long, sinuous, organic line and
was employed most often in architecture, interior design, jewelry and glass design, posters and
illustration. It was a deliberate attempt to create a new style, free of the imitative historicism that
dominated much of 19th century art and design. Art Nouveau developed first in England and soon spread
to the European continent, where it was called Jugendstil in Germany, Sezessionstil in Australia, Stile
Floreale (Stile Liberty) in Italy and Modernismo (Modernista) in Spain. The term ‘Art Nouveau’ was
coined by a gallery in Paris that exhibited much of this work.

History of Art Nouveau

The term “Art Nouveau” stemmed from the name of the Parisian art gallery called “La Maison
de I’Art Nouveau”, owned by the avant-garde art collector Seigfried Bing, which showcased works
created in the Art Nouveau style. The gallery’s reputation and frame was considerably boosted by its
installations of modern furniture, tapestries and objects d’art at the 1900 Exposition Universelle, after
which the gallery’s name became almost synonymous with the style.
At the same time, In Belgium the style was promoted by Les Vingt and La Libre Esthetique,
while in Germany the style was popularized and promoted by a magazine called Jugend: Munchner
illustrierte Wochenschrift fur Kunst und Leben (Youth: the illustrated weekly magazine of art and
lifestyle of Munich), which is why German Art Nouveau countries – has since been known as
“Jugendstil” (youth-style). In Austria, Art Nouveau was first popularized by artist of the Vienna Secession
movement, leading to the adoption of the name “Sezessionstil”. In fact, the Vienna Secessionists, like
Joseph Maria Olbrich, influenced art and architecture throughout Austria and Hungary. In Germany,
after the Munich Secession and the Berlin Secession, many of its leading practitioners came together
again in 1907 as members of the Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation).

Characteristics of Art Nouveau

There is no single definition or meaning of Art Nouveau. But the following are the distinguishing
factors:
1. Art Nouveau philosophy was in favor of applying artistic designs to everyday objects, in order to
make beautiful things available to everyone. No object was too utilitarian to be “beautified”.
2. Art Nouveau saw no separation in principle between fine art (painting and sculpture) and
applied or decorative arts (ceramics, furniture and other practical objects).
3. In content, the style was a reaction to a world of art which was dominated by the precise
geometry of Neoclassical forms. It sought a new graphic design language, as far away as possible
from the historical and classical models employed by the arts academies.
4. Art Nouveau remains something of an umbrella term which embraces a variety of stylistic
interpretations: some artists used new low-cost materials and mass production methods while
others used more expensive materials and valued high craftsmanship.

Types of Design
In line with the Art Nouveau philosophy that art should become part of everyday life, it
employed flat, decorative patterns that could be used in al art forms. Typical decorative elements
include leaf and tendril motifs, intertwined organic forms, mostly curvaceous in shape, although right-
angled designs were also prevalent in Scotland and in Austria. Art made in this style typically depicted
lavish birds, flowers, insects and other zoomorphs, as well as the hair and curvaceous bodies of beautiful
women. For Art Nouveau architectural designs, see the exaggerated bulbous forms of the Spanish
architect Antoni Gaudi and the stylistic Parisian Metro entrances of Hector Guimard.
Applications
Art Nouveau designs were common in glassware, jelwellery and other decorative objects like
ceramics. But the style was also applied to textiles, household, silver, domestic utensils, cigarette cases,
furniture and lighting, as well as drawing, poster art, painting and book illustration. Theatrical design of
sets and costumes was another area in which the new style flourished. The best examples are the
designs created by Leon Bakst and Alexander Benois for Diaghilev and the Ballet Russes. Art Nouveau
also had a strong application in the field of architecture and interior design. In this area it exemplified a
more humanistic and less functionalist approach to the urban environment. Hyperbolas and parabolas in
windows, arches and doors were typical as were plant-derived forms for moldings. Art Nouveau interior
designers updated some of the more abstract elements of Rococo style, such as flame and shell textures
and also employed highly stylized organic forms, expanding the ‘natural’ repertoire to include seaweed,
grasses and insects. Art Nouveau architectural designs made broad use of exposed iron and large,
irregular pieces of glass.

Famous Art Nouveau Artists

The two greatest graphic artists of the Art Nouveau movement were the:
1. Jules Cheret – French lithographer, whose invention of “3-stone chromolithography” made Art
Nouveau poster art feasible
2. Alphonse Mucha – Czech lithographer and designer, whose celebrated posters epitomized the
Art Nouveau idiom
Other famous artists:
1. Emile Galle of France and Louis Comfort Tiffany of United States were famous for their
colourful Art Nouveau glassware,
2. Aubrey Beardsley and Walter Crane for their wonderful Art Nouveau drawings
3. Rene Lalique – French jewellery designer
4. Gustav Klimt – Viennese painter
5. Stanislaw Wyspianski – Polish Theatrical designer and stained glass artist
6. Charles Rennie Mackintosh – Scottish architect and designer, leader of the Glasgow School

Legacy and Influence of Art Nouveau

While Art Nouveau promoted a more widespread adoption of “beautiful” design, it did not
diminish the value of the machine or mass-production (as the Arts and Crafts Movement did), but
instead took advantage of many technological innovations from the late 19 th century.
Possibly its greatest influence was on
1. 2oth century advocates of integrated design, such as the German Bauhaus design school and the
Dutch design movement De Stijl; and
2. Graphic art such as illustration and poster-design
Nowadays, Art Nouveau is viewed as an important bridge between Neoclassicism and modernism,
and a number of its monuments are on the UNESCO World Heritage List, notably the historic centre
of Riga, Latvia with over 750 buildings in the Art Nouveau style.

Fauvism (extremely bright color art works)

Fauvism is a style of painting that flourished on France around the turn of the 20 th century.
Fauve artists used pure, brilliant color aggressively applied straight from the paint tubes to create a
sense of an explosion on the canvas.
 The Fauves painted directly from nature, as the Impressionist had before them, but Fauvist
works were invested with a strong expressive reaction to the subjects portrayed. First formally
exhibited in Paris in 1905, Fauvist paintings shocked visitors to the annual Salon d’Automne; one of
these visitors was the critic Louis Vauxcelles, who, because of the violence of their works, dubbed
the painters fauves or “wild beasts”.
The leader of the group was Henri Matisse, who had arrived at the Fauve style after
experimenting with the various Post-Impressionist approaches of Paul Gauguin, Vincent van Gogh
and Georges Seurat. Matisse’s studies led him to reject traditional renderings of three-dimensional
space and to seek instead a new picture space defined by movement of color. He exhibited his
famous Woman with the Hat at the 1905 exhibition. In this painting, brisk strokes of color – blues,
greens and reds – form an energetic, Woman with the Hat by Henri Matisse expressive view of the
woman. The crude paint application, which left areas of raw canvas exposed, was appalling to
viewers at the time.

Other Fauvist Painter

The other major Fauvists were Andre Derain, who had attended school with Matisse in 1898-99
and Maurice de Vlaminck, who was Derain’s friend. They shared Matisse’s interest in the expressive
function of color in painting and they first exhibited together in 1905. Derain’ Fauvist paintings
translate every tone of a landscape into pure color, which he applied with short, forceful
brushstrokes. The agitated swirls of intense color in Vlaminck’s works are indebted to the expressive
power of van Gogh.
For most of these artists, Fauvism was a transitional, learning stage. By 1908 a revived interest in
Paul Cezanne’s vision of the order and structure of nature had led many of them to reject the
turbulent emotionalism of Fauvism in favor of the logic of Cubism. Matisse alone pursued the course
he had pioneered, achieving a sophisticated balance between his own emotions and the world he
painted.

Characteristics of Fauvism
The characteristics of Fauvism include:
1. A radical use of unnatural colors that separated color from its usual representational and
realistic role , giving new, emotional meaning of the colors
2. Creating a strong unified work that appears flat on the canvas
3. Showing individual expressions and emotions of the painter instead of creating paintings based
on theories of what painting should look like with objects represented as they appear in nature
4. Bold brush strokes using paint straight from the tube instead of preparing and mixing it.

Expressionism (spiritual rebirth in a materialistic age)

Expressionism is an artistic style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but
rather the subjective emotions and responses that objects and events arouse within a person. The artist
accomplishes this aim through to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions and
responses that objects and events arouse within a person. The artist accomplishes this aim through
distortion, exaggeration, primitivism and fantasy and through the vivid, jarring, violent or dynamic
application of formal elements. In the broader sense Expressionism is one of the main currents of art in
the later 19th century and the 20th centuries, and its qualities of highly objective, personal, spontaneous
self-expression are typical of a wide range of modern artists and art movements. Expressionism can also
be seen as a permanent tendency in Germanic and Nordic art from at least the European Middle Ages,
particularly in times of social change or spiritual crisis, and in this sense it forms the converse of the
rationalist and classicizing tendencies of Italy and later of France.
The term “Expressionism” is thought to have been coined in 1910 by Czech art historian
Antonin Matejcek, who intended it to denote the opposite of Impressionism. Whereas the
Impressionists sought to express the majesty of nature and the human form through paint, the
Expressionists, according to Matejcek, sought only to express inner life, often via the painting of harsh
and realistic subject matter. It should be noted, however, that neither Die Brucke, nor similar sub-
movements, ever referred to themselves as Expressionist, and, in the early years of the century, the
term was widely used to apply to a variety of styles, including Post-Impressionism.

The Advent of Expressionism in Germany

Although it included various artists and styles, Expressionism first emerged in 1905, when a
group of four German architecture students who desired to become painters – Ernst Ludwig Kirchner,
Fritz Bleyl, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff and Erich Heckel – formed thee group Die Brucke (the Bridge) in the
city of Dresden. A few years later, in 1911, a like-minded group of young artist formed Der Blaue Reiter
(The Blue Rider) in Munich, after the rejection of Wassily Kandinsky’s painting The Last Judgment from a
local exhibition. In addition to Kadinsky, the group included Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and August Macke,
among others, all of whom made up the loosely associated group.
Expressionism was a dominant style in Germany in the years immediately following the World
War I, where it suited the postwar atmosphere of cynicism, alienation and disillusionment. Some of the
movement’s later practitioners, such as George Grosz and Otto Dix, developed more pointed, socially
critical blend of Expressionism and Realism known as the Neue Sachlichkeit (“New Objectivity”). As can
be seen from such labels as Abstract Expressionism and Neo-Expressionism, the spontaneous, instinctive
and highly emotional qualities of Expressionism have been shared by several subsequent art movements
in the 20th century.

Characteristics of Expressionism
Expressionist art tried to convey emotion and meaning rather than reality. Each artist had his
own unique way of “expressing” his emotions in his art. In order to express emotion, the subjects are
often distorted or exaggerated. At the same time, colors are often vivid and shocking.

Famous Expressionist Artists

1. Max Beckman – A German painter who has against the Expressionist movement. However,
many of his paintings are described as Expressionist.
2. James Ensor – A Dutch painter who had great influence on the expressionist movement in the
Germany.
3. Oskar Kokoschka – An Austrian artist whose artwork was displayed in the German magazine
‘The Storm’ The Storm’ when expressionism became a true art movement.
4. August Macke – A leading member of the expressionist group “The Blue Rider’ in Germany, he
also painted some abstract art.
5. Franz Marc – A founding member ‘The Blue Rider’ group, Franz Marc was one of the leaders in
the Expressionist movement
6. Edward Munch – A Symbolist and Expressionist, Munch is best known for his famous painting
‘The Scream’.
 7. Egon Schiele – An early adopter of Expressionism, Egon died at the young age of 28.

Decline of the Movement

The decline of Expressionism was hastened by the vagueness of its longing for a better world, by
its use of highly poetic language, and in general the intensely personal and inaccessible nature of its
mode of presentation. The partial reestablishment of stability in Germany after 1924 and the growth of
more overtly political styles of social realism hastened the movement’s decline in the 1920s.
Expressionism was definitively killed by the advent of the Nazis to power in 1933. They branded the
work of almost all Expressionists as degenerate and forbade them to exhibit or publish and eventually
even to work. Many Expressionists went into exile in the United States and other countries.
Various Genres in Music
List of Music Genres
1. Alternative Music
2. Anime
3. Blues
4. Children’s music
5. Commercial music
6. Country music
7. Electronic music
8. Hip-Hop/Rap
9. Holiday music
10. Indie Pop
11. Christian and Gospel music
12. Jazz music
13. Latin jazz
14. Rock music
15. New Age music
16. Instrumental music

The Cantata
- This music is an unstaged sacred of secular narrative sung with instrumental
accompaniment developed during the Baroque era.
- A cantata contains arias, narrative and choruses.
- It is generally based on sacred theme and are intended for liturgical use.
- John Sebastian Bach was considered as the “Father of German Canatata”.

The Oratorio
- This is a musical composition based on the bible or sacred text for soloist, choir and
orchestra.
- It is usually stage in a church or theatre without any scenery or movement or elaborate
costumes
- One of the most oratorios today is George Frideric Handel

The Concerto Grosso

- This is an important form of instrumental music during the Baroque period
- Composed of two groups instruments contrasted against each other
- Smaller group or soloist is called “concertino”
 - Bigger group or field ensemble and which is composed 8 to 20 musicians is called “tutti or
ripierno”
- Tutti are usually string instruments and harpsichord for the basso continuo

The Suites
- Composed of 4 dancers which did not contain thematic materials, tempo and character, are
best reunited only by being in the same key
- Sarabande – it is the second pairing of a slow fast dance in the suite begins with the
dignified sarabande

Keyboard instruments
1. Organ – composed of a part of tubes connected to a wind supply that is sounded by playing the
keys
- two kinds of organs and the flute pipes (sounded like whistle-flute) and reed pipes (has
piece of metal inside the mouthpiece that produces vibrations)
- modern organ is sounded by the use of electric motors
- In Las Pinas, bamboo organ was made by Fr. Diego Cerra in 1818 and could be found in the
Parish Church of St. Joseph

2. Harpsichord – is used during the Baroque period

- Three instruments in the harpsichord family: original, spirit and harpsichord
- In France, harpsichord is called “claveria”, cembalo in Germany and “clavicembalo” in Italy
- Harpsichord is similar to a grand piano

The Lute
- This is fretted guitar instrument with a pear-shaped body and between 7 and 11 strings
which was widely used as a solo instrument for accompaniment playing chords

A. The Baroque Music

- Is a style of Western art music that spanned by the year 1600-1750
- Forms a major portion of the classical music canon, being nowadays widely studied
performed and listened to
- The Baroque period saw the creation of tonality, an approach to writing music in which a
song or piece is written in a particular key; this kind of arrangement has continued to be
used in almost all Western popular music
- Professional musicians were expected to be accomplished improvisers of both solo melodic
lines and accompaniment parts
- Baroque concerts were typically accompanied by a basso continuo group (comprising chord-
playing instrumentalists such as harpsichordists and lute players improvising chords from a
figured bass part) while a group of bass instruments – viol, cello bass – played the bassline
- A characteristic Baroque form was the dance suite
- Dance suites were designed purely for listening, not for accompanying dancers
- The term “baroque” comes from the Portuguese word barroco, meaning “missharpen
pearl”
Top 10 Baroque Period Composers
1. Johann Sebastian Bach
- One of the best-known of all composers in classical music
- Born into one of the great musical families of the day
- A natural genius at the keyboard, he mastered the organ and harpsichord and was simply a
brilliant composer
- Popular works: “Air on a GString,” “Double Violin Concerto”, Brandenburg Concerto No. 3”,
“B Minor Mass”, “The Unaccompanied Cello Suited”

2. George Frideric Handel

- Composed for every musical genre of his time
- He is created with creating the English oratorio, most famous among these was “Messiah”
- Specialized in operas and often took on the Italian-style cantatas
- Popular works: “(The) Messiah”, “Music for the Royal Fireworks”, “Water Music”

3. Arcangelo Corelli
- Italian teacher, violinist and composer
- Often credited as the first person to create basic violin technique
- Corelli worked during the time of expressive opera known as High Baroque
- Equally famous for his harpsichord compositions and his talent with the violin
- Popular works: “Concerto Grossi”, “Christmas Concerto”, “Sonata da camera in D Minor”

4. Antonio Vivaldi
- Wrote over 500 concertos and is believed to have invented ritornello form in which a theme
returns throughout the piece
- Known as a virtuoso violinist and prolific composer, Vivaldi often held the title of Maestro
de’ Concerti (director of instrumental music) at Vienna’s Ospedale della Pieta.
- Popular works: “The Four Seasons”, “Gloria”, “Con Alla Rustica in G”

5. Georg Philipp Telemann

- Tolemann’s incorporation of unusual instrumentation in his concertos is one of the things
that made him unique
- His church music is most notable
- As a music teacher, he was known for organizing students and offering concerts to the
public
- Popular works: “Viola Concerto in G”, “Trio Sonata in C Minor”, “(The) Paris Quartets”

6. Henry Purcell
- He was considered one of the England’s greatest composers and the most original composer
of his time
- Purcell was extremely talented in word-setting and composed very successful works for the
stage
- His chamber music of suites and sonatas, as well as compositions for the church and courts,
also helped establish his name in music history
- Popular works: “Dido & Aeneas”, “The Fairy Queen”, “Sound the Trumpet”

7. Domenico Scarlatti
- Son of Alessandro Scarlatti, another well-known baroque composer
 - Wrote 555 known harpsichord sonatas, over half of which were written in the last six years
of his life
- Made use of Italian, Portuguese and Spanish dance rhythms throughout many of his works
- Popular works: “Essercizi per Gravicembalo”, (Sonatas for Harpsichord)

8. Jean-Philippe Rameau
- A French composer and music theorist, was known for his music with bold melodic lines and
harmonies
- Rameau’s greatest contribution to music was in tragedie lyrique opera
- His wide use of moods and musical colors in these French lyrical tragedies were beyond
those of his counterparts
- Popular works: “Hippolyte et Aricie and Castor et Pollux”, “Trait”, “Les Indes Galantes”

9. Johann Pachelbel
- Johann Pachelbel taught music to Johann Christopher Bach, J.S. Bach’s older brother
- Pachelbel’s “Canon in D Major" is his most famous work and you can hear it to this day in
countless wedding ceremonies
- Respected organ teacher’s influence stretches far beyond the chapel
- Popular works: “Canon in D Major” (aka Pachelbel Canon), “Chaconne in F Minor”, Toccata
in C Minor for Organ”

10. Giovanni Battista Sammartini

- Specialized in the oboe and organ and the Italian also worked as a composer, teacher and
choirmaster
- One of the earliest composers of the symphony and 68 of these revolutionary works has
survived
- Popular works: “Sonata No. 3”, “Recorder Sonata in a A Minor”

B. The Classical Music

- An art music rooted in the tradition of Western music
- Includes both liturgical (religion) and secular music
- Generally characterized by emphasis in form rather than content
- In music, it is characterized by composition which are simple and have balance and order
- Composers composed music objectively, followed a form one of which was the sonata –
allegro form found at the beginning of each instrument composition

1. Ludwig van Beethoven

- German composer and pianist
- Best known compositions include 9 symphonies, 5 piano concertos, 1 violin concerto, 32
piano sonatas, 16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio.
- Beethoven displayed his musical talents at an early age and was taught by his father Johann
van Beethoven and by composer and conductor Christian Gottlob Neefe
- At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph
Haydn and gained a reputation as a virtuoso pianist
- By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate and by the last decade of his life he was
almost completely deaf
2. Joseph Haydn
- A composer of the Classical period
- As an Austrian composer, he was instrumental in the development of chamber of music
such as piano trio and his contributions to musical form have earned him the epithets
“Father of the Symphony” and “Father of the String Quartet”
- Spent much of his career as a court musician for the wealthy Esterhazy family at their
remote estate

3. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

- Baptized as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart as a prolific and
influential composer of the classical era
- Already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of 5 and performed
before European royalty
- At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, but grew restless and
travelled and search of a greater position
- Composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, chamber,
operatic, and choral music
- Composed his owned early works in the shadow of Mozart and Joseph Haydn wrote:
“prosperity will not see such a talent again in 100 years”.

4. Franz Schubert
- An Austrian composer
- His output consists of over 600 secular vocal works (mainly Lieder), 7 complete symphonies,
sacred music, operas, incidental music and a large body of chamber and piano music
- Appreciation of his music while he was alive was limited to a relatively small circle of
admirers in Vienna, but interest in his work increased significantly in the decades following
his death

C. Romantic Period
- Is a period of Western classical music that started late in the 18 th or early 19th century
- Musicians during this time had the chance press themselves freely
- Music become an international language because it was easily understood and expressed
- The change occurred during this period forced musicians to redefine their functions and find
new means for earning their living
- Romantic music was characterized by interest in stories, folklore, mythology, and
supernatural stories

1. Carl Maria Friedrich Ernst von Weber

- German composer, conductor, pianist, guitarist and critic
- Weber’s operas Der Freischutz, Euryanthe and Oberon greatly influenced the development
of the Romantische Oper (Romantic Opera) in Germany
- Der Freischutz came to be regarded as the first German “nationalist” opera
- Euryanthe developed the Leitmotif technique to an unprecedented degree
- Oberon may have influenced Mendelssohn’s music for A Midsummer Night’s Dream
- A brilliant pianist himself, Weber composed 4 sonatas, 2 concertos and the Konzertstuck in F
minor (concert piece), which influenced composers such as Chopin, Lizst and Mendelssohn
 - Weber compositions for clarinet, bassoon, and horn occupy an important place in the
musical repertoire
- His compositions for the clarinet, which include 2 concertos, a concertino, a quintet, a duo
concertante and variations on a theme from his opera Silvana, are regularly performed
today
- Weber’s contribution to vocal and choral music is also significant
- Also notable as one of the first conductors to conduct without a piano or violin
- Weber’s orchestration has also been highly praised and emulated by later generations of
composers
- His operas influenced the work of later opera composers, especially in Germany, such as
Marschner, Meyerbeer and Wagner, as well as several nationalist 19 th century composers
such as Glinka
- Weber also wrote music journalism and was interested on folksong and learned lithography
to engrave his own works

2. Frederic Francois Chopin

- A Polish composer and a Vituoso pianist of the Romantic era who wrote primarily for the
solo piano
- He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as one of the leading musicians of his era,
whose “poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his
generation”
- During the 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the
more intimate atmosphere of the salon
- He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano, for which he was in
high demand
- Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade
- His major piano works include sonatas, mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, etudes,
impromptus, scherzos, and preludes, some published only after his death

3. Robert Schumann
- German composer and influential music critic
- Composed 138 songs, one of the songs he composed is “The First Green”
- Schumann’s published composition were written exclusively for the piano until 1840; he
later composed works for piano and orchestra; many Lieder (songs for voice and piano); 4
symphonies; an opera and other orchestral, choral and chamber works
- In 1840, married Clara, against the wishes of her father
- He suffered from a mental disorder (psychotic melancholia)

4. Franz Liszt
- A prolific Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger,
organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary.
- Composed Hungarian rhapsodies
- Rhapsody is an instrumental composition that has no exact form. It makes use themes that
are lifted from folk music. It has two parts “Losson” or slow dance and “Fuska” the fast
dance

5. Wilhelm Richard Wagner

- German composer, theatre director, polemicist and conductor
 - Primarily known for his opera
- Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works
- His compositions, particularly those of his later period, are notable for their complex
textures, rich harmonies and orchestration, and the elaborate use of leitmotifs – musical
phrases associated with individual characters, places, ideas or plot elements
- Wagner had his own opera house built, the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which embodied many
novel design features

D. Modern Music
- Is the music of the 20th and 21st centuries
- New musical styles have been developed such as popular music, rock, jazz, folk, alternative
country, and western music
- Electronic music, chance music, and minimalist music are the “in” thing

1. Achille-Claude Debussy
- Known as Claude-Achille Debussy
- French composer
- He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1903
- He was among the most influential composers of the late 19 th and early 20th centuries, and
his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who
followed
- Debussy’s music is noted for its sensory content and frequent use of non-traditional
tonalities

2. Igor Stravinsky
- A Russian composer
- He was asked to compose music for ballet: The Firebird
- He used changing meter in his composition

3. Arnold Franz Walter Schoenberg

- An Austrian composer, music theorists and painter
- Schoenberg’s approach, both in terms of harmony and development, has been one of the
most influential of 20th century musical thought
- In the 1920s, Schoenberg developed the 12-tone technique, an influential compositional
method of manipulating an ordered series of all 12 notes in the chromatic scale
- He also coined the term developing variation and was the first modern composer to
embrace ways of developing motifs without resorting to the dominance of a centralized
melodic idea
- He was also an influential teacher of composition

4. Joseph Maurice Ravel

- A French composer, pianist and conductor
- In 1920 up to 1930, he was internationally regarded as France’s greatest living composer
- Ravel was born to a music-loving family
- Among his works to enter the repertoire are pieces for piano, chamber music, 2 piano
concertos, ballet music, 2 operas and 8 song cycles; he wrote no symphonies or church
music
 - Many of his works exist in two versions: first, a piano score and later an orchestration
- He was among the first composers to recognize the potential of recording to bring the music
to a wider public

5. Aaron Copland
- An American composer, composition teacher, writer and later a conductor of his own and
other American music
- He is known as the “Dean of American Composers”, by his peers and critics
- He is best known for the works he wrote in the 1930s and 1940s in a deliberately accessible
style often referred to as referred to as “populist” and which the composer labelled his
“vernacular” style
- In addition to his ballets and orchestral works, he produced music in many other genres
including chamber music, vocal works, opera and film scores
- Copland used his tone rows in much the same fashion as his tonal material – as sources for
melodies and harmonies, rather than as completer statements in their own right, except for
crucial events from a structural point of view
Cubism to Installation Art

Cubism
Cubism was a truly revolutionary style of modern art developed by Pablo Picasso an d George
Baraque. It was the first style of abstract art which evolved at the beginning of the 20 th century in
response to a world that was changing with unprecedented speed. Cubism was an attempt by artists to
revitalize the tired traditions of Western art which they believed had run their course. The Cubists
challenged conventional forms of representation, such as perspective, which had been the rule since the
Italian Renaissance. Their aim was to develop a new way of seeing which reflected the modern age.
The Cubist style was emphasized the flat, two-dimensional surface of the picture plane, rejecting
the traditional techniques of perspective, foreshortening, modeling, and chiaroscuro, and refuting time-
honored theories that art should imitate nature. Cubist painters were not bound to copying form,
texture, color and space; instead, they presented a new reality in paintings that depicted radically.
The painting of Picasso the Les Demoiselles d’Avignon in 1907 presaged the new style; in this
work, the forms of five female nudes become fractured, angular shapes. As in Cezanne’s art, perspective
is rendered through color, with the warm reddish-browns advancing and the cool blues recording.

The Cubist Vision

The Cubist saw the limitations of perspective as an obstacle to progress. They wanted to
introduce the idea of ‘relativity’ - how the artist perceived and selected elements from the subject,
fusing both their observations and memories into the one concentrated image. To do this, the Cubists
examined the way that we see. Cubist painting, paradoxically abstract in form, was an attempt at a more
realistic way of seeing.
A typical Cubist painting depicts real people, places or objects, but not from a fixed viewpoint.
Instead it will show you many parts of the subject at one time, viewed from different angles, and
reconstructed into a composition of planes, forms and colors. The whole idea of space is reconfigured:
the front, back and sides of the subject become interchangeable elements in the design of the work.
Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque conceived and developed Cubism but other artist also
adopted the style. The Spanish artist Juan Gris, who is often referred to as the ‘Third Musketeer of
Cubism’, was the best of these and he refined the Cubist vocabulary into his own instantly recognizable
visual language. Other notable artists associated with Cubism were Fernand Leger, Robert Delaunay,
Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger, Louis Marcoussis, Marie Laurencin and Roger de La Fresnaye.
The Cubists believed that the traditions of Western art had become exhausted and another
remedy they applied to revitalize their work was to draw on the expressive energy of art from other
cultures, especially African art. However, they were not interested in the true spiritual or social
symbolism of these cultural objects, but valued them superficially for their expressive style.

Analytical and Synthetic Cubism

Cubism had two distinct phases: The early phase which lasted until about 1912 was called
Analytical Cubism. Here the artist analyzed the subject from many different viewpoints and
reconstructed it within a geometric framework, the overall effect of which was to create an image that
evoked a sense of the subject. These fragmented images were unified by the use of a subdued and
limited palette of colors.
Around 1912, the styles of Picasso and Braque were becoming predictable. Their images had
grown so similar that their paintings of this period are often difficult to tell apart. Their work was
increasingly abstract and less recognizable as the subject of their titles. Cubism was running out of
creative steam.
In an attempt to revitalize the style and pull it back from total abstraction, Picasso began to glue
printed images from the ‘real world’ onto the surface of his still life. His painting ‘ Still Life with Chair
Caning’ was the first example of this ‘collage’ technique and it opened the door for himself and other
artists to the second phase of the Cubist style: Synthetic Cubism (artyfactory).

Cubism and Beyond

Cubism was born in France but emigrated across Europe and integrated with the artistic
consciousness of several countries. It emerged as Futurism in Italy, Vorticism in England, Supermatism
and Constructivism in Russia and Expressionism in Germany. It also influence several of the major
designs and architectural styles of the 20 th century and prevails to this day as mode of expression in the
language of art.

Futurism
Futurism, an early 20th-century artistic movement centered in Italy, emphasized the dynamism,
speed, energy and power of the machine and the vitality, change, and restlessness of modern life.
During the second decade of the 20 th century, the movement’s influence radiated outward across most
of Europe, most significantly to the Russian avant garde. The most significant results of the movement
were in the visual arts and poetry.
Futurism was first announced on February 20, 1909, when the Paris newspaper Le Figaro
published a manifesto by the Italian poet and editor Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Marinetti coined the
word Futurism to reflect his goal of discarding the art of the past and celebrating change, originality, and
innovation in culture and society. Marinetti’s manifesto glorified the new technology of the automobile
and the beauty of its speed, power, and movement. Exalting violence and conflict, he called for the
sweeping repudiation of traditional values and the destruction of cultural institutions such s museums
and libraries. The manifesto’s rhetoric was passionately bombastic; its aggressive tone was purposely
intended to inspire public anger and arouse controversy.
Marinetti’s manifesto inspired a group of young painters in Milan to apply Futurist ideas to the
visual arts. Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carra Luigi Russolo, Giacomo Balla and Gino Severini published
several manifestos on painting in 1910. Like Marinetti, they glorified originality and expressed their
disdain for inherited artistic traditions.
Boccioni also became interested in sculpture, publishing a manifesto on the subject in the spring
of 1912. He is considered to have most fully realized his theories in two sculptures, Development of a
Bottle in Space (1912), in which he represented both the inner and outer contours of a bottle, and
Unique Forms of Continuity in Space (1913), in which a human figure is not portrayed as one solid form
but is instead composed of the multiple planes in space through which the figure moves.
Futurist principles extended to architecture as well. Antonio Sant’Elia formulated a Futurist
manifesto on architecture in 1914. His visionary drawings of highly mechanized cities and boldly modern
skyscrapers prefigure some of the most imaginative 20 th-century architectural planning.
Boccioni, who had been the most-talented artist in the group, and Sant’Elia both died during
military service in 1916. Boccioni’s death, combined with expansion of the group’s personnel and the
sobering realities of the devastation caused by World War I, effectively brought an end to the Futurist
movement as an important historical force in the visual arts.

Abstract or Non-Objective Art

Non-objective art is a type of abstract or non-representational art. It tends to be geometric and
does not represent specific objects, people or other subjects found in the natural world.
One of the best-known non-objective artists is Wassily Kadinsky. Though paintings like his are
most common, this style can be used n other media as well.
Non-objective art takes non-representational to another level. Most of the time, it includes
geometric shapes in flat planes to create simple and clean compositions. Many people use the term
“pure” to describe it.
Non- objective art can go by many names, including concrete art, geometric abstraction and
minimalism. However, minimalism can be used in other contexts as well.
The tern non-objective art was first used by the Russian Constructivist artist Alexander
Rodchenko (1891-1956) in the titles of some of his pictures (e.g. Non-Objective painting: Black on Black
1918, MoMA, New York). It was then taken up by others, such as his compatriot Kasimar Malevich
(1878-1935) - the inventor of Supermatism - who wrote (in 1919) “In referring to non-objectivity”.

Other Famous Non-Objective Artist

The earliest pioneers of non-objective art were:
1. Kadinsky (1866-1944)
2. Piet Mondrain (1872-1944)
3. Theo van Doesburg (1883-1931)
4. Mikhail Larionov (1881-1964)
5. Natalya Goncharova (1881-1962)
6. Kasimir Malevich and Alexander Rodchenko
Major abstract art movements which embraced geometric abstraction included in chronological
order:
1. Cubism (1908-14)
2. Futurism (1909-14)
3. Orphism (1910-13)
4. Rayonism (1912-14)
5. Vorticism (1913-14)
6. Suprematism (1913-18)
7. De Stijl (1917-31)
8. Constructivism (1919-1932)
9. Bauhaus (1919-33)
10. Mondrain’s Neo-Plasticism and Doesburg’s Elementarism
Thereafter, non-objective art was promoted by the Abstraction-Creation Group (1931-36), Hard
Edge Painting (late 1950s, early 1960s), Op-Art (1960s) ad Post Painterly Abstraction

Style
Non-objective painting typically uses geometric motifs on a shallow picture plane. As a general
rule no use is made of linear perspective to create the illusion of pictorial depth, neither is impasto
employed to create textual effects. Also, the picture is purposely devoid of any references to worldly
things, either material or emotional. Non-objective art is abstraction it its purest form.

Dadaism
Dadaism was an artistic and literary movement that began in Zurich, Switzerland. It arose as a
reaction to World War I and the nationalism that many thought had led to the war. Influenced by other
avant garde movements - Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism and Expressionism - its output was wildly
diverse, ranging from performance art to poetry, photography, sculpture, painting and collage. Dada’s
Aesthetic, marked by its mockery of materialistic and nationalistic attitudes, proved a powerful influence
on artists in many cities, including Berlin, Hanover, Paris, New York, and Cologne, all of which generated
their own groups. The movement dissipated with the establishment of Surrrealism, but the ideas it gave
rise to have become the cornerstones of various categories of modern and contemporary art.

History
Switzerland was neutral during WWI with limited censorship and it was in Zurich that Hugo Ball
and Emmy Hennings founded the Cabaret Voltaire on February 05, 1916 in the backroom of a tavern on
Spiegelgasse in a seedy section of the city. In order to attract other artists and intellectuals, Ball put out
a press release that read, “Cabaret Voltaire. Under this name a group of young artists and writers has
formed with the object of becoming a center for artistic entertainment. In principle, the Cabaret will be
run by artists, guest artists will come and give musical performances and readings at the daily meetings.
Young artists of Zurich, whatever their tendencies, are invited to come along with suggestions and
contributions of all kinds.” Those who were present from the beginning in addition to Ball and Hennings
were Hans Arp, Tristan Tzara, Marcel Janco and Richard Huelsenbeck.
In July of that year, the first Dada evening was held at which Ball read the first manifesto. There
is little agreement on how the word Dada was invented, but one of the most common origin stories is
that Richard Huelsenbeck found the name by plunging a knife at random into a dictionary. The term
“dada”is a colloquial French term for a hobbyhorse, yet it also echoes the first words of a child, and
these suggestions of childishness and absurdity appealed to the group, who were keen to put a distance
between themselves and the sobriety of conventional society. They also appreciated that the word
might mean the same (or nothing) in all languages - as the group was avowedly internationalist.
The aim of Dada art was both to help to stop the war and to vent frustration with the nationalist
and bourgeois conventions that had led to it. Their anti-authoritarian stance made for a protean
movement as they opposed any form of group leadership or guiding ideology.
 In 1917, after Ball left for Bern to pursue journalism, Tzara founded Galerie Dada on
Bahnhofstrasse where further Dada evenings were held along with art exhibits. Tzara became the leader
of the movement and began an unrelenting campaign to spread Dada ideas, showering French and
Italian writers and artists with letters. The group published an art and literature review entitled Dada
starting in July 1917 with five editions from Zurich and two final ones from Paris. Their art was focused
on performance and printed matter.

Reception, Downfall and Dissemination of Dadaist Ideals

The bold new approaches of the Dadaist stirred controversy within contemporary culture. Their
swift break from tradition, their impassioned pursuit of a new mode of expression, and their willingness
to bring the revered world of “fine art” back to a more level and egalitarian playing field through both
humor and inquisitive investigation, allowed Dada artists to attract both fans and foes of their work.
Some saw Dadaist expression as the next step forward in the avant-garde march; others missed the
significance and instead saw works, such as Duchamp’s readymades, as not art but simply their
constituent objects (leading to some of the originals being relegated to the refuse pile).
Duchamp was the first artist to use a readymade and his voice of a urinal was guaranteed to
challenge and offend even his fellow artists. There is little manipulation of the urinal by the artist other
than to turn it upside-down and to sign it with a fictitious name.
Dadaism gripped audiences into the 1920s, but the movement as a whole was destined to
crumble. Some, like May Ray, found their inclinations moving into the subconscious realm of Surrealism;
others found the pressure on the modern European artist too weighty to bear. The rise to power of
Adolf Hitler in the 1930s dealt a powerful blow to the modern art world.

Surrealism
The Surrealist movement started in Europe in the 1920s, after World War I with its nucleus in
Paris. Its roots were found in Dada, but it was less violent and more artistically based. Surrealism was
first the work of poets and writers (Diehl, 1986). The French poet Andre Breton is known as the “Pope of
Surrealism”. Breton wrote the Surrealist Manifesto to describe how he wanted to combine the
conscious and subconscious into a new “absolute reality” (de la Croix 708). He first used the word
surrealism to describe work found to be a “fusion of elements of fantasy with elements of the modern
of world to form a kind of superior reality.” He also described it as “spontaneous writing”. The first
exhibition of surrealist painting was held in 1925, but its ideas were rejected in Europe. Breton set up an
International Exhibition of Surrealism in New York, which then took the place of Paris as the center of
the Surrealist movement. Soon surrealist ideas were given life and became an influence over young
artists in the United States and Mexico. The ideas of Surrealism were bold and new to the world.
Surrealism is defined as “Psychic automatism in its pure state by which we propose to express-
verbally, in writing, or in any other manner-the real process of thought. The dictation of thought, in the
absence of any control exercised by reason and outside any aesthetic or moral concerns”. In other
words, the general idea of Surrealism is nonconformity. This nonconformity was not as extreme as that
of Dada since surrealism was still considered to be art. Breton said that “pure psychic automatism” was
the most important principle of Surrealism. He believed that true surrealist had no real talent; they just
spoke their thoughts as they happened. Surrealism used techniques that had never been used in the art
world before.
Surrealists strongly embraced the ideas of Sigmund Freud. His method of psychoanalytic
interpretation could be used to bring forth and illuminate the unconscious. Freud once said, “A dream
that is not interpreted is like a letter that is not opened,” and Surrealists adapted this idea into their
artwork. Although Surrealists strongly supported the ideas of Freud, Breton visited him in 1921 and left
without his support.
Freud inspired many Surrealists, but two different interpretations of his ideas lead to two
different types of Surrealists. Automatists and Veristic Surrealits. Automatists focused their work more
feeling and were less investigative. They believed automatism to be “the automatic way in which the
images of the subconscious reach the conscious”. However they did not think the images had a meaning
or should try to be interpreted. Automatists thought that abstract art was the only way to convey
images of the subconscious, and that a lack of form was a way to rebel against traditional art. In this way
they were much like Dadaists. On the other side Veristic Surrealists believed subconscious images did
have meaning. They felt that these images were a metaphor that, if studied, could enable the world to
be understood. Veristic Surrealists also believed that the language of the subconscious world was in the
form of image. While their work may look similar. Automatist only see art where Veristic Surrealists see
meaning.
The major Surrealist painters were Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Andre Masson, Rene Magritte, Yves
Tanguy, Salvador Dali, Pierre Roy, Paul Delvaux and Joan Miro. The work of these artists is too diverse to
be summarized categorically as the Surrealist approach in the visual arts. Each artist sought his own
means of self-exploration. Some single-mindedly pursued a spontaneous revelation of the unconscious,
freed from the controls of the conscious mind; others, notably Miro, used Surrealism as a liberating
starting point for an exploration of personal fantasies, conscious or unconscious, often through formal
means of great beauty.

Surrealist Technique
A number of specific techniques were devised by the Surrealists to evoke psychic responses.
Among these were frottage (rubbing with graphite over wood or other grained substances) and grattage
(scrapping the canvas) - both developed by Ernst to produce partial images, which were to be completed
in the mind of the viewer; automatic drawing, a spontaneous, uncensored recording of chaotic images
that “erupt” into the consciousness of the artist; and found objects.

Concepts and Styles

Surrealism shared much of the anti-rationalism of Dada, the movement out of which it grew.
The original Parisian Surrealitsts used art as a reprieve from violent political situations and to address
the unease they felt about the world’s uncertainties. By employing fantasy and dream imagery, artists
generated creative works in a variety of media that exposed their inner minds in eccentric, symbolic
ways, uncovering anxieties and treating them analytically through visual means.

The Rise and Decline of Surrealism

Though Surrealism originated in France, strains of it can be identified in art throughout the
world. Particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, many artists were swept into its orbit as increasing political
upheaval and a second global war encouraged fears that human civilization was in a state of crisis and
collapse. The immigration of many Surrealists to the Americas during WWII spread their ideas further.
Following the war, however, the group’s ideas were challenged by the rise of Existentialism, which,
while also celebrating individualism, was more rationally based than Surrealism. In the arts, the Abstract
Expressionists incorporated Surrealist ideas and unsurped their dominance by pioneering new
techniques for representing the unconscious. Breton became increasingly interested in evolutionary
political activism as the movement’s primary goal. The result was the dispersal of the original movement
into smaller factions of artists. The Bretonians, such as Roberto Matta, believed that art was inherently
political. Others, like Yves Tanguy, Max Ernst and Dorothea Tanning, remained in America to separate
from Breton. Salvador Dali. Likewise, retreated to Spain, believing in the centrality of the individual in
art.

Constructivism
Constuctivism, a Russian artistic and architectural movement that was first influenced by Cubism
and Futurism, is generally considered to have been initiated in 1913 with the “painting reliefs” - abstract
geometric constructions - of Vladimir Tatlin. The expatriate Russian sculptors Antoine Pevsner and Naum
Gabo joined Tatlin and his followers in Moscow, and upon publication of their jointly written Realist
Manifesto in 1920 they became the spokesmen of the movement. It is form the manifesto that the
name ‘Constructivism’ was derived; one of the directives that it contained was “to construct” art.
Because of their admiration for machines and technology, functionalism, and modern industrial
materials such as plastic, steel, and glass, members of the movement were also called artist-engineers.
Other important figures with Constructivism were Alexander Rodchenko and El Lissitzky. Soviet
opposition to the Constructivists’ aesthetic radicalism resulted in the group’s dispersion. Tatlin and
Rodchenko remained in the Soviet Union, but Gabo and Pevsner went first to Germany and then to
Paris, where they influenced the Abstaction-Creation group with Constructivists theory, and later in the
1930s Gabo spread Constructivism to England and in the 1940s to the United States. Lissitzky’s
combination of Constructivism and Suprematism influenced the de Stijl artists and architects whom he
met in Berlin, as well as the Hungarian Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, who was a professor at the Bauhaus. In both
Dessau and Chicago, where (because of Nazi interference) the New Bauhaus was established in 1937,
Moholy-Nagy disseminated Constructivist priciples.
Vladimir Tatlin and some of his colleagues, such as Lev Bruni, Ivan Kluin and Ivan Puni,
influenced by Pablo Picasso’s Cubist sculptures, began to make abstract, nonutilitarian constructions in
Russia in the years before the 1917 revolution.

Constructionist Impression and Style

Constructivism developed side by side with Suprematism, the two major modern art forms to
come out of Russia in the 20th century. But unlike Suprematism, whose concerns with form and
abstraction often seem tinged with mysticism, Constructivism firmly embraced the new social and
cultural developments that grew out of WWI and the October Revolution of 1917. Concerned with the
use of ‘real materials in real space’, the movement sought to use art as a tool for the common good,
much in line with the Communist principles of the new Russian regime. Many of the Russian
Constructivist works from this period involve projects in architecture, interior and fashion design,
ceramics, typography and graphics.
Many of the pioneers in Constructivism had also studied Suprematist ideas, but they increasingly
experimented with three-dimensional designs. They also began to attack traditional forms of art, which
it was thought Constructivism could supplant: painting was officially declared “dead” at the ‘5 x 5 = 25’
exhibition, where Aleksandra Ekster, Lyubov Popova, Alexander Rodchecko, Varvara Stepanova, and
Alexander Vesnin each presented five works. Paintings were included, but Popova declared that they
should only be considered as designs for eventual constructions. Rodchenko’s Black on Black series of
paintings, however, made a statement. Directly confronting Malevich’s White on White, which was
meant to be to be ultimate representation of a new reality, Rodchenko’s black paintings announced the
end of an era - “Representation is finished; it is time to construct”.
 The international character of the movement was proven by the various origins of its artists.
Naum Gabo, Antoine Pevsner and El Lissitzky brought Constructivism from the Soviet Union to the West.
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy came to Germany from Hungary, Theo van Doesburg from the Netherlands. Ben
Nicholson was the most prominent English Constructivist. Joel Albers and Hans Richter encountered the
movement in their native Germany but were also instrumental in its international dissemination.
Constructivist art is marked by a commitment to total abstraction and a wholehearted
acceptance of modernity. Often very geometric, it is usually experimental, rarely emotional. Objective
forms which were thought to have universal meaning were preferred over the subjective or the
individual. The art is very often reductive as well, paring the artwork down to its basic elements. New
media were often used. Again, the context is crucial: the Constructivists sought an art of order, which
would reject the past (the old order which had culminated in WWI) and lead to a world of more
understanding, unity and peace. This utopian undercurrent is often missing from more recent abstract
art that might be otherwise tied to Constructivism.

De Stijl Art
De Stijl, a Dutch word meaning “The Style” is a group of Dutch artists in Amsterdam in 1917,
including the painters Piet Mondrain, Theo van Doesburg and Vilmos Huszar, the architect Jacobus
Johannes Pieter Oud, and the poet A. Kok; other early associates of De Stijl were Bart van der Leck,
Georges Vantongerloo, Jan Wils and Robert van’t Hoff. Its members, working in the abstract style, were
seeking laws of equilibrium and harmony applicable both to art and to life.
As a movement, De Stijl influenced painting, decoratove arts (including furniture design),
typography and architecture, but it was principally architecture that realized both De Stijl’s stylistic aim
and its goal of close collaboration among the arts. The worker’s Housing Estate in Hoek van Holland,
designed by Oud, expresses the same clarity, austerity, and order found in a Mondrain painting. Gerrit
Rietveld and another architect associated with De Stijl, also applied its stylistic principles in his work; the
Schroder House in Utrecht, for example, resembles a Mondrain painting in the severe purity of its facade
and its interior plan. Beyond the Netherlands, the De Stijl aesthetic found expression at the Bauhaus in
Germany during the 1920s and in the International Style.
The harmony and order were established through a reduction of elements to pure geometric
forms and primary colors. Die Stijl was also the name of a publication discussing the groups theories
which was published by van Doesburg. The publication Die Stijl represents the most significant work of
graphic design from the movement, but the ideas of reduction of form and color are major influences on
the development of graphic design as well.
The artists and architects associated with De Stijl - painters such as Mondrain, van Doesburg and
IlyaBolotowsky and architects such as Gerrit Rietveld and J.J. P. Oud - adopted what they perceived to be
a purer form of geometry, consisting of forms made up of straight lines and basic geometric shapes
(largely rendered in the three primary colors); these motifs provided the fundamental elements of
compositions that avoided symmetry and strove for a balanced relationship between surfaces and the
distribution of colors. In Neo-Plasticism in Pictorial Art, Mondrain explained: As a pure representation of
the human mind, art will express itself in an aesthetically purified, that is to say, abstract form. The new
plastic idea cannot, therefore, take the form of a natural or concrete representation”.
In a narrower sense, the tern De Stijl is used to refer to a body of work from 1917 to 1931
founded in the Netherlands. Proponents of De Stijl advocated pure abstraction and universality by a
reduction to the essentials of form and color; they simplified visual compositions to vertical and
horizontal, using only black, white and primary colors.
 The passing of Theo van Doesburg facilitated the death of the movement. Individual members
remained in contact, but De Stijl could not exist without a strong central character. Thus, it may be
wrong to think of De Stijl as a close-knit group of artists. The members knew each other, but most
communication took place by letter. For example, Mondrain and Rietveld never met in person.

Abstract Expressionism
Abstract expressionism is a broad movement in American painting that began in the late 1940s
and became a dominant trend in Western painting during the 1950s. The most prominent American
Abstract Expressionist painters were Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline and Mark Rothko.
Others included Clyfford Still, Philip Guston, Helen Frankenthaler, Barnett Newman, Adolph Gottlieb,
Robert Motherwell, Lee Krasner, Bradley Walker Tomlin, William Baziotes, Ad Reinhardt, Richard
Pousette-Dart, Elaine de Kooning and Jack Tworkov. Most of these artists worked, lived, or exhibited in
New York City. The movement comprised many different painterly styles varying in both technique and
quality of expression.

Characteristics of Abstract Expressionism

Despite this diversity, Abstract Expressionist paintings share several broad characteristics.
Among them are:
1. They are basically abstract. They depict forms not drawn from the visible world.
2. They emphasize free, spontaneous and personal emotional expression and they exercise
considerable freedom of technique and execution.
3. They show similar emphasis on the unstudied and intuitive application of that paint in a form
of psychic improvisation akin to the automatism of the Surrealists, with a similar intent of
expressing the force of the creative unconscious in art.
4. They display the abandonment of conventionally structured composition built up out of
discrete and segregable elements and heir replacement with a single unified,
undifferentiated field, network or other image that exists in unstructured space.
5. Their paintings fill large canvases to give these aforementioned visual effects both
monumentality and engrossing power.

The early Abstract Expressionists had two notable forerunners: Arshile Gorky, who painted
suggested biomorphic shapes using a free, delicately linear, and liquid paint application; and Hans
Hofmann, who used dynamic and strongly textured brushwork in abstract but conventionally composed
works.

Approaches and Style

Inspite of the diversity of the Abstract Expressionist movement, three general approaches can
be distinguished. One, Action painting, is characterized by a loose, rapid, dynamic or forceful handling of
paint in sweeping or slashing brushstrokes and in techniques partially dictated by chance, such as
dripping or spilling the paint directly onto the canvas. Pollock first practiced Action painting by dripping
commercial paints on raw canvas to build up complex and tangled skeins of paint into exciting and
suggestive linear patterns. De Kooning used extremely vigorous and expressive brushstrokes to build up
richly coloured and textured images. Kline used powerful, sweeping black strokes on a white canvas to
create starkly monumental forms.
 The middle ground within Abstract Expressionism is represented by several varied styles,
ranging from the more lyrical, delicate imagery and fluid shapes in paintings by Guston and
Frankenthaler to the more clearly structured, forceful, almost calligraphic pictures of Motherwell and
Gottlieb.
The third and least emotionally expressive approach was that of Rothko, Newman and
Reinhardt. These painters used large areas, or fields, of flat color and thin, diaphanous paint to achieve
quiet, subtle, almost meditative effects. The outstanding color-field painter was Rothko, most of whose
works consist of large-scale combinations of soft-edged, solidly colored rectangular areas that tend to
shimmer and resonate.
Abstract Expressionism had a great impact on both the American and European art scenes
during the 1950s. Indeed, the movement marked the shift of the creative centre of modern painting
from Paris to New York City in the postwar decades. In the course of the 1950s, the movement’s
younger followers increasingly followed the lead of the colour-field painters and, by 1960s; its
participants had generally drifted away from the highly charged expressiveness of the Action painters.
In the field of sculpture, artists are diverse as Smith and Bourgeois were considered Abstract
Expressionists. Smith’s welded-steel statues often mingle intersecting geometric shapes with brushed-
metal finishes, resembling the painterly techniques of the colleagues. In this phase of her career,
Bourgeois created abstract statuettes discarded wood that she found and painted in such a way that her
process was visible, challenging prior conventions of “finished” works of naturalistic sculpture.

Optical Art
Op Art can be defined as a type of abstract or concrete art consisting of non-representational
geometric shapes which create various types of optical illusion. For instance, when viewed, Op Art
pictures may cause the eye to detect a sense of movement (eg. Swelling, warping, flashing, vibration) on
the surface of the painting. And the patterns, shapes and colors used in these pictures are typically
selected for their illusional qualities, rather than for their substantive or emotional content. In addition,
Op artists use both positive and negative spaces to create the desired illusions.
Op Art, also called optical art, branch of mid-20th-century geometric abstract art that deals with
optical illusion. Achieved through the systematic and precise manipulation of shapes and colors, the
effects of op art can be based either on perspective illusion or on chromatic tension; in painting, the
dominant medium of Op art, the surface tension is usually maximized to the point at which an actual
pulsation or flickering is perceived by the human eye. In its concern with utterly abstract formal
relationships, Op art is indirectly related to such other 20 th-century styles as Orphism, Constructivism,
Suprematism and Futurism - particularly the latter because of its emphasis on pictorial movement and
dynamism. The painters of this movement differed from earlier artists working in geometric styles,
however, in their purposeful manipulation of formal relationships in order to evoke perceptual illusions,
ambiguities and contradictions in the vision of the viewer.
The principal artists of the op art movement as it emerged in the late 1950s and 60s were Victor
Vasarely, Bridget Riley, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Larry Poons and Jeffrey Steele. The movement first
attracted international attention with the Op exhibition “The Responsive Eye” at the Museum of Modern
Art in New York City in 1965. Op art painters devised complex and paradoxical optical spaces through
the illusory manipulation of such simple repetitive forms as parallel lines, checkerboard patterns and
concentric circles or by creating chromatic tension from the juxtaposition of complementary
(chromatically opposite) colors of equal intensity. These spaces create the illusion of movement,
preventing the viewer’s eye from resting long enough on any one part of the surface to be able to
interpret it literally. “Op art works exist,” according to one writer, “less as objects than as generators of
perceptual responses”.
 Op art goals were shared by the French Groupe de Recherche d’Art Visuel (“Group for Research
in the Visual Arts”) and by the Chilean-born artist Jesus Raphael Soto. These artists made large-scale
sculptures that employ light and motors, as well as sculptural materials, to create the illusion of
movement in space that is fundamental to all Op art.

Famous Op Artists
The senior exponent and pioneer of the Op art effects even as early as the 1930s is Victor
Vasarely, Hungarian in origin, but working in France since 1930. Vasarely’s work can sometimes dazzle
the eye, but he does not aim to disturb the spectator’s equilibrium.
The effect of the work of British artist Bridget Riley can be to produce such vertigo that the eye
has to look away. Though carefully programmed, her parents are intuitive and not strictly derived from
scientific or mathematical calculations, and their geometrical structure is often disguised by the illusory
effects. Riley refuses to distinguish between the physiological and psychological responses of the eye.
Peter Sedgley (born 1930), a Briton living mainly in Germany, became known about 1965 for his
experiments with one of the recurrent images of late 20 th-century painting, the “target” of concentric
rings of color. The effect was intensified by changing lights of red, yellow and blue, electrically
programmed.
Other artists associated with op Art include: Yaacov Agam, Josef Albers, Richard Allen, Getulio
Alviani, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Carlos Cruz-Die, Tony DeLap, Gunter Fruhtrunk, Julio Le Parc, John
McHale, Youri Messen-Jaschin, Reginald H. Neal, Bridget Riley Jesus Rafael Soto, Julian Stanczak, Gunter
Uecker, Ludwig Widing and Marian Zazeela.

Pop Art
The term ‘Pop-Art’ was invented by British curator Lawrence Alloway in 1955 to describe a new
form of “Popular” art - a movement characterized by the imagery of consumerism and popular culture.
Pop Art emerged in both New York and London during the mid-1950s and became the dominant avant
garde style until the late 1960s.
Pop art became a cultural event because of its close reflection of a particular social situation and
because its easily comprehensible images were immediately exploited by the mass media. Although the
critics of Pop art described it as vulgar, sensational, non-aesthetic, and a joke, its proponents, a minority
in the art world, saw it as an art that was democratic and non-discriminatory, bringing together both
connoisseurs and untrained viewers.

Characteristics
Pop Art is characterized by bold, simple, everyday imagery and vibrant block colors, it was
interesting to look at and had a modern “hip” feel. The bright color schemes also enabled this form of
avant garde art to emphasize certain elements in contemporary culture, and helped to narrow the
divide between the commercial arts and the fine arts. It was the first Post-Modernist movement (where
medium is as important as the message) as well as the first school of art to reflect the power of film and
television, from which many of its most famous images acquired their celebrity. Common sources of Pop
iconography were advertisements, consumer product packaging, photos of film stars, pop-stars and
other celebrities, and comic strips.

Leading Pop Artists

 In American art, famous exponents of Pop included Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Roy
Lichtenstein and Andy Warhol. Other American exponents included: Jim Dine, Robert Indiana, Ray
Johnson, Alex Katz, Claes Oldenburg, Ed Ruscha, James Rosenquist and Tom Wesselmann.
Leading British Pop artists included: Sir Peter Blake, Patrick Caulfield, Richard Hamilton, David
Hockney and Allen Jones.

Decline of Pop Art

By the 1960s, pop art had served much of its purpose. It reached its peak in the late 1960s. After
that, relative to the 1950s, society was significantly less conformed, many historical events had shaped
the world, and the new worries of the United States would lead to pop art declining. Pop art had been
popular around the world, but during the Vietnam War era, with societal unrest and more anti-American
sentiment overseas, pop art, which had become more identified with America, pop art became
undermined.
Even after its decline, pop art bounced back and has become Neo-Pop. Pop art is still
everywhere, especially in ads and posters. Now, pop art still lives on in the works of Damien Hirst, Jeff
Koons and Stuart Semple, Pop art has influenced movements such as Photorealism, Neo-Expressionism
and post-Modernism.

Minimalism
Minimalism was an art movement that developed in the Unites States in the late 1950s and
reached its peak in the mid to late 1960s. It is also sometimes called Minimalist Art or ABC Art because
it focuses on basic elements. It grew out of ideas expressed in the early 20 th century by people like the
Russian artist Kazimir Malevich, who pioneered Abstract Art by painting pictures with no reference to
things visible in the real world -- no trees or people, no landscapes or still-life scenes. In abstraction, the
art does not have to resemble something else.
Minimalism was also a reaction to the most prominent style of art pursued in the 1950s.
Abstract Expressionism, in which the art conveyed multiple meanings of intense emotion, ideas, feelings
and was sometimes created in spontaneous or unplanned ways. Abstract Expressionists often used thick
brushstrokes that were clearly done by hand. An example of Abstract Expressionism is Willem de
Kooning’s work Woman V, done in the early 1950s. It is aggressive, emotional and almost violent in its
brushstrokes and line.
By the late 1950s, some artists began rebelling against what they considered Abstract
Expressionism’s excesses. They headed in a completely opposite direction toward Minimalist Art.

Characteristics of Minimalist Art

Several important characteristic identify Minimalist Art. One of the most common is repetition,
or creating multiple images of the same shape, especially simple geometric forms like lines and squares.
Artists repeat shapes and produce paintings composed of vertical color blocks. Many works are
extremely simple, pared down to the fewest possible lines or forms needed to paint the image. Areas
are smooth and finished, devoid of obvious brushstrokes or hint of the artist’s hand. Minimalist art
focuses on things like geometry, line and color. Early works tended to be monochromatic, limited to one
color and related hues (like black, grey and white). Another way to identify a Minimalist painting is bby
looking for precise and hard-edged borders between areas of color. There is no shading or subtle
transition.
 Several important characteristics also identify what is not in Minimalism. It is not expressive. The
artist removes all elements of biography or emotion. When you stand in front of a Minimalist painting,
you won’t see big ideas, social agendas or complex subject matter. The paintings are about geometry,
shapes and color. It is art’s sake without emotion involved.

Minimalist Painters
Some of the most prominent Minimalist artists were sculptors, people like Sol LeWitt and
Donald Judd. The latter began his art career as a painter and art critic on the 1940s. He was extremely
important for his work to define minimalism, especially in his essay Specific Objects, which was
advocated for art made from everyday materials. But he gradually moved into woodcuts and then
focused the rest of his career on sculpture.
Among prominent Minimalist painters, one of the earliest was Ellsworth Kelly. His works feature
hard-edged precise borders between blocks of color. Active first in the mid-1950s, he predates the clear
establishments of Minimalism. But in paintings like Red Yellow Blue White and Black from 1953, he
clearly displays the characteristics later connected to Minimalist Art, especially hard-edged flat areas of
color. He later moved on to more sculptural works.
One of the most important Minimalist painters is Frank Stella. In the last 1950s, he caught the
immediate attention of the art world with his series of Black Paintings, monochromatic paintings with
uniform geometric lines created in bands of black paint. An example of one of these works is The
Marriage of Reason and Squalor II, painted in 1959. When asked once to define Minimalist Art, Stella
summed it up this way: ‘What you see is what you get’.

Conceptual Art
A modern of contemporary art which gives priority to an idea presented by visual means that
are themselves secondary to the idea. Conceptual art, while having no intrinsic financial value, can
deliver a powerful message, and thus has served as a vehicle for socio-political comment, as well as a
broad challenge to the tradition of a ‘work of art’ being a crafted unique object. Indeed, some
conceptual artists consider that art is created by the viewer, not by the artist or the artwork itself.
NOTE: Due to the overlapping nature of conceptual, installation and performance art, many artists are
involved in all three genres.
The ideas behind this form of visual art were explored by Marcel Duchamp, the so-called father
of Conceptual Art, although the term was first used by Edward Kienholz in the late 1950s. Duchamp,
who became the darling of the radical Dada movement (founded by Tristan Tzara), created numerous
challenging works such as his “readymades” series of found objects, of which the most celebrated was
Fountain, a standard urinal basin, which Duchamp submitted for inclusion in the annual, exhibition of
the Society of Independent Artists in New York. (It was rejected). Surrealism was another source of early
conceptualism. Later proto-type conceptual works, included ‘4-33’ - the controversial musical
composition by John Cage, the three movements of which contain not a single sound or note of music.
Conceptual art was in part a reaction against the tents of “formalism” as expressed by the
trenchant New York art critic Clement Greenberg. Formalism considers that the formal qualities of a
work - such as line, shape and color - are self-sufficient for its appreciation and all other considerations -
such as representational, ethical or social aspects - are secondary or redundant.

Characteristics
 Conceptual Art is all about “ideas and meanings” rather than “works of art” (paintings,
sculptures, other precious objects). It is characterized by its use to text, as well as imagery, along with a
variety of ephemeral, typically everyday materials and “found objects”. It is also typically incorporates
photography and video as well as other contemporary media such as computers, performance art,
projections, installation art and sound. One might say it was an artistic revolt against the increasing
modification of art, and/or the creative limitations imposed by modern art taught in traditional venues.

Famous Conceptual Art Artists and their Works

One of the famous examples of Conceptual Arts is ‘Portrait of Iris Clert’ by Robert Rauschenberg,
which is telegram sent to the Galerie Iris Clert. Another one is ‘Fountain’ by Marcel Duchamp, which is a
ready-made urinal. ‘Give If You Can, Take if You Have To’ by Jacek Tylicki is also a well-celebrated
conceptual art form. It is a stone sculpture built on Palolem Island, India in 2008.
Robert Rauschenberg was invited to take part in the group exhibition Les 41 presentent Iris Clert
(or 41 Portraits of Iris Clert) for the inauguration of Galerie Iris Clert’s new exhibition space in Paris in
1961. Calvin Tomkins reports that Rauschenberg, who was in Sweden for the installation of another
exhibition at the time, forgot to make a portrait as promised. At the last minute he sent the telegram
stating “THIS IS A PORTRAIT OF IRIS CLERT IF I SAY SO” for inclusion in the show. Rauschenberg’s purely
conceptual contribution destabilizes all conventions of traditional portraiture, proclaiming identity as a
subjective condition: unstable and at the whim of the speaker (or reader). The referent of the “I” in his
text becomes ambiguous as each viewer reads the work. While Rauschenberg’s absurd gesture follows
in the Neo-Dada spirit of the time, it simultaneously presages the trend toward emphasizing the
conceptual in art that would come to the fore later in the decade.
Damien Hirst in an English visual artist of International renown and reportedly one of the Great
Britain’s richest living artist with an estimated wealth exceeding mind-boggling £200 million. Hirst is the
most prominent representative of Britart group of emerging artists that shook the art world during the
late 1980s and early 1990s. Hirst’s career exploded after his major international exhibition during the
1993 Venice Biennale which showcased Hirst’s famous work entitled Mother and Child Divided, showing
cow and calf cut in sections and exhibited in clear display cases filled with formaldehyde. Hirst is
probably most widely recognized for his so called spot paintings which feature rows of randomly colored
circles painted by his assistants.
Robert Montgomery, a London-based Scottish artists, widely known for his standout public
intervention pieces that introduce poetry into urban and industrial landscapes through forms of
captivating light installations, recycled sunlight pieces, fire poems and billboards. From elaborate
constructions to illegal pieces plastered over existing billboards and advertisements, these seemingly
simple yet rather graphic poems of extraordinary beauty and mesmerizing effect can be enjoyed during
sunsets all across the world.
One and Three Chairs, 1965, is a work by Joseph Kosuth. An example of Conceptual art, the
piece consists of a chair, a photograph of the chair, and an enlarged dictionary definition of the word
“chair”.
Kosuth lives and works between New York and Rome, where he teaches at the Instituto
Universitario di Architettura di Venezia. In 1968, only one week before his death, the great Marcel
Duchamp personally chose Joseph Kosuth as the winner of Cassandra Foundation Grant.
Katrin Fridriks is a renowned Icelandic conceptual painter and installation artist from Reykjavik,
and one of the leading artists of a new abstract expressionism movement. Fridrik’s hyperkinetic abstract
paintings are filled with swirls of vibrant color, address serious and rather worrying environmental and
political issues such as genetic research, cloning, overconsumption and exhaustion of natural resources.
 Self-taught French conceptual artist and graphic designer Sebastien Preschoux uses hundreds of
meters of strings in different colors to create captivating and highly intricate installations, most usually
placed in natural environments.
Preschoux’s string installations are made permanent by photographer Ludovic Le Couster, who
captures their photographs with strategic lighting carefully placed in such a way that the stretched
pieces of thread turn to mesmerizing vibrant stills.
Jenny Holzer is one of the most famous and most awarded American conceptual artist from New
York, widely praised for her provocative language based public works that deal with powerful subjects of
consumerism, torture, disease and death. Jenny Holzer created and acclaimed series of captivating
screen printing paintings featuring declassified government documents pertaining to prisoner abuse.
Aside from the modern artists above, the famous names in Conceptual Art are Isidore Isou, Yves
Klein, Wolf Vostell, Piero Manzoni, Barrie Bates aka Billy Apple, Christo, George Brecht, Henry Flynts and
Yoko Ono, among others.

Photo-Realism
Photo-realism, also called Super-realism is an American art movement that began in the 1960s,
taking photography as its inspiration. Photo-realist painters created highly illusionistic images that
referred not to nature but to the reproduced image. Artists such as Richard Estes, Ralph Goings, Audrey
Flack, Robert Bechtle, and Chuck Close attempted to reproduce what the camera could record. Several
sculptors, including the Americans Duane Hanson and John De Andrea, were also associated with this
movement. Like the painters, who relied on photographs, the sculptors cast from live models and
thereby achieved a simulated reality.
Photo-realists typically projected a photographed image onto a canvas and then used an
airbrush to reproduce the effect of a photo printed on glossy paper. Estes claimed that the idea of the
painting was involved primarily with the photograph and that the painting was just the technique of
finishing it up.

Characteristics of Photo-Realism
Generally speaking, photorealism has the following characteristics:
1. It complicates the idea of realism by merging the real with the unreal to some extent. The
painted image on a canvas is distinctly recognized as something that exists in reality, it is still
based on photograph, which is just a representation of reality. That artwork that is produced is
not based on direct observation of the real world but it is something that is already filtered
through the camera lens. It is still distant from the real world in a factual and metaphorical
sense.
2. Photorealist artists mostly emphasize that their works are not forms of social commentaries.
This distinguishes it from hyperrealism. The themes of photorealism are generally focused on
mass and consumer symbols such as cars, mechanical toys and fast food restaurants.
3. Photorealist artists are dependent on high resolution photographs in accomplishing their works.
Other more traditional artists would consider this as a form of cheating. The photorealist artists
acknowledge the reality of modern-day mass production, which includes photographs. Their
techniques merge reality with artificiality.
4. Light and the interaction of light with on surfaces are among the main concerns of photorealist
artists. They use slide machines to project photographic images onto empty canvas. In this
matter, they are able to unite color and light elements into one. As a result, reflective surfaces
such as chrome metal on cars are accurately rendered.
 5. Photorealist artists like other practitioners of pop art have reintroduced the primary of process
and careful planning. They put little emphasis on improvisation in creating art. Draftsmanship
and precise brushwork become the focus. They have given importance to the traditional
techniques of academic art that emphasizes on skilled craftsmanship that value discipline rather
than impulsive improvisations.

Installation Art
Installation art is the term for works, room-sized or larger, in which the whole space is
considered a single unified artwork. It is different from a gallery room filled with works by multiple
artists or an exhibit space with a selection of works by one artist. The installation is one cohesive work of
art.
Installation developed in the 20 th century. It grew out of artists working in the 1950s and 1960s
who focused on conceptual art, which is art based on ideas rather than aesthetic qualities of finished
works. Some artists began to create environments, curating gallery spaces, qualities of finished works.
Some artists began to create environments, curating gallery spaces, or organizing events that happened
in the real world in a set period of time. Such work fed into the idea of room-sized works. The term
‘installation art’ began to be used in the 1970s.

Characteristics of Installation Art

Most installation art has certain elements in common. Artists often create installations in mixed
media. Mixed media means using more than one art medium. Such works might involve traditional arts
like painting, sculpture, and textiles as well as words, text and utilitarian materials. Many installations
incorporate found objects, cast-off everyday materials repurposed for use in art. Some installations use
audio and video components as well as light and other technologies.
Because they are large, most installations are site-specific. They are created to be placed into
and around a specific space, like a large gallery in a modern art museum. Some installations involve
actions by the artist as part of the artwork. Both factors result in most installations existing for a
temporary or finite amount of time. When the installation is over, the physical work disappears,
although it may be documented in photos or video. For this reason, most installation art falls under the
category of time-based media, which is art that is described by its duration rather than just the typical
measurements of height, length, and width.
Installation art is about the experience of the person immersed in it. Audiences see these works
by walking into them or through them and being surrounded by them. Installations can be sensory
experiences involving sight, sound, smell, and sometimes touch.
By its nature, installation art serves as a rebuttal to the monetary focus often placed on art. In a
world where some art commands increasingly astronomical prices at auction, artists who create
installation art knowingly create art that cannot have monetary value. It can’t be collected because it’s
so large and complex. The value lies in the experience of the art itself.

Types of Installation
Installation ranges from the very simple to the very complex. It can be gallery based, computer-
based, electronic-based, web-based – the possibilities are limitless and depend entirely upon the artist’s
concept and aims. Almost any type of material or media can be utilized, including natural or man-made
objects, painting and sculpture, as well as recent media such as film, animation, various forms of
photography, live performance art (including happenings), sound and audio.
 Some compositions are strictly indoor, while others are public art, constructed in open-air
community spaces, or projected on public buildings. Some are mute, while others are interactive and
require audience participation.

Installation Art in the Philippines

Consisting of strong Malay and Chinese influences, as well as those of Spanish and American
colonization and the effect of American globalization, Manila has developed into Southeast Asia’s most
progressive art hub. The city is paving its way to becoming an international art destination.
Currently, many old buildings are being turned into galleries and alternative spaces. Filipino
artists are increasingly participating and being included in international art fairs, actions and biennales,
with contemporary pieces being acquired by key collectors and museums all over the world. Filipino
artists are also often invited to residency programs abroad and conversely many foreign artists visit and
complete residences in Manila with growing frequency.
However, with all of these developments, Manila’s contemporary art scene is far from its peak
of exhaustion. Revisions and improvements are clearly needed- and unfortunately, individuals from the
local and international art scene, the government, the corporate community and the general public are
tirelessly responding to this demand.
This makes the art scene in Manila – contrary to all the stereotypes of it being decadent,
inspiring, chaotic and laidback – worth touring and revisiting several times. Art Radar reveals when it is
best to mark your calendars, how to efficiently navigate the city and gives suggestions for several
prestigious and down-to-earth art venues that would help you make the most of Manila’s established
yet flourishing art scene.
Leroy New is a native of General Santos City who draws inspiration from anything and
everything around him and even jumps from one medium to another such as film, theatre, fashion,
sculpture and visual arts. He also joined efforts to rehabilitate and restore pride in Manila’s main
waterway, the Pasig River through the Bakawan Floating Project.
Aze Ong elevates the craft of crocheting to more than table spreads or covers. Her colourful
crocheted creations vary, from a gigantic bell jar to an upside down tulip, from funny hats to kimono-
inspired robes, from traditional tribal clothing to an out-of-his world impressions of leaves.
Patty Eustaquio explores themes of shadow, fragmentation and dissonance through painting,
drawing and installation.
Raffy Napay is a son of a tricycle driver and seamstress. He grew up joining competitions to help
with his family’s day to day needs. Because of the fumes he inhaled in paints, he later used thread and
needles in his works. “Ang Mananahi ng Buhay at Makinang na Makina” earned the nods of the jurors of
the 2010 Philippine Arts Award. Since then, thread became Napa’s medium.

Other Installation artists are:

1. Lou Lim
2. Lyra Garcellano
3. Hanna Pettyjohn
4. Isabel Gaudinez Aquilizan

The Process of Art Making and Acts of Appropriation

Soulmaking (Art Making) – is a fun and rewarding way for people to express themselves and to learn a
broad range of skills and concepts
- Students explore the materials and techniques used by artists and architects and
experience the decision-making practices that artists have used over the centuries
- When students make art, they have the opportunity to express their feelings,
fantasize, tell stories and give their ideas concrete form
- They can reflect and draw upon their everyday experiences and observations

The Art Making Process

Phase 1 – begins with sketching, grid-lining, drawing, or filling in under-paintings
- Students learn about introductory best practices on techniques and approaches and
understanding the art concepts
Phase 2 – includes adding multiple layers of tone, color or paint within an artwork
- Students are required to problem solve and are encouraged in their art to explore,
manipulate and master technique based art applications
Phase 3 – ends with students adding final detail and craftsmanship showcasing their finished
projects
- Includes demonstrating the understanding of the art elements, habits of mind and
effort, communication skills, habits of work, composition concepts and execution
into a well crafted project

Stages of Art Making

1. Inspiration – the most exciting moments in the process of creating art: that beautiful moment
when inspiration strikes
- Perhaps it’s a film or piece of fine art that inspires you; perhaps it something from
nature or an event that has occurred in your life
- Sometimes, an idea seems to come out of nowhere
2. Percolation – this is the time that elapses after you’ve had your idea, but before you start
making art
- It can transpire in many different ways
- Sometimes it involves refining your idea by making sketches and tossing out just as
many or playing around with ideas visually
3. Preparation – includes the time spent obtaining and organizing your supplies, plus creating a
blueprint for what your piece will be
4. Creation – is the time during which you are solidly on your path
- The process of creation can vary depending on your personal temperament, your
artistic style and your medium
5. Reflection – after you create a piece of art, there might be a slight tizzy of activity: sharing it
with family and friends, delivering it to a client or hanging it on the wall
- But regardless of the end point of the art, its completion often leads to a period of
reflection
- Regardless of how it feels to create a piece, though, its completion is a milestone

Seven Da Vincian Principle

 1. Curiosita (Curiosity) – an insatiable curious approach to life and an unrelenting for continuous
learning
2. Dimonstrazione (Demonstration) – a commitment to test knowledge through experience,
persistence and a willingness to learn from past mistakes
3. Sensazione (Sensation) – continual refinement of the senses as the means to enliven experience
- To be innovative we must be aware of what is going on around us
4. Sfumato (Going Up in Smoke) – the literal translation or this term is going up in smoke
- it is about our willingness to embrace ambiguity, paradox and uncertainty
5. Arte/Scienza (Art and Science) – developing a balance between logic and imagination
- Imagination without a logic is daydreaming and logic without imagination is boring
6. Corporalita (Of the Body) – this is about maintaining a healthy body as well as a healthy mind
- One of the core concepts of Da Vinci’s approach is keeping our bodies fit being a
function of keeping our minds fit
- Fit minds lead to more innovative and creative solutions
7. Connessione ( Connection) – this is the simple recognition of the interconnectedness of all
things and phenomena

Acts of Cultural Appropriation

- Is a concept in sociology dealing with the adoption of the elements of a minority
culture by members of the dominant culture
- It is distinguished from equal cultural exchange due to the presence of a colonial
element and imbalance of power
- We live in a culture that overflows with images and objects
- Appropriation is the practice of creating new work by taking a preexisting image
from another source – art history books, advertisements, the media – and
transforming or combining it with new ones
- Cultural appropriation can involve the use of ideas, symbols, artifacts or other
aspects of human-made visual or non-visual culture
- Cultural appropriation is often portrayed as harmful in contemporary cultures and is
claimed to be a violation of the collective intellectual property rights of the
originating, minority cultures, notably indigenous cultures and those living under
colonial rule

Types of Cultural Appropriation

1. Object Appropriation – this appropriation occurs when the possession of a tangible objects
(such as a sculpture) is transferred from members of one culture to members of another culture
2. Content Appropriation – this form of appropriation involves the reproduction, by a member of
one culture, of non-tangible works of art (such as stories, musical compositions or dramatic
works) produced by some other culture
3. Stylistic Appropriation – sometimes artists do not reproduce works produced by another
culture, but still take something from that culture
- in such cases, artists produce works with stylistic elements in common with the
works of another culture
4. Motif Appropriation – this form is related to stylistic appropriation
 - Sometimes artists are influenced by the art of a culture other than their own
without creating works in the same style
5. Subject Appropriation – this occurs when someone from one culture represents members or
aspects of another culture

Textile Art of the Minorities

Textile Art – is the process of creating something using fibers gained from sources like plants, animals,
insects or synthetic materials
- Examples of such textiles include tapestries, rugs, quilts, and of course clothing
- People also used textiles to make objects that signaled status or commemorated important
events

The T’nalak Process - is a traditional cloth woven by the T’boli women of Lake Sebu and to them this
unique fabric represents birth, life, union in marriage and death
- It is often used as blankets and clothing and in rare occasions, it is used in the royal wedding
ceremonies
- Is sacred and represents the T’boli uniqueness and identity as indigenous group of people

Process in weaving the T’nalak

Step 1 – Kedungon or Abaca plant – harvesting of the abaca and the stripping of the fibers
 Making T’nalak begins by gathering the raw material used in weaving found in
the stems of the abaca plant or the kedungon
 This plant is from the same family as the banana tree
 Before harvesting begins, he sets up a prayer table and says a prayer to Fu Dalu,
with a sharp knife, he slashes the tree diagonally at a few inches from the
ground
 In order to produce a 14-meter long t’nalak, 6 abaca plants must be harvested,
plants need to be 2 to 3 years old and the diameter of their trunks at about 14-
18 inches
 The trunk is then stripped off its layer and the first few pieces are laid on a
triangular offering table for Fu Dalu
 The succeeding strips are then inserted between a block of wood held securely
to a horizontal beam with a large knife pressing down on it. The abaca harvester
would then pull the stalk through the two, separating the pulp from the abaca
fiber
 After stripping, the fibers would have to be combed immediately so as to
remove the sap that causes the darkening of the strands
 It is hung from a house beam and combed with the fingers where the weaver
selects and separates the fibers according to their thickness
 The fibers are spread on a beam and left to dry inside the house
Step 2 – Tembong or connecting – segregating the fibers and connecting them from end to end
 After air-dying the newly harvested fibers for at least 24 hours or until they are
adequately supple, the fibers are grouped into wrist-size bundles
 To soften the fibers, the women take the abaca strands and hand-rub or squeeze them,
using a motion like washing clothes, to make them pliant
  Fine fibers are reserved for the warp or the lengthwise threads, and the thicker fibers
are used for the weft or the crosswise threads
 Once dried, the women individually connect the fibers from the end to end by tying tiny
knots
 The ends are cut with a suk t’bong (small weaver’s blade) in order to make the
connections invisible
 It can take a weaver up to 2 weeks to be able to complete the standard length needed
for the T’nalak
Step 3 – Semdang or setting – preparing or setting the fibers on the loom for knotting
 This special loom is composed of a comb-like wooden frame with teeth pointing
upwards to preserve the fibers length and silkness
 After the fibers are smoothened out, they are placed evenly and closely spread on the
gono smoi and held in place by a teladay or wooden bar that is laid across and directly
over the fiber
Step 4 – Mebed or designing – knotting the fibers prior to resist-dyeing
 This delicate task of knotting the warp for the resist-dye method determines the design
of the t’nalak
 Can take up to 4 to 5 weeks as knot after knot is tied into place
Step 5 – Temogo or dying and Hemto or untying of knots – gathering and preparing the natural dyes,
dyeing the warp and untying knots
 T’nalak is defined by using the 3 traditional colors: black, red and white
 T’boli women make use of natural dyes found in vegetation around their area
 This process of resist-dye is commonly known as the ikat method that is shared with the
neighboring countries of Indonesia and Thailand
 Hitem or the black dye is derived from leaves of the K’nalum tree. Once rice sack full
worth of leaves is gathered, pounded, placed into a large pot of water and boiled. After
2 to 4 hours, the bed or tied fibers are placed inside. Cooking of the fibers takes an
average of 3 weeks with the fire being refuelled 3 times each day and the leaves and
berries replaced every 2 days. Once fully absorbed with the deepest black, the tied
fibers are removed and rinsed in running water through the stream until the water runs
clear. It is then air dried for about 2 days before the knots that have been tied, reserved
for the red portion, are carefully removed with the suk t’bong or small knife.
 Hulo or the red dye is taken from the roots and bark shavings of the small-leafed loko
tree. Around 1 kilogram of the loko’s bark and roots are boiled in water for another half
hour. The bed is then added and allowed to boil from 5 days to 1 week. Once done, the
bed is removed and rinsed thoroughly until water runs clear and then air dried.
 On the next day, the knots that were used to protect the bukay, the natural creamy
white or ecru color, of the abaca strands are removed to reveal its natural color.
Step 6 – Mewel or weaving – setting the dyed warp on the backstrap of the loom
 T’boli backstrap loom or the legogong, is a form of horizontal two-bar or two-beamed
loom where one bear is attached to the ceiling bamboo beam of the T’boli longhouse
and the second beam, or the backstrap, is attached to the weaver’s lower back
 The longhouse is a structure specifically built for the production of the t’nalak
 When the t’nalak weaver works, she weaves in a rhythm
Step 7 – Semaki or ironing – burnishing the surface of the t’nalak
  The final phase of producing the t’nalak involves burnishing the surface with a saki or
cowrie shell, while the fabric is still moist. The shell is attached to ne end of the
longhouse to help apply additional pressure to the procedure
 Once the burnishing is done, the t’nalak is washed in cold water at a steady flowing
stream after which it is hung and dried

T’nalak and T’boli Art – famous for their dream-inspired and spirit infused T’nalak weavings, but also for
their embroidery, brass casting and other crafts
o T’nalak weaving is an art form perfected over decades of practice by T’boli women,
and only a handful of master weavers can be considered true ‘dream weavers’, the
works of whom are highly valued
o T’nalak, a deep brown abaca-based cloth tie-dyed with intricate designs, is produced
by women of Mindanao’s T’boli Tribe
o T’nalak production is a labor intensive process requiring a knowledge of a range of
skills learned from a young age by the women on the tribe
o T’nalak designs have been passed down through generations and come to the best
weavers in dreams, brought to them by the ancestors
o T’nalak weavings are one of the traditional properties exchanged at the time of
marriage and are used as a covering during birth to ensure a safe delivery
o One should not step over a weaving in progress, and doing so is to risk illness
o Cutting the cloth will cause sickness or death, unless done according to traditions
o If a weaving is sold, a brass ring is often attached to appease the spirits
o T’boli women practice abstinence in order to maintain the purity of their art

1. Dagmay
o The Mandaya is one of the Mindanao’s surviving minority tribes of the Philippines
o For many generations the Mandaya have woven cloth from fibers of native abaca
tree, a variety of the banana family which is abundant in the region
o The dyes are made from mud, root and other organic materials
o This cloth is known locally as dagmay
o It is distinguished from other tribal weaving by the intricate figures and patterns
depicting the folklores and religion of the tribe
 o The Mandaya have carried the human and crocodile motifs to their highest
expression
o The crocodile is held sacred as shown by the frequency with which it appears in
their decorative design
o There are no pattern copy
o Each design is an expression of the weaver
o The unique culture of dagmay weaving by the Mandayan tribe earned them the title
“Lumad that Weave Dagmay”
o Among the Mandayas, the dagmay has been worn as women’s skirts but it is also
used as blankets and to wrap the dead
o Each design, however, carries with it a certain story
o The designs that included the binaybayan, the otaw (man), the patella, buaya
(crocodile), bilaan and the utaw and the kallungnan (which refers to the poles
where the dagmay cloth is rolled, represented by stripes in the design)

2. Pis-syabit
o Is the traditional cloth tapestry made from the cotton silk worn as a head covering
by the Tausug of Sulu
o This is also where the late master weaver Darhata Sawabi, a GAMABA Awardee of
2005 came from
o Intricately woven at the houses of the Tausugs
o Pis-syabit weaving is a difficult art
o Preparing the warp alone already takes 3 days
o It is a very mechanical task, consisting of stringing black and red threads across a
banana and bamboo frame to form the base of the tapestry
o Pis-syabit is characterized with intricate geometric patterns of colors segmented
into the smallest squares, triangles and diamonds
o It is a multi-purpose head wear that may be worn on the shoulder, tied along the
hilt of the kris or wrap around the head used by Tausug men, usually a sign of rank
o Pis-syabit is also used to decorate households such as frames, curtains and
giveaways
3. Seputangan
o The Yakans settled originally in Basilan Island and in the seventies, due to a political
unrest which led the armed conflicts between the militant Muslims and government
soldiers, some of them settled in the region of Zamboanga City
o Traditionally, they have used plants like pineapple and abaca converted into fibers
as basic material for weaving
o Using herbal extracts from leaves, roots and barks, the Yakan dyed the fibers and
produced colourful combinations and intricate designs
o The seputangan is the most intricate design worn by the women around their waist
or as a head cloth
o The warp and primary weft are of cotton and the supplementary weft is silk
o The supplementary weft work is discontinuous, a type of work in which the various
colors are inserted in the proper place by hand
o Yakan people are recognized for their remarkable Technicolor geometric weaves
and the distinctive face decorations used in their traditional ceremonies

4. Inaul
o The inaul is still very much an everyday item in Maguindanao province
o Inaul is a time-honored weaving tradition of the Maguindanao people usually made
into malong or wraparound skirts commonly and regularly used by both sexes
o The Maranaos of Marawi City also has this weaving tradition
o Inaul has more than 20 designs with riyal the heirloom piece being the rarest since it
is no longer being produced and hard to find
o Other notable designs include umpak which is embroided-laden and hard to do,
binaludto or rainbow, panigabi or taro, and the rare tie-dye binaludan called ikat by
the T’boli and the people of Cordillera
o The three types of threads being used in weaving are tanor which is cottony, the
silky rayon and katiyado which is the shiny type. Rayon and tanor can be mixed
together to form a malong called “mestizo”.
o The colors are also reflective of the Maguindanao culture. Red means bravery,
green for peace, black for dignity, white for sadness and green means peace
o Today, inaul is no longer confined to malong and is now being made into modern
clothing such as gowns, polo, and trousers