energies

Article
Energy Efficiency Enhancement of Photovoltaics
by Phase Change Materials through Thermal
Energy Recovery
Ahmad Hasan *, Hamza Alnoman and Ali Hasan Shah
College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, UAE; ha1987@uaeu.ac.ae (H.A.);
ali.hasan@uaeu.ac.ae (A.H.S.)
* Correspondence: ahmed.hassan@uaeu.ac.ae; Tel.: +971-555-454-069

Academic Editors: Senthilarasu Sundaram and Tapas Mallick

Received: 12 June 2016; Accepted: 29 July 2016; Published: 28 September 2016

Abstract: Photovoltaic (PV) panels convert a certain amount of incident solar radiation into electricity,
while the rest is converted to heat, leading to a temperature rise in the PV. This elevated temperature
deteriorates the power output and induces structural degradation, resulting in reduced PV lifespan.
One potential solution entails PV thermal management employing active and passive means.
The traditional passive means are found to be largely ineffective, while active means are considered
to be energy intensive. A passive thermal management system using phase change materials (PCMs)
can effectively limit PV temperature rises. The PCM-based approach however is cost inefficient unless
the stored thermal energy is recovered effectively. The current article investigates a way to utilize the
thermal energy stored in the PCM behind the PV for domestic water heating applications. The system
is evaluated in the winter conditions of UAE to deliver heat during water heating demand periods.
The proposed system achieved a ~1.3% increase in PV electrical conversion efficiency, along with the
recovery of ~41% of the thermal energy compared to the incident solar radiation.

Keywords: photovoltaics (PV); phase change material (PCM); thermal management; water heating;
energy recovery

1. Introduction
The most efficient photovoltaic (PV) cells convert up to 27.6% of incoming solar radiation into
electricity based on PV cell material [1,2], while the remaining more than 72% is reflected or converted
into heat [3,4]. The incident energy converted into heat leads to elevated PV temperatures [5]. The PV
temperature varies depending on the incoming solar radiation intensity (G), ambient temperatures
(Tamb ), inclination of the PV panel, wind speed (V w ), mounting scheme of the panel, partial shading,
dust accumulation and faults conditions in the panels [6,7]. The increased PV temperature consequently
reduces the open circuit voltage [8], although a marginal increase in current [9] also occurs, with a net
effect of a drop in PV power [8,10]. The temperature-induced power drop has been extensively studied
and temperature-based power drop coefficients (Tc ) ranging from 0.3%/◦ C to 0.5%/◦ C are determined,
based on the cell technology used [11–14]. The Tc value may further increase over time due to thermal
annealing depending on the cell operation conditions [15].
The effects of increased temperature on PV lifespan are reviewed in [16], where it was concluded
that PV cells degrade faster in hot climates due to long-term thermal ageing caused by their elevated
operating temperatures [17]. Additionally the PV panels lose structural integrity due to delamination
caused by prolonged operations under elevated temperatures [18]. The conventional PV cooling
techniques rely on active (air or water) circulation and passive air circulation, comprehensively
reviewed by [19]. This work concludes that passive cooling (natural ventilation) is not an optimum

Energies 2016, 9, 782; doi:10.3390/en9100782 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 782 2 of 15

option as the PV temperatures can still rise up to 70 ◦ C. Active cooling can limit the temperature within
30 ◦ C, however it consumes tremendous amounts of power through the use of fans or pumps which
may override the potential benefits achieved by cell cooling.
A novel method was introduced to cool the PV panels by employing phase change materials
(PCMs) on a model PV [20]. Various PCMs were characterized and a selection criteria was developed
for their intended use in relation to PV cooling in outdoor ambient conditions [21]. The so-called
photovoltaic-phase change materials (PV-PCM) system was evaluated for different PCM containment
options [22] and a combination of PCMs with different melting points [23] which were then tested
under various solar radiation intensities indoors [24] resulting in effective temperature control.
The PCM cooling performance was further enhanced by inserting internal metallic fins which yielded
improved PCM melting and solidification due to enhanced thermal conductivity. Conclusively,
the PV-PCM technology have been proved to be effective in limiting temperature rise and increasing
the performance of PV devices under single Sun [25] as well as low solar radiation concentration [26].
The PV-PCM technology has been tested in different climatic conditions [27] concluding that such
technology is found to be more effective in warmer climates. Although the technology is effective
in PV cooling as reviewed in detail by [28], it is still not commercially viable [29] unless the thermal
energy part can be stored. Temperature regulation and electrical performance enhancement using
PV-PCM technology is reviewed comprehensively by [30] emphasizing a need for more research on
optimization of heat extraction and utilization.
The current research further enhances previous findings by investigating the extraction of heat
stored in PCM and utilizing it for water heating applications. The article presents experimental results
in order to quantify the electrical efficiency improvement and thermal energy benefits for water heating
using the PV-PCM technology.

2. Methodology
The research methodology consists of the thermo-physical characterization of the PCM and
integration of PCM into PV for its passive cooling. The PCM is characterized by differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) to confirm its thermos-physical properties. The PCM is encapsulated at the back of
the PV to study its cooling effect and thermal energy storage capability. The cooling effect is quantified
by the temperature changes in PV achieved by the presence of the PCM on the front and back surfaces
of the PV. The thermal energy storage by the PCM is determined by changes in temperature and
physical state (solid-liquid) of the PCM. The thermal energy stored in PCM is extracted by water
circulation. The useful thermal energy gain by the water is calculated by changes in (averaged) water
temperatures in the storage tank. The enhanced PV power due to the PV cooling is calculated by
measuring the open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the respective PVs. Finally, an energy
balance is carried out by comparing the solar gains by PV to the sum of electrical energy produced
by PV, heat losses by PV, and heat stored in PCM behind PV. The heat stored in PCM is eventually
compared with useful energy gain by the water circulated behind the PV containing the PCM.

