Intermediate Ancient Greek Language

INTERMEDIATE
ANCIENT GREEK
LANGUAGE
INTERMEDIATE
ANCIENT GREEK
LANGUAGE
DARRYL PALMER
Published by ANU Press
The Australian National University
Acton ACT 2601, Australia
Email: anupress@anu.edu.au
Available to download for free at press.anu.edu.au
ISBN (print): 9781760463427
ISBN (online): 9781760463434
WorldCat (print): 1241230170
WorldCat (online): 1241230169
DOI: 10.22459/IAGL.2021
This title is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0).
The full licence terms are available at

creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode
Cover design and layout by ANU Press

This edition © 2021 ANU Press
Contents
Abbreviations and Symbols xiii

Introduction 1
1. Time and Aspect of the Indicative Mood 5
1.1. Tense 5
1.2. Forms and Functions 5
1.3. Time and Aspect (Summary) 8
EXERCISE 1 9
2. Aspect in the Imperative, Subjunctive and Optative Moods 13
2.1. Introduction 13
2.2. Forms 13
2.3. Functions 14
EXERCISE 2 17
3. Infinitive 21
3.2. Forms 21
3.3. Functions 22
3.4. Infinitive without Article 22
3.5. Infinitive with Article 25
EXERCISE 3 28
4. Participles 31
4.2. Forms 32
4.3. Functions 32
4.4. Negatives 36
EXERCISE 4 36
5. Genitive Absolute 39
5.1. The Usual Construction 39
5.2. Subject Unexpressed 40
5.3. Improper Genitive Absolute 41
EXERCISE 5 42
6. Accusative Absolute 45
6.2. So-Called Impersonal Verbs 45
6.3. Verbs Used Impersonally in the Passive Voice 46
6.4. Neuter Adjectives 47
6.5. Personal Accusative Absolute 48
6.6. Note 49
EXERCISE 6 50
7. Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τος, -τη, -τον 53
7.2. Formation of Verbal Adjectives Ending in ‑τος, ‑τη, ‑τον 53
7.3. Meaning of Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τος, -τη, -τον 55
EXERCISE 7 57
8. Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον 61
8.1. Formation of Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον 61
8.2. Usage of Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον 61
8.3. Impersonal Construction 62
8.4. Personal Construction 63
8.5. Ambiguous Constructions 64
8.6. Agent in Accusative 64
8.7. Construction Continued with Infinitive 65
8.8. Impersonal Passive Construction 65
EXERCISE 8 66
9. Voice 69
9.1. English 69
9.2. Greek 69
9.3. Uses of the Middle Voice 70
9.4. The Development of the Middle Voice 74
EXERCISE 9 75
10. Commands 79
10.2. Negative Commands 79
10.3. Virtual Commands 80
10.4. Reported Commands 82
EXERCISE 10 85
11. Wishes 89
11.1. Wishes for the Future 89
11.2. Unfulfilled Wishes for the Present and the Past 91
11.3. Reported Wishes 95
11.4. Reported Wishes Instead of Direct Wishes 95
11.5. Interrogative Wishes Combined with Deliberative Subjunctive 96
EXERCISE 11 97
12. Directly Reported Speech 101
12.1. Homer 101
12.2. Drama 102
12.3. Historiography 102
12.4. Prose Quotation Formulae 103
12.5. ὅτι and ὡς as Quotation Markers 103
EXERCISE 12 104
13. Reported Statements with ὅτι or ὡς 107
13.2. Reported Statements in Primary Sequence 107
13.3. Reported Statements in Past Sequence 108
13.4. Vivid Construction 110
EXERCISE 13 111
14. Reported Statements with Infinitive 113
14.1. Aspect of the Infinitive 113
14.2. Accusative and Infinitive Phrases 113
14.3. Nominative and Infinitive Phrases 114
14.4. Exceptional Accusative and Infinitive Phrases 115
14.5. Negative 116
14.6. Usage 116
14.7. Passive of λέγειν 116
EXERCISE 14 117
15. Reported Knowledge and Perception 121
15.2. Reported Knowledge or Perception with ὅτι or ὡς 121
15.3. Reported Knowledge or Perception with a Participial Phrase 122
15.4. Physical Perception 124
15.5. Reported Knowledge or Perception with an Infinitive Phrase 125
EXERCISE 15 126
16. Reported Thoughts, Hopes, Promises and Oaths 129
16.1. Reported Thoughts 129
16.2. Reported Hopes and Promises 131
16.3. Reported Oaths 132
EXERCISE 16 134
17. Questions 137
17.1. Ordinary Questions 137
17.2. Alternative Questions 139
17.3. Questions with Interrogative Adjectives or Adverbs 140
17.4. Deliberative Questions 141
17.5. Rhetorical Questions 141
EXERCISE 17 143
18. Reported Questions 145
18.1. Reported Ordinary Questions 145
18.2. ἆρα in Reported Questions 146
18.3. Reported Alternative Questions 146
18.4. Reported Questions with Interrogative Adjectives or Adverbs 148
18.5. Reported Deliberative Questions 149
EXERCISE 18 150
19. Conditions 153
19.2. Open Conditions 153
19.3. Unfulfilled Conditions 155
19.4. Mixed Conditions 156
19.5. The Negative in If-Clauses 158
EXERCISE 19 159
20. Homeric Conditions 161
20.2. Open Conditions 161
20.3. Unfulfilled Conditions 164
EXERCISE 20 166
21. Subordinate Clauses in Reported Discourse 169
21.1. Reported Complex Sentences 169
21.2. Reported Subordinate Clauses in Primary Sequence 169
21.3. Reported Subordinate Clauses in Past Sequence 170
21.4. Assimilation of Construction 171
21.5. Vivid Construction 172
EXERCISE 21 173
22. Result Constructions 175
22.1. Natural Result 175
22.2. Comparative Result 177
22.3. Actual Result 177
22.4. Adjectival Clauses of Result 178
22.5. Provisos 178
22.6. Antecedents for Result Constructions 179
22.7. ὥστε = ‘And so’ 180
EXERCISE 22 180
23. Causal Constructions 183
23.1. Adverbial Clauses of Cause 183
23.2. Adjectival Clauses of Cause 186
23.3. Causal Participles 186
23.4. Coordinating Use of ἐπεί and ὡς 187
EXERCISE 23 188
24. Constructions with Verbs of Effort and Caution 191
24.2. Primary Sequence 191
24.3. Past Sequence 193
24.4. Variations of the Constructions in §§24.2 and 24.3 196
24.5. Infinitive Constructions 196
24.6. Omission of Main Clause 197
EXERCISE 24 198
25. Adjectival Clauses 201
25.2. Definite Clauses Introduced by ὅς 201
25.3. Indefinite Clauses Introduced by ὅς 202
25.4. Indefinite Clauses Introduced by ὅστις 204
25.5. Coordinating Use of the Relative Adjective or Pronoun 206
25.6. Parenthetic ὅστις Clause 206
25.7. Special Uses of ὅστις and ὃς ἄν 207
EXERCISE 25 208
26. Concessive Constructions 211
26.2. Concessive Participial Phrases 211
26.3. Concessive Clauses 212
EXERCISE 26 215
27. Purpose Constructions 217
27.1. Prepositions 217
27.2. Infinitive 218
27.3. Participles 218
27.4. Adjectival Clauses of Purpose 218
27.5. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose 219
EXERCISE 27 221
28. Clauses of Comparison 223
28.2. Definite Comparison 223
28.3. Indefinite Comparison 224
28.4. Potential, Conditional and Temporal Constructions 224
28.5. Other Correlative Adjectives and Adverbs 226
EXERCISE 28 227
29. Expressions of Hindering, Forbidding, Denying and Failing 229
29.2. Direct Object 230
29.3. Genitive of Separation 230
29.4. Infinitive after a Positive Expression 231
29.5. ἐμποδών 232
29.6. Infinitive after a Negative Expression 233
29.7. Result Construction 235
29.8. Effort Construction 236
29.9. Conditional Construction 236
29.10. Participial Construction 236
29.11. Passive Constructions 236
EXERCISE 29 237
30. Temporal Constructions 1: Clauses in Primary Sequence 239
30.2. Contemporaneous Action in Temporal Clause 240
30.3. Prior Action in Temporal Clause 241
30.4. Subsequent Action in Temporal Clause: Indefinite 242
EXERCISE 30 243
31. Temporal Constructions 2: Clauses in Past Sequence 245
31.2. Contemporaneous Action in Temporal Clause 245
31.3. Prior Action in Temporal Clause 246
31.4. Subsequent Action in Temporal Clause 247
EXERCISE 31 248
32. Temporal Constructions with πρίν 251
32.2. πρίν with an Infinitive Phrase 251
32.3. πρίν with a Finite Verb 253
EXERCISE 32 256
33. Adverbial Clauses of Place and Manner 259
33.1. Adverbial Clauses of Place 259
33.2. Adverbial Clauses of Manner 262
33.3. Adverbial Clauses of Place Expressing Purpose 263
33.4. Adverbial Clauses Distinguished from Noun Clauses 264
EXERCISE 33 265
34. Noun Clauses with Expressions of Emotion 269
34.2. Verbs of Emotion 270
34.3. εἰ Clause as Subject 273
34.4. Negatives with ὅτι and εἰ Clauses 275
34.5. General Comments 276
EXERCISE 34A 278
EXERCISE 34B 279
35. Expressions of Fearing 281
35.2. Verbs of Fearing with Noun or Pronoun as Object 281
35.3. Verbs of Fearing with Infinitive Phrase as Object 282
35.4. Verbs of Fearing with a μή Clause as Object 283
35.5. Fears that Something is (etc.) Actually Happening 285
35.6. Fears Expressed with Other Conjunctions 286
35.7. Introductory Noun Phrases 289
35.8. Note 290
EXERCISE 35A 291
EXERCISE 35B 292
36. Nominative and Vocative Cases 295
36.1. Nominative as Subject 295
36.2. Nominative as Complement 295
36.3. Predicate Nominative with Passive Verb 296
36.4. Quoted Nominative 296
36.5. Nominative Address 297
36.6. Nominative Exclamation 297
36.7. Vocative 298
36.8. Hanging Vocative 299
EXERCISE 36 301
37. Accusative Case 305
37.1. Accusative as Direct Object 305
37.2. Adverbial Uses of the Accusative 310
37.3. Accusative in Apposition to a Sentence 312
EXERCISE 37 312
38. Genitive Case 1 315
38.2. Simple Possessive Genitive 315
38.3. Subjective Genitive 315
38.4. Objective Genitive 316
38.5. Partitive Genitive 316
38.6. Genitive of Definition (or Apposition) 316
38.7. Genitive of Description (or Quality) 317
38.8. Genitive of Material 317
38.9. Genitive of Measure 318
38.10. Genitive of Price or Value 318
EXERCISE 38 318
39. Genitive Case 2 321
39.2. Possessive Genitive 321
39.3. Partitive Genitive 323
39.4. Genitive of Separation 327
39.5. Genitive with Compound Verbs 328
EXERCISE 39 329
40. Dative Case 1 331
40.2. Dative of Interest 331
40.3. Dative of Accompaniment (or Sociative Dative) 334
EXERCISE 40 336
41. Dative Case 2 339
41.1. Locative 339
41.2. Means or Instrument 343
EXERCISE 41 346
42. Prepositions 349
42.1. Adverbs 349
42.2. Compound Verbs 349
42.3. Prepositions 349
42.4. Case Functions 350
42.5. Possessive Genitive with Preposition 351
42.6. Compound Verb with Preposition 351
42.7. Metaphorical Use of Prepositions 352
42.8. Accent and Position of Prepositions 353
42.9. Adverbial Accusative as Preposition 353
42.10. Pregnant Construction 354
42.11. ‘Proper’ and ‘Improper’ Prepositions 354
42.12. Hellenistic and Later Developments 355
EXERCISE 42A 355
EXERCISE 42B 357
43. Correlative Clauses 359
43.2. Adjectival Clauses 359
43.3. Adverbial Clauses 360
43.4. Interrogative Antecedent 362
43.5. Mixed Adjectival and Adverbial Construction 362
43.6. Pronominal Idioms 363
43.7. Note 363
EXERCISE 43 364
44. Exclamations 367
44.1. Exclamatory Cries 367
44.2. A Cry with First Person Singular Pronoun 368
44.3. An Exclamation with a Causal Genitive 368
44.4. Exclamatory Infinitive Phrases 369
44.5. Exclamatory Sentences Introduced by οἷος, ὅσος or ὡς 370
44.6. Interrogative Adjective or Adverb 371
44.7. Reported Exclamations 372
EXERCISE 44 374
Bibliography 377
Index of Passages Quoted in the Lessons 379
Abbreviations
and Symbols
abs. absolute Intr. Intransitive

Acc. Accusative lit. literal(ly)
Act. Active masc. masculine
adj. adjective Mid. Middle
adv. adverb neut. neuter
Aor. Aorist Nom. Nominative
(B)CE (Before) the Common Opt. Optative
Era Partc. Participle
Dat. Dative Pass. Passive
fem. feminine Perf. Perfect
Fut. Future pers. person
Gen. Genitive pl. plural
Hist. Historic Pres. Present
Imperf. Imperfect sg. singular
Impv. Imperative Subj. Subjunctive
Indic. Indicative Voc. Vocative
Infin. Infinitive
Angular brackets enclose words supplied in translation: <…>.

Square brackets enclose either brief explanatory notes or words not
needing to be translated in Exercises: […].
xiii
Introduction
This series of Lessons and Exercises is intended for students who have
already covered all or most of an introductory course in the ancient
Greek language. It aims to broaden and deepen students’ understanding
of the main grammatical constructions of Greek. Further attention is
given to grammatical forms only to the extent necessary to illustrate their
functions. With one exception, all Greek passages in the Lessons and
Exercises (including English to Greek translation) are direct quotations
from Greek authors. Some quotations are modified by the omission of
a few words (marked by ellipses) for the sake of brevity, but without
affecting the grammatical structure. In Lesson 19 on Conditions, brief
model sentences have been employed to demonstrate more clearly the
variety of conditional sentences.
In the Lessons, all Greek passages are translated into literal but reasonably
idiomatic English. For the most part, passages in both the Lessons and
the Exercises are drawn from main genres of the classical period (fifth to
fourth centuries BCE)—tragedy, comedy, historiography (together with
biography), oratory and philosophy. Non-dramatic lyric is not often used,
since it is more difficult to understand a single sentence out of context in
this genre. Didactic poetry (Hesiod) also appears seldom. Homer receives
attention at particular points, mainly Homeric conditions (Lesson 20)
and Homeric similes (Lesson 28 on clauses of comparison). In general,
the focus is on the classical Attic dialect. Where Epic or Ionic forms occur,
they are explained if necessary. Occasionally there are references forward
to the Hellenistic period.
The first few Lessons have an emphasis on Time and Aspect in the Greek
verbal system. After the Moods of the finite verb in Lessons 1 and 2,
Infinitives and Participles are treated in Lessons 3 and 4. The absolute
constructions of the Participles in the Genitive and Accusative Cases follow
in Lessons 5 and 6. The verbal adjectives ending in -τος, -τη, -τον are
treated in Lesson 7, and those ending in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον in Lesson 8.
Lesson 9 is primarily concerned with the use of the Middle Voice in the
classical period. Lesson 10 deals with commands and Lesson 11 with
wishes. These two Lessons expand the concise treatment of Imperative,
1
Intermediate Ancient Greek Language
Subjunctive and Optative Moods in Main clauses in Lesson 2. In addition

to the most basic constructions, Lessons 10 and 11 present the variety
of ways in which commands and wishes may be expressed. These two
Lessons also cover the subordinate constructions for reported commands
and reported wishes.
Lesson 12 provides a brief and basic presentation of directly quoted
statements. This leads on to the range of subordinate constructions,
which begins with reported statements in Lessons 13 and 14, and extends
to Lesson 35. This sequence is interrupted at two points. Lesson 17 on
questions is followed by Lesson 18 on reported questions. Lesson 21
on subordinate clauses in reported discourse is placed intentionally in the
midst of the sequence of subordinate constructions.
Discussion of the Cases has been deliberately placed late in the series
at Lessons 36 to 41. By this stage, students will be better prepared to
analyse the Case usage with which they are now familiar. For the classical
period, the consideration of prepositions in Lesson 42 naturally follows
the treatment of the Cases. Lesson 43 on correlative clauses has numerous
links with adjectival and adverbial constructions in previous Lessons.
Finally, Lesson 44 deals with exclamations.
The majority of the Exercises comprise several passages for translation
from Greek to English and one or more passages (depending on length)
for translation from English to Greek. It is intended that students should
use the full and most recent edition of A Greek–English Lexicon originally
compiled by H. G. Liddell and R. Scott. Alternatively, The Brill Dictionary
of Ancient Greek, originally compiled by F. Montanari for Italian readers,
is now available with American-English spellings (see Bibliography for
both dictionaries). However, to save time for students, some vocabulary
is provided for specific passages in each of the Exercises. Exercises 7 to 9
and Exercises 36 to 42 involve translation from Greek to English only, but
do require brief analytical comment. Exercise 20 on Homeric conditions
involves translation from Greek to English only, but requires no further
comment. Alternative Exercises (A and B) are provided for Lessons 34, 35
and 42. Exercises are of approximately equal length.
2
INTRODUCTION
Accent marks indicate how a pitch accent was probably pronounced

in Classical Greek. No separate Exercises are provided for this purpose.
But the books of Allen (1987) and Probert (2003) are recommended.
The table near the end of Lesson 1 and the accompanying list of Tenses
largely correspond to those of the Joint Committee on Grammatical
Terminology (1911) as modified by Masterman (1962). Masterman
(1962, p .72) began his article with the following words:
It is over fifty years now since the formation of the Joint Committee on
Grammatical Terminology, and the presentation of its Report; and it seems
to be high time that teachers of languages considered, first, how successful
they have been in carrying out its recommendations, and secondly, what
modifications are called for in the light of more recent knowledge.
Since Masterman’s article was published, over 50 more years have passed,
and it seems high time that a new intermediate Greek language textbook be
made available. The grammars of Ancient Greek by Goodwin (1889) and
Smyth (1956) remain the most convenient in English, despite their age.
3
LESSON 1
Time and Aspect of the
Indicative Mood
1.1. Tense
Tense may be regarded as the combination of the Time and Aspect
of a Greek verb. In classical usage, there are three Times—Present, Past,
Future—and three Aspects—Imperfect, Perfect, Aorist.
The main functions of the Aspects are as follows:
• Imperfect expresses continuous or repeated action.
• Perfect expresses completed action or the state resulting from
completed action.
• Aorist expresses momentary action or sums up a whole period as
a single action.
• Aspect is not inherent in an action but expresses the point of view
of the speaker or writer.
(Palmer regards ‘durative’ as an inadequate description of the function of
the Imperfect Aspect and prefers to think of it as the ‘eye-witness aspect’.)
The combination of three Times and Aspects would give a theoretical
nine Tenses. But Greek does not have separate forms for each of the nine
theoretical possibilities.
1.2. Forms and Functions

By way of illustration, the first person singular forms of the Indicative
Active are given in the following list. The Active Voice of παύειν is
normally used transitively (i.e. with a direct Object).
5
1.2.1. Present Time

Present
παύω I am stopping
I stop (repeatedly or regularly)
This Tense form is properly Present Imperfect. However, there is no

separate form for Present Aorist. So παύω also covers the meaning ‘I stop’
(momentarily), and the Tense is usually called simply ‘Present’. The Aorist
function of the Present is most obvious in the Historic Present usage,
where a Present Indicative vividly expresses a past action.
Present Perfect
πέπαυκα I have stopped
It is generally agreed that, at the earliest stage of its development,

the Perfect Aspect expressed a state resulting from previous action. In the
classical period, this is especially noticeable with the Present Perfect forms
of certain verbs used with Present meaning, for example: οἶδα, ‘I have
come to know’, hence ‘I know’; or ἕστηκα, ‘I have taken my stand’,
hence ‘I am standing’. By the later classical period, the emphasis on
completed action had become more prominent and new Perfect forms with
this resultative force were invented. But this emphasis had declined again
by the first century CE. The Present Perfect and the Past Aorist Indicatives
became increasingly interchangeable during the first three centuries CE.
By the fourth century CE, the Present Perfect had been superseded by the
Present (replacing its stative force) and by the Past Aorist (replacing its
resultative force).
1.2.2. Past Time

In the classical period, all three Past Tenses were marked by the augment
ε and had endings different to the Present and Future Tenses. Verbs with
an initial short vowel in the Present Tense (e.g. ἱκετεύω with short ι)
regularly lengthened the vowel in Past Tenses (ἱκέτευον, ἱκέτευσα
with long ι).
6
LESSON 1. TIME AND ASPECT OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD
Past Imperfect
ἔπαυον I was stopping, I used to stop
Past Perfect
ἐπεπαύκη I had stopped
ᾔδη I had come to know, (hence) I knew
εἱστήκη I had stood, (hence) I was standing
Past Aorist
ἔπαυσα I stopped
ἐπολέμησα I fought
‘Stopping’ is by nature a momentary action. ‘Fighting’ a battle or a war

is by nature a continuous action. In the following passage, neither the
composition of the account of the Peloponnesian war nor the actual
fighting of the war was a momentary action. But both actions are summed
up by the complexive use of the Past Aorist Indicatives (ξυνέγραψε,
ἐπολέμησαν).
Θουκυδίδης Ἀθηναῖος ξυνέγραψε τὸν πόλεμον τῶν Πελοποννησίων
καὶ Ἀθηναίων, ὡς ἐπολέμησαν πρὸς ἀλλήλους … (Th. 1.1.1.)
Thucydides the Athenian wrote an account of the war of the Peloponnesians
and the Athenians, how they fought against each other …
1.2.3. Future Time

Future
παύσω I shall stop (Aor. Aspect)
I shall be stopping (Imperf. Aspect)
There are not separate forms for Future Imperfect and Future Aorist.
The Future is primarily Aoristic in function. Some scholars explain the
Future Indicative as derived from an Aorist Subjunctive with a sigma
suffix. παύσω is an ambivalent form: ‘I shall stop’ (Fut. Indic.); ‘I am
to stop’, ‘let me stop’ (Aor. Subj.). Palmer (1980) prefers to explain the
7
Future as a desiderative Mood in origin. Alternatively, the Future could

be regarded as an Intentive Aspect in function. (Cf. the other common
English idiom for expressing futurity: ‘I am going to stop’.)
Future Perfect
πεπαύξω I shall have stopped
πεπαυκὼς ἔσομαι I shall have stopped
(periphrastic, the usual form)
Actual forms of the Future Perfect Active are rare; they occur especially
in two verbs that are regularly used in the Perfect with an Imperfect
meaning.
ἑστήξω I shall have stood, (hence) I shall stand

τεθνήξω I shall have died, (hence) I shall be dead
Those verbs that form a regular Future Perfect Middle/Passive mostly

prefer either a Middle or a Passive meaning. The Passive meaning is
more common.
Emphatic reduplicated Futures such as δεδέξομαι ‘I shall certainly
receive’ (Hom.Il. 5.238) constituted a model for the formation of Future
Perfects from the Present Perfect base. Conversely, Future Perfect forms
can sometimes be translated appropriately as emphatic Futures.
1.3. Time and Aspect (Summary)

Aspect
Time Imperfect Perfect Aorist
Present παύω πέπαυκα (παύω)
I am stopping I have stopped I stop
Past ἔπαυον ἐπεπαύκη ἔπαυσα
I was stopping I had stopped I stopped
Future (παύσω) πεπαύξω παύσω
I shall be stopping πεπαυκὼς ἔσομαι I shall stop
I shall have stopped
8
In the Lessons and Exercises, the following terminology will be used for
the Tenses of the Indicative Mood (Cf. Masterman, 1962, 76).
παύω Present
πέπαυκα Present Perfect
ἔπαυον Past Imperfect
ἐπεπαύκη Past Perfect
ἔπαυσα Past Aorist
παύσω Future
πεπαύξω Future Perfect
πεπαυκὼς ἔσομαι Future Perfect (periphrastic)
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§19–84.
Masterman (1962), On grammatical terminology and aspect in particular,

Greece and Rome, 9, 72–86.
Palmer (1980), The Greek language, pp. 261, 292–307, 310–311.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§355–380, 1850–1858, 1875–1965.
EXERCISE 1
Translate the following passages into English or Greek as appropriate,
giving particular attention to the Time and Aspect of the Indicative verbs.
1. αἰτοῦμαι οὖν ὑμᾶς, ὦ ἄνδρες, εὔνοιαν πλείω παρασχέσθαι ἐμοὶ
τῷ ἀπολογουμένῳ ἢ τοῖς κατηγόροις …
αἰτεῖν (Act. and Mid.) to ask, to request

εὔνοια, -ας, ἡ goodwill
παρέχεσθαι (Mid.) to show, to display
ἀπολογεῖσθαι (Mid.) to defend
κατήγορος, -ου, ὁ accuser
9
2. τὰ μὲν γενόμενα ἠκούσατε, ὦ ἄνδρες, καὶ ὑμῖν οἱ μάρτυρες

μεμαρτυρήκασιν·
μέν Anticipates a following δέ and should not

be translated.
μαρτυρεῖν to testify (to) (+ Dat.)
3. μετὰ δὲ τὴν δευτέραν ἐσβολὴν τῶν Πελοποννησίων οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι,

ὡς ἥ τε γῆ αὐτῶν ἐτέτμητο τὸ δεύτερον καὶ ἡ νόσος ἐπέκειτο
ἅμα καὶ ὁ πόλεμος, ἠλλοίωντο τὰς γνώμας …
δεύτερος, -α, -ον second

ἐσβολή, -ῆς, ἡ invasion
ὡς as (Temporal + Causal)
τε Anticipates the following καί and should
not be translated.
τέμνειν to ravage
νόσος, -ου, ἡ plague
ἐπικεῖσθαι (Mid.) to have been laid upon (The Imperf. Mid. is
equivalent to the Perf. Pass. of ἐπιτιθέναι.)
ἅμα καί at the same time as
ἀλλοιοῦν to change (here Pass. + Acc. of Respect)
γνώμη, -ης, ἡ attitude
4. οὐ μόνον ἐγὼ ἀλλὰ καὶ ὁ πατὴρ δόξει ἄδικος εἶναι καὶ τῶν
ὄντων ἁπάντων στερήσομαι.
δοκεῖν to seem
ὄντα, -ων, τά possessions, property (Partc.)
στερεῖν to deprive (here Fut. Mid. in Pass. sense)
5. καὶ μάχῃ τῇ μὲν πρώτῃ νικᾶται ὑφ’ ἡμῶν, τῇ δ’ ὑστεραίᾳ
ἱππεῦσί τε πολλοῖς καὶ ἀκοντισταῖς βιασθέντες ἀνεχωρήσαμεν
ἐς τὰ τείχη.
μάχη, -ης, ἡ battle

μέν Cf. 2 above
10
νικᾶν to beat, to defeat

ὑστεραῖος, -α, -ον next
ἱππεύς, -έως, ὁ horseman; (pl.) cavalry (here personal Dat.
of Means)
τε Cf. 3 above
ἀκοντιστής, -οῦ, ὁ javelin-thrower
βιάζειν to overpower
ἀναχωρεῖν to withdraw (Intr.)
ἐς inside, within (+ Acc. of motion)
τεῖχος, –ους, τό fortification
6. πλεῖστον δή, οἶμαι, ἀληθοῦς ἡδονῆς καὶ οἰκείας ὁ τύραννος

ἀφεστήξει, ὁ δὲ ὀλίγιστον.
πλεῖστον (neut. Acc.) most (i.e. furthest) (adv.)

δή so, therefore
οἰκεῖος, -α, -ον genuine
τύραννος, -ου, ὁ absolute ruler
ὁ δέ and he (referring to the philosopher‑king)
ὀλίγιστον (neut. least (i.e. least far away)
Acc.)
7. And yet what was I intending, if I informed against my father, as

these [men] say, but was entreating my father to stay and suffer
something from me?
and yet καίτοι

to intend βούλεσθαι
to inform against μηνύειν κατά (+ Gen.)
[men] Words in square brackets need not
be translated.
to entreat ἱκετεύειν (+ Acc. and Infin.)
to stay μένειν
to suffer πάσχειν
from ὑπό (+ Gen.)
11
LESSON 2
Aspect in the Imperative, Subjunctive
and Optative Moods
2.1. Introduction
As a general principle, the Moods of the Greek verb other than the
Indicative have Aspect but not Time. This generalisation is valid, provided
that the so-called ‘Future’ Optative is treated as belonging to a fourth,
‘Intentive’ Aspect. (This will also apply to the ‘Future’ Infinitive and
Participle.) At any rate, there are forms for Imperative, Subjunctive and
Optative Moods in the Imperfect, Perfect and Aorist Aspects. There
are no forms for Imperative and Subjunctive Moods in Present, Past or
Future Time. The ‘Future’ or ‘Intentive’ Optative is mostly limited to
reported discourse in Past sequence, where it represents an original Future
Indicative of direct discourse. It is occasionally used in the same way
after verbs of effort. The terminology ‘Present’ Imperative, Subjunctive
and Optative has often been used (misleadingly) for what is in fact the
Imperfect Aspect of these Moods.
2.2. Forms
The usual paradigms for Imperative, Subjunctive and Optative in the
Active Voice begin as follows.
Imperfect Aspect
Imperative παῦε 2nd pers. sg.
Subjunctive παύω 1st pers. sg.
Optative παύοιμι 1st pers. sg.
13
Perfect Aspect
Regular Form Periphrastic Form
Imperative πέπαυκε 2nd pers. sg. πεπαυκὼς ἴσθι (possible)
Subjunctive πεπαύκω 1st pers. sg. πεπαυκὼς ὦ (usual)
Optative πεπαύκοιμι 1st pers. sg. πεπαυκὼς εἴην (usual)
Aorist Aspect
Imperative παῦσον 2nd pers. sg.
Subjunctive παύσω 1st pers. sg.
Optative παύσαιμι 1st pers. sg.
‘Future’/Intentive Aspect
Optative παύσοιμι
2.3. Functions
This section gives a brief survey of the uses of the non-Indicative Moods.
Most of these uses will receive further attention in later Lessons on
particular topics.
2.3.1. Imperative
The Imperative expresses commands. Imperfect Aspect expresses
continuing or repeated action. Aorist Aspect expresses momentary action.
Perfect Aspect is less common in the Imperative. It generally emphasises the
state resulting from a completed action. (See Lesson 10 on Commands.)
However, as with the Indicative Mood, some verbs by their very meaning
express a momentary action. Thus παῦε, although an Imperative form of
the Imperfect Aspect, may express a command requiring instant action.
παῦε, παῦε, μὴ λέγε· (Ar.V. 37.)
Stop, stop, do not say <any more>.
Imperfect Aspect
καί μοι κάλει τούτων τοὺς μάρτυρας. (And. 1.28.)
Now please summon the witnesses of these <matters>.
14
LESSON 2. ASPECT IN THE IMPERATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS
The Imperfect Imperative (2nd pers. sg. Act.) κάλει suggests that the
summoning may take a while. However, it would not be idiomatic to
translate it as ‘be summoning’.
Aorist Aspect
… φωνήσατ’, εἴπερ ὡς φίλοι προσήκετε. (S.Ph. 229.)
… speak, if indeed you have come as friends.
The Aorist Imperative (2nd pers. pl. Act.) φωνήσατ(ε) suggests that the
speaking should be brief and prompt.
Perfect Aspect
νῦν δ’ εἰς ἀναιδὲς ἡμέρας μέρος βραχὺ
δός μοι σεαυτόν, κᾆτα τὸν λοιπὸν χρόνον
κέκλησο πάντων εὐσεβέστατος βροτῶν. (S.Ph. 83–85.)
But for the present please give yourself to recklessness
for a brief part of a day, and then for the rest of time
be called the most pious of all mortals.
The Perfect Imperative (2nd pers. sg. Pass.) κέκλησο, lit. ‘have been
called’, implies ‘have the ongoing reputation of ’. This stative force,
expressing the result of completed action, is emphasised by the adverbial
phrase ‘for the rest of time’.
2.3.2. Subjunctive
Despite differences of terminology, the following usages are all basically of
the same type, expressing an exhortation or command. The negative for
each usage is μή, except that οὐ may negate a particular word other than
the Subjunctive verb.
Hortatory
The hortatory use occurs in the first person, usually plural.
χωρῶμεν δὴ πάντες ἀολλεῖς,
Νύμφαις ἁλίαισιν ἐπευξάμενοι
νόστου σωτῆρας ἱκέσθαι. (S.Ph. 1469–1471.)
Now let us go all together
(after) praying to the Nymphs of the sea
that they come as guarantors of our return.
15
Jussive
In the classical period, this construction occurs primarily in the negative
with the second person singular or plural of the Aorist Subjunctive.
Hence, the usage is often called ‘Prohibitive’. The positive use at S.Ph. 300
is exceptional in the classical period, although further positive examples
occur in the Hellenistic period. (See Lesson 10 on Commands.)
ὃ μὴ πάθῃς σύ· (E.Ba. 341.)
And you are not to suffer this.
ὃ is a coordinating relative pronoun: ‘And … this’.
The third person of the Aorist Subjunctive used in a prohibition is
usually indefinite and equivalent to the second person. (The Imperfect
Subjunctive is rare in this usage.)
καὶ μηδεὶς ὑπολάβῃ με δυσκόλως ἔχειν, ὅτι τραχύτερον τούτων
ἐμνήσθην … (Isoc. 4.129.)
And let no one suppose that I am discontented, because I recounted these points
rather harshly …
Deliberative
The Deliberative Subjunctive is an interrogative use of the Hortatory
Subjunctive. Instead of stating ‘Let us do this’, a Deliberative question
asks ‘What are we to do?’. Deliberative questions occur in Imperfect or
Aorist Aspect, primarily in the first person, rarely in the second person
(repeating a question) and in the indefinite third person. (See Lesson 17
on Questions.)
… εἴπω Ἀθηναίοις ἅπερ ἤκουσα Εὐφιλήτου αὐτοῦ τοῦ ποιήσαντος;
(And. 1.51.)
… am I to tell the Athenians what I heard from Euphiletus himself who
did <it>?
2.3.3. Optative
Wishes
Without ἄν, the Optative in a Main clause expresses a wish for the future.
Often, such wishes are introduced by εἰ γάρ or εἴθε; the negative is μή.
(See Lesson 11 on Wishes.)
16
ἐχθρούς γε μέντοι μὴ φίλους δράσειέ τι. (E.Med. 95.)

However, may she do something to her enemies, not to her friends.
Potential
With ἄν the Optative in a Main clause is potential; the negative is οὐ.
Ιω οὔκουν πόροις ἂν τήνδε δωρειὰν ἐμοί;

Πρ. λέγ’ ἥντιν’ αἰτῇ· πᾶν γὰρ ἂν πύθοιό μου. (A.Pr. 616–617.)
Io Would you not, then, grant this gift to me?
Pr. Say what <gift> you are requesting; for you would learn everything
from me.
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§233–242,
250–293, 720–728.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1795–1811, 1814–1842, 1859–1864, 2212.
EXERCISE 2
Translate the following passages. Give particular attention to the Aspect
of the non-Indicative verbs, so far as idiomatic translation allows.
The Exercise is concerned with the use of non-Indicative verbs in
Main clauses.
1. τούτῳ μέντοι τῷ νόμῳ σκέψασθε ὡς ἐναντίος ἐστὶν ὃν οὗτος
τέθεικεν.
μέντοι so (Progressive)
σκέπτεσθαι to consider, to examine
ὡς how (Modifies ἐναντίος.)
ὅν Understand νόμος as antecedent.
τιθέναι to propose (a law)
17
2. μέμνησθε δέ, ὦ ἄνδρες, ὅτι καὶ ταῦθ’ ὑμῖν προσομολογεῖται

ἅπαντα.
μέμνησθε Perf. Impv. with Imperf. meaning: remember

προσομολογεῖν to admit, to confess (here Pass.)
3. τὸν θεὸν δ’ ἐς γῆν δέχου

καὶ σπένδε καὶ βάκχευε καὶ στέφου κάρα.
στέφειν (Act. and to wreathe

Mid.)
κάρα, τό (irregular) head
4. … περὶ δὲ τῆς εἰρήνης πρῶτον διαλεχθῶμεν, καὶ σκεψώμεθα τί

ἂν ἐν τῷ παρόντι γενέσθαι βουληθεῖμεν ἡμῖν.
διαλέγεσθαι (Mid.) to discuss (Aor. Pass. in Act. sense)

παρόν, -όντος, τό the present <situation> (neut. Partc.)
5. ἀλλ’ εὖ σ’ ὁ Μαίας παῖς ἐκεῖσε καὶ πάλιν

πέμψειεν Ἑρμῆς, ὅς γε φηλητῶν ἄναξ.
ἀλλ(ά) well (introducing a prayer: Denniston, 1954,

p. 15)
Μαῖα, -ας, ἡ Maia (mother of Hermes)
πέμπειν to escort
φηλήτης, -ου, ὁ thief
6. … πολὺ ἂν μᾶλλον καταφρονηθεῖμεν καὶ μισηθεῖμεν τῶν ταῖς

ἄλλαις πονηρίαις ἐνόχων ὄντων.
καταφρονεῖν to despise
μισεῖν to hate
πονηρία, -ας, ἡ wickedness
ἔνοχος, -ον liable (for) (+ Dat.)
18
7. ποῖ γὰρ τράπωμαι πατρίδος ἐκβεβλημένη;
τρέπεσθαι (Mid.) to turn (Intr.)

πατρίς, -ίδος, ἡ fatherland
ἐκβάλλειν to cast out
8. ἀλλ’, ὦ ξέν’, ἴσθι τοῦτο πρῶτον, οὕνεκα

Ἕλληνές ἐσμεν.
ἀλλά well (assentient: Denniston, 1954, p. 18)

οὕνεκα that
9. τίς ὁδῷ, τίς ὁδῷ; τίς

μελάθροις; ἔκτοπος ἔστω,
στόμα τ’ εὔφημον ἅπας ἐξοσιούσθω
μέλαθρον, -ου, τό hall

ἔκτοπος, -ον out of doors
στόμα, -ατος, τό speech
εὔφημος, -ον holy
ἐξοσιοῦν (Act. and to keep pure
Mid.)
10. And who would try to learn from another these [things], which he
knows from his own nature?
to try ἐπιχειρεῖν
to learn μανθάνειν
from παρά (+ Gen.)
to know ἐπίστασθαι
nature φύσις, -εως, ἡ
19
LESSON 3
Infinitive
3.1. Introduction
The Infinitive is the verbal noun, that is, the name of the verb. The Infinitive
expresses Aspect but not Time. The apparent exception is the so-called
‘Future’ Infinitive. As with the ‘Future’ Optative, the ‘Future’ Infinitive
may be regarded as expressing an Intentive Aspect rather than Future
Time.
3.2. Forms
By way of illustrating the Aspect of Infinitives, only Active forms are
listed here.
Imperfect
παύειν to be stopping
Perfect
πεπαυκέναι to have stopped
Aorist
παῦσαι to stop
‘Future’/Intentive
παύσειν to be going to stop
A ‘Future Perfect’ Infinitive form μεμνήσεσθαι (Mid./Pass.) occurs in

Homer and in Attic prose. But that is the ‘Future’ of a Perfect verb with
Imperfect meaning; it means ‘to be going to remember’ (Intentive).
21
3.3. Functions
As a verb, the Infinitive may take any construction which finite parts
of the verb may take.
As a noun, the Infinitive may be used without the definite article:
• as the Subject or Object of another verb
• in dependence on certain adjectives, adverbs and even nouns (especially
when these parts of speech denote ability or suitability)
• to express Purpose with certain verbs.
The Infinitive with the neuter definite article (or ‘articular Infinitive’) may
also be used in the Nominative or Accusative Case respectively as Subject
or Object of a verb. In addition, the Infinitive with the definite article may
be used in various constructions in the Genitive or Dative Cases, and after
prepositions governing Accusative, Genitive or Dative Cases. (See further
the Lessons on the Cases.)
The negative for all Infinitive constructions in this Lesson is regularly μή.
There are three examples in §§3.5.3 and 3.5.4 below.
The use of the Infinitive in reported speech and thought and in Temporal
and Result constructions will be treated in other Lessons.
3.4. Infinitive without Article
3.4.1. Infinitive as Subject

οὐκ ἄξιον περὶ τούτων, Ἀπολλόδωρε, νῦν ἐρίζειν. (Pl.Smp. 173 E.)
To quarrel about this now, Apollodorus, <is> not worthwhile.
ἐρίζειν is Subject; ἄξιον is Complement (predicate Nom.). ἄξιον is
neuter Gender in reference to the Infinitive as a neuter singular noun.
The more usual form of English expression for this sentence is: ‘It is not
worthwhile quarrelling about this now, Apollodorus’. ‘It’ is in anticipatory
apposition with ‘quarrelling’. As in this example, the verb ‘to be’ is not
always expressed in Greek.
22
LESSON 3. INFINITIVE
τὴν πεπρωμένην μοῖραν ἀδύνατα ἐστὶ ἀποφυγεῖν καὶ θεῷ·

(Hdt. 1.91.1.)
It is impossible even for a god to escape one’s appointed fate.
(lit. ‘To escape one’s appointed fate is impossible even for a god’.) Here, the
neuter plural form ἀδύνατα is used as Complement of the Nominative
Infinitive phrase; and the verb ‘to be’ (ἐστί) is expressed.
σχέτλια γὰρ
ἐμέ γε τὸν μακρῶν ἀλάτων πόνων
οὐρίῳ μὴ πελάσαι δρόμω,
… (S.Aj. 887–889.)
For <it is> wretched
that I the wanderer through lengthy labours
should not approach a favourable course
…
(lit. ‘For that I the wanderer through lengthy labours should not approach
a favourable course <is> wretched…’.) Here, the Subject is an Accusative
and Infinitive phrase; and the verb ‘to be’ is not expressed in Greek.
Within the Accusative and Infinitive phrase, ἐμέ … τὸν … ἀλάταν is
the Subject of the Infinitive πελάσαι. And the neuter plural adjective
σχέτλια is the Complement of the Infinitive phrase.
3.4.2. Infinitive as Object

μᾶλλον δ’ ἐξ ἀρχῆς ὑμῖν, ὡς ἐκεῖνος διηγεῖτο, καὶ ἐγὼ πειράσομαι
διηγήσασθαι. (Pl.Smp. 173 E–174 A.)
But rather, as he was relating <the matter>, I too shall attempt to relate <it>
to you from the beginning.
διηγήσασθαι is direct Object of πειράσομαι.
3.4.3. Infinitive Expressing Purpose

The use of the Infinitive with certain verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs
reflects its Indo-European background as a Dative verbal noun expressing
Purpose.
23
3.4.3.1. Infinitive with Verbs

The Infinitive may express Purpose, mostly with verbs used transitively,
and in prose especially with verbs of giving, receiving and choosing.
οἱ δ’ ἄρ’ ἀπ’ ὤμοιιν Σαρπηδόνος ἔντε’ ἕλοντο
χάλκεα μαρμαίροντα, τὰ μὲν κοίλας ἐπὶ νῆας
δῶκε φέρειν ἑτάροισι Μενοιτίου ἄλκιμος υἱός.
(Hom.Il. 16.663–665.)
But then from the shoulders of Sarpedon they took the shining
bronze armour, which the brave son of Menoitius
gave to his companions to carry to the hollow ships.
The Infinitive φέρειν expresses the Purpose of the verb δῶκε
(without augment).
3.4.3.2. Infinitive with Nouns

μὴ δῶμεν αὐτοῖς σχολὴν μήτε βουλεύσασθαι μήτε
παρασκευάσασθαι ἀγαθὸν αὑτοῖς μηδέν, μηδὲ γνῶναι πάμπαν
ὅτι ἄνθρωποί ἐσμεν … (X.Cyr. 4.2.22.)
let us not give them leisure for deliberating or preparing any benefit for
themselves, nor for realising at all that we are humans …
The Infinitives βουλεύσασθαι, παρασκευάσασθαι and γνῶναι express
the Purpose of the noun σχολήν.
3.4.3.3. Infinitive with Adjectives

ἅμα μὲν γὰρ αὐτῷ ὁ χῶρος ἐπιτήδειος ἐφαίνετο ἐνστρατοπεδεῦσαι
… (Th. 2.20.4.)
For at the same time the place appeared to him suitable for encamping …
The Infinitive ἐνστρατοπεδεῦσαι expresses the Purpose of the adjective
ἐπιτήδειος.
3.4.3.4. Infinitive with Adverbs

οὕτω χαλεπῶς ἂν ἐδόκουν οἱ στρατιῶται τοὺς Μαντινέας
ἐφηδομένους τῷ δυστυχήματι θεάσασθαι. (X.HG 4.5.18.)
The soldiers would be thinking it so difficult to look upon the Mantineans
exulting over their misfortune.
24
The Infinitive θεάσασθαι expresses the Purpose of the adverb χαλεπῶς.

(The adverb has been translated as an adjective for the sake of English
idiom. But English idiom itself sometimes allows an adverb where an
adjective would be expected: ‘all is well that ends well’.)
3.5. Infinitive with Article
3.5.1. Infinitive as Subject (Nominative)

τὸ γὰρ φιλότιμον ἀγήρων μόνον, καὶ οὐκ ἐν τῷ ἀχρείῳ τῆς
ἡλικίας τὸ κερδαίνειν, ὥσπερ τινές φασι, μᾶλλον τέρπει, ἀλλὰ τὸ
τιμᾶσθαι. (Th. 2.44.4.)
For love of honour alone <is> unaffected by age, and in the ineffective <stage>
of life <it is> not making a profit, as some say, <which> gives more enjoyment,
but being honoured.
τὸ κερδαίνειν and τὸ τιμᾶσθαι are (contrasted) Subjects of τέρπει.
3.5.2. Infinitive as Object (Accusative)

πρὸς μὲν οὖν τὸ ἐμπειρότερον αὐτῶν τὸ τολμηρότερον
ἀντιτάξασθε, πρὸς δὲ τὸ διὰ τὴν ἧσσαν δεδιέναι τὸ ἀπαράσκευοι
τότε τυχεῖν. (Th. 2.87.5.)
Therefore, against their greater experience set <your> greater daring, and
against <your> being afraid because of <your> defeat <set> the fact that you
happened to be unprepared then.
τὸ … τυχεῖν is a second Object of ἀντιτάξασθε, parallel to
the first Object τὸ τολμηρότερον. Although τὸ … τυχεῖν is in the
Accusative Case, ἀπαράσκευοι (‘unprepared’), within the Infinitive
phrase, is Nominative, because it refers to the Subject of the Main verb
ἀντιτάξασθε. The sentence also contains a prepositional phrase with
articular Accusative Infinitive phrase (for this usage see §3.5.5 below).
3.5.3. Genitive
The following examples illustrate the main ways in which the Genitive
of the articular Infinitive is used.
25
Objective
πολλὰ δὲ καὶ ἄλλα ἔχω ἐς ἐλπίδα τοῦ περιέσεσθαι … (Th. 1.144.1.)
And I have many other <arguments> relevant to the hope of being successful
…
Partitive
… καὶ νῦν οὐδὲν οὔτ’ ἀναιδείας οὔτε τοῦ ψεύδεσθαι παραλείψει.
(D. 37.45.)
… even now he will leave out no <aspect> of shamelessness nor of being deceitful.
Comparative
τὸ μὴ γενέσθαι τῷ θανεῖν ἴσον λέγω,
τοῦ ζῆν δὲ λυπρῶς κρεῖσσόν ἐστι κατθανεῖν. (E.Tr. 636–637.)
Not to be born I count as equal to dying,
but dying is better than living in grief.
Separation
εἰ γὰρ οἴεσθε ἀποκτείνοντες ἀνθρώπους ἐπισχήσειν τοῦ
ὀνειδίζειν τινὰ ὑμῖν ὅτι οὐκ ὀρθῶς ζῆτε, οὐκ ὀρθῶς διανοεῖσθε·
(Pl.Ap. 39 D.)
For if you think that by putting people to death you will prevent anyone from
criticising you because you do not live properly, you do not think properly.
Purpose
καὶ φρούριον ἐπ’ αὐτοῦ ἦν καὶ νεῶν τριῶν φυλακὴ τοῦ μὴ ἐσπλεῖν
Μεγαρεῦσι μηδ’ ἐκπλεῖν μηδέν … (Th. 2.93.4.)
And there was a fort on it and a protective force of three ships, so that nothing
might sail in nor sail out for the Megarians …
αὐτοῦ (‘it’) refers to the point of the island of Salamis.
This construction is usually left unexplained in Greek grammars. And
to say that the Genitive articular Infinitive has been separated from any
governing noun or verb does not clarify the usage. The idiom occurs
first and especially in Thucydides and is often negative. As in the present
example, a number of instances in Thucydides and Xenophon are close
to a construction of ‘preventing’ with Genitive of Separation. (Cf. Lesson
29.6.8.)
26
καὶ πρῶτον μὲν περιεσταύρωσαν αὐτοὺς τοῖς δένδρεσιν ἃ ἔκοψαν

τοῦ μηδένα ἐπεξιέναι … (Th. 2.75.1.)
And in the first place they [= Spartans] stockaded them [= Plataeans] with
trees which they had felled
a. <to prevent> any one from going out against <them>… [Prevention]
b. <so that> no one might go out against <them>… [Purpose]
οὓς δὲ μὴ δύναιντο λαμβάνειν, ἀποσοβοῦντες ἂν ἐμποδὼν
γίγνοιντο τοῦ μὴ ὁρᾶν αὐτοὺς τὸ ὅλον στράτευμά σου … (X.Cyr.
2.4.23.)
and those whom they could not catch, they would scare off
a. and get in the way of their seeing your whole contingent … [Prevention]
b. and get in their way, so that they might not see your whole contingent
… [Purpose]
3.5.4. Dative
The Dative articular Infinitive is especially used to express Cause, means
or instrument.
σαφῶς γὰρ ἄν, εἰ πείθοιμι ὑμᾶς καὶ τῷ δεῖσθαι βιαζοίμην
ὀμωμοκότας, θεοὺς ἂν διδάσκοιμι μὴ ἡγεῖσθαι ὑμᾶς εἶναι …
(Pl.Ap. 35 D.)
For clearly, if I were to persuade you and by begging were to force you when you
have sworn an oath, I would be teaching you not to believe that gods exist …
τῷ δεῖσθαι is Dative of Means.
3.5.5. Prepositions
οὕτω γὰρ πρὸς τὸ ἐπιέναι τοῖς ἐναντίοις εὐψυχότατοι ἂν εἶεν,
πρός τε τὸ ἐπιχειρεῖσθαι ἀσφαλέστατοι. (Th. 2.11.5.)
For in this way they would be most courageous with regard to assaulting their
opponents, and most steadfast with regard to being attacked.
27
References
758–775, 788–814.
Palmer (1980), The Greek language, p. 314.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1966–2015, 2025–2037.
EXERCISE 3
Translate the following sentences. Give particular attention to the Aspect
of the Infinitives, so far as idiomatic translation allows.
1. ἀλλὰ γὰρ οὐδὲν εἶχε σαφὲς λέγειν.
ἀλλὰ γάρ but really

ἔχειν to be able (+ Infin.)
2. οὐδενὶ γὰρ ἐπιμελὲς ἦν σκοπεῖν ταῦτα.
ἐπιμελής, -ές <a matter> of concern

σκοπεῖν to examine
3. καὶ ὁπόθεν ποτὲ ταύτην τὴν ἐπωνυμίαν ἔλαβες τὸ μανικὸς

καλεῖσθαι, οὐκ οἶδα ἔγωγε·
ἐπωνυμία, -ας, ἡ name, reputation

μανικός, -ή, -όν mad
τὸ μανικὸς καλεῖσθαι in apposition with ταύτην τὴν
ἐπωνυμίαν
4. ὁ δὲ Χαλκιδεὺς καὶ ὁ Ἀλκιβιάδης πλέοντες ὅσοις τ’ ἐπιτύχοιεν

ξυνελάμβανον τοῦ μὴ ἐξάγγελτοι γενέσθαι …
Χαλκιδεύς, -έως, ὁ personal proper name

πλεῖν to sail
τ(ε) Omit: anticipates a following καί.
ἐπιτυγχάνειν to encounter (+ Dat.)
28
ξυλλαμβάνειν to arrest
ἐξάγγελτος, -ον reported
5. τῷ δὲ ἐμπειρότεροι εἶναι θρασύτεροί ἐσμεν.
ἔμπειρος -ον experienced

θρασύς, -εῖα, -ύ bold, confident
6. καὶ νῦν τοὺς Ἀθηναίους … ἐγγὺς ὄντας περιορᾶτε, καὶ ἀντὶ

τοῦ ἐπελθεῖν αὐτοὶ ἀμύνεσθαι βούλεσθε μᾶλλον ἐπιόντας …
περιορᾶν to overlook (here Indic.)

ἀντί (+ Gen.) instead of
ἐπιέναι (Aor. ἐπελθεῖν) to attack
ἀμύνεσθαι (Mid.) to ward off (+ Acc.)
7. ἀδύνατον δὲ καὶ ὑμῖν ἐστι, περὶ τοιούτου πράγματος φέρουσι

τὴν ψῆφον, ἢ κατελεῆσαι ἢ καταχαρίσασθαι Ἀνδοκίδῃ …
δὲ καί and indeed

ἀδύνατος, -ον impossible
φέρειν to cast (here Dat. pl. Partc.)
ψῆφος, -ου, ἡ vote
κατελεεῖν to pity (+ Acc., not expressed here)
καταχαρίζεσθαι (Mid.) to show favour (to) (+ Dat.)
Ἀνδοκίδης, -ου, ὁ Andocides
8. ὥστε μὰ τὸν Δία οὐ ῥᾴδιόν ἐστιν ὑμῖν αὐτῷ οὐδὲν χαρισαμένοις

παρὰ τὸ δίκαιον λαθεῖν τοὺς Ἕλληνας.
ὥστε and so (used as coordinating

conjunction)
μὰ τὸν Δία by Zeus (oath formula)
ῥᾴδιος, -α, -ον easy
παρά (+ Acc.) contrary to
λανθάνειν to escape the notice of someone (Acc.)
in doing something (Partc.)
29
9. ἤδη τεθνάναι καὶ ἀπηλλάχθαι πραγμάτων βέλτιον ἦν μοι.
ἀπαλλάσσειν to free, to release

πρᾶγμα, -ατος, τό trouble, problem
βελτίων, -ον better
10. For you are the most appropriate [person] to be reporting your
companion’s discussions.
appropriate δίκαιος, (-α,) -ον

to report ἀπαγγέλλειν
companion ἑταῖρος, -ου, ὁ
discussion λόγος, -ου, ὁ
11. having expelled those [people], they did not dare to expropriate their
lands …
to dare τολμᾶν
to expropriate ἐξιδιοῦσθαι (Mid.)
land χώρα, -ας, ἡ
30
LESSON 4
Participles
4.1. Introduction
Participles are verbal adjectives. As a verb, a Participle may take any
construction that finite parts of the verb may take. As an adjective,
a Participle may be used in any appropriate Case, Gender and Number.
As a general principle, Participles express Aspect but not Time.
The Aspect of the Participle expresses the type of action in relation to
the verbal form to which it is subordinate. Most simply, a Participle
may be subordinate to a finite verb in the Indicative Mood. But it may
also be subordinate to a finite verb in a non-Indicative Mood, or to an
Infinitive, or even to another Participle. The subordination of a Participle
to another verb form applies more readily to the adverbial functions
of circumstantial and supplementary Participles than to the adjectival
function of attributive Participles.
The Imperfect Participle expresses continuous or repeated action
contemporary with the action of the verbal form to which it is subordinate.
The Perfect Participle expresses (the state resulting from) action which is
completed in relation to the verbal form to which it is subordinate.
The Aorist Participle expresses momentary action, which may be either
prior to or contemporary with the action of the verbal form to which
it is subordinate. If the context allows it, an Aorist Participle may (but
need not) be translated ‘after stopping’ or ‘having stopped’. But such
a phrase as γέγωνε βοήσας (Hom.Od. 5.400) clearly means ‘he calls out
with a shout’, not ‘having shouted he calls out’.
The so-called ‘Future’ Participle expresses an intention and may be
subordinated to any Tense of an Indicative verb. The Participle has no
Time reference in itself but is subordinate to the Time reference of the
Indicative verb, whether Present, Past or Future. Thus, the ‘Future’
Participle needs to be regarded as an Intentive Participle, analogous to
31
the Intentive (‘Fut.’) Optative and Infinitive (Lessons 2.1 and 3.1). Like
other Participles, this Intentive Participle may be subordinated not only
to a finite Indicative verb, but to a non-Indicative verb, an Infinitive or
another Participle.
4.2. Forms
The usual paradigms for the Participles in the Active Voice begin as follows
(Nom. masc. sg.).
Imperfect
παύων (while) stopping
Perfect
πεπαυκώς having stopped
Aorist
παύσας stopping
‘Future’/Intentive
παύσων going to stop
The only certain example of a Future Perfect Participle in classical Greek

is the Passive form διαπεπολεμησόμενον ‘going to have been fought
out’ (Th. 7.25.9.)
4.3. Functions
4.3.1. Attributive Participle (Adjectival)

Like other adjectives, a Participle may be used attributively; it is then
normally placed between the definite article and the noun to which it refers.
πρὸς τὴν παροῦσαν ὄψιν (Th. 2.88.3.)
in face of the present sight
32
LESSON 4. PARTICIPLES
A longer Participial phrase may sometimes be placed only partly between

article and noun.
… καὶ αὐτά γε δὴ ταῦτα … δηλοῦται τοῖς ἔργοις ὑποδεέστερα
ὄντα τῆς φήμης καὶ τοῦ νῦν περὶ αὐτῶν διὰ τοὺς ποιητὰς λόγου
κατεσχηκότος· (Th. 1.11.2.)
… and this <campaign> itself [the Trojan war] … is shown by the actions
<undertaken> to be inferior to its reputation and to the assessment which has
now come to prevail concerning it on account of the poets.
The attributive Participle κατεσχηκότος stands outside article and noun,
τοῦ … λόγου.
The Participle may be used attributively after the definite article even
without a noun.
ὁ διηγούμενος (Pl.Smp. 172 C.)
the <person> narrating, the narrator
4.3.2. Circumstantial Participle (Adverbial)

A Participle may be used to express the circumstances under which an
action takes place, usually the action of the Main verb of a sentence.
A circumstantial Participle expresses an adverbial relation such as Time,
Cause, Condition, Concession, Manner, Means or Purpose. Such
a Participle is not used with its own definite article. If it agrees with a
noun which has an article, the Participle stands in the predicate position,
before the article or after the noun. καίπερ or just καί may precede
Participles expressing concession (see also Lesson 26). ὡς may
precede Participles expressing Cause (Lesson 23) or Purpose (Lesson 27).
ἡ δὲ βουλὴ ἐξελθοῦσα ἐν ἀπορρήτῳ συνέλαβεν ἡμᾶς … (And. 1.45.)
And the council, <after> adjourning, secretly arranged to arrest us …
ἐξελθοῦσα expresses time.
καὶ οἱ παρὰ θάλασσαν ἄνθρωποι μᾶλλον ἤδη τὴν κτῆσιν τῶν
χρημάτων ποιούμενοι βεβαιότερον ᾤκουν … (Th. 1.8.3.)
and the people by the sea, <since they were> now, rather, achieving the
acquisition of resources, were living more securely …
ποιούμενοι expresses Cause.
33
δείσαντες μή τι διὰ τὴν ξυμφορὰν νομίσαντες ἐλασσωθήσεσθαι

καὶ ὄντες ἐπίτιμοι νεωτερίσωσιν, ἤδη καὶ ἀρχάς τινας ἔχοντας
ἀτίμους ἐποίησαν … (Th. 5.34.2.)
fearing that, if they thought that they would be downgraded because of
the disaster and if they remained enfranchised, they would revolt, they
disenfranchised them, even some currently holding office …
νομίσαντες and ὄντες express condition.
ἆρα λογίζεταί τις ὑμῶν, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, καὶ θεωρεῖ τὸν
τρόπον δι’ ὃν μέγας γέγονεν ἀσθενὴς ὢν τὸ κατ’ ἀρχὰς Φίλιππος;
(D. 1.12.)
Does any one of you, O men of Athens, take account and observe the means
through which Philip, though being weak at first, has become great?
ὤν expresses concession.
ἦ κἀπαπειλῶν ὧδ’ ἐπεξέρχῃ θρασύς; (S.Ant. 752.)
Do you thus boldly go to extremes in actually making threats?
ἐπαπειλῶν expresses manner.
Κρ. ταύτην ποτ’ οὐκ ἔσθ’ ὡς ἔτι ζῶσαν γαμεῖς.

Αι. ἥδ’ οὖν θανεῖται καὶ θανοῦσ’ ὀλεῖ τινα.
(S.Ant. 750–751.)
Creon: It is not possible that you will ever marry this girl while
she is still living.
Haemon: She will therefore die and by dying she will destroy
someone.
θανοῦσ(α) expresses means.

πόλιν τε νομίσαι χρὴ ἐν ἀλλοφύλοις καὶ πολεμίοις οἰκιοῦντας
ἰέναι … (Th. 6.23.2.)
And <we> should acknowledge that we are going in order to found a city
among foreign and hostile <people> …
οἰκιοῦντας (‘Fut.’/Intentive Partc.) expresses Purpose, as may the
Imperfect Participle.
34
ὥστε τῷ ὑμῶν πιστὸν ὡς ἐγὼ πρότερον μὲν ἐξέπλευσα ἐκ τῆς
πόλεως ἔχων τὸ μειράκιον … (Lys. 3.32.)
And so to which one of you <is it> credible that I previously sailed out from
the city having the boy <with me…?
ἔχων expresses attendant circumstances in general.
4.3.3. Supplementary Participle (Adverbial)

A supplementary Participle is regularly used in idiomatic phrases with
a significant number of verbs such as the following. Although the Greek
construction is adverbial, the corresponding English idiom most often
uses a gerund (verbal noun) as direct Object of the finite verb.
ἄρχεσθαι to begin (doing something)

διατελεῖν to continue (doing something)
ἥδεσθαι to enjoy (doing something), to be pleased (to do something)
παύεσθαι to stop (doing something)
τυγχάνειν to happen (to be doing something)
ἀλλ’ ἥδομαι μὲν σ’ εἰσιδὼν παρ’ ἐλπίδα

ἀνώδυνον βλέποντα κἀμπνέοντ’ ἔτι· (S.Ph. 882–883.)
Well, I am pleased to see you contrary to expectation
free from pain <and > still alive and breathing.
εἰσιδών is Aor. Partc. with ἥδομαι.
καὶ γὰρ ἐτύγχανον πρῴην εἰς ἄστυ οἴκοθεν ἀνιὼν Φαληρόθεν·
(Pl.Smp. 172 A.)
For I happened to be going up during the early morning to town from home
at (lit. ‘from’) Phalerum.
ἀνιών is Imperfect Participle with ἐτύγχανον.
35
4.4. Negatives
In the classical period, οὐ negates a Participle with factual force and μή
negates a Participle with indefinite or conditional force. In the Hellenistic
period, μή is increasingly used with all types of Participial phrase.
ἄνδρες Πέρσαι, οὕτω ὑμῖν ἔχει· βουλομένοισι μὲν ἐμέο πείθεσθαι
ἔστι τάδε τε καὶ ἄλλα μυρία ἀγαθά, οὐδένα πόνον δουλοπρεπέα
ἔχουσι· μὴ βουλομένοισι δὲ ἐμέο πείθεσθαι εἰσὶ ὑμῖν πόνοι τῷ
χθιζῷ παραπλήσιοι ἀναρίθμητοι. (Hdt. 1.126.5.)
Men of Persia, this is the situation for you: if you are willing to obey me,
there are these and ten thousand other benefits for you while having no slave
labour; but if you are not willing to obey me, there are unnumbered labours
like yesterday’s for you.
οὐδένα … ἔχουσι: Temporal or general circumstantial Participle.
μὴ βουλομένοισι: conditional Participle.
πείθεσθαι here takes the Genitive Case by analogy with ἀκούειν. ἐμέο
(Ionic) = ἐμοῦ (Attic).
References
213–217, 224, 821–846, 877–901.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1166–1167, 2039–2056, 2060–2069, 2079–

2105, 2110–2119, 2123–2148, 2720–2734.
EXERCISE 4
Translate the following passages. Give particular attention to the Aspect
of the Participles, so far as idiomatic translation allows.
1. ὅταν γὰρ μάλιστα σίτου τυγχάνητε δεόμενοι, ἀναρπάζουσιν
οὗτοι καὶ οὐκ ἐθέλουσι πωλεῖν …
μάλιστα especially, precisely, just (Modifies ὅταν.)

σῖτος, -ου, ὁ grain
36
δεῖσθαι to be in need (of ) (+ Gen.)

ἀναρπάζειν to snatch up
(ἐ)θέλειν to be willing (+ Infin.)
πωλεῖν to sell
2. ἡγούμενος δὲ ἐγὼ δεινὸν εἶναι τοιαῦτα ἐθίζεσθαι ποιεῖν τὴν

βουλήν, ἀναστὰς εἶπον ὅτι μοι δοκοίη κρίνειν τοὺς σιτοπώλας
κατὰ τὸν νόμον …
ἡγεῖσθαι (Mid.) to think (+ Acc. and Infin.)

δεινός, -ή, -όν terrible
ἐθίζειν to accustom; (Pass.) to become accustomed
(+ Infin.)
δοκεῖν to seem (right)
κρίνειν to judge
σιτοπώλης, -ου, ὁ grain-seller
3. κατέβην χθὲς εἰς Πειραιᾶ μετὰ Γλαύκωνος τοῦ Ἀρίστωνος,

προσευξόμενός τε τῇ θεῷ καὶ ἅμα τὴν ἑορτὴν βουλόμενος
θεάσασθαι τίνα τρόπον ποιήσουσιν, ἅτε νῦν πρῶτον ἄγοντες.
καταβαίνειν to go down
χθές yesterday
Πειρα(ι)εύς, ὁ, Acc. -ᾶ Piraeus
τοῦ Ἀρίστωνος the <son> of Ariston
προσεύχεσθαι to pray (to) (+ Dat.)
ἑορτή, -ῆς, ἡ festival
θεᾶσθαι (Mid.) to see
ἅτε (+ Partc.) inasmuch as (doing something), since
(they are/were doing something)
ἄγειν to celebrate (a festival)
4. οἱ δ’ αὖ, μαρτυρήσαντες τὰ ψευδῆ ἀδίκως ἀνθρώπους

ἀπολέσαντες, ἑάλωσαν παρ’ ὑμῖν ψευδομαρτυρίων, ἡνίκ’ οὐδὲν
ἦν ἔτι πλέον τοῖς πεπονθόσιν.
οἱ δ(έ) but others

ἀπολλύναι to destroy
37
ἁλίσκεσθαι to be convicted of (+ Gen.; Intr. 2nd Aor.

ἁλῶναι)
ἡνίκ(α) when
5. τόδε ἐνθυμητέον, ὅτι πολλοὶ ἤδη πολλὰ καὶ δεινὰ

κατηγορήσαντες παραχρῆμα ἐξηλέγχθησαν ψευδόμενοι οὕτω
φανερῶς, ὥστε ὑμᾶς πολὺ ἂν ἥδιον δίκην λαβεῖν παρὰ τῶν
κατηγόρων ἢ παρὰ τῶν κατηγορουμένων·
ἐνθυμητέον <it is> necessary to keep in mind (+ Acc.)

ὅτι that (expanding τόδε)
καί When joining an adj. of size or number
with a descriptive adj., καί is regularly
omitted in English translation.
δεινός, -ή, -όν serious (here internal Acc. with
κατηγορήσαντες)
παραχρῆμα (adv.) promptly, immediately
ἐξελέγχειν to prove someone (Acc.) guilty (of doing
something) (+ Partc.)
ψεύδεσθαι (Mid.) to speak falsely, to lie
φανερῶς (adv.) openly, obviously
δίκην λαμβάνειν to exact punishment
6. For since these [men] were attributing the responsibility to those [men],
we, having summoned the magistrates, were questioning [them].
to attribute …. to ἀναφέρειν (+ Acc. and εἰς + Acc.)

responsibility αἰτία, -ας, ἡ
to summon παρακαλεῖν (Imperf.), παρακαλέσαι
(Aor.)
magistrate ἄρχων, -οντος, ὁ (Partc. as noun)
to question ἐρωτᾶν
these [men] Refers to grainsellers
those [men], [them] Refer to magistrates
38
LESSON 5
Genitive Absolute
5.1. The Usual Construction

A Participle may be used with its own Subject in the Genitive Case, where
that Subject does not normally appear elsewhere in the same clause.
The Participles in a Genitive absolute have a more restricted range of
meaning than a circumstantial Participle agreeing with a noun in any
Case or agreeing with the unexpressed Subject of a verb (as indicated
by the ending of the verb).
5.1.1. Time
ὑμεῖς οὖν καὶ αὐτοὶ ὕστερον, κακῶν οὐκ ἐλαττόντων ἢ ἐκείνοις
γεγενημένων, ἀγαθοὶ ἐξ ἀγαθῶν ὄντες ἀπέδοτε τὴν ὑπάρχουσαν
ἀρετήν· (And. 1.109.)
So subsequently, when troubles no less serious had happened than <had
happened> to those <men>, you yourselves, being good <men> descended
from good <ancestors>, displayed their traditional virtue.
Negative οὐκ.
5.1.2. Cause
ἀντιλέγοντος δὲ Ἀλκιβιάδου πολλὰ καὶ ἐξάρνου ὄντος ἔδοξε τοῖς
πρυτάνεσι τοὺς μὲν ἀμυήτους μεταστήσασθαι … (And. 1.12.)
And since Alcibiades was speaking at length in opposition and was denying
<the accusation>, the members of the standing committee decided to remove
the uninitiated …
39
5.1.3. Condition
ταῦτα μὲν οὖν ἦν ἐμοῦ μὴ εἰπόντος· (And. 1.59.)
Well then, this was <the situation>, if I did not speak.
Negative μή.
5.1.4. Concession
… νῦν ἐγὼ ἥκω οὐδεμιᾶς μοι ἀνάγκης οὔσης παραμεῖναι …
(And. 1.2.)
… now I have come, although there is no compulsion for me to stay here …
Negative οὐ (compound).
5.1.5. Attendant Circumstances in General

νῦν γὰρ ἐμὲ μὲν λόγον δεῖ διδόναι τῶν ἐμοὶ πεπραγμένων μετὰ
τῆς ἀληθείας, αὐτῶν παρόντων οἵπερ ἥμαρτον καὶ ἔφυγον ταῦτα
ποιήσαντες … (And. 1.55.)
For now I must truthfully give an account of what has been done by me, when
there are present the very <men> who did wrong and went into exile after
doing this …
5.2. Subject Unexpressed

A Participle is sometimes used in the Genitive absolute without an
expressed Genitive Subject. This may occur when the Subject is easily
understood from the context, or is general (and sometimes deliberately
vague), or when the Participle is used impersonally with a ὅτι clause or an
Accusative and Infinitive phrase as its Subject.
πεφασμένου δὲ τίς ποθ’ ἡ προθυμία; (S.OT 838.)
And when <he> has appeared, what at such time <will be> your desire?
The unexpressed Subject of πεφασμένου is ‘the herdsman’ of the previous
line, τὸν ἄνδρα τὸν βοτῆρα (S.OT 837.)
στένει πόλισμα γῆθεν ὡς κυκλουμένων. (A.Th. 247.)
The city groans from the earth, since <people> are surrounding <it>.
40
LESSON 5. GENITIVE ABSOLUTE
Those who are besieging Thebes are more generally indicated solely by the
Participle κυκλουμένων (understood as Mid.).
τελουμένων εἴποιμ’ ἄν· (S.El. 1344.)
When <things> are being brought to an end, I would tell <you>.
Here, the neuter Participle contains a deliberately vague reference to the
plan to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus.
σημανθέντων δὲ τῷ Ἀστυάγει ὅτι πολέμιοί εἰσιν ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ,
ἐξεβοήθει καὶ αὐτὸς πρὸς τὰ ὄρια σὺν τοῖς περὶ αὐτόν …
(X.Cyr. 1.4.18.)
But when it was indicated to Astyages that there were enemy in the country,
he himself went out to the borders with his attendants to help …
In this impersonal construction, the ὅτι clause is the Subject of the
neuter plural Participle σημανθέντων. Often, in such constructions,
the Participle is artificially plural in keeping with a plural Subject of the
ὅτι clause.
5.3. Improper Genitive Absolute

Improper Genitive absolute constructions occur where the Subject of
the Genitive phrase is the same as a Nominative, Accusative or Dative
of the main construction. An improper Genitive absolute usually
precedes the Main verb. This irregular construction, which emphasises
the idea expressed by the Genitive absolute, became more common in the
Hellenistic period.
ὅμως δὲ οὔτε ξυνοικισθείσης πόλεως οὔτε ἱεροῖς καὶ κατασκευαῖς
πολυτελέσι χρησαμένης, κατὰ κώμας δὲ τῷ παλαιῷ τῆς Ἑλλάδος
τρόπῳ οἰκισθείσης, φάνοιτ’ ἂν ὑποδεεστέρα. (Th. 1.10.2.)
Nevertheless, since the community had not been combined into a single <city>,
and did not have the use of temples and expensive structures, but had been
settled as a group of villages in the early manner of Greece, it would appear
rather deficient.
The ‘community’ of Sparta is the Subject of three successive Participles
in an improper Genitive absolute construction, but then becomes the
Nominative Subject of the Main verb φάνοιτο.
41
References
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2058, 2070–2074.
EXERCISE 5
Translate the following passages.
1. … βουλόμενοι δὲ τὸ Πάνακτον παραλαβεῖν ὡς τὴν Πύλον ἀντ’
αὐτοῦ κομιούμενοι, … ἐποιήσαντο τὴν ξυμμαχίαν τοῦ χειμῶνος
τελευτῶντος ἤδη καὶ πρὸς ἔαρ.
παραλαμβάνειν to acquire
κομίζειν to obtain (with Fut. Mid.)
χειμών, -ῶνος, ὁ winter
ἔαρ, ἦρος, τό spring
2. ἐγὼ τῶν ἀρχόντων κελευόντων συνεπριάμην.
ἄρχων, -οντος, ὁ magistrate (as in Exercise 4.6)

συμπρίασθαι (Aor.) to buy up (Understand ‘the grain’
as Object.)
3. … Ἄνυτος δ’ ἔλεγεν ὡς τοῦ προτέρου χειμῶνος, ἐπειδὴ

τίμιος ἦν ὁ σῖτος τούτων ὑπερβαλλόντων ἀλλήλους καὶ πρὸς
σφᾶς αὐτοὺς μαχομένων, συμβουλεύσειεν αὐτοῖς παύσασθαι
φιλονικοῦσιν …
χειμών, -ῶνος, ὁ winter

τίμιος, (-α,) -ον expensive, at a high price
ὑπερβάλλειν to outbid
μάχεσθαι to fight
συμβουλεύειν to advise (+ Dat. and Infin.)
φιλονικεῖν to squabble (here Dat. pl. Partc. with
αὐτοῖς)
42
LESSON 5. GENITIVE ABSOLUTE
4. ὥστ’ ἐνίοτε εἰρήνης οὔσης ὑπὸ τούτων πολιορκούμεθα.
ἐνίοτε (adv.) sometimes (Modifies πολιορκούμεθα.)

πολιορκεῖν to besiege
5. καὶ ἄλλου οὐδενὸς ἐθέλοντος βαδίζειν … ἐγὼ τὸν ἀκόλουθον

τὸν ἐμαυτοῦ πέμπειν ἕτοιμος ἦ·
βαδίζειν to go
ἀκόλουθος, -ον attendant (adj. used as noun)
ἕτοιμος, (-η,) -ον ready, prepared
6. ὅ τι δὲ μέλλετε, ἅμα τῷ ἦρι εὐθὺς καὶ μὴ ἐς ἀναβολὰς πράσσετε,

ὡς τῶν πολεμίων τὰ μὲν ἐν Σικελίᾳ δι’ ὀλίγου ποριουμένων …
μέλλειν to intend
ἅμα (adv.) at the same time as (+ Dat.), at the
beginning of
εὐθύς (adv.) immediately
ἐς ἀναβολάς with (respect to) delay(s)
τὰ … ἐν Σικελίᾳ the <forces> … in Sicily
δι’ ὀλίγου within a short <time>, shortly
πορίζεσθαι (Mid.) to procure
7. … ὅτε ἦν ἀφανὴς ὁ ἀνήρ, οὐδεὶς ᾐτιάσατό με ἀνθρώπων, ἤδη

πεπυσμένων τούτων τὴν ἀγγελίαν.
ἀφανής, -ές unseen, missing

αἰτιᾶσθαι (Mid.) to blame
πυνθάνεσθαι (Mid.) to learn (by inquiry)
8. For they make most profit then, when, after something bad has been
reported to the city, they sell the grain at a high price.
most πλεῖστα (neut. Acc. pl.)

to make profit κερδαίνειν
when (indef.) ὅταν (+ Subj.)
after … reported Use Gen. abs.
43
LESSON 6
Accusative Absolute
6.1. Introduction
Instead of a Genitive absolute, an Accusative absolute is used:
1. with Participles of so-called impersonal verbs
2. with Participles of verbs which are used impersonally in the Passive
Voice
3. with neuter adjectives which are used with the Participle of the verb
‘to be’
4. and sometimes with a Participle which has an explicit Subject other
than an Infinitive phrase.
These four categories will be treated separately in the following sections.
The Participles in the Accusative absolute have the same restriction of
meaning as those in the Genitive absolute. καίπερ is not used with the
Accusative absolute constructions, although they may have a Concessive
force.
6.2. So-Called Impersonal Verbs

Some common verbs, which are usually designated ‘impersonal’, are
δεῖ, meaning ‘it is necessary’; and ἔξεστι and πάρεστι, both meaning
‘it is possible’, ‘it is permissible’. Such verbs are often described as being
‘followed by’ an Infinitive. These verbs are not ‘impersonal’ in the sense
that they do not have a grammatical Subject. Rather, they may have an
Infinitive or Infinitive phrase as Subject. Thus, ἔξεστιν ὑμῖν φίλους
γενέσθαι (Th. 4.20.3) may be translated ‘it is possible for you to become
friends’. But in grammatical structure, the phrase φίλους γενέσθαι is
Subject of ἔξεστιν, ‘to become friends is possible for you’. (Cf. Lesson
3.4.1.)
45
Such verbs use a neuter singular Accusative absolute of the Participle

instead of a Genitive absolute. The construction is first attested in
Herodotus (Ionic) and in Attic prose writers of the fifth century BCE. The
Participles are most often used in the Imperfect Aspect. Apart from δόξαν
and τυχόν (and their compounds), the Aorist Participle rarely appears.
τί παρθενεύῃ δαρόν, ἐξόν σοι γάμου
τυχεῖν μεγίστου; (A.Pr. 648–649.)
Why do you so long remain a virgin, when it is possible for you
to obtain the greatest marriage?
However, an impersonal verb does not always have an Infinitive phrase as
Subject, either with a finite verb form or in an Accusative absolute.
ἀλλὰ γὰρ ἐμοὶ τούτων, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, οὐδὲν μέτεστιν.
(Pl.Ap. 19 C.)
But really, O men of Athens, I am not involved in these matters [lit. there is
no share for me of these matters].
οὐδέν, not an Infinitive, is Subject of the finite verb μέτεστιν.
… ἐκέλευον Κορινθίους τοὺς ἐν Ἐπιδάμνῳ φρουρούς τε καὶ
οἰκήτορας ἀπάγειν, ὡς οὐ μετὸν αὐτοῖς Ἐπιδάμνου. (Th. 1.28.1.)
… they were ordering the Corinthians to withdraw their garrison members
and colonists in Epidamnus, on the grounds that they had no claim to
Epidamnus [lit. there not being a share for them of Epidamnus].
There is no Subject for the neuter Accusative Participle μετόν. ὡς
emphasises that the grounds are alleged by the Corinthians, not by the
writer Thucydides.
6.3. Verbs Used Impersonally in the

Passive Voice
The Accusative absolute construction also occurs with the Participles of
verbs which are used impersonally in the third person singular Indicative
Passive. Some of the more common examples are in the Perfect Aspect;
the Aorist Passive Participle occurs more rarely.
46
LESSON 6. ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE
… προύλεγον τὸ περὶ Μεγαρέων ψήφισμα καθελοῦσι μὴ ἂν

γίγνεσθαι πόλεμον, ἐν ᾧ εἴρητο αὐτοὺς μὴ χρῆσθαι τοῖς λιμέσι
τοῖς ἐν τῇ Ἀθηναίων ἀρχῇ μηδὲ τῇ Ἀττικῇ ἀγορᾷ. (Th. 1.139.1.)
… they declared <to them> that a war would not occur, if they rescinded the
decree about the Megarians, in which it had been stated that they were not to
use the ports in the control of the Athenians nor the Athenian market-place.
εἴρητο is impersonal third person singular Past Perfect Indicative Passive.
However, the whole Accusative and Infinitive phrase αὐτοὺς … ἀγορᾷ,
is the Subject of εἴρητο. Compare §6.2 above. (The negatives in the
passage are μή, because προύλεγον represents an ultimatum and εἴρητο
refers to a decree.)
The following example uses the Perfect Passive Participle of the same verb
in the neuter singular Accusative absolute.
προπέπεμπται δ’ ὡς αὐτούς, καὶ ἀπαντᾶν εἰρημένον καὶ σιτία
ἅμα κομίζειν. (Th. 7.77.6.)
And <instructions> have been sent ahead to them, since it has been stated
both that <they> are to meet and that <they> are to bring provisions at the
same time.
The whole Infinitive phrase καὶ ἁπαντᾶν … καὶ σιτία ἅμα κομίζειν,
representing a command, is the grammatical Subject of εἰρημένον.
… Ἡσίοδος ὁ ποιητὴς λέγεται ὑπὸ τῶν ταύτῃ ἀποθανεῖν, χρησθὲν
αὐτῷ ἐν Νεμέᾳ τοῦτο παθεῖν … (Th. 3.96.1.)
… Hesiod the poet is said to have been killed by the people here, when it had
been prophesied to him that he <was to> suffer this in Nemea …
The Infinitive phrase ἐν Νεμέᾳ τοῦτο παθεῖν is the grammatical Subject
of the Aorist Passive Participle χρησθέν.
6.4. Neuter Adjectives

Some neuter adjectives are used impersonally with the Indicative of the
verb ‘to be’, for example: αἰσχρόν ἐστι, ‘it is disgraceful’, and δυνατόν
ἐστι, ‘it is possible’. Such adjectives may be used in an Accusative absolute
construction with the Participle of the verb ‘to be’.
47
τοὺς δὲ λόγους μακροτέρους οὐ παρὰ τὸ εἰωθὸς μηκυνοῦμεν, ἀλλ’
ἐπιχώριον ὂν ἡμῖν οὗ μὲν βραχεῖς ἀρκῶσι μὴ πολλοῖς χρῆσθαι,
πλέοσι δὲ ἐν ᾧ ἂν καιρὸς διδάσκοντάς τι τῶν προύργου λόγοις τὸ
δέον πράσσειν. (Th. 4.17.2.)
And we shall prolong our words at greater length not contrary to our custom,
but because it is characteristic for us not to use many <words> when few
are sufficient, but to achieve what is necessary when there is opportunity by
explaining something of what is useful in more words.
In this passage, the whole section οὗ μὲν … χρῆσθαι is the grammatical
Subject of ὄν and ἐπιχώριον is its Complement.
In this construction, the adjective and the Participle are in the neuter
singular, but in the following example, the adjective and Participle are
plural, despite the fact that the grammatical Subject of the Participle is the
(singular) Infinitive phrase παντὶ … πιστεῦσαι.
τὰ μὲν οὖν παλαιὰ τοιαῦτα ηὗρον, χαλεπὰ ὄντα παντὶ ἑξῆς
τεκμηρίῳ πιστεῦσαι. (Th. 1.20.1.)
Well then, I found the early <events to be> such, although it was difficult to
rely on every inference along the way.
6.5. Personal Accusative Absolute

Sometimes, a personal construction is used in the Accusative absolute: the
Participle has an Accusative Subject other than an Infinitive phrase. ὡς
or ὥσπερ generally introduces this construction. The Participle is usually
in the neuter Gender and is often derived from a verb which is used
impersonally. But this personal construction may occur with any Gender
or Number.
6.5.1. With ὡς or ὥσπερ

ὁ δ’, ὡς καθ’ ἡμᾶς ἔσθ’ ὁ πληθύων λόγος,
τὸ κοῖλον Ἄργος βὰς φυγὰς προσλαμβάνει
κῆδός τε καινὸν καὶ ξυνασπιστὰς φίλους
ὡς αὐτίκ’ Ἄργος ἢ τὸ Καδμείων πέδον
τιμῇ καθέξον ἢ πρὸς οὐρανὸν βιβῶν. (S.OC 377–381.)
48
But he, as the current story among us is,

having gone as an exile to the valley of Argos, is taking on
a new relationship and companions in arms as friends,
on the understanding that presently Argos either will occupy the Cadmeans’
land in honour or will exalt it to heaven.
ὡς is used with Ἄργος as Accusative Subject of the Intentive (‘Fut.’)
Participles καθέξον and βιβῶν (neut. sg. contracted α).
6.5.2. Without ὡς or ὥσπερ

ὁ δέ, εἴτε καὶ διὰ τὸ ἐπιβόημα εἴτε καὶ αὐτῷ ἄλλο τι ἢ κατὰ τὸ
αὐτὸ δόξαν ἐξαίφνης, πάλιν τὸ στράτευμα κατὰ τάχος πρὶν
ξυμμεῖξαι ἀπῆγεν. (Th. 5.65.3.)
But he, whether actually on account of the shout or rather because some other
<course of action> than the one he was currently following suddenly seemed
right to him, began to lead the army away again in haste before making
contact with <the enemy>.
The whole Accusative absolute phrase runs from αὐτῷ to ἐξαίφνης.
ἀλλό τι (ἢ κατὰ τὸ αὐτό) is the Subject of the Aorist Participle δόξαν.
καί reinforces εἴτε in each occurrence of the phrase εἴτε καὶ: ‘actually
… rather’.
κατὰ τὸ αὐτό means literally ‘in accordance with the same’.
6.6. Note
In the Hellenistic period, the Accusative absolute is partly replaced by
the Genitive absolute—papyri frequently have ἐξόντος for ἐξόν—and
partly drops out of use altogether.
References
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2059, 2076–2078, 2086d, 2087, cf. 905, 932–
935 (impersonal verbs).
49
EXERCISE 6
1. ὃ δ’ ἐς τοσοῦτον μωρίας ἀφίκετο,
ὥστ’, ἐξὸν αὐτῷ τἄμ’ ἑλεῖν βουλεύματὰ
γῆς ἐκβαλόντι, τήνδ’ ἀφῆκεν ἡμέραν
μεῖ͂ναί μ’ …
ὅ he
ἐς τοσοῦτον to so great (a degree of ) (+ Gen.)
μωρία, -ας, ἡ foolishness
τἄμ’ τὰ ἐμά
ἑλεῖν (Aor.) to destroy, to ruin
βούλευμα, -ατος, τό purpose, intention
ἀφιέναι to allow
μ’ με
2. Ἀλκιβιάδης δ’ ἐτόλμησεν ἀναβῆναι, … ὡς οὐκ ἐξεσόμενον τῇ

πόλει δίκην παρὰ τῶν ἀδικούντων λαμβάνειν.
ἀναβαίνειν to mount (a horse)

ἀδικεῖν to do wrong
3. προσταχθὲν γὰρ αὐτῷ τεττάρων μηνῶν ἀναγράψαι τοὺς νόμους

τοὺς Σόλωνος, … ἑξέτη τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐποιήσατο …
προστάττειν to give instructions (Acc.) to someone

(Dat.) to do (Infin.)
μείς or μήν, μηνός, ὁ month
ἀναγράφειν to write up/out, to record
ἑξέτης, -ες (here) lasting six years; (usually) six
years old
ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ office, appointment
50
4. … καὶ ἄδηλον ὂν ὁπότε σφίσιν αὐτοῖς ξυρράξουσι, … πῶς οὐκ

εἰκότως ἠθύμουν;
ξυρράσσειν to fight with, to clash with (+ Dat.)

εἰκότως reasonably, with (good) reason
ἀθυμεῖν to be disheartened (here 3rd pers. pl.)
5. ὃς πρῶτον μὲν μεθ’ ἡμέραν ἐξέκοπτον τὸν σηκόν, ὥσπερ οὐ

πάντας λαθεῖν δέον, ἀλλὰ πάντας Ἀθηναίους εἰδέναι.
ὅς For … I (coordinating relative pronoun)

πρῶτον in the first place
μεθ’ ἡμέραν by day, in the day-time
ἐκκόπτειν to cut out
σηκός, -οῦ, ὁ olive-stump
ὥσπερ as if
πάντας λαθεῖν πάντας is Object of λαθεῖν.
πάντας Ἀθηναίους Subject of εἰδέναι
6. δόξαντα δὲ ταῦτα καὶ περανθέντα, τὰ μὲν στρατεύματα

ἀπῆλθε …
περαίνειν to bring to an end, to finish
7. σοὶ γὰρ παρὸν γῆν τήνδε καὶ δόμους ἔχειν

κούφως φερούσῃ κρεισσόνων βουλεύματα,
λόγων ματαίων οὕνεκ’ ἐκπεσῇ χθονός.
ἔχειν to inhabit, to live in

κούφως lightly
μάταιος, -α, -ον rash
οὕνεκα because of (after Gen.)
ἐκπίπτειν Used instead of Pass. of ἐκβάλλειν.
51
8. But if we are taking revenge later, although it was necessary to take

revenge long ago, he gains the time during which he was living,
although it was not appropriate for him [to do so] …
to take revenge τιμωρεῖσθαι (Mid.)

later ὕστερον
although it was necessary Use Acc. abs.
long ago πάλαι
time χρόνος, -ου, ὁ
during Use Acc. of extent.
he was living ἔζη
to be appropriate (for) προσήκειν (+ Dat.) Use Acc. abs.
52
LESSON 7
Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τος, -τη,
-τον
7.1. Introduction
In addition to Participles, which are a standard component of the Greek
verbal system, there are two other sets of verbal adjectives. These sets
use the endings of the first and second declensions. The forms are listed
separately in dictionaries. Lesson 7 deals with verbal adjectives ending in
‑τος, ‑τη, ‑τον. These forms appear already in Homer. Verbal adjectives
ending in ‑τέος, ‑τέα, ‑τέον will be treated in Lesson 8.
7.2. Formation of Verbal Adjectives Ending

in ‑τος, ‑τη, ‑τον
The letter τ was often used as a suffix to form adjectives, for example,
ἀ‑γερασ‑τος, ‘without a prize’ (Hom.Il. 1.119.). It was usually added to
the shortest form of the root of a word. Thus, θε‑τός (‘placed’) is cognate
with the verb τι‑θέ‑ναι (‘to place’) and the noun θέ‑σις (‘placing’), all
incorporating the root θε. And verbal adjectives, which are related to
verbs with reduplicated Imperfect stems, have the short form of the root.
Thus, δο‑τός is cognate with δι‑δό‑ναι. However, for contracted verbs,
‑τος is usually added after the lengthened form of the theme vowel. Thus,
ἀγαπητός is cognate with the contracted α verb ἀγαπᾶν (‘to tolerate’,
‘to accept’, ‘to desire’), which has η in Tenses other than Present and
Past Imperfect (ἀγαπήσω, ἠγάπησα, etc.). But some contracted verbs
use the short form of the theme vowel in some Tenses. And this short
theme vowel may appear in the related verbal adjective. Thus, αἱρετός is
cognate with αἱρεῖν (‘to take’), which has η in some Tenses (e.g. Fut. Act.
αἱρήσω) but ε in other Tenses (e.g. Past Aor. Pass. ᾑρέθην).
53
But contracted α verbs, whose base ends in ρ or a short vowel ε or ι

(and sometimes ο), often retain α in the Tenses other than Present and
Past Imperfect. Examples are περᾶν (‘to cross’; περάσω, ἐπέρασα, etc.),
θεᾶσθαι (‘to look at’; θεάσομαι, ἐθεασάμην, etc.) and αἰτιᾶσθαι
(‘to censure’; αἰτιάσομαι, ᾐτιασάμην, etc.). Verbal adjectives cognate with
these verbs also retain α: περατός, θεατός, αἰτιατός. (The α of the root
is long in all the forms cited, both in the verbs and in the verbal adjectives.
But there are some exceptions to this pattern; cf. Smyth, 1956, §488.)
Following the regular pattern, φιλητός (‘likable’) is cognate with the
contracted ε verb φιλεῖν (‘to like’), which has η in Tenses other than
Present and Past Imperfect (φιλήσω, ἐφίλησα, etc.). And δηλωτός
(‘able to be shown’) is cognate with the contracted ο verb δηλοῦν
(‘to show’), which has ω in tenses other than the Present and Past Imperfect
(δηλώσω, ἐδήλωσα, etc.).
In practice, the stem of the verbal adjectives (both in ‑τος and in
‑τέος) is usually most easily recognisable from the Aorist Passive of the
cognate verb. For example, σπαρτός (‘sown’) is cognate with the verb
σπείρειν (‘to sow’), whose (second) Aorist Passive is σπαρῆναι (‘to be
sown’). The θ at the end of the base of first Aorist Passive verbs does not
appear in the cognate verbal adjectives. But where a verb has σ before θ
in first Aorist Passive verbs, this σ appears before τ in the verbal adjective:
παυσθῆναι, ‘to be stopped’; ἄπαυστος, ‘unceasing’ (Active, Intr.) or
‘unstoppable’ (Passive). The insertion or omission of σ may vary with
different occurrences of the same verb or verbal adjective (e.g. γνωτός
or γνωστός), and different manuscripts may vary in the spelling of the
same term in the same context (e.g. γνω(σ)τός [A.Ch. 702; S.OT 396]).
(In the 1st Aor. Pass. of τιθέναι, the root θε has been modified to τε
before the following θ; thus, τε‑θῆναι instead of θε‑θῆναι.)
Verbal adjectives ending in ‑τος, which are uncompounded (as φιλητός)
or are prepositional compounds (as δια‑βατός, ‘fordable’), are generally
accented on the final syllable and often (but not always) have all three
gender endings: ‑ός, ‑ή, ‑όν. Other compound verbal adjectives regularly
have recessive accent and use the ending ‑ος for both masculine and
feminine genders. Thus, νυκτί‑πλαγκτος, ‑ον (‘causing to wander at
night’) is formed from the root of πλάζειν (‘to cause to wander’; 1st Aor.
Pass. πλαγχθῆναι). Negative α is common in these compounds. Simple
α‑ precedes a consonant (ἄ‑φυκτος, ‘unable to escape’ [Act.]; ‘inescapable’
54
LESSON 7. VERBAL ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -τος, -τη, -τον
[Pass.]), ἀν‑ precedes a vowel (ἀν‑έγκλητος, ‘blameless’) and when ἀ‑

precedes ρ, the ρ is doubled (ἄρ‑ρηκτος, ‘not broken’, ‘not to be broken’;
cf. Smyth, 1956, §80).
7.3. Meaning of Verbal Adjectives Ending

in -τος, -τη, -τον
It is likely that originally these verbal adjectives were not specifically Active
or Passive but merely indicated relevance to the sphere of meaning of the
verb. Thus, μεμπτός (cognate with μέμφεσθαι, ‘to blame’) would have
indicated relevance to blaming. In the classical period, this word may
have either Active or Passive force. (Cf. ἄπαυστος in §7.2 above.)
ὥστ’ εἴ τι τὠμῷ τ’ ἀνδρὶ τῇδε τῇ νόσῳ
ληφθέντι μεμπτός εἰμι, κάρτα μαίνομαι, … (S.Tr. 445–446.)
And so, if I am blaming my husband at all for getting caught
by this disease, I am surely mad, …
Active meaning. τὠμῷ = τῷ ἐμῷ. τ(ε) anticipates ἤ in the following clause.
τί δὴ τὸ Νείλου μεμπτόν ἐστί σοι γάνος; (E.Hel. 462.)
Just why is the bright-water of the Nile blamed by you?
Passive meaning.
The Passive force of these verbal adjectives is more common. But verbal
adjectives with Passive force can be used to indicate either what is (already)
done or what may or must be done. Some verbal adjectives are used in
only one of these ways in extant Greek literature, but others are used
in both ways. Thus, ῥητός, -ή, -όν may indicate either what has been
stated or what may be stated.
τέλος δὲ παντὸς τοῦ λόγου ψηφίζονται ἥκειν τοὺς ἱερομνήμονας
πρὸ τῆς ἐπιούσης πυλαίας ἐν ῥητῷ χρόνῳ εἰς Πύλας …
(Aeschin. 3.124.)
And as the conclusion of all the discussion they voted [Hist. Pres.] that the
representatives should come to Thermopylae at a stated time before the next
amphictyonic-meeting …
The verbal adjective indicates what has been done.
55
Πρ. γαμεῖ γάμον τοιοῦτον ᾧ ποτ’ ἀσχαλᾷ.

Ιω θέορτον ἢ βρότεινον; εἰ ῥητόν, φράσον. (A.Pr. 764–765.)
Pr. He will make such a marriage, by which one day he will
be distressed.
Io Divine or mortal? If it may be stated, tell me.
The verbal adjective indicates what may be done.

When an Infinitive phrase is the Subject of the verb ‘to be’ (expressed
or understood), a neuter verbal adjective may be Complement, mostly
singular as in the preceding examples (E.Hel. 462; A.Pr. 765), but
sometimes plural. (Cf. Lesson 3.4.1.)
συγγνωστὰ μέντἄρ’ ἦν σε λυπεῖσθαι, γύναι. (E.Med. 703.)
It was understandable, therefore, that you should be upset, lady.
Lit. ‘That you should be upset, therefore, was understandable, lady’.
Here, an Accusative and Infinitive phrase is the Subject of ἦν. Within
the Accusative and Infinitive phrase, σε is Subject of the Passive Infinitive
λυπεῖσθαι. And the neuter plural συγγνωστά is the Complement of
the Infinitive phrase. (The crasis of μέντοι ἄρα accounts for the apparent
double accent.)
A Dative of Interest, implying Agency, may be used with verbal adjectives
in their Passive sense.
… οἱ δὲ τοὺς μύθους εἰς ἀγῶνας καὶ πράξεις κατέστησαν, ὥστε
μὴ μόνον ἀκουστοὺς ἡμῖν ἀλλὰ καὶ θεατοὺς γενέσθαι. (Isoc. 2.49.)
… but they put the stories into conflicts and actions, so as to become not only
heard by us but also seen.
(The passage refers to early tragedians, by contrast with Homer who put
into stories the conflicts and wars of the demigods.)
References
Palmer (1980), The Greek language, pp. 256–257, 314.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§80, 358, 425.c, 471–472, 488, 1003.a, 1052,
1488.
56
EXERCISE 7
1. Translate the following passages.
2. For each passage:
a. write down the Nominative masculine singular of any verbal
adjectives whose Nominative ends in ‑τος, ‑τη, ‑τον
b. indicate any negative ἀ(ν)- prefixes by inserting a hyphen
c. write the Imperfect Infinitive of the verb to which the verbal
adjective is etymologically related
d. mark accents and breathings correctly.
3. Montanari (2015), The Brill dictionary of Ancient Greek, or the full
edition of Liddell and Scott (1996), A Greek–English lexicon, should
be used.
Example
Ἀριστόδημος ἦν τις, Κυδαθηναιεύς, σμικρός, ἀνυπόδητος ἀεί.
(Pl.Smp. 173 B.)
It was a certain Aristodemus of Kydathenaeum, a small <man>, always
unshod [i.e. barefoot].
ἀν-υπόδητος related to ὑποδεῖν.
1. δοκῶ μοι περὶ ὧν πυνθάνεσθε οὐκ ἀμελέτητος εἶναι.
δοκῶ μοι lit. I seem to me (i.e. it seems to me that I)

περὶ ὧν (neut.) Condensed for περὶ ἐκείνων περὶ ὧν.
2. ἀλλ’ ἄτερ γνώμης τὸ πᾶν

ἔπρασσον, ἔστε δή σφιν ἀντολὰς ἐγὼ
ἄστρων ἔδειξα τάς τε δυσκρίτους δύσεις.
ἄτερ (+ Gen.) without

ἔστε until
ἀν(α)τολή, -ῆς, ἡ rising
δύσις, -εως, ἡ setting
57
3. τοῦτο γὰρ δὴ ἐγὼ παντάπασιν οὐ διδακτὸν ᾤμην εἶναι …
παντάπασιν (adv.) altogether

οἴεσθαι to think (Mid. with Aor. Pass.;
ᾤμην = ᾠόμην, Past Imperf.)
4. καταψηφιεῖσθε τοῦ τὰ ἐλεεινὰ ταῦτα δράματα εἰσάγοντος καὶ

καταγέλαστον τὴν πόλιν ποιοῦντος …
καταψηφίζεσθαι (Mid.) to vote in condemnation of (+ Gen.)

ἐλεεινός, -ή, -όν pitiful, pitiable
5. ἃ δὴ λόγῳ μὲν καὶ διανοίᾳ ληπτά, ὄψει δ’ οὔ·
ἅ And these (coordinating relative pronoun)

λόγος, -ου, ὁ reason
διάνοια, -ας, ἡ thought
ὄψις, -εως, ἡ sight
6. σφρηγῖδα δὲ ἕκαστος ἔχει καὶ σκῆπτρον χειροποίητον·
σφρηγίς, -ῖδος, ἡ (Ionic) seal (Attic σφραγίς)

σκῆπτρον, -ου, τό staff
7. τούτων δ’ Ἀθηναίους φημὶ δεῖν εἶναι πεντακοσίους, ἐξ ἧς τινος

ὑμῖν ἡλικίας καλῶς ἔχειν δοκῇ, χρόνον τακτὸν στρατευομένους
…
τούτων masc.
ἐξ ἧς τινος … ἡλικίας from any age(-group) which
8. ταῦτα, ὦ Ἀθηναῖοι, καὶ ἀληθῆ ἐστιν καὶ εὐέλεγκτα.
58
9. οἱ δὲ Πέρσαι καταρρήξαντες τὴν κρυπτὴν γέφυραν ἔθεον ἔσω

ἐς τὸ τεῖχος.
καταρρηγνύναι to break down

γέφυρα, -ας, ἡ bridge
θέειν (Ionic) to run (Attic θεῖν)
10. … ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστος βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ …
Understand ἐστί.
59
LESSON 8
Verbal Adjectives Ending
in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον
8.1. Formation of Verbal Adjectives Ending

in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον
According to Palmer (1980), the verbal adjectival suffix -τέο- is derived
from the action suffix *-ti- inherited from Indo-European. In Greek,
this suffix becomes -σι-. Thus, for example, the action noun ποίη-σι-ς
(‘do‑ing’) is related to the verbal stem of ποιεῖν (‘to do’), as it appears
in Tenses other than Present and Past Imperfect: ποιήσω, ἐποίησα,
etc. The corresponding verbal adjective is ποιη-τέος. Where a verb has
σ before θ in First Aorist Passive, this σ appears before τ in the verbal
adjective: ἐδράσθη, δραστέος. The accent is persistent on -ε-. The α of
the feminine ending is long.
Verbal adjectives formed with a suffix -τέο- are listed separately in
dictionaries. If only a Passive use of a particular verbal adjective occurs
in extant classical Greek, the word is listed alphabetically in Liddell and
Scott (1996) with the ending -τέος. If only an Active use occurs, the
word is listed with the ending -τέον. Where both Passive and Active
uses occur, the Active form is listed first in Montanari (2015), but there
is some inconsistency in Liddell and Scott (1996) as to which form is
listed first.
8.2. Usage of Verbal Adjectives Ending in -τέος,

-τέα, -τέον
The verbal adjectives ending in -τέος do not occur at all in Homer. They
are in general use from the fifth century BCE onwards. (The earliest
extant example is γεγωνητέον, Pi.Ol. 2.5, 476/5 BCE.) They denote the
necessity of the action of the cognate verb.
61
When these verbal adjectives are used personally, they may appear in any
gender (‑τέος, ‑τέα, ‑τέον) and they have a Passive meaning, indicating
that something is to be done. But they are more often used impersonally,
mainly in the neuter singular (-τέον), but sometimes in the neuter plural
(-τέα). The plural occurs especially in Thucydides among prose writers.
The impersonal use regularly has an Active meaning, indicating that
it is necessary to do something; and the verb ‘to be’ is usually omitted
(‘<it is> necessary to do’). However, in reported discourse the Infinitive
of the verb ‘to be’ may be included for the sake of clarity. And for an
exceptional impersonal Passive usage, see §8.8 below.
The Agent for both personal and impersonal constructions is normally
expressed in the Dative Case. Examples are given in §§8.3 and 8.4.1 below.
In both personal and impersonal constructions, the verbal adjective
generally appears in the Nominative Case in direct discourse. In reported
discourse, the verbal adjective regularly appears in the Accusative Case
with Infinitive or Participle as appropriate. For a usage with the definite
article in any Case, see §8.4.2 below.
In so far as these verbal adjectives regularly occur in statements (direct or
reported), the negative used with them is οὐ. However, in the impersonal
Active construction, οὐ ποιητέον means not ‘<It is> not necessary to
do’, but ‘<It is> necessary not to do’. Although negative α is common
as a prefix to verbal adjectives ending in -τός, -τή, -τόν, it appears as
a prefix to verbal adjectives ending in -τέος, -τέα, -τέον only in some
11 forms cognate with verbs which contain the negative α. Alphabetically,
the first and last examples are ἀδικητέον cognate with ἀδικεῖν (Plato)
and ἀσιτητέον cognate with ἀσιτεῖν (Galen).
8.3. Impersonal Construction

In the following example, the relation of the form of the verbal adjective
to the cognate verb is indicated by citing the verbal adjective itself, the
Imperfect Active Infinitive and the Aorist Passive Infinitive.
ὥσθ’ ὁμοίως ἡμῖν φιλονικητέον ὑπὲρ τῶν ἐνθάδε
ψηφισθησομένων, ὥσπερ ὑπὲρ τῶν ἐν τοῖς ὅπλοις ἀγώνων. (Isoc.
6.92.)
And so in a similar way <it is> necessary for us to campaign for what is
going to be voted on here, just as for contests under arms.
62
LESSON 8. VERBAL ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -τέος, -τέα, -τέον
φιλονικη-τέον φιλονικεῖν φιλονικη-θῆναι
ἡμῖν is Dative of Interest implying Agency: the ‘campaigning’ is to be

done ‘by us’.
… καὶ ὡς ᾔσθοντο τῶν λόγων, ἔδοξεν αὐτοῖς παριτητέα ἐς τοὺς
Λακεδαιμονίους εἶναι … (Th. 1.72.1.)
… and when they had heard the speeches, it seemed to them to be necessary
to appear (lit. ‘to come forward’) before the Spartans …
The neuter plural verbal adjective παριτητέα is used here (in Thucydides);
and the Infinitive εἶναι is included in the reported discourse. (ἰτητέον is
equivalent to ἰτέον in function and meaning.)
8.4. Personal Construction
8.4.1. Regular Usage

ταῦτα μὲν οὖν, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, τούτοις ποιητέα ἦν …
(And. 1.136.)
Well then, O men of the jury, this was (bound) to be done by these <men> …
In the personal construction, ποιητέα is Nominative neuter plural in
agreement with ταῦτα. τούτοις is Dative of Interest implying Agency.
8.4.2. Usage with Article

The personal usage of the verbal adjective occasionally appears with the
definite article to form a noun phrase. This idiom is not restricted to the
Nominative Case.
περὶ μὲν δὴ τῶν ὑμῖν πρακτέων καθ’ ὑμᾶς αὐτοὺς ὕστερον
βουλεύσεσθε, ἂν σωφρονῆτε· (D. 6.28.)
Indeed, concerning what is to be done by you, you will subsequently deliberate
by yourselves, if you are sensible.
63
8.5. Ambiguous Constructions

When the entire verbal adjectival phrase is neuter, it is often difficult
to decide whether a neuter noun or pronoun is Subject of a personal
construction or Object of an impersonal construction.
… ἡ ἄλλη Πελοπόννησος ἐς θροῦν καθίστατο ὡς καὶ σφίσι
ποιητέον τοῦτο … (Th. 5.29.2.)
… the rest of the Peloponnese was getting into a discussion, that <it was>
necessary for them too to do this … [OR: that this <was> to be done by
them too …]
τοῦτο may be either Object of ποιητέον (used impersonally) or
Subject of ποιητέον (used personally). But the absence of the verb
‘to be’ makes it more likely that the construction should be understood
as impersonal here.
ἢ τοίνυν δεινότερόν τι τούτου δέος εὑρετέον ἐστὶν ἢ τόδε γε
οὐδὲν ἐπίσχει … (Th. 3.45.4.)
Either, therefore, some cause-of-fear more fearsome than this [= death] is to
be found or this [= cause-of-fear] restrains nothing …
[OR: Either, therefore, it is necessary to find some cause-of-fear more
fearsome than this or this causes no restraint …]
δέος may be either Subject of εὑρετέον (used personally) or Object of
εὑρετέον (used impersonally). But the presence of ἐστίν makes it more
likely that the construction should be understood as personal here.
8.6. Agent in Accusative

Sometimes, the Agent of a verbal adjective appears in the Accusative Case
instead of the Dative, apparently by analogy with δεῖ or χρή with the
Accusative (and Infinitive).
οὐ μὴν δουλευτέον τοὺς νοῦν ἔχοντας τοῖς οὕτω κακῶς
φρονοῦσιν … (Isoc. 9.7.)
<It is> certainly necessary that those who have sense (should) not be
subject to people with so bad an attitude …
64
8.7. Construction Continued with Infinitive

The construction of verbal adjectives becomes more closely assimilated
to the pattern of δεῖ or χρή, when an initial verbal adjective is followed
by a second phrase with an Infinitive, which is dependent on the notion
of necessity contained in the verbal adjective. In the following sentence,
ποιητέον is continued by πείθειν.
… ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν πολέμῳ καὶ ἐν δικαστηρίῳ καὶ πανταχοῦ ποιητέον
ἃ ἂν κελεύῃ ἡ πόλις καὶ ἡ πατρίς, ἢ πείθειν αὐτὴν ᾗ τὸ δίκαιον
πέφυκε … (Pl.Cri. 51 B–C.)
… but both in war and in law-court and everywhere <it is> necessary
to do what the city and the fatherland commands, or to persuade it where
justice lies …
8.8. Impersonal Passive Construction

Contrary to the usual practice, an impersonal construction with Passive
meaning occurs with ἡσσητέα (neut. pl.). The cognate verb ἡσσᾶσθαι
occurs only in the Middle/Passive in the classical period. The Genitive of
Comparison, which is used with the verb and the verbal adjective, implies
Agency: ‘to be inferior (compared with)’, ‘to be defeated (by)’.
κοὔτοι γυναικὸς οὐδαμῶς ἡσσητέα. (S.Ant. 678.)
And <it is> certainly necessary by no means to be defeated by a woman.
But the impersonal Passive construction is not limited to verbal adjectives
cognate with verbs which are used only in the Passive Voice. In the
following quotation, ἀπολειπτέον illustrates the point.
ἆρά γε, ὦ γύναι, διὰ τοιαύτας τινὰς προνοίας καὶ τῆς ἐν τῷ
σμήνει ἡγεμόνος αἱ μέλιτται οὕτω διατίθενται πρὸς αὐτήν, ὥστε,
ὅταν ἐκείνη ἐκλίπῃ, οὐδεμία οἴεται τῶν μελιττῶν ἀπολειπτέον
εἶναι, ἀλλ’ ἕπονται πᾶσαι; (X.Oec. 7.38.)
(Is it), O wife, on account of some such caring-actions even of the leader
in the hive (that) the bees are so disposed towards her, that, when she quits
<the hive>, none of the bees thinks that it is necessary to be left behind,
but they all follow?
65
References
Palmer (1980), The Greek language, pp. 257, 314.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§358, 425.c, 471, 1003.a, 1052, 1488, 2149–
2152.
EXERCISE 8
2. For each passage:
a. write down, in the form in which they appear, any verbal
adjectives of the type whose Nominative singular ends in -τέος,
-τέα, -τέον
b. write the Imperfect Infinitive of the verb to which each of these
adjectives is related
c. state whether the particular use is personal Passive or impersonal
Active
d. if the construction appears to be ambiguous, indicate
whether there are grounds for preferring an Active or Passive
interpretation
e. mark accents correctly.
3. Montanari (2015), The Brill dictionary of Ancient Greek, or the full
be used.
Example
κωλυτέον δὲ τοὺς ὑβρίζειν βουλομένους … (X.Hier. 8.9.)
and <it is> necessary to prevent those wanting to act violently …
κωλυτέον related to κωλύειν. Impersonal Active.
66
1. περὶ γὰρ τῶν αὐτῶν οὐχ ὁμοίως ἅπασι βουλευτέον, ἀλλ’ ὡς ἂν

ἐξ ἀρχῆς ἕκαστοι τοῦ βίου ποιήσωνται τὴν ὑπόθεσιν.
τῶν αὐτῶν neut.

ὡς ἄν Introduces a clause of indefinite
comparison.
ἕκαστοι (pl.) each group
ὑπόθεσις, -εως, ἡ basis (qualified by τοῦ βίου)
2. … καίπερ τοσοῦτον πλεονεκτούσης τῆς ποιήσεως, οὐκ

ὀκνητέον, ἀλλ’ ἀποπειρατέον τῶν λόγων ἐστίν …
πλεονεκτεῖν to have an advantage

ποίησις, -εως, ἡ poetry
οἱ λόγοι prose (lit. the words)
3. … ὑμᾶς δὲ ὁσίως ὁρᾶν προσήκει τὰ πραχθέντα· ἐκ τῶν

λεγομένων γὰρ ἡ ἀλήθεια σκεπτέα αὐτῶν ἐστίν.
ὁσίως conscientiously
προσήκειν to be appropriate (here with Acc.
and Infin.)
ἐκ on the basis of
λεγομένων neut. Pass.
αὐτῶν (neut.) Refers to τὰ πραχθέντα.
4. ἀλλὰ σὺ πρῶτον μὲν ἡγῇ παρασκευαστέον τὸ μή ποτε

κινδυνεῦσαι;
ἡγεῖσθαι (Mid.) to think

κινδυνεύειν to run a risk, to be in danger
5. πρῶτον μὲν οὖν οὐκ ἀθυμητέον, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, τοῖς

παροῦσι πράγμασιν …
67
6. ἄλλου λόγου μέμνησθε, τόνδε δ’ οὐδαμῶς

καιρὸς γεγωνεῖν, ἀλλὰ συγκαλυπτέος
ὅσον μάλιστα.
λόγος, -ου, ὁ subject, topic

μεμνῆσθαι (Mid.) to make mention of (+ Gen.; Perf. with
Imperf. meaning; here Impv.)
τόνδε Understand λόγον.
γεγωνεῖν to declare
ὅσον μάλιστα so far as possible
7. καὶ τῶν μὲν πλεόνων ἐπὶ τὸ αὐτὸ αἱ γνῶμαι ἔφερον, …

πολεμητέα εἶναι ἐν τάχει·
φέρειν (Intr.) to tend (to), to incline (to)
8. … ἐκεῖνο μάλιστα φυλακτέον, ὅπως μηδὲν ἀνάνδρως

φανησόμεθα διαπραττόμενοι μηδὲ συγχωροῦντες τοῖς
πολεμίοις παρὰ τὸ δίκαιον.
φαίνεσθαι (Pass. + Partc.) to be clear(ly doing something)

διαπράττειν (Act. and to manage
Mid.)
συγχωρεῖν to yield (to) (+ Dat.)
παρά (+ Acc.) contrary to
68
LESSON 9
Voice
9.1. English
Both in classical Greek and in modern English, Voice is a function of
the verb including not only finite forms of the verb but also Infinitives
(verbal nouns) and Participles (verbal adjectives). In English, there are two
Voices: Active and Passive. The Active forms are simple, being expressed by
a single form of a verb; Passive forms are compound, being expressed with
the help of auxiliary verbs.
He had a good time. (Act.)
A good time was had by all. (Pass.)
Active verbs may be used transitively or intransitively, that is, with or
without a direct Object.
He turned the handle of the lounge-room door. (Transitive)
I turned, and saw below
The same shape twisted on the banister … (Intr.) (T. S. Eliot, Ash Wednesday,
III.2–3.)
The (grammatical) Subject performs the action expressed by an Active form
of a verb. The Subject experiences (suffers, receives) the action expressed by
a Passive form of a verb.
The hoplite hurled his spear with all his strength. (Act.)
The first spear was hurled by a hoplite in the front rank. (Pass.)
9.2. Greek
In the classical period of Ancient Greek, there are three Voices of the verb:
Active, Middle and Passive. The forms and functions of the Active Voice
are relatively straightforward and will not be treated further here. In most
69
Tenses of the Indicative, there are not separate forms for the Middle and
Passive Voices. The function of such forms needs to be determined in each
context. An expressed Agent is a pointer to a Passive function: ‘The spear
is hurled by a hoplite’.
Separate forms for Middle and Passive Voices do occur in the Future and
Past Aorist Tenses of the Indicative Mood, and likewise for the Aorist
Subjunctive and Optative, and for the Intentive (‘Fut.’) Optative.
παύσομαι, I shall stop (Intr.) (Mid.); παυ(σ)θήσομαι, I shall be stopped
(Pass.).
ἐπαυσάμην, I stopped (Intr.) (Mid.); ἐπαύ(σ)θην, I was stopped (Pass.).
In English, it is not appropriate to apply the category of Voice to verbs
such as ‘to be’, ‘to become’, ‘to seem’, which may have a (Subjective)
Complement. The same restriction would apply to εἶναι in Greek. But
the status of γίγνεσθαι and δοκεῖν is not simply equivalent to that of
εἶναι; γίγνεσθαι has a mixture of Active, Middle and Passive forms;
δοκεῖν means ‘to think’ as well as ‘to seem’.
9.3. Uses of the Middle Voice
9.3.1. In General
The Middle Voice expresses greater interest or involvement of the Subject
in the action of the verb than would be expressed by the Active Voice.
αἱρεῖν (Act.) to take

αἱρεῖσθαι (Mid.) to take for oneself, to choose
Often verbs of emotion, thought and perception are used especially or

solely in the Middle Voice.
αἰδεῖσθαι to be ashamed
νοεῖσθαι to think
αἰσθάνεσθαι to perceive
70
LESSON 9. VOICE
Likewise, verbs denoting bodily activity.
οἴχεσθαι to go, to have gone

ἕπεσθαι to follow
Similar to the last two groups are Active verbs which use the Middle Voice
in the Future Tense only, without any distinction of meaning.
ἀκούειν, ἀκούσεσθαι to hear, to be going to hear (perception)

βαίνειν, βήσεσθαι to walk, to be going to walk (physical activity)
9.3.2. Causative
In the following example, Croesus caused the action of ‘making’ to take
place but did not himself ‘make’ the image of the lion.
ἐποιέετο δὲ καὶ λέοντος εἰκόνα … (Hdt. 1.50.3.)
And he had an image of a lion made also …
But this causative force may also be expressed by the Active Voice. In the
following example, the Subject (Artaphrenes) causes something to be
done but does not personally execute the Persians.
τούτων δὲ γενομένων φανερῶν ἀπέκτεινε ἐνθαῦτα πολλοὺς
Περσέων ὁ Ἀρταφρένης. (Hdt. 6.4.)
And when <the identity of> these men became known, Artaphrenes promptly
had many of the Persians put to death.
9.3.3. Reflexive
The Middle Voice in itself may have a reflexive force.
… καὶ ἐκ τῶν δένδρων τινὲς ἀπήγχοντο … (Th. 3.81.3.)
… and some hanged themselves from the trees …
The stock example of this use is λούομαι, ‘I wash myself ’. But here the
force may rather be ‘I wash’ (Intr.), in the sense ‘I have a wash’, ‘I am
having a wash’. Likewise with many other such Middle forms.
A definitely reflexive construction is more often expressed by an Active
verb with a reflexive pronoun as direct Object.
71
ἐπαινέσαντες γὰρ πολλὰ ἑαυτοὺς οὐδαμοῦ ἀντεῖπον ὡς οὐκ

ἀδικοῦσι τοὺς ἡμετέρους ξυμμάχους καὶ τὴν Πελοπόννησον·
(Th. 1.86.1.)
For although praising themselves at length, they nowhere denied that they
were maltreating our allies and the Peloponnese.
However, this Transitive construction may also occur with a verb in the
Middle Voice.
… οὐδὲ ἐσεγράψαντο ἑαυτοὺς οὔτε ἐς τὰς Ἀθηναίων σπονδὰς
οὔτε ἐς τὰς Λακεδαιμονίων. (Th. 1.31.2.)
… nor <had> they enrolled themselves either in the treaty with the
Athenians or in that with the Spartans.
9.3.4. Reciprocal
A reciprocal use of the Middle Voice has often been proposed.
… οἱ ἀθληταὶ ἠγωνίζοντο … (Th. 1.6.5.)
… the contestants used to compete (with one another) …
In the context of this example, however, Thucydides is discussing
continuity and change in social practice, including clothing in general
and for sport. He is not making a point about competition, mutuality
or reciprocity. Moreover, ἀγωνίζεσθαι is used only in the Middle and
occasionally the Passive (usually Perf. Pass.) Voices throughout the ancient
period (apart from the Act. in an inscription of uncertain date).
μάχεσθαι (only Middle), ‘to fight (with one another)’ is also cited as an
example of reciprocal use of the Middle Voice. But πολεμεῖν, which has
a similar meaning, is not used in the Middle but only in the Active Voice
apart from a few Passive instances.
Some verbs are used in both Active and Middle Voices without any
significant difference regarding reciprocity.
καί περ χωόμενος παύθη χόλου, ὃν πρὶν ἔχεσκεν
οὕνεκ’ ἐρίζετο βουλὰς ὑπερμενέϊ Κρονίωνι. (Hes.Th. 533–534;
Middle.)
72
LESSON 9. VOICE
Although being angry he [= Zeus] ceased from the anger, which he previously
had
because he [= Prometheus] contended in his designs with the mighty son
of Kronos.
παύθη has no augment.
νόον γε μὲν οὔ τις ἔριζε
τάων ἃς θνηταὶ θνητοῖς τέκον εὐνηθεῖσαι. (Hes.Sc. 5–6; Active.)
And indeed in intellect there contended with <her> no one
of the <girls>, whom mortal women when brought to bed bore to mortal men.
The Middle Voice of some verbs compounded with διά and σύν is often
assigned a reciprocal force.
ἐγὼ γὰρ ὑπεθέμην οὐχ ὡς περὶ τῶν πολιτειῶν διαλεξόμενος, ἀλλ’
ὡς ἐπιδείξων τὴν πόλιν ἡμῶν πολὺ πλείονος ἀξίαν Λακεδαιμονίων
περὶ τοὺς Ἕλληνας γεγενημένην. (Isoc. 12.112.)
For I proposed <my topic> not in order to have a discussion about
constitutions, but in order to show that our city had been worth much more
than <that> of the Spartans with regard to the Greeks.
In this example, however, any suggestion of reciprocity or mutual
involvement may be due to the prefix as much as to the Middle Voice of
δια-λεξόμενος.
A genuinely reciprocal expression is more clearly formed by the reciprocal
pronoun as Object of an Active verb (or as another component of the
predicate).
ἔφερον γὰρ ἀλλήλους τε καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσοι ὄντες οὐ θαλάσσιοι
κάτω ᾤκουν. (Th. 1.7.)
For they used to plunder each other and as many of the rest as, although not
being seagoing, lived on the coast.
However, the reciprocal pronoun may also be used with the Middle Voice.
ἔφερον (Act.) and ἐλῄζοντο (Mid.) are synonymous in the preceding
and following sentences.
ἐλῄζοντο δὲ καὶ κατ’ ἤπειρον ἀλλήλους. (Th. 1.5.3.)
And they used to plunder each other on the mainland also.
73
In short, it is not clear that there is a specifically reciprocal use of the

Middle Voice. Rather, in some contexts some verbs may be used in the
Active Voice with the reciprocal pronoun, or in the Middle Voice with
or without the reciprocal pronoun, to express reciprocity. The Middle
Voice is used in a general way in such contexts to convey the interest or
involvement of the Subject.
9.4. The Development of the Middle Voice

It is generally, but not universally, agreed that in Indo-European there
were two Voices: Active and Middle. ‘The active verb was used to present
an activity proceeding from a subject outwards: when the event took place
within the subject or was reflected on the subject, then the middle voice
was used’ (Palmer, 1980, p. 292).
In Homer, second Aorist verb forms ending in -ην in first person singular
are generally Intransitive Active, not Passive. Thus, from φαίνειν, to show:
ἔφηνα, I showed (1st Aor. Act. Transitive); ἐφάνην, I appeared (2nd Aor.
Act. Intr.).
Most (about three-quarters) of first Aorists ending in -θην in first person
singular are also Active Intransitive in Epic:
ἐφάνθην, I appeared (Act. Intr. in Epic); I was shown (Pass. in Attic).
This feature is still evident in some forms which are used in Attic tragedy
with Middle force.
σύθην δ’ ἀπέδιλος ὄχῳ πτερωτῷ. (A.Pr. 135.)
And I rushed off without my shoes on a winged conveyance.
σύθην has no augment.
Future forms ending with -σομαι in first person singular may still have
both Middle and Passive force in the classical period. Passive Futures
ending in -(θ)ήσομαι in first person singular, which were formed on
the basis of first and second Aorist Passives ending in -(θ)ην, are largely
a development of the fifth century BCE. (It cannot safely be maintained
that -σομαι Futures are durative or Imperfect, whereas -(θ)ήσομαι forms
are Aoristic.)
74
LESSON 9. VOICE
In the Hellenistic period, the Active Voice tends to supplant the Middle.
In particular, Active verbs with Middle Futures now begin to use Active
Future forms; thus, ἀκούσω for classical ἀκούσομαι. The Future and
Past Aorist Tenses of the Middle Voice, which in the classical period were
distinguished from the Passive, tend to disappear. Middle verbs with
Active meaning now prefer Passive forms; thus, for ‘he replied’, ἀπεκρίθη
replaces ἀπεκρίνατο.
References
Gildersleeve (1900), Syntax of classical Greek from Homer to Demosthenes (Vol. 1),
pp. 61–79.
Moorhouse (1982), The syntax of Sophocles (Mnemosyne Supplement 75),

pp. 176–180.
Palmer (1980), The Greek language, pp. 292–293, 298–299, 302–303, 311–312.
Rijksbaron (1994), The syntax and semantics of the verb in classical Greek, pp. 131–
160.
EXERCISE 9
Identify all Middle or Passive verb forms (including Infinitives and
Participles) in the passage of Euripides Alcestis 29–31, 42–64. (Do not
include any parts of εἶναι.)
1. Write the line number in the left margin.
2. Write the form which appears in the Greek text.
3. Parse the form.
For finite verb forms, state the person, Number, Tense (of Indicative
forms) or Aspect (of non-Indicative forms), Mood and Voice
(indicating whether Middle or Passive).
For Infinitives, state the Aspect and Voice.
For Participles, state the Aspect, Voice, Case, Gender and Number.
Give the Imperfect Active Infinitive form of the verb (if the
Active form does not occur in classical Greek, give the Middle or
Passive form).
75
Give the English meaning of the quoted Imperfect Infinitive which

is relevant to the context (not the whole range of possible meanings).
4. Montanari (2015), The Brill dictionary of Ancient Greek or the full
be used.
Example
πῶς δ’ ἂν μᾶλλον ἐνδείξαιτό τις
πόσιν προτιμῶσ(α) ἢ θέλουσ(α) ὑπερθανεῖν; (E.Alc. 154–155.)
154 ἐνδείξαιτο 3rd pers. sg. Aor. ἐνδεικνύναι to show

Opt. Mid.
Euripides Alcestis 29–31, 42–64

Θ = ΘΑΝΑΤΟΣ
Α = ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝ
Θ. τί σὺ πρὸς μελάθροις; τί σὺ τῇδε πολεῖς,

Φοῖβ’; ἀδικεῖς αὖ τιμὰς ἐνέρων 30
ἀφοριζόμενος καὶ καταπαύων;
* * * * *
Α. φίλου γὰρ ἀνδρὸς συμφοραῖς βαρύνομαι.
Θ. καὶ νοσφιεῖς με τοῦδε δευτέρου νεκροῦ;
Α. ἀλλ’ οὐδ’ ἐκεῖνον πρὸς βίαν σ’ ἀφειλάμην.
Θ. πῶς οὖν ὑπὲρ γῆς ἐστι κοὐ κάτω χθονός; 45
Α. δάμαρτ’ ἀμείψας, ἣν σὺ νῦν ἥκεις μέτα.
Θ. κἀπάξομαί γε νερτέραν ὑπὸ χθόνα.
Α. λαβὼν ἴθ’· οὐ γὰρ οἶδ’ ἂν εἰ πείσαιμί σε.
Θ. κτείνειν γ’ ὃν ἂν χρῇ; τοῦτο γὰρ τετάγμεθα.
Α. οὔκ, ἀλλὰ τοῖς μέλλουσι θάνατον ἀμβαλεῖν. 50
Θ. ἔχω λόγον δὴ καὶ προθυμίαν σέθεν.
Α. ἔστ’ οὖν ὅπως Ἄλκηστις ἐς γῆρας μόλοι;
Θ. οὐκ ἔστι· τιμαῖς κἀμὲ τέρπεσθαι δόκει.
Α. οὔτοι πλέον γ’ ἂν ἢ μίαν ψυχὴν λάβοις.
Θ νέων φθινόντων μεῖζον ἄρνυμαι γέρας. 55
Α. κἂν γραῦς ὄληται, πλουσίως ταφήσεται.
76
LESSON 9. VOICE
Θ. πρὸς τῶν ἐχόντων, Φοῖβε, τὸν νόμον τίθης.

Α. πῶς εἶπας; ἀλλ’ ἦ καὶ σοφὸς λέληθας ὤν;
Θ ὠνοῖντ’ ἂν οἷς πάρεστι γηραιοὶ θανεῖν.
Α. οὔκουν δοκεῖ σοι τήνδε μοι δοῦναι χάριν; 60
Θ. οὐ δῆτ’· ἐπίστασαι δὲ τοὺς ἐμοὺς τρόπους.
Α. ἐχθρούς γε θνητοῖς καὶ θεοῖς στυγουμένους.
Θ. οὐκ ἂν δύναιο πάντ’ ἔχειν ἃ μή σε δεῖ.
Α. ἦ μὴν σὺ παύσῃ καίπερ ὠμὸς ὢν ἄγαν·
77
LESSON 10
Commands
10.1. Introduction
Positive commands are normally expressed by the Imperative Mood.
Negative commands are normally expressed by μή with the Imperfect
Imperative, or by μή with the Aorist Subjunctive. The Imperfect Aspect
expresses continuous or repeated action. The Aorist Aspect expresses
momentary action. The Perfect Aspect is used especially with verbs, whose
Perfect Aspect has an Imperfect meaning, for example, ἕστηκα, ‘I have
taken my stand’, hence ‘I am standing’; μέμνημαι, ‘I have recalled’,
hence ‘I remember’. (Cf. Lesson 2.1 and Lesson 2.3.1.)
10.2. Negative Commands

The Aorist Imperative is not normally used in negative commands;
it occurs occasionally in the third person, and rarely (and only in poetry)
in the second person. The Imperfect Subjunctive is not normally used in
negative commands; it occurs not at all in the second person, and only
rarely in the third person.
This apparently arbitrary distinction of Moods (Imperative for Imperfect
action, Subjunctive for Aorist action) had already developed in the classical
period and has continued through Hellenistic usage up to modern Greek.
καί, ὅπερ λέγω, μὴ θορυβεῖτε, ὦ ἄνδρες. (Pl.Ap. 21 A.)
And, as I say, do not be making a disturbance, O men.
Imperfect Imperative.
καί μοι, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, μὴ θορυβήσητε, μηδ’ ἐὰν δόξω τι ὑμῖν
μέγα λέγειν· (Pl.Ap. 20 E.)
And please, O men of Athens, do not make a disturbance, not even if I seem
to you to be telling something exaggerated.
79
Aorist Subjunctive.
It is sometimes suggested that μή with the Imperfect Imperative implies
a command to stop doing something, while μή with the Aorist Subjunctive
implies a command not to start doing something. This view sometimes suits
the circumstances of a particular passage, but the basic principle seems to
be the usual distinction of Aspects, as stated above. Moreover, there does not
always seem to be any significant difference in function between Imperfect
Imperative and Aorist Subjunctive in negative commands. An author’s
choice may depend partly on established idiom and partly on the meaning
of a particular word, as well as on the distinction of Aspect.
10.3. Virtual Commands

Various idioms using Future Indicative, Aorist Subjunctive, and Imperfect
or Aorist Optative may have the function of commands.
10.3.1. Future Indicative (Positive)

πρὸς ταῦτα πράξεις οἷον ἂν θέλῃς· (S.OC 956.)
In view of this [you will] do what you like.
10.3.2. Future Indicative (Negative: οὐ)

ξεῖνε, κακῶς ἀνδρῶν τοξάζεαι· οὐκέτ’ ἀέθλων
ἄλλων ἀντιάσεις· νῦν τοι σῶς αἰπὺς ὄλεθρος. (Hom.Od. 22.27–28.)
Stranger, wrongly you shoot at men; never again [will you] take part
in other contests; now indeed your sheer destruction <is> assured.
10.3.3. Future Indicative (Negative Interrogative: οὐ …;)

οὐκ ἄξεθ’ ὡς τάχιστα; καὶ κατηρεφεῖ
τύμβῳ περιπτύξαντες, ὡς εἴρηκ’ ἐγώ,
ἄφετε μόνην ἔρημον … (S.Ant. 885–887.)
[Will you not] take <her> as quickly as possible[?] And surrounding
<her> with a vaulted tomb, as I have said,
leave her alone, deserted …
ἄφετε (Aor. Impv.) confirms the Imperative function of ἄξεθ’ (ἄξετε,
Fut. Indic.).
80
LESSON 10. COMMANDS
10.3.4. Future Indicative (Double Negative Interrogative:

οὐ(…)μή …;)
ὦ δεινὰ λέξασ’, οὐχὶ συγκλῄσεις στόμα
καὶ μὴ μεθήσεις αὖθις αἰσχίστους λόγους; (E.Hipp. 498–499.)
O <you>, having said terrible things, will you not shut up your mouth
and not emit most shameful words again?
Future Indicative occurs in both coordinate clauses, which are joined
by καί. The first negative (οὐκ) negates the whole sentence. The second
negative (μή) is functionally subordinate to the first negative and negates
the second clause: ‘Will you not shut up … and will you not not emit …?’
(i.e. ‘Shut up … and do not emit …’).
οὐ μὴ φλυαρήσεις ἔχων, ὦ Ξανθία,
ἀλλ’ ἀράμενος οἴσεις πάλιν τὰ στρώματα; (Ar.Ra. 524–525.)
Do not keep on being silly, O Xanthias,
but pick up and carry the trappings back.
Lit. ‘Will you not not keep on being silly …, but will you not carry
…?’ Again, οὐ negates the whole sentence, μή further negates the first
coordinate clause and the second clause is introduced by ἀλλά (not καί).
10.3.5. οὐ μή with Aorist Subjunctive

οὐ μὴ σκώψῃς μηδὲ ποιήσῃς ἅπερ οἱ τρυγοδαίμονες οὗτοι,
ἀλλ’ εὐφήμει· (Ar.Nu. 296–297.)
Do not joke nor do what these comic poets do,
but keep silent.
In this sentence, after an initial negative command with οὐ μή and
the Aorist Subjunctive, a second negative command is added by μηδέ
(also with Aor. Subj.), and a contrasting positive command follows with
ἀλλά and Imperfect Imperative.
The origin and explanation of the constructions in §§10.3.4 and 10.3.5
are disputed. The issue is complicated by variant readings in manuscripts
and emendations by editors, for example, -ῃς and -εις.
81
10.3.6. Optative with ἄν

τοῦτ’ οὐκέτ’ ἂν πύθοιο, μηδὲ λιπάρει. (A.Pr. 520.)
[You would] no longer make this enquiry, and do not persist.
The Imperative form λιπάρει in the second clause confirms the Imperative
function of the Optative with ἄν in the first clause. Negative οὐ is used
with this potential Optative.
Such sentences having Optative with ἄν are usually punctuated as
statements, although they would often make sense as questions.
λέγοις ἂν ὡς τάχιστα, καὶ τάχ’ εἴσομαι. