Sensors and Transducers

Key Concepts

 Sensor: Converts physical quantities into electrical signals.

 Transducer: Converts energy from one form to another.

 Smart Sensor: Combines sensor and signal conditioning in a single package.

Key Performance Characteristics

 Range: Maximum and minimum values a sensor can measure.

 Error: Difference between measured value and actual value.

 Accuracy: Closeness of measured value to true value.

 Sensitivity: Change in output per unit change in input.

 Hysteresis: Difference in output for increasing and decreasing inputs.

 Nonlinearity: Deviation from a linear relationship between input and output.

 Repeatability: Consistency of measurements under identical conditions.

 Stability: Consistency of measurements over time.

 Dead Band: Range of input values where there is no output change.

 Resolution: Smallest detectable change in input.

 Output Impedance: Resistance of the sensor's output.

 Response Time: Time required for the sensor to reach a steady-state output.

 Time Constant: Measure of how quickly a sensor responds to changes in input.

 Rise Time: Time required for the output to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.

 Settling Time: Time required for the output to stabilize within a specified tolerance.

Commonly Used Sensors

 Displacement: Potentiometers, strain gauges, LVDTs

 Position and Proximity: Switches, proximity sensors

 Velocity and Motion: Accelerometers, tachometers

 Force: Load cells, strain gauges

 Fluid Pressure: Pressure gauges, diaphragms

 Liquid Flow: Flow meters, ultrasonic sensors

 Liquid Level: Float switches, ultrasonic sensors

 Temperature: Thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors

 Light Intensity: Photodiodes, photoresistors

Bouncing in Mechanical Switches

 Problem: Mechanical switches can produce multiple contacts (bouncing) due to mechanical
vibrations.

 Solution: Use debouncing circuits or software techniques to filter out unwanted contacts.

Performance Terminology

Key Terms

 Range: Maximum and minimum values a sensor can measure.

 Span: Difference between maximum and minimum values.

 Error: Difference between measured value and actual value.

 Accuracy: Closeness of measured value to true value.

 Sensitivity: Change in output per unit change in input.

Summary

 The range defines the limits of the input.

 The span is the difference between the maximum and minimum values.

 The error is the difference between the measured value and the true value.

 The accuracy is the extent to which the measured value might be wrong.

 The sensitivity is the relationship between output and input.

Performance Terminology (continued)

Key Terms

 Hysteresis: Difference in output for increasing and decreasing inputs.

 Nonlinearity: Deviation from a linear relationship between input and output.

 Repeatability/Reproducibility: Consistency of measurements under repeated conditions.

Summary

 Hysteresis occurs when the output of a transducer depends on the direction of the input
change.

 Nonlinearity occurs when the relationship between input and output is not linear.

 Repeatability/reproducibility refers to the ability of a transducer to produce consistent

results under repeated conditions.

Performance Terminology (continued)

Key Terms

 Stability: Consistency of measurements over time.

 Drift: Change in output over time.

  Dead Band: Range of input values where there is no output change.

 Dead Time: Time delay between input change and output response.

 Resolution: Smallest detectable change in input.

Summary

 Stability refers to the ability of a transducer to maintain a consistent output over time.

 Drift is the change in output over time, which can be expressed as a percentage of the full
range.

 The dead band is the range of input values where there is no output change.

 The dead time is the time delay between an input change and the beginning of an output
response.

 Resolution is the smallest detectable change in input that produces an observable change in
output.

Performance Terminology (continued)

Key Terms

 Output Impedance: Resistance of the sensor's output.

 Static Characteristics: Steady-state behavior of the sensor.

 Dynamic Characteristics: Behavior of the sensor during transient conditions.

 Response Time: Time required for the sensor to reach a steady-state output.

Summary

 The output impedance of a sensor affects how it interacts with other components in a
circuit.

 Static characteristics describe the behavior of the sensor under steady-state conditions.

 Dynamic characteristics describe the behavior of the sensor during transient conditions, such
as when the input changes suddenly.

 The response time is the time required for the sensor to reach a steady-state output after an
input change.

Dynamic Characteristics (continued)

Key Terms

 Time Constant: Measure of how quickly a sensor responds to changes in input.

 Rise Time: Time required for the output to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value.

 Settling Time: Time required for the output to stabilize within a specified tolerance.

Summary
  The time constant is a measure of the sensor's inertia and how quickly it responds to
changes in input.

 The rise time is the time required for the output to rise to a specified percentage of the
steady-state value.

 The settling time is the time required for the output to stabilize within a specified tolerance
of the steady-state value.

Displacement, Position, and Proximity Sensors

Key Concepts

 Displacement Sensor: Measures the amount by which an object has moved.

 Position Sensor: Determines the position of an object relative to a reference point.

 Proximity Sensor: Detects when an object is within a certain distance of the sensor.

 Contact Sensors: Require physical contact between the sensor and the measured object.

 Non-Contacting Sensors: Do not require physical contact.

Common Types of Displacement Sensors

 Potentiometer: A variable resistor with a sliding contact that converts displacement into a
voltage.

 LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer): A non-contacting sensor that uses

electromagnetic induction to measure displacement.

 Capacitive Sensor: Measures changes in capacitance due to changes in distance between the
sensor and the measured object.

 Inductive Sensor: Measures changes in inductance due to changes in distance between the
sensor and the measured object.

 Optical Sensor: Uses light to measure displacement, such as with a laser interferometer.

Summary

Displacement, position, and proximity sensors are used to measure the movement or location of
objects. They can be contact or non-contacting, and various technologies are used to convert
displacement into a measurable signal.

Potentiometer Sensors (continued)

Key Points

 The output voltage of a potentiometer is proportional to the angular displacement of the

slider.

 The resolution of a potentiometer is limited by the diameter of the wire used.

 The load resistance across the potentiometer can introduce a non-linearity error.

 The effect of the load resistance can be calculated using the given equations.
Summary

Potentiometers are simple and reliable displacement sensors, but their accuracy can be affected by
factors such as load resistance and wire diameter. Understanding these factors is important for using
potentiometers effectively in applications.

Strain-Gaged Element

Key Concepts

 Strain Gauge: A resistive element that changes resistance when subjected to strain.

 Gauge Factor: The ratio of change in resistance to change in strain.

 Strain: The ratio of change in length to original length.

Summary

Strain gauges are used to measure displacement by converting strain into a change in resistance. The
gauge factor is a constant of proportionality that relates strain to resistance change. Strain gauges
can be made of metal wire, metal foil, or semiconductor material, and they are commonly used in
applications where precise measurement of displacement is required.

Capacitive Element

Key Concepts

 Capacitance: The ability of a capacitor to store electrical charge.

 Parallel Plate Capacitor: A capacitor consisting of two parallel plates separated by a
dielectric.

 Dielectric: An insulating material between the plates of a capacitor.

 Permittivity: A measure of a material's ability to store electrical energy.

Summary

Capacitive sensors can be used to measure displacement by monitoring changes in capacitance due
to changes in plate separation, overlap area, or dielectric properties. The capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor is directly proportional to the plate area and inversely proportional to the plate
separation. By measuring the change in capacitance, it is possible to determine the displacement.

Capacitive Element (continued)

Key Points

 Push-Pull Configuration: A method for improving the linearity of capacitive displacement

sensors by using two capacitors and a central plate.

 Capacitive Proximity Sensor: A sensor that detects the presence of a nearby object by
measuring changes in capacitance.

Summary

By using a push-pull configuration, the non-linearity of capacitive displacement sensors can be

reduced. Capacitive proximity sensors are simple and reliable, but they require a metallic object to
be detected.
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

Key Concepts

 LVDT: A non-contacting displacement sensor consisting of a primary coil and two secondary
coils.

 Magnetic Core: A movable core that moves through the center of the LVDT.

 Mutual Inductance: The coupling between the primary and secondary coils.

Summary

LVDTs are used to measure displacement by monitoring the output voltage from the secondary coils.
When the magnetic core is in the center, the output voltage is zero. As the core moves from the
center, the output voltage increases and changes phase. The output voltage is proportional to the
displacement of the core.

LVDT (continued)

Key Points

 The output voltage of an LVDT changes phase by 180 degrees when the core moves from one
side to the other.

 A phase-sensitive demodulator is used to convert the AC output voltage into a DC voltage

that is proportional to displacement.

 LVDTs are highly accurate and reliable displacement sensors with a wide range of
applications.

Summary

LVDTs are versatile sensors that can be used to measure displacement in various applications. They
offer high accuracy, reliability, and a wide range of operating conditions.

Proximity Sensors and Optical Encoders

Inductive Proximity Switch

 Detects the presence of a metal object using changes in inductance.

 Only works with ferrous metals.

Optical Encoders

 Provide a digital output based on linear or angular displacement.

 Incremental Encoders: Detect changes in position from a reference point.

 Absolute Encoders: Provide the actual position.

 Use light sensors to detect changes in light intensity as a disc with slots rotates.