2.1. Experimental Setup

Polycrystalline EVA-encapsulated PV panels with dimension of 53 cm × 63 cm, rated capacity
of 40 W and module efficiency of 15% were tested outdoors facing south at the latitude of Al Ain
(24.1◦ N, 55.8◦ E). The electrical performance of the modules was confirmed by measuring the open
circuit voltage (V oc ) and short circuit current (Isc ) prior to inclusion of the PCM in the panels. One PV
panel (without PCM) was treated as reference and the other two were connected to internally finned
containers filled with solid PCM using epoxy resin glue. The containers and internal fins were
fabricated from a 4 mm thick sheet of aluminum alloy (1050A). A tubular (1 cm internal diameter)
metallic heat exchanger fabricated from the same alloy was embedded in the container to circulate
water as heat transfer fluid, as shown in Figure 1.
 Energies 2016, 9, 782 3 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, x 3 of 15

Figure Construction
1. 1.
Figure ofof
Construction integrated photovoltaic
integrated phase
photovoltaic change
phase material
change (PV-PCM)
material system
(PV-PCM) and
system metallic
and pipe
metallic heat
pipe exchanger
heat immersed
exchanger inside
immersed PCM
inside container.
PCM container.

Energies 2016, 9, 782; doi:10.3390/en9100782 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

shown in Figure 2. The thermocouples covered the front PV surface, back PV surface, inside the PCM
and inside the water tank. The thermocouples were positioned on the front surface and were shielded
from direct irradiation using a strong tape. A self-powered pyrometer with 0.20 mV per Wm−2
sensitivity and ±5% calibration uncertainty [32] was installed at the latitude angle of the site (24.1° N,
55.8°
EnergiesE) to 9,
2016, measure
782 solar radiation intensity (G). A weather station with temperature accuracy 4 ofof
15
±1 °C [33] was installed to measure ambient temperature (Tamb) and wind speed (Vw). All the sensors
were connected to a National Instruments (NI) compact Rio to log the data as shown in schematic of
50 L of water
the experimental set were
up in contained
the Figure in a polyethylene
2. The measurementcontainer withfor
uncertainties a thermal conductivity
all the devices of
are listed
0.33–0.52 W · m −1 ·K−1 [31]. Upon PCM melting, water was circulated from the PV-PCM container
in Table 1.
through insulated polymer pipes with thermal insulation of 1.2–3.0 Km2 ·W−1 at a flow rate of 0.027 L/s
to remove
Table 1. stored heat in
Accuracies themeasurement
and melted PCM. Multiple
ranges of the t-type
devicescopper-constantan
used in experimentsthermocouples
for weather data,tested
in antemperature
ice-bath with a measurement error of ± 0.3 ◦ C were installed on the three PV systems as shown
and PV performance measurements and data acquisition.
in Figure 2. The thermocouples covered the front PV surface, back PV surface, inside the PCM and
Measurement Parameter Device Model Measurement Range Accuracy
inside the water tank. The thermocouples were positioned on the front surface and were shielded from
Solar radiation [34] Apogee pyranometer SP-110 36–1120 nm ±1%
direct irradiation using a strong tape. A self-powered pyrometer with 0.20 mV per Wm−2 sensitivity
Data acquisition [35] NI-Compact Rio 9073 NA (Not Applicable) ◦ ±0.02%◦
and ±5% calibration uncertainty [32] was installed at the latitude angle of the site (24.1 N, 55.8 E) to
Current [36] NI-Analogue module 9227 5 Arms ±0.01%
measure solar radiation intensityNi-Analogue
Surface temperature [37]
(G). A weather station with
module 9213
temperature accuracy of ±1 ◦±1%
−75–250 °C
C [33] was
installed
Ambientto measure ambient
temperature [38] temperature (Tamb )station
Starmeter weather and wind speed (V w ). All
WS1041 the sensors
−40–60 °C were±1%
connected
to a National Instruments
Wind speed [38] (NI) compact Rio to log the data
Starmeter weather station WS1041 as shown in schematic
0–50 m·s −1 of the experimental
±1%
set up in the Figure
Voltage 2. The measurement
[39] uncertainties
NI-Analogue module for 9221 all the devices−60–60
are listed
V in Table 1.
±0.25%

Figure
Figure 2.
2. Experimental
Experimental setup
setupconsisting
consistingof
ofPV-reference,
PV-reference, PV-PCM,
PV-PCM, andand PV-PCM-W,
PV-PCM-W, water
water tank,
tank, data
data
logger, weatherstation,
logger, weather station, Pyranometer
Pyranometer and desktop
and desktop computer
computer for the experiment
for the outdoor outdoor experiment for
for consecutive
consecutive
3 days from 330days from2015
January 30 January 2015 to2015.
to 2 February 2 February 2015.

Table 1. Accuracies and measurement ranges of the devices used in experiments for weather data,
Energies 2016, 9, 782; and
temperature doi:10.3390/en9100782
PV performance measurements and data acquisition. www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Measurement Parameter Device Model Measurement Range Accuracy

Solar radiation [34] Apogee pyranometer SP-110 36–1120 nm ±1%
Data acquisition [35] NI-Compact Rio 9073 NA (Not Applicable) ±0.02%
Current [36] NI-Analogue module 9227 5 Arms ±0.01%
Surface temperature [37] Ni-Analogue module 9213 −75–250 ◦ C ±1%
Ambient temperature [38] Starmeter weather station WS1041 −40–60 ◦ C ±1%
Wind speed [38] Starmeter weather station WS1041 0–50 m·s−1 ±1%
Voltage [39] NI-Analogue module 9221 −60–60 V ±0.25%
Energies 2016, 9, 782 5 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, 782 5 of 15

