Sensor: Pressure Sensors - Motorola

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Sensor

Introduction
A sensor is a device that produces a measurable response to a change in a physical
condition, such as temperature or thermal conductivity, or to a change in chemical Pressure Sensors - Motorola
concentration. Sensors are particularly useful for making in-situ measurements such
as in industrial process control.

Sensors are an important part to any measurement and automation application. The sensor is responsible for
converting some type of physical phenomenon into a quantity measurable by a data acquisition (DAQ) system.

Choosing a Sensor
Factors to consider when choosing a sensor.

 Accuracy - The statistical variance about the exact reading.


 Calibration - Required for most measuring systems since their readings will drift over time.
 Cost
 Environmental - Sensors typically have temperature and/or humidity limits.
 Range - Limits of measurement or the sensor.
 Repeatability - The variance in a sensor's reading when a single condition is repeatedly measured.
 Resolution - The smallest increment the sensor can detect.

Types of Sensors
Sensors are used to measure basic physical phenomena including:

1. Acceleration - Shock & Vibration.


2. Angular / Linear Position
3. Chemical/Gas Concentration
4. Humidity
5. Flow Rate
6. Force
7. Magnetic Fields
8. Pressure
9. Proximity - Spatial Presence
10. Sound
11. Temperature
12. velocity
Sensors: Acceleration
Acceleration
An accelerometer is an electromechanical transducer which produces at its output terminals, a voltage or charge
that is proportional to the acceleration to which it is subjected. The piezoelectric elements (similar to small crystals)
within the accelerometer have the property of producing an electrical Accelerometers
charge which is directly proportional to the strain and thus the applied
force when loaded either in tension, compression or shear.
Applications include measurement of Acceleration, Angular Acceleration, Velocity, Position, RPM or Angular Rate,
Frequency, Impulse and Impulse Energy, Force, Tilt and Orientation, and Motion Detection.
Sensors: Linear / Angular Position
 

Linear / Angular Position


Potentiometers Servo
Potentiometers utilize a variable resistor to convert an angle or displacement to a Potentiometer
resistance/voltage. They operate by moving a contact along a resistor to produce a voltage
proportional to the position.
 

Encoders
An encoder is a sensor of mechanical motion. It translates motion (such
Rotary Encoder
as position, velocity, and acceleration) into electrical signals.
Absolute encoders have a unique value for each mechanical position and thus the position is
known "absolutely". With this type of encoder, the position information is never lost and is
instantly available as a digital word on power-up.
 
 
Incremental encoders have output signals which repeat over the range of motion and thus each
mechanical position is not uniquely defined. The current position sensed is only incremental
from the last position sensed. Thus at power up, the position of an incremental encoder is not
known since the output signals are not unique to any singular position. They are made up of 2
major parts, the disk and the sensor. The disk of an incremental encoder is patterned with a
single track of lines near the outside edge of the disk. The disk count is defined as the number of
dark/light linepairs that occur per revolution (CPR). As a rule, one or more tracks are added to
generate a signal that occurs once per revolution (index signal), which can be used to indicate
zero or home on the encoder.
Count and direction information can be obtained from both absolute and incremental
encoders.
 

LVDT/RVDT
LVDT or Linear Variable Differential Transformer operates with two small transformers
sharing the same magnetic core. As the core moves the output of one increases while the other
decreases. The 'out of balance' current is a measure of LVDT
the core position with the best linearity occurring at the mid way point when the transformers are
almost in balance.
The LVDT is sensitive, reliable and repeatable.
The accepted mode of operation is to measure a perfect sample (a setting master) and to
then measure the unknown sample. Thus the accuracy is derived from the setting master
and the LVDT is used as a comparative tool. The master is measured once a day, or
whenever the temperature changes to effectively calibrate out all other variables relating
to support fixtures etc. Angular displacement or rotation using an RVDT - Rotational
Variable Differential Transformer.
Sensors: Chemical / Gas Concentrations
 

Chemical / Gas Concentrations


There are many different types of sensors for detection concentration levels of chemicals and gasses. These sensors
are critical for safety considerations in many industrial applications. Catalytic Sensor
 
 
Following is a table providing a brief summary of sensor types and applications.
 