 Resolution is determined by the number of slots on the disc.

 Absolute Encoders: Use multiple concentric tracks with slots arranged in a specific pattern to
determine the absolute position.
Optical Encoders (continued)

Key Points

 The resolution of an absolute encoder is determined by the number of tracks on the code
disc.

 Gray code is often used to avoid false counting due to misalignment.

 Optical encoders are available in both incremental and absolute configurations.

 Pneumatic sensors use compressed air to measure displacement or proximity.

 They work by measuring changes in air pressure caused by the presence of an object.

Proximity Switches

Key Concepts

 Proximity Switch: A device that detects the presence of an object.

 Microswitch: A mechanical switch that requires physical contact to operate.

 Reed Switch: A non-contacting switch that uses a magnetic field to close the contacts.

 Photosensitive Device: A device that detects changes in light or infrared radiation.

Summary

Proximity switches can be used to detect the presence of an object and can be based on various
technologies, including mechanical switches, reed switches, and photosensitive devices. The choice
of switch depends on the specific application and the type of object being detected.

Hall Effect Sensors

Key Concepts

 Hall Effect: When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a voltage is

generated perpendicular to the current and magnetic field.

 Hall Voltage: The voltage generated by the Hall effect.

 Hall Coefficient: A constant that relates the Hall voltage to the magnetic flux density and
current.

Summary

Hall effect sensors are used to measure magnetic flux density by utilizing the Hall effect. They are
typically integrated circuits with built-in signal processing. There are two main types of Hall effect
sensors: linear and threshold. Linear sensors produce a voltage output proportional to the magnetic
flux density, while threshold sensors have a sharp output change at a specific magnetic flux density.

Hall Effect Sensors (continued)

Key Points

 Linear Hall Effect Sensor: Produces a voltage output proportional to magnetic flux density.
  Threshold Hall Effect Sensor: Switches from a low to a high output voltage at a specific
magnetic flux density.

 Applications: Fluid level detection, brushless DC motor control.

Summary

Hall effect sensors are versatile devices with various applications, including fluid level detection and
motor control. They offer advantages such as non-contact operation, high reliability, and immunity to
environmental contaminants.

Tachogenerators

Key Concepts

 Tachogenerator: A device used to measure angular velocity.

 Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator: A type of tachogenerator that uses a toothed wheel

and a pick-up coil.

 Output: The output of a tachogenerator can be either a voltage or a pulse train.

Summary

Tachogenerators are used to measure the rotational speed of a shaft. They can be based on variable
reluctance or AC generator principles. The output of a tachogenerator can be used to directly
measure angular velocity or can be processed to generate a pulse train for counting purposes.

Pyroelectric Sensors

Key Concepts

 Pyroelectric Material: A material that generates charge in response to heat flow.

 Polarization: The alignment of electric dipoles in a material.

 Curie Temperature: The temperature at which a material loses its polarization.

 Pyroelectric Sensor: A sensor that converts infrared radiation into an electrical signal.

Summary

Pyroelectric sensors are used to detect infrared radiation by measuring the change in polarization of
a pyroelectric material. When the material is heated above the Curie temperature, its polarization is
reduced, and when it cools, it retains its polarization. When infrared radiation is incident on the
sensor, it heats the material, reducing its polarization and generating a charge on the electrodes. This
charge can be measured to determine the intensity of the infrared radiation.

Pyroelectric Sensors (continued)

Key Points

 Dual Pyroelectric Sensor: Uses two sensing elements to improve sensitivity and reduce
noise.

 Applications: Intruder alarms, motion detection.

Summary
Pyroelectric sensors are used to detect infrared radiation by measuring changes in polarization. They
are often used in dual element configurations to improve sensitivity and reduce noise. Applications
include intruder alarms and motion detection.

Fluid Pressure Sensors

Key Concepts

 Diaphragm: A flexible membrane that deforms in response to pressure differences.

 Strain Gauge: A resistive element that changes resistance when subjected to strain.

 Wheatstone Bridge: A circuit used to measure changes in resistance.

Summary

Fluid pressure sensors often use diaphragms to convert pressure into displacement, which is then
measured using strain gauges. The strain gauges are typically arranged in a Wheatstone bridge
configuration to provide a linear output voltage proportional to the pressure. These sensors can be
used to measure absolute, differential, or gauge pressure.

Fluid Pressure Sensors (continued)

Key Concepts

 Capsule: A combination of two corrugated diaphragms.

 Bellows: A stack of capsules.

 Bourdon Tube: A C-shaped tube that deforms in response to pressure.

Summary

Various types of diaphragms, including capsules and bellows, can be used to convert pressure into
displacement. Bourdon tubes are another type of pressure sensor that uses the deformation of a
tube to measure pressure. These sensors are typically made from materials such as stainless steel,
phosphor bronze, and nylon.

Piezoelectric Sensors

Key Concepts

 Piezoelectric Material: A material that generates electric charge when stretched or

compressed.

 Charge Sensitivity: A constant that relates the generated charge to the applied force.

 Capacitance: The ability of a capacitor to store electrical charge.

Summary

Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure force by converting mechanical strain into an electrical
signal. When a piezoelectric material is deformed, charges are generated on its surfaces, creating a
voltage. The charge sensitivity of a piezoelectric material depends on the material and its orientation.
The capacitance of the sensor is determined by the area and thickness of the piezoelectric material.

Piezoelectric Sensors (continued)

Key Points

 The voltage output of a piezoelectric sensor is proportional to the applied pressure.

 The voltage sensitivity of a piezoelectric sensor depends on the material and its orientation.

 The equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric sensor includes a charge generator, capacitor, and
resistor.

 The time constant of the circuit affects the sensor's response to transient pressures.

Summary

Piezoelectric sensors are used to measure pressure by converting mechanical strain into an electrical
signal. They are well-suited for measuring transient pressures due to their fast response time. The
equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric sensor helps to understand its behavior and performance.

Fluid Flow Sensors

Key Concepts

 Orifice Plate: A disc with a central hole placed in a pipe to measure flow rate.

 Bernoulli's Equation: Relates pressure, velocity, and elevation for a fluid.

 Pressure Difference: The difference in pressure before and after the orifice plate.

 Flow Rate: The volume of fluid passing through a pipe per unit time.

Summary

Orifice plates are used to measure flow rate by creating a pressure difference across the plate.
Bernoulli's equation is used to relate the pressure difference to the flow velocity. The flow rate is
proportional to the square root of the pressure difference.

Liquid Level Sensors

Key Concepts

 Direct Methods: Directly measure the position of the liquid surface.

 Indirect Methods: Measure a variable related to the liquid level, such as pressure or weight.

 Differential Pressure: The difference in pressure between the liquid surface and a reference
point.

Summary

Liquid level sensors can be direct or indirect. Direct methods often involve floats, while indirect
methods measure pressure or weight. Differential pressure sensors are commonly used to measure
liquid level by comparing the pressure at the bottom of the vessel to the pressure at the surface.

Temperature Sensors

Key Concepts

 Bimetallic Strip: A composite strip made of two different metals with different coefficients of
expansion.
  Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): A resistor whose resistance changes with
temperature.

Summary

Bimetallic strips bend when heated due to the difference in expansion between the two metals. This
bending can be used to operate a switch or other mechanism. RTDs are used to measure
temperature by monitoring changes in resistance. The resistance of most metals increases linearly
with temperature over a limited range.

Temperature Sensors (continued)

Key Concepts

 Thermistor: A semiconductor device whose resistance changes with temperature.

 Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC): Resistance decreases as temperature increases.

 Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC): Resistance increases as temperature increases.

Summary

Thermistors are small, rugged, and have a fast response time. They are often used in applications
where point temperature measurement is required. Thermistors have a non-linear resistance-
temperature relationship, which can be described by a Steinhart-Hart equation.

Temperature Sensors (continued)

Key Concepts

 Thermodiode: A semiconductor diode used as a temperature sensor.

 Thermotransistor: A transistor used as a temperature sensor.

 Thermocouple: A junction of two different metals that generates a voltage when heated.

Summary

Thermodiodes and thermotransistors are used as temperature sensors by measuring the voltage
across the junction. Thermocouples are formed by joining two different metals and measuring the
voltage generated at the junction. The voltage output of a thermocouple is proportional to the
temperature difference between the two junctions.

Thermocouples (continued)

Key Points

 The voltage output of a thermocouple depends on the temperature difference between the
two junctions.

 The relationship between temperature and voltage is generally linear over a certain range.

 Different types of thermocouples are used for different temperature ranges.

 The sensitivity of a thermocouple depends on the materials used.

Summary
Thermocouples are widely used to measure temperature due to their simplicity, reliability, and wide
temperature range. By selecting the appropriate thermocouple type, accurate temperature
measurements can be obtained over a wide range of applications.

Thermocouples (continued)

Key Points

 Law of Intermediate Metals: The e.m.f. of a thermocouple circuit remains the same as long
as all junctions are at the same temperature.

 Law of Intermediate Temperatures: The e.m.f. of a thermocouple at a given temperature

with a cold junction at 0°C is equal to the sum of the e.m.f. at the given temperature with a
cold junction at the intermediate temperature and the e.m.f. at the intermediate
temperature with a cold junction at 0°C.

 Cold Junction Compensation: A circuit used to compensate for the effect of a cold junction
temperature different from 0°C.

 Base-Metal Thermocouples: Relatively cheap but less stable and accurate.

 Noble-Metal Thermocouples: More expensive but more stable and accurate.

Summary

Thermocouples are widely used to measure temperature due to their simplicity, reliability, and wide
temperature range. Understanding the laws of intermediate metals and temperatures is essential for
accurate measurements. Cold junction compensation circuits can be used to correct for the effects of
a cold junction temperature different from 0°C.

Light Sensors

Key Concepts

 Photodiode: A semiconductor diode that generates current when exposed to light.

 Phototransistor: A transistor with a light-sensitive base-emitter junction.

 Photoresistor: A resistor whose resistance changes with light intensity.

Summary

Light sensors convert light intensity into an electrical signal. Photodiodes generate a current
proportional to light intensity. Phototransistors amplify the photocurrent, providing a higher output
signal. Photoresistors change resistance in response to light, which can be used to control circuits.

Image Sensors

Key Concepts

 Charge-Coupled Device (CCD): An array of light-sensitive pixels used in digital cameras.

 Pixel: A small unit in a CCD that converts light into an electrical signal.

 Color Filter Matrix: A filter placed in front of a CCD to capture color information.

Summary
CCD cameras use an array of pixels to capture light and convert it into an electrical signal. The
electrical signal is then processed to create a digital image. Color CCDs use a color filter matrix to
capture color information.

Inputting Data by Switches

Key Concepts

 Mechanical Switch: A device used to make or break electrical circuits.

 Limit Switch: A switch that is activated by the displacement of an object.

 Pole: The number of separate circuits that can be controlled by a switch.

 Throw: The number of individual contacts for each pole.

 Debouncing: A technique used to prevent multiple switch contacts from being registered as
a single event.

Summary

Mechanical switches are used to input data into electronic systems by making or breaking electrical
circuits. They can be used as limit switches to indicate the end of a mechanical movement. The
number of poles and throws determines the switching capabilities of a switch. Debouncing is
necessary to prevent multiple switch contacts from being registered as a single event due to
mechanical bounce.

Inputting Data by Switches (continued)

Key Concepts

 Debouncing: A technique used to prevent multiple switch contacts from being registered as
a single event.

 Hardware Debouncing: Uses a circuit to filter out unwanted switch bounces.

 Software Debouncing: Uses software to detect and ignore switch bounces.

 Schmitt Trigger: A circuit with hysteresis that can be used to debounce switches.

 Keypad: An array of switches used to input data.

Summary

Debouncing is essential for preventing false inputs from mechanical switches. Hardware debouncing
methods use circuits like flip-flops or Schmitt triggers to filter out unwanted bounces. Software
debouncing can also be used, but it requires more processing power. Keypads are arrays of switches
that are commonly used for inputting data in various devices.

Inputting Data by Switches (continued)

Key Concepts

 Contact-Type Key: A mechanical switch used in keyboards.

 Membrane Switch: A switch made of two conductive layers separated by a spacer layer.

 Keypad: An array of switches used to input data.

Summary

Keypads are used to input data and can be made of contact-type or membrane switches. Contact-
type keys have a mechanical plunger that forces contacts together when pressed. Membrane
switches use conductive layers that make contact when pressed. Keypads can be arranged in various
configurations to provide unique output codes for each key.

Sensor Performance and Errors

Key Concepts

 Non-linearity: Deviation from a linear relationship between input and output.

 Hysteresis: Difference in output for increasing and decreasing inputs.

 Temperature Sensitivity: Change in output due to changes in temperature.

 Accuracy: Closeness of measured value to true value.

 Response Time: Time required for the sensor to reach a steady-state output.

Summary
The performance of a sensor is characterized by various factors, including non-linearity, hysteresis,
temperature sensitivity, accuracy, and response time. Non-linearity and hysteresis can introduce
errors in the measured values. Temperature sensitivity can affect the accuracy of the sensor,
especially in environments with fluctuating temperatures. Accuracy refers to the overall correctness
of the measurement, while response time determines how quickly the sensor can respond to
changes in input.