2.2.
2.2. Experimental
Experimental Procedures
Procedures
The
The PCM
PCM was was characterized
characterized through
through differential
differential scanning
scanning calorimetry
calorimetry (DSC)
(DSC) toto verify
verify its
its
thermo-physical properties given in Table 2 [40–43]. The PCM was filled as
thermo-physical properties given in Table 2 [40–43]. The PCM was filled as liquid (10.2 L) in the liquid (10.2 L) in the
containers
containers attached
attached to to the
the PV
PV and
and subsequently
subsequently cooled
cooled until
until itit completely
completely solidified.
solidified. The
The solidified
solidified
PCM left a 7 cm free space on top intended to accommodate volume expansion
PCM left a 7 cm free space on top intended to accommodate volume expansion during PCM melting. during PCM melting.
The
The experiments were conducted for three consecutive days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015
experiments were conducted for three consecutive days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015
and
and same
same PCMPCM solid
solid state
state at
at the
the start
start of
of experiments
experiments werewere assured
assured forfor each
each day.
day. Water
Water circulation
circulation
was
was triggered
triggered every
every day
day upon
upon PCM
PCM complete
complete melting
melting atat 13:00
13:00 and
and was
was stopped
stopped upon
upon complete
complete heat
heat
removal at 16:00. The data was logged for the reference PV, the PV with
removal at 16:00. The data was logged for the reference PV, the PV with PCM (PV-PCM) PCM (PV-PCM) and PV-PCM and
with water
PV-PCM circulation
with (PV-PCM-W)
water circulation with a time
(PV-PCM-W) stepa of
with 5 min.
time step of 5 min.

Table
Table2.2. Thermo-physical
Thermo-physical properties
properties of
of PCM,
PCM, metallic
metallic and
and bonding
bonding materials
materials used
used in
in the
the experiments
experiments
in solid state.
in solid state.
Melting Congealing Specific
Specific Heat
Heat HeatHeat Flash
Melting Congealing LatentHeat
Latent Heat Density Volume Volume Flash
Properties
Properties Point Point Capacity
Capacity Conductivity Density
Conductivity Point
Point (◦ C) Point (◦ C) (kJ/kg)
(kJ/kg) (kg/L)(kg/L) Expansion
Expansion ◦
Point ( C)
(°C) (°C) ·K) K)
(kJ/kg·
(kJ/kg (W/m ·K) K)
(W/m· (°C)
PCM
PCMRT42
RT42 [40]
[40] 38–43
38–43 43–37
43–37 145%
145% ± ±7.5%
7.5% 2 2 0.2 0.2 0.88 0.88 12.5% 12.5% 186 186
Polystyrene
Polystyrene 240
240 NA
NA NA
NA NANA 0.032
0.032 NA NA NA NA 350 350
Aluminum [41]
Aluminum [41] 650
650 NA
NA NA
NA 0.91
0.91 222 222 2.71 2.71 24 × 10−246 /K
× 10−6/K NA NA
EpoxyResin
Epoxy Resin [43]
[43] 130
130 NA
NA NA
NA NANA 1.261.26 2.09 2.09 34 × 10− 6
34/K × 10−6/K 350 350

3. Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion

3.1. Weather Data

Figure
Figure 33 shows
shows global
global solar
solar radiation
radiationintensity
intensity(G)
(G)and
andwind
windspeed
speed(V
(Vww) during the three days of
the experiment.
experiment.

3. The
Figure 3. The measured
measured solar
solar irradiance
irradiance (G)
(G) and
and wind
wind speed
speed (V
(Vww) data for consecutive 3 days from
30 January
January 2015
2015 to
to 22 February
February 2015
2015 at
at the
the site
site in
in Falaj
Falaj Hazza
Hazza Campus,
Campus, UAEUAEUniversity,
University,Al
AlAin,
Ain,UAE.
UAE.

It indicates that for all the three days, G remained fairly stable with similar profile however with
It indicates that for all the three days, G remained fairly stable with similar profile however with
a slight difference in the peak as well as average hourly radiation intensity summarized in Table 3.
a slight difference in the peak as well as average hourly radiation intensity summarized in Table 3.
Energies 2016, 9, 782 6 of 15

Table 3. The measured average, peak and daily total data for solar radiation and wind speed for PV
back and front surface for consecutive 3 days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 in Falaj Hazza
Energies 2016, 9,UAE
Campus, 782 University, Al Ain, UAE. 6 of 15

Table 3. The measured average, peak and daily total data for solar
Solar radiation and wind
Radiation speed
Daily for PV
Total
Wind Speed (m/s) 2)
back and front surface for consecutive 3 days from 30 January 2015 to(W/m
Intensity 2 February 2015 in Falaj
Radiation Hazza
(Wh/day)
Campus, UAE University, Al Ain, UAE.
Day Average at the PV Peak at the PV
Front Back Front Back Average
Solar Radiation
Peak Daily Total Absorbed
Available Radiation
Wind Speed (m/s)
Surface Surface Surface Surface Intensity (W/m2)
(Wh/day)
Day Average at the PV Peak at the PV
1 0.08
Front 0.04
Back 0.50
Front 0.15Back 595
Average 960
Peak 1657
Available 1256
Absorbed
2 0.08
Surface 0.04
Surface 0.68
Surface 0.21
Surface 582 940 1634 1234
13 0.17
0.08 0.09
0.04 0.870.50 0.260.15 552 595 920
960 1540
1657 1140
1256
2 0.08 0.04 0.68 0.21 582 940 1634 1234
3 0.17 0.09 0.87 0.26 552 920 1540 1140
For all the three days, the speed (V w ) remained very low with a peak and average values of 0.9 m/s
and 0.2For
m/s. The airflow around the PV surface caused by windy conditions induces natural convection
all the three days, the speed (Vw) remained very low with a peak and average values of
heat losses
0.9 m/s andempirically predicted
0.2 m/s. The by Tiwari
airflow around the[44]. The approach
PV surface caused is
bybased
windyonconditions
combinedinduces
convective and
natural
radiative heat loss coefficient (h) applicable to air velocities ≤ 3 m/s given by Equation (1):
convection heat losses empirically predicted by Tiwari [44]. The approach is based on combined
convective and radiative heat loss coefficient (h) applicable to air velocities ≤3 m/s given by Equation (1):
h = 5.7 + 3.8 Vw (1)
ℎ = 5.7 + 3.8 𝑉𝑤 (1)
The h calculated through Equation (1) ranges between 7.6–9 W/m22·K at peak and 6–6.34 W/m22 ·K
The h calculated through Equation (1) ranges between 7.6–9 W/m ·K at peak and 6–6.34 W/m ·K
on average for the front surface for the three days. The h value calculated for the back surface remained
on average for the front surface for the three days. The h value calculated for the back surface
lower than that of the front surface, ranging from 6.3–6.7 W/m2 ·K at peak and −0.58–6 W/m2 ·K on
remained lower than that of the front surface, ranging from 6.3–6.7 W/m2·K at peak and −0.58–6 W/m2·K
average. It can be noticed that on average the h value did not differ substantially between the front
on average. It can be noticed that on average the h value did not differ substantially between the front
and back PV surface. However the peak h value at the PV back surface remained substantially lower
and back PV surface. However the peak h value at the PV back surface remained substantially lower
than
thanatatthe
thefront
frontsurface.
surface.The
Thesubstantially
substantially lower peak hh value
lower peak at the
value at the back
back surface
surface yielded
yieldedlesser
lesserheat
heat
loss
lossand
andresulted
resultedininaasubstantial
substantialtemperature
temperaturerise
rise at
at the
the back compared to
back compared to the
the surface
surfaceofofthe
thereference
reference
PV, noticeable in Figures 4 and
PV, noticeable in Figures 4 and 5.5.

Figure4.4.The
Figure The measured
measured temperatures
temperaturesatatfront
frontsurfaces of of
surfaces reference PVPV
reference panel (Tαf),
panel (TPV-PCM panel (Tβf)
αf ), PV-PCM panel
(TPV-PCM-water circulation (Tγf) and ambient temperature (Tamb) for consecutive 3 days from
βf ) PV-PCM-water circulation (T γf ) and ambient temperature (T amb ) for consecutive 3 days from
3030January
January2015
2015toto22February
February2015
2015at
atthe
thesite
siteof
ofsystem
system deployment.
deployment.
Energies 2016, 9, 782 7 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, 782 7 of 15

Figure5.5.The
Figure Themeasured
measuredtemperatures
temperaturesatatback
backsurfaces
surfacesofofreference
referencePV
PVpanel
panel(T(Tαb αb), PV-PCM (T βb),),
βb
PV-PCM-waterflow
PV-PCM-water flow(T(T
γbγb))and
and inside
inside phase
phase change
change material
material temperature
temperature (T
(T pcm))for
pcm forconsecutive
consecutive33days
days
from3030January
from January2015
2015toto22February
February2015
2015atatthe
thesite
siteof
ofsystem
system deployment.
deployment.

Thelower
The lowerhhvalues
valuesindicate
indicate that
that natural
natural convection
convection cannot
cannot effectively
effectively cool
coolthe
thePVPVatatthis
thissite,
site,
thereby resulting in higher PV temperatures that eventually affects the PV electrical
thereby resulting in higher PV temperatures that eventually affects the PV electrical conversionconversion
efficiency. However, lower h values can be potentially beneficial once the concept of thermal energy
efficiency. However, lower h values can be potentially beneficial once the concept of thermal energy
storage and recovery is introduced in the PV, as it would minimize heat losses. The solar radiation
storage and recovery is introduced in the PV, as it would minimize heat losses. The solar radiation
absorbed by the PV (Qpv) depends on the surface area (A) and cleanliness of the PV surface
absorbed by the PV (Qpv ) depends on the surface area (A) and cleanliness of the PV surface represented
represented by dusting coefficient 0.77 (dc) and the absorptance (α) of the PV panel as given by
by dusting coefficient 0.77 (dc ) and the absorptance (α) of the PV panel as given by Equation (2):
Equation (2):
Q𝑄 = G×A×d ×α
PV = 𝐺 × 𝐴 × 𝑑cc × 𝛼
PV (2)(2)
TheQQpvvalues
The values are
are summarized
summarized inin Table
Table 3,
3, which
which indicates
indicates that
that PV
PV receives
receivesreasonably
reasonablydifferent
different
pv
amount of radiation each day, with a highest deviation amongst the three days of 9.2%.
amount of radiation each day, with a highest deviation amongst the three days of 9.2%.

3.2.Temperature
3.2. TemperatureDrop
Drop
Themeasured
The measuredfront frontsurface
surfacetemperatures
temperaturesof ofthe
thereference
referencePV PV(T (Tαα),
), PV-PCM
PV-PCM (T (Tβ
β))and
andPV-PCM
PV-PCM
with water circulation (Tϒ ) along with ambient temperature (T amb) are presented in Figure 4. Figure 4
with water circulation (T γ ) along with ambient temperature (Tamb ) are presented in Figure 4. Figure 4
showsthat
shows thatatatstart
startofofthe
theexperiment,
experiment,TTamb was 16 °C,
◦ which increased with a stable gradient reaching
amb was 16 C, which increased with a stable gradient reaching
peakofof3232◦ C
peak °Catat13:00
13:00forfordayday1.1.ItItcan
canbebeobserved
observedthatthatTTamb remained at all times below the PCM
amb remained at all times below the PCM
melting initiation temperature (T m) of 37◦°C indicating that Tamb alone would not trigger PCM melting.
melting initiation temperature (Tm ) of 37 C indicating that Tamb alone would not trigger PCM melting.
AtAtthe
thestart
startofofthe
theexperiment,
experiment,T Tαf, ,TTβf and
αf
Tϒf were almost the same (11 °C) ◦ being substantially lower
βf and T γf were almost the same (11 C) being substantially lower
thanTTm, ,indicating
than indicatingthatthatPCM
PCM contained
contained at at the
the PV
PV back
back was
was in
in solid
solid state
state at
at the
the start
startof
ofthe
theexperiment
experiment
m
which was also confirmed by visual inspection. As radiation hits the PV at 7:00 am, the temperature
which was also confirmed by visual inspection. As radiation hits the PV at 7:00 am, the temperature
started to increase for the three PV modules however each with a different gradient. As expected, Tαf
started to increase for the three PV modules however each with a different gradient. As expected, Tαf
exhibited a higher gradient of rise followed by Tβf and Tϒf with a time lag caused by a higher thermal
exhibited a higher gradient of rise followed by Tβf and T γf with a time lag caused by a higher thermal
inertia achieved by the inclusion of the PCM (in PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W) compared to the PV alone.
inertia achieved by the inclusion of the PCM (in PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W) compared to the PV alone.
The Tαf reached its peak at 53 °C at 1:25 PM while Tβf and Tϒf remained below 44 °C at the same time
The Tαf reached its peak at 53 ◦ C at 1:25 PM while Tβf and T γf remained below 44 ◦ C at the same time
yielding a drop of 9 °C at peak. The average Tαf reached 38.5 °C, followed by 33.5 °C and 33.4 °C in
yielding a drop of 9 ◦ C at peak. The average Tαf reached 38.5 ◦ C, followed by 33.5 ◦ C and 33.4 ◦ C
the cases of Tβf and Tϒf, respectively, rendering an average temperature drop of 5 °C compared to the
in the cases of Tβf and T γf , respectively, rendering an average temperature drop of 5 ◦ C compared
PV without PCM. The water circulation at 13:00 induced a slight additional temperature drop
to the PV without PCM. The water circulation at 13:00 induced a slight additional temperature drop
observed in Tϒf. A similar trend in temperature rise was observed for the remaining two days with
Energies 2016, 9, 782 8 of 15