Detectable Usable
Sensor type Pro's Con's
gases range
3 year lifetime
Low power, slightly lower at
Toxics, ppm
Electrochemical accurate, high temps;
oxygen levels
repeatable some types are
cross-sensitive
Can be
Generally damaged by
LEL good in all high levels of
Pellistor Flammables
levels ways; H2S, but poison
portable resistant types
are available
0.1 (or Expensive (but
Fail safe;
Flammables less) to getting
Infrared generally
and CO2 100% by cheaper); non-
excellent
volume portable
Many, at % 20 year life
levels, (at least); Only
Thermal
including % levels stable; can appropriate for
Conductivity
binary detect inert certain gases
mixtures gases

Sensors: Humidity
 
Humidity
Humidity sensors are used to measure the humidity in air, as a fraction of the maximum amount of water that can be
absorbed by air at a certain temperature. Under normal atmospheric conditions and a given temperature this fraction
can vary between 0 ( absolute dry point ) and 100 (Condensation starting point ). This relative humidity
measurement is only valid under the above mentioned temperature
Humidity Sensors
and atmospheric conditions, thus making very important the fact
that the sensor must not be affected by temperature or pressure
changes. As a result it is obvious that Temperature or Pressure Dependent sensing elements, such as Mechanical
Devices and Resistive type Sensors, are far behind of the respective non-dependent ones, such as Capacitance
sensors. Absorption based humidity sensors provide both temperature and %RH (Relative Humidity) outputs.

Humidity Cells are mainly Capacitance sensors characterized of an excellent long term stability, good resistance to
pollutants, precise measurments, high sensitivity, intergangeability and wettability.

Applications Include:

1. Refrigeration
2. Drying Processes
3. Meteorology
4. Battery-powered systems
5. OEM assemblies

Sensors: Flow Rate


 
Flow Rate
Venturi Valves
Flow Rate Sensor
A Venturi valve reduces the cross section of a pipe to create a pressure
differential from the normal pipe diameter. The pressure differential increases with the velocity
of the flow to aid in determining the flow rate.

Transit-Time Flow Measurement Principle


A transit-time flowmeter measures the effect of a liquid's flow velocity on bi-directional
acoustical signals. An upstream transducer (T1) sends a signal to a downstream
transducer (T2)
that in turn sends a signal back. When there is no flow, the time to go from the T1 to T2
is the same as the time going from T2 to T1. However, when there is flow, the effect of
the liquid's flow velocity on the acoustical signal is to assist the signal in the up to
downstream direction and hinder the signal in the down to upstream direction. This
creates the time difference by which the liquid's flow velocity, and ultimately the
flowrate, is determined.

Pitot Tubes
Pitot tubes have been used in flow measurement for years. Conventional pitot tubes sense
velocity pressure at only one point in the flowing stream. Therefore, a series of
measurements must be taken across the stream to obtain a meaningful average flow rate.
Flow Transducers
Fluid flowing through the sensor spins a magnetic rotor to induce a voltage in a coil. An
electronic circuit measures the frequency of the electrical pulses generated and computes
the flow rate. This rate is converted to a 0-5 VDC or 0-20 MA output proportional to the
flow rate and also used to control a relay. The relay trip point may be preset at the factory
or adjusted by the user by turning a potentiometer

Sensors: Force
 

Force
Load Cells / Force Transducers
Load Cells are intended for determination of static or dynamic tensile and compressive loads and come in many
different forms including compression, tension, simple beam and single point. Force transducers can be used as load
cells, but can also be used in weighing applications and measuring compression or Tension Load Cell
tension. Load cells can be built utilizing either transducers, LVDTs, strain gauges or
piezoelectric sensors.