observed in T γf . A similar trend in temperature rise was observed for the remaining two days with
slightly different magnitudes. The different Tαf , Tβf and T γf values resulted in different amounts
of heat being discarded to the environment through natural convection and radiation, quantified by
Equations (3)–(5):
Qlαf = h × A × ( Tαf − Tamb ) (3)


Qlβf = h × A × Tβf − Tamb (4)


Qlγf = h × A × Tγf − Tamb (5)

where Ql and A represent the heat loss and cross-section area of the PV panel, respectively. Applying
Equations (3)–(5), on the measured data, it is found that the front surface of the reference PV discarded
380 Wh/day to ambient, which was reduced to 242 Wh/day (for PV-PCM) and 232 Wh/day for
PV-PCM with water flow.
The Tpcm along with the back surface temperatures of the reference PV (Tαb ), PV-PCM (Tβb )
and PV-PCM with water circulation (T γb ) are presented in Figure 5. All the temperatures, Tαb , Tβb ,
T γb and Tpcm were almost the same at the start of the experiment, however they differed in transient
temperature rise afterwards, reaching peak values of 57 ◦ C, 39 ◦ C, 38 ◦ C and 42 ◦ C, respectively. It can
be see that inclusion of the PCM caused a delay in the temperature rise compared to the PV alone due
to the increased thermal inertia of the system caused by the PCM’s latent heat absorption. The peak
temperature drop was 19 ◦ C (from 57 ◦ C to 38 ◦ C). Taking the average of the temperature curves,
it was noted that an average temperature drop of 10 ◦ C was achieved at the back surface of PV-PCM
for day 1, attributed to the heat stored in the PCM. The reduced Tβb , T γb prevented heat loss from the
back surface of the PV-PCM compared to the reference PV calculated by the combined convection and
radiation heat loss Equations (6)–(8) below:

Qlαb = h × A × ( Tαb − Tamb ) (6)

Qlβb = h × A × Tβb − Tamb (7)


Qlγb = h × A × Tγb − Tamb (8)

Heat losses at the back of the PV surface are calculated by applying Equations (6)–(8) on the
experimental data from Figure 5. The heat losses dropped from 409 Wh/day for the reference PV
(Qlαb ) to 143 Wh/day for both PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W (Qlβb and Qlγb , respectively). By combining
the front and back surface heat losses, the total heat loss dropped from 794 Wh/day (reference PV) to
385 Wh/day in case of PV-PCM and 375 Wh/day for PV-PCM-W preventing a heat loss of 409 Wh/day
and 419 Wh/day, respectively.
Heat losses prevented by the PCM alone are calculated by deducting the sensible heat stored
in metallic parts in PV-PCM system calculated using Table 4 (53 Wh/day) [40,42,45]. The heat loss
thereby prevented by the PCM dropped to 356 Wh/day.

Table 4. Calculation of heat storage capacity and energy stored in PV-Ref, PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W for
the experiment conducted for three consecutive days 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of
system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus, UAE University.

Element ρ (Kg/m3 ) Cp (J/kg·K) d (m) Area (m2 ) H (J/kg) A × d × ρ × Cp (J/K)

Silicon PV cells [45] 2330 677 0.0003 0.334 NA 158
Polyester/Tedlar [45] 1200 1250 0.0005 0.334 NA 250
Glass face [45] 3000 500 0.003 0.334 NA 1503
Aluminum [42] 2710 910 0.004 0.9728 NA 9596
PCM sensible heat [40] 880 2000 0.05 0.2968 NA 26118
PCM latent heat [40] 880 NA 0.05 0.2968 155000 NA
Energies 2016, 9, 782 9 of 15

It can be seen that the inclusion of a PCM reduced the PV temperature (Figures 4 and 5) while
reducing heat losses. The novelty of the latent heat storage concept lies in reducing the heat losses by
maintaining a lower temperature compared to sensible heat dissipation systems. The heat retention
along with lower PV temperature has two benefits. The reduced temperature can increase the PV
power output as discussed in Section 3.4, while the retained heat (solely due to heat loss prevention)
can be utilized for water heating, as discussed in Section 3.3. The PV temperature drop along with
heat retention and utilization by PCM is in agreement with the reported literature findings [46].
The retained heat was consumed in melting the PCM which can be determined by observing
changes in PCM temperature (Tpcm ). Figure 5 shows that Tpcm reached 37 ◦ C (start of PCM melting)
at 11:00, increasing to 42 ◦ C (end of PCM melting) at 12:40 and continued to rise to 43 ◦ C at 13:00.
This indicates that PCM had completely melted before 13:00 prior to triggering the water flow to
remove the heat stored in the melted PCM to heat the water. At nighttime, the Tpcm dropped below
37 ◦ C (PCM solidification temperature) at 21:00 and reached the lowest value of 13 ◦ C by the morning.
It indicates that the PCM had completely solidified before the start of the next day, which was
also confirmed by visual inspection. Since the PCM showed complete phase change (melting and
solidification), the energy stored can be calculated by assuming complete solid-liquid phase transition
given by Equations (9)–(11):
Qsα = ρα Vα Cpα ( Tαi − Tαf ) (9)


Qsβ = ρβ Vβ Cpβ Tβi − Tβf + ρpcm Vpcm L (10)


Qsγ = ργ Vγ Cpα Tγi − Tγf + ρpcm Vpcm L (11)

where ρ, V, Cp are density, volume and heat capacity, while subscripts i and f represent the initial
and final state of the PCM. Heat absorbed by the reference PV (Qα ), PV-PCM (Qβ ) and PV-PCM-W
(Qγ ) calculated by Equations (9)–(11) are 15 kWh/day, 418 Wh/day and 429 Wh/day, respectively.
The heat stored (418 Wh/day and 429 Wh/day) is in close agreement to the prevented heat loss
(409 Wh/day and 419 Wh/day) by PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W, respectively, which proves the accuracy
of our experiments.

3.3. Useful Energy Gain for Water Heating

In order to extract the thermal energy stored in the PCM, water at an initial temperature of 29 ◦ C
was pumped into melted PCM at a flow rate of 0.027 L/s starting from 13:00 (shown by arrows in
Figure 6) till 16:00 with a total volume of 50 L. The measured water temperature for the three days of
the experiment is shown in Figure 6. The initial ~2 ◦ C increase in water temperature at the start of
the days is attributed to the heat exchange with the ambient. The water tank was insulated during
the daytime and uninsulated at nighttime to allow the water self-cooling to be ready for the next day
recirculation. The insulation was put on at 9:00 each day, which can be confirmed that after initial
temperature rise, the water temperature remained stable until the pump was turned on. It can be
observed that water temperature raised from 29 ◦ C to 38 ◦ C showing an increase of 9 ◦ C. The heat
removed by circulating water (Qw ) applying sensible heat gain Equation (12):

Qw = ρw Vw Cpw ( Twi − Twf ) (12)

where ρw , V w , Cpw , Twi and Twf are the density, volume, specific heat capacity, initial temperature and
final temperature for water, respectively. Applying Equation (12) it is calculated that 521 Wh/day of
thermal energy was stored in the water, representing ~41% of the incoming global radiation incident
on the PV (1256 Wh/day) as presented in Table 3.
Energies 2016, 9, 782 10 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, 782 10 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, 782 10 of 15

Figure6.6.Average
Figure Averagewater
watertemperature
temperatureinside
insidewater
watertank
tank(T(Tww),), inside
inside temperature
temperature of PCM (T
of PCM (Tpcm ) and
pcm ) and
Figure 6. Average
insidetemperature water
temperatureofofPCM temperature
PCMwith
withwater inside water
watercirculation
circulation(T tank
(Tpcm-w (T w ), inside temperature of PCM (T pcm) and
pcm-w) for three consecutive days from 30 January
inside ) for three consecutive days from 30 January
inside temperature
2015toto22February of
February2015 PCM
2015at with
atthe
thesitewater
site of circulation
of system (T
system deployment pcm-w
deployment in ) for
in Falajthree consecutive
Falaj Hazza days from 30 January
2015 Hazza Campus,
Campus, UAE
UAE University.
University.
2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus, UAE University.
3.4.Improvement
3.4. Improvementin inPV
PV Power
Power Output
Output
3.4. Improvement in PV Power Output
The decrease in temperature reported in Section 3.2 has a positive effect on the PV voltage but a
The decrease in temperature reported in Section 3.2 has a positive effect on the PV voltage but
The decrease
negative effect on incurrent
temperature
due toreported in Section
the decreased 3.2 has
charge a positive
mobility. Theeffect on the V
measured PV voltage but a
oc presented in
anegative
negativeeffect
effecton on current
current duedue to to the
the decreased
decreased charge
charge mobility.
mobility. TheThe measured
measured V Vococ presented
presentedin in
Figure 7 shows that PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W maintained a higher Voc compared to the reference PV.
Figure
Figure 77shows
shows that
that PV-PCM
PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W maintained a higher V Vococcompared
comparedtotothethe referencePV. PV.
The peak Voc was recorded asand
18.6PV-PCM-W maintained
V for reference PV (Vocαa),higher
20.3 volt for PV-PCM (Vocβreference
) and 20.3 V
The peak
ThePV-PCM-WV oc
peak Voc waswas recorded as
as 18.6 V for reference PV (Vocα), 20.3 volt for PV-PCM (Vocβ) and 20.3 VV
18.6 V for reference PV (V ocα ), 20.3 volt for PV-PCM (V ocβ ) and 20.3
for (Vrecorded
ocϒ). It indicates that inclusion of PCM yielded an ~9% increase in Voc by virtue of
for PV-PCM-W
for PV-PCM-W (V(Vocγ ). It indicates that inclusion of PCM yielded an ~9% increase in V ocby
ocϒ). It indicates that inclusion of PCM yielded an ~9% increase in Voc
byvirtue
virtueofof
maintaining lower temperatures.
maintaining
maintaining lower
lowertemperatures.
temperatures.
The Isc presented in Figure 8 shows a relatively negligible difference amongst the three systems
The
The I sc
I presented in Figure 8 shows a relatively negligible difference amongst the three systems
sc presented in Figure 8 shows a relatively negligible difference amongst the three systems
apart from that at the peak. The reference PV maintained a slight higher current (Iscα) compared to
apart
apartfrom
from that
thatatatthe
thepeak.
peak.The
The reference PV PVmaintained
maintained aaslight
slight higher
higher current
current (I ) compared to
PV-PCM (Iscβ ) and PV-PCM-W (Iscreference
ϒ) due to being at higher temperature.
(Iscα
scα) compared to
PV-PCM (I ) and PV-PCM-W (I ) due to being at
PV-PCM (Iscβ) and PV-PCM-W (Iscϒ) due to being at higher temperature.
scβ scγ higher temperature.

Figure 7. Open circuit voltage for PV (Vocα), PV-PCM (Vocβ) and PV-PCM-W (Vocγ) for three
Figure7.7. Open
consecutiveOpen circuit30
dayscircuit
from voltage
January for PV
2015 to(V(V ocα), PV-PCM
2ocα
February (Vthe
2015 (V
at ocβ) andofPV-PCM-W (Vocγ) )for
in three
Figure voltage for PV ), PV-PCM ocβ )site system deployment
and PV-PCM-W (V ocγ for Falaj
three
consecutive
Hazza days
Campus, from
UAE 30 January
University, 2015
Al to
Ain, 2 February
UAE. 2015 at the site of system deployment
consecutive days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of system deployment in Falaj in Falaj
HazzaCampus,
Hazza Campus,UAEUAEUniversity,
University,AlAlAin,
Ain,UAE.
UAE.
Energies 2016, 9, 782 11 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, 782 11 of 15

Energies 2016, 9, 782 11 of 15

Figure 8. Short
8. Short circuit
circuit current
current forfor
PVPV (Iscα),), PV-PCM
(Iscα PV-PCM (I
(Iscβ) )and PV-PCM-W (Iscγ) for three consecutive
Figure scβ and PV-PCM-W (Iscγ ) for three consecutive
days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus,
days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus,
Figure 8. Short circuit
UAE University, current
Al Ain, UAE.for PV (Iscα), PV-PCM (Iscβ) and PV-PCM-W (Iscγ) for three consecutive
UAE University, Al Ain, UAE.
days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus,
FromUniversity,
UAE recorded Al
VocAin,
andUAE.
Isc, the power produced by PV is calculated by applying the fill factor
From
(FF) correlation V oc and
recordedgiven Isc , the power
by Equation (13): produced by PV is calculated by applying the fill factor (FF)
correlation
Fromgiven by Equation
recorded Voc and (13):
Isc, the power produced by PV is calculated by applying the fill factor
𝑃 = (𝑉oc × 𝐼sc )/𝐹𝐹 (13)
(FF) correlation given by Equation (13):P = (Voc × Isc ) /FF (13)
where P is the electrical power produced by the PV. The FF is considered to be constant (0.7) deduced
where P is 𝑃 =by(𝑉oc × 𝐼PV.
sc )/𝐹𝐹 FF isproduced (13)
from PVthe dataelectrical power 9produced
sheet. Figure shows that the
inclusion The
of PCM considered higherto bepeakconstant
power(0.7)
deduced
(Pβ = Pfrom
where P=is34
ϒ thePV
W) data sheet.
compared
electrical power Figure
to theproduced9 shows
reference byPV that
the(P inclusion
α = 32
PV. TheW)FFyieldingof PCM produced
an increase
is considered higher
of ~6.5%.
to be constant Thepeak
(0.7) average
deduced power
= Pγ =
(Pβfrom
power PV 34 data
W) compared
produced sheet. to theof9reference
by inclusion
Figure PCM
shows PV
= Pϒ(P=inclusion
(Pβ that α20= 32
W) W)
wasofyielding
of ~6%
PCM an increase
higher
produced of
compared
higher~6.5%.
to The
that
peak of average
the
power
powerreference
(P β= Pϒ = 34
produced PVW)(P byϒ = 18.9 W).
compared
inclusion The
to the
of PCMtotal(Pelectrical
referenceβ PV
= P(P γ α=energy
=2032W)W)produced
yielding
was of ~6% increased
an higherfrom
increase of 272 Wh/day
~6.5%.
compared The thatfor
to averageof the
reference
power PV
reference PV
produced to
(Pγ = by288 Wh/day
18.9inclusion for the
W). Theoftotal PV-PCM
PCMelectrical and
(Pβ = Pϒ =energyPV-PCM-W
20 W) was (increase of
of ~6% increased
produced 18 Wh/day)
higher compared from 272 indicating
to that an for
of the
Wh/day
increase
reference
reference PV ofPV6%288
to (P(equivalent
ϒ = 18.9 W).
Wh/day tofor
increase
Thethetotalinelectrical
PV efficiency
PV-PCM and energyby 1.3%).
produced
PV-PCM-W However since
increased
(increase water
of from
18 wasWh/day
272
Wh/day) circulatedfor
indicating
behind
reference thePV PVto for
288 heat extraction,
Wh/day for the the additional
PV-PCM and power
PV-PCM-W would be needed
(increase
an increase of 6% (equivalent to increase in PV efficiency by 1.3%). However since water was circulated of to
18 account
Wh/day) for pressure
indicating an
drop in water
increase of 6% circuit. The additional
(equivalent to increase power
in PV consumed
efficiency by
by the pump
1.3%). due to pressure
However since waterdropwas in circulated
PV water
behind the PV for heat extraction, the additional power would be needed to account for pressure drop
circulation
behind the isPVcalculated
for heat by assuming
extraction, 10additional
the m additional water
power head with
would a flowto
be needed 0.027 L/s. Itfor
account resulted in
pressure
in water circuit. The additional power consumed by the pump due to pressure drop in PV water
the additional
drop shaft power
in water circuit. of 4 W with
The additional powertotal energy consumed
consumed by the pump being
due12 toWh/day
pressureas the in
drop water was
PV water
circulation is calculated
circulated for
by assuming
three hours a day. The
10additional
m additional power
water head (12
required
with a flow 0.027 L/s. It than
resulted
circulation is calculated by assuming 10 m additional water head with aWh/day)
flow 0.027 is L/s.
stillItlower
resulted in
in the additional
improved PV powershaft power
outputof of
by4PV4 W with total energy consumed being 12 Wh/day as the water
the additional shaft power W cooling
with total(18 energy
Wh/day) so the concept
consumed beingis12justified.
Wh/day as the water was
wascirculated
circulatedfor forthree
threehours
hoursa aday.
day.TheTheadditional
additional power
power required
required (12(12 Wh/day)
Wh/day) is still
is still lower
lower thanthan
improved PV power output by PV cooling (18 Wh/day)
improved PV power output by PV cooling (18 Wh/day) so the concept is justified.so the concept is justified.

Figure 9. Power produced by reference PV panel (Pα), PV panel with PCM (Pβ) and PV-PCM with
water circulation (Pγ) for three consecutive days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site
of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus, UAE University, Al Ain, UAE.
Figure 9. Power
9. Power produced
produced bybyreference
referencePV
PVpanel
panel (P
(Pα),), PV panel with PCM (Pβ) and PV-PCM with
Figure α PV panel with PCM (Pβ ) and PV-PCM with
water circulation (Pγ) for three consecutive days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site
water circulation (Pγ ) for three consecutive days from 30 January 2015 to 2 February 2015 at the site of
of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus, UAE University, Al Ain, UAE.
system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus, UAE University, Al Ain, UAE.
Energies 2016, 9, 782 12 of 15
Energies 2016, 9, 782 12 of 15

The total electrical

electrical energy produced,
produced, heatheat losses
losses and the energy storage capacity capacity of each of the
module are summarized in Figure 10. It shows that the reference PV showed a highest heat loss (Qll))
and lowest thermal energy storage capacity
capacity (Qss)) while
while the
the PV-PCM
PV-PCM and PV-PCM-W showed lower
heat losses and higher thermal energy storage
storage capacity. ItIt can can also
also be
be seen
seen that
that the
the PV-PCM and
PV-PCM-W producedhigher
PV-PCM-W produced higherelectrical
electricalenergy
energy(Q (Qe )e) compared
compared toto that
that ofof the
the reference
reference PV.
PV. Thus
Thus it can
it can be
be concluded
concluded that
that thethe PV-PCM
PV-PCM system
system canincrease
can increaseelectrical
electricaloutput
outputas aswell
wellasasthermal
thermal energy storage
capacity of PV system due to temperature regulation and latent heat heat absorption
absorption in in PCM.
PCM.

Figure 10. Electrical

Electrical energy produced (Qee), heat
heat losses (Qll)) and
and thermal
thermal energy
energy stored (Qss)) for
for PV-Ref
PV-Ref
(Qαα)) PV-PCM
PV-PCM (Q(Qββ) )and
andPV-PCM-W
PV-PCM-W (Q
(Qγγ) )during
duringthree
threeconsecutive
consecutivedays
days from
from 30
30 January
January 20152015 to
2 February 2015 measured at the site of system deployment in Falaj Hazza Campus, UAE University.

4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
The
The proposed
proposed PV-PCM system with
PV-PCM system with water
water circulation
circulation was
was evaluated
evaluated for
for three
three winter
winter days
days in
in Al
Al
Ain, UAE to regulate PV temperature and extract the stored thermal energy in the
Ain, UAE to regulate PV temperature and extract the stored thermal energy in the PCM. Inclusion of the PCM. Inclusion of
the
PCMPCM in theinPV the PV rendered
rendered a drop ain drop in PV
PV front fronttemperature
surface surface temperature (representative
(representative of PV cell
of PV cell temperature)
◦
temperature) of 9 °C at ◦
peak and 5 °C on the average. The tested PV-PCM
of 9 C at peak and 5 C on the average. The tested PV-PCM system reduced heat losses by system reduced heat losses
up
by up to 435 kWh/day which resulted an increased thermal energy storage capacity
to 435 kWh/day which resulted an increased thermal energy storage capacity by the same amount by the same amount
compared
compared to to the
the PV
PV without
without PCM.
PCM.The Thestored
storedenergy
energyisisremoved
removedby bywater
watercirculation
circulationwhich
whichheated
heated5050
L
L of water by◦ 9 °C from ◦ 29 °C ◦
to 38 °C thereby extracting 521 Wh/day thermal
of water by 9 C from 29 C to 38 C thereby extracting 521 Wh/day thermal energy. The achieved water energy. The achieved
water temperature
temperature is appropriate
is appropriate for domestic
for domestic hotapplications.
hot water water applications. Eventually,
Eventually, the proposed
the proposed PV-PCM-WPV-
PCM-W system increased
system increased the electrical
the electrical performanceperformance by ~6% (equivalent
by ~6% (equivalent to an increase
to an increase in PV efficiency
in PV efficiency of ~1%)
of
and~1%) and thermal
thermal performanceperformance
by ~41% bycompared
~41% compared to the available
to the available global global solar irradiation.
solar irradiation.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from UAE University through
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from UAE University through
center based research
center based researchgrant
grantnumber
number31R040-Research
31R040-Researchcenter-ECEER-3-2014
center-ECEER-3-2014 and
and thethe College
College of Engineering
of Engineering for
for the
the facilities
facilities to conduct
to conduct the the research.
research.
Author Contributions: AhmadAhmad Hasan
Hasan and
and Hamza
Hamza Alnoman
Alnoman conceived
conceived and
and designed
designed the
the experiments;
experiments;
Hamza Alnoman performed the experiments; Ahmad Hassan and Ali Hasan
Hamza Alnoman performed the experiments; Ahmad Hassan and Ali Hasan Shah analyzed the Shah analyzed the data;
data;
Hamza Alnouman contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; Ali Hasan Shah wrote the
Hamza Alnouman contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; Ali Hasan Shah wrote the paper paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
BIPV Building integrated photovoltaic
CHP Combined heat and power
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
Energies 2016, 9, 782 13 of 15

Abbreviations
BIPV Building integrated photovoltaic
CHP Combined heat and power
DSC Differential scanning calorimetry
EVA Ethylene vinyl acetate
PV Photovoltaic
PVT Hybrid photovoltaic thermal systems
PCM Phase change material
PV-PCM Photovoltaic-phase change material
PV-PCM-W Photovoltaic-phase change material with water circulation
STC Standard test conditions
W Water
i Initial state
f Final state

Symbols
A Area (m2 )
Cp Heat capacity (kJ/kg·K)
d Thickness (cm)
dc Dusting coefficient
Isc Short-circuit current (ampere)
T Temperature (◦ C)
V oc Open-circuit voltage (V)
G Global solar radiation intensity (W/m2 )
H Latent heat of fusion (kJ/kg)
P Power (W)
Q Energy (Kwh)
V Volume (L)
Vw Wind speed (m/s)
α Absorptance of clear glass (%)
ρ Density (kg/m3 )

Subscripts
α Photovoltaic reference
β Photovoltaic-phase change material
γ Photovoltaic-phase change material with water circulation
S Stored energy
e Electrical energy
b Back surface
l Energy losses
f Front surface
amb Ambient
m Melting

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