Strain Gauge

Strain gauges are used for the measurement of tensile and compressive strain in a body and can therefore
pick up expansion as well as contraction. Strain is caused in a body by internal or external forces, pressures,
moments, heat, or structural changes in the material. In general, most types of strain gages depend on the
proportional variance of electrical resistance to strain: the piezoresistive or semi-conductor gage, the
carbon-resistive gage, the bonded metallic wire, and foil resistance gages.
The bonded resistance strain gage is by far the most widely used in experimental stress analysis. They
typically consist of a grid of very fine wire or foil bonded to the backing or carrier matrix. The carrier
matrix attaches to test specimens with an adhesive. When the specimen is mechanically stressed (loaded),
the strain on the surface is transmitted to the resistive grid through the adhesive and carrier layers. The
strain is then found by measuring the change in resistance.
The bonded resistance strain gage is low in cost, can be made with a short gage length, is only moderately
affected by temperature changes, has small physical size and low mass, and has fairly high sensitivity to
strain.

Sensors: Magnetic Fields


 

Magnetic Fields

Magnetoresistive (MR) Sensors


Magnetoresistive sensors can determine the change in earth's magnetic field due to the
presence of a ferromagnetic object or position within the earth's magnetic field. The high
bandwidth allows detection of vehicles and other ferrous objects at high speeds. The
sensors are contactless and the working distance is dependent on the ferromagnetic mass
it is measuring. Applications include Compassing and Navigation, Vehicle Detection,
Virtual Reality, Laboratory Instrumentation, Medical Instruments, Underground Boring
Equipment and Flux Gate Replacement.

Sensors: Pressure
Pressure Transducer
Pressure sensor applications include flow (HVAC), height of a column of
liquid, altitude, depth of a submerged object, position, sound (dbspl), Pressure Transducer - Motorola
barometric pressure, map, pressure drop, vacuum, volumetric displacement, and
weight.

A transducer is simply a device (or medium) that converts energy from one form to another. The term is generally
applied to devices that take physical phenomenon (pressure, temperature, humidity, flow, etc.) and convert it to an
electrical signal.

Pressure transducers/sensors use a wide range of operating principles including:

1. Motion transducers use a bellows or Bourdon tube to convert pressure to an output. In one common type,
the LVDT, an inductive member is driven into or out of a coil. It contains numerous pivots and linkages,
making it nonlinear and susceptible to wear and vibration, but it has the advantage of inherently high
output.
2. Pressure potentiometers have characteristics similar to those of LVDTs. In this case, a wiper is driven
across a resistive coil, with output determined by wiper position. Compared to an LVDT, it has the added
disadvantage of coil wear. If continuously operated in about the same pressure range, it may suddenly short
out or produce severely nonlinear output. These sensors are rather inexpensive.
3. Silicon or "chip" transducers are widely used in high-volume applications. There are two types of silicon
pressure sensors, capacitive and piezoresistive. Capacitive devices are much more stable, sensitive, and
temperature resistant. Piezoresistive types are easier to make and cost less and therefore dominate the
market.
4. Capacitance transducers use a flexing diaphragm to produce capacitance changes proportional to applied
pressure. Because of their low price, a common application of these devices is in automobiles. One
drawback is at normal hydraulic pressure their operation dictates a large diaphragm making them better
suited to low-pressure systems.
5. Piezoresistive Sensors are available in both gage and absolute versions. The sensor typically consists of a
Wheatstone bridge etched on a silicon diaphragm which outputs a voltage that is proportional to pressure.
6. Electropneumatic transducers are used to provide regulated air pressures for the control of process
systems. Typically, electropneumatic transducers are of three basic types: voice-coil beam, voice-coil beam
dampened by an oil dashpot, and torque motor.
o Voice-coil beam transducers use a nozzle/flapper arrangement to convert a small mechanical
motion into a proportional pneumatic signal.
o Damped transducers operate in a similar manner except that the arm controlling flapper position
is attached to a float suspended in silicone oil.
o Torque-motor transducers also have similar operating principles, except that a conventional
torque motor replaces the voice-coil beam arrangement to position the flapper.

Strain gauges are used for the measurement of tensile and compressive strain in a body and can therefore pick up
expansion as well as contraction. Strain is caused in a body by internal or external forces, pressures, moments, heat,
or structural changes in the material. In general, most types of strain gages depend on the proportional variance of
electrical resistance to strain: the piezoresistive or semi-conductor gage, the carbon-resistive gage, the bonded
metallic wire, and foil resistance gages.
The bonded resistance strain gage is by far the most widely used in experimental stress analysis. They typically
consist of a grid of very fine wire or foil bonded to the backing or carrier matrix. The carrier matrix attaches to test
specimens with an adhesive. When the specimen is mechanically stressed (loaded), the strain on the surface is
transmitted to the resistive grid through the adhesive and carrier layers. The strain is then found by measuring the
change in resistance.
The bonded resistance strain gage is low in cost, can be made with a short gage length, is only moderately
affected by temperature changes, has small physical size and low mass, and has fairly high sensitivity to
strain.
 

Sensors: Proximity
 

Proximity - Spatial Presence

Proximity Sensors

1. Inductive Proximity Sensors Turck Proximity Sensors

Inductive proximity sensors are widely used in the modern high speed process control
environment for the detection, positioning and counting of ferrous and non-ferrous metal objects.
Due to the method of construction and superior performance of inductive sensors, they are
increasingly used to replace the traditional limit switch, thus upgrading speed and reliability of
existing machinery.

Principle of Operation

Inductive proximity sensors respond to ferrous and non - ferrous metal objects. They will
also detect metal through a layer of non - metal material. An inductive sensor consists of
an oscillator circuit (ie. the sensing part) and an output circuit including a switching
device (eg. transistor or thyristor), all housed in a resin encapsulated body. An essential
part of the oscillator circuit is the inductance coil creating a magnetic field in front of the
sensing face. When the magnetic field is disturbed, the output circuit responds by either
closing the output switch (normally open version type NO) or by opening the output
switch (normally closed version type NC).

2. Capacitive Sensors

Capacitive sensors are often successfully used in applications which cannot be solved with other
sensing techniques. Capacitive sensors respond to a change in the dielectric medium
surrounding the active face and can thus be tuned to sense almost any substance. Capacitive
sensors can, also, sense a substance through a layer of glass, plastic or thin carton.

Some typical applications for capacitive sensors are:

1. Level control of non-conductive liquids (oil, alcohol, fuel).


2. Level control of granular substances (flour, wheat, sugar).
3. Sensing substances through a protective layer (eg. glass).

The fact that capacitive sensors respond to most substances, necessitates some care
during the installation, adjustment and long term operation of the sensor. The sensitivity
of capacitive sensors is affected by the moisture content and the density of the substance
to be sensed. Deposits of excessive dust and dirt on or around the sensing face of the
sensor, cause erratic response and hence the sensor may require periodic cleaning if used
in a polluting environment.

Principle of Operation

Capacitive sensors respond to any substance with a high dielectric constant (water, oil,
fuel, sugar, paper) without necessarily making physical contact. They are less suitable for
polystyrene and similar low density substances. Operation is based on an internal
oscillator with two capacitive plate-electrodes, tuned to respond when a substance
approaches the sensing face. When the target is sensed, the output switch will either close
to activate a load for a normally open option or the switch will open to de-activate the
load for a normally closed option. The LED will illuminate when the output switch
closes.

3. Photoelectric or Opto-electronic Sensors

Photoelectric sensors offer non-contact sensing of almost any substance or object up to a


range of 10 meters. Photoelectric sensors consist of a light source (usually an LED, light
emitting diode, in either infrared or visible light spectrum) and a detector (photodiode).
Due to the high intensity infra-red energy beam, these sensors have major advantages
over other opto-electronic systems when employed in dusty enviroments. With their
focused beam and long range, opto-electronic sensors are increasingly used in
applications where other sensing techniques are lacking in sensing distance or accuracy.
Photoelectric sensors are available in a variety of modes including:

 Infrared Proximity (Diffuse Reflective)

Proximity type photoelectric sensors detect the light reflected by the target itself.
Proximity photoelectric sensors are preferable for general purpose sensing
applications, particularly where the detected object is only accessible from one
direction.

 Transmitted Beam (Thru-beam)

Transmitted beam photoelectric sensors use separate infrared transmitters and


receivers. Objects passing between the two parts interrupt the infrared beam,
causing the receiver to output a signal.

 Retroreflective (Reflex)

Retroreflective photoelectric sensors operate by sensing the light beam that is


reflected back from a target reflector. As with thru beam models, objects which
interrupt the beam activate an electronic output.

 Polarized Retroreflective (Polarized Reflex)

Polarized retroreflective sensors work like normal retroreflective sensors but use a
polarizing filter in front of the transmitter and receiver optics. These filters are
designed so that shiny objects are reliably detected.

 Fiber Optic

Fiber optic sensors use fiber optic cable to conduct light from the LED to the
sensing area, and another cable to return light from the sensing area to the
receiver. By using fiber optic cables, the electronics can be protected from hostile
environments such as temperature extremes and harsh chemicals. Fiber optics also
allow sensing in extremely confined spaces.

 Background Rejection

STI's background rejection sensors use a special arrangement of two sensing


zones: the near-field zone is where objects can be detected, the far-field zone is
where objects cannot be detected. There is an extremely sharp cut-off between
these zones. The cut-off range is adjustable. These sensors are ideal for
applications where background objects need to be ignored.

. Ultrasonic sensors
Ultrasonic sensor utilize the reflection of high frequency (20KHz) sound waves to detect
parts or distances to the parts. The two basic ultrasonic sensor types are:

1. Electrostatic - Uses capacitive effects for longer range sensing and wider
bandwidth with more sensitivity.
2. Piezoelectric - These rugged and inexpensive sensors operate by a charge
displacement during the strain in crystal lattices.

In general, ultrasonic sensors are the best choice for transparent targets. They can detect a
sheet of transparent plastic film as easily as a wooden pallet.

Sensors: Sound
Sound
Microphones
1. A sensor for detecting sound is, in general, called a microphone. The microphone can be
classified into several basic types including dynamic,
Sound Sensor
electrostatic, and piezoelectric according to their
conversion system.
2. The dynamic microphone still has big demands primarily in the music world, while the
piezoelectric microphone is extensively used primarily for a microphone for low-
frequency sound-level meters.
3. For measurement, electrostatic type (condenser) microphones are most popular because
they can be downsized, have flat frequency responses over a wide frequency range, and
provide markedly high stability as compared to other types of microphones.
4. The condenser microphones are available in two types: bias type and back electret type.
The difference is whether the DC voltage is applied from the outside or permanently
electrically polarized polymer film is used in place of applying voltage. In general, the
bias type provides higher sensitivity and stability.

Sound Intensity Microphones

 
Sound intensity is a measure of the "flow of energy passing through a unit area per unit time"
and its measurement unit is W/m2. The sound intensity microphone probe is designed to capture
sound intensity together with the unit direction of flow as a vector quantity. This is achieved by
incorporating more than one microphone in a probe to measure the sound energy flow.
Conventional microphones can measure sound pressure (unit: Pa), which represents sound
intensity at a specific place (one point), but can measure the direction of flow. The sound
intensity microphone is therefore used for sound source probing and for measuring sound power.

Sensors: Temperature
 
Temperature

 
Typical applications for temperature sensors include: Temperature Sensors

 HVAC - room, duct, and refrigerant equipment


 Motors - overload protection
 Electronic circuits - semiconductor protection
 Electronic assemblies - thermal management, temperature compensation
 Process control - temperature regulation
 Automotive - air and oil temperature
 Appliances - heating and cooling temperature

Sensor Types

1. Thermocouples - Thermocouples are pairs of dissimilar metal alloy wires joined at least
at one end, which generate a net thermoelectric voltage between the two ends according
to the size of the temperature difference between the ends, the relative Seebeck
coefficient of the wire pair and the uniformity of the wire's relative Seebeck coefficient.
2. Thermistors - Thermistors (Resistance Thermometers) are instruments used to measure
temperature by relating the change in resistance as a function of temperature.
3. Radiation Pyrometer - A device to measure temperature by sensing the thermal
radiation emitted from the object.
4. Radiation Thermometers (Optical Pyrometers and Infrared Thermometers) -
Optical Pyrometers are devices used to measure temperature of an object at high
temperatures by sensing the brightness of an objects surface.
5. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) - RTD's (Resistance Temperature
Detectors) are precision, wire-wound resistors with a known temperature resistance
characteristic. In operation, the RTD is usually wired into a specific type of circuit
(wheatstone bridge). They are nearly linear over a wide range of temperatures and can be
made small enough to have response times of a fraction of a second. They require an
electrical current to produce a voltage drop across the sensor that can be then measured
by a calibrated read-out device. The output of this circuit can be used to drive a meter
which has been calibrated in temperature, or to operate a relay to sound an alarm or shut
down the motor. The Platinum RTD is the most accurate and stable temperature detector
from zero to about 500°C. It can measure temperatures up to 800°C. The resistance of the
RTD changes as a function of absolute temperature, so it is categorized as one of the
absolute temperature devices. (In contrast, the thermocouple cannot measure absolute
temperature; it can only measure relative temperature.)
6. Fiber Optic Temperature Sensors - Optical-based temperature sensors provide accurate
and stable remote measurement of on-line temperatures in hazardous environments and in
environments having high ambient electromagnetic fields without the need for calibration
of individual probes and sensors.

Optical temperature sensor systems measure temperatures from -200C to 600C safely and
accurately even in extremely hazardous, corrosive, and high electro-magnetic field
environments. They are ideal for use in these conditions because their glass-based
technology is inherently immune to electrical interference and corrosion. Since there is
no need to recalibrate individual sensors, operator and technician safety is greatly
enhanced as the need for their repeated exposure to field conditions is eliminated.

Probes are made from largely non-conducting and low thermal conductance material,
resulting in high stability and low susceptibility to interference, and in increased operator
safety. Optical cables also have a much higher information-carrying capacity and are far
less subject to interference than electrical conductors.

7. Silicon Temperature Sensors - Integrated circuit temperature sensors differ significantly


from the other types in a couple of important ways. The first is operating temperature
range. A temperature sensor IC can operate over the nominal IC temperature range of -55
C to +150 C. Some devices go beyond this range while others, because of package or cost
constraints, operate over a narrower range. The second difference is functionality. A
silicon temperature sensor is an integrated circuit, including extennsive signal processing
circuitry within the same package as the sensor.

Sensors: Velocity
Velocity
Linear Velocity Transducer - LVT
The LVT is based on the principle of magnetic induction and provide reliable
velocity measurement in a linear motion. Passing a magnet through the coil
form generates a voltage proportional to the magnets velocity and field
strength. This output signal is used to carefully monitor component velocities
in various applications.
Tachometer
The tachometer measures the angular velocity of a rotating shaft
using one of two methods. The first type connects a DC generator
(motor) to the shaft which produces a voltage proportional to the
increase in shaft angular velocity. The second type utilizes a magnet

Handheld Tachometer
with a pickup coil. As the magnet passes the coil a pulse is generated. The pulse magnitude and frequency
are proportional to the angular speed.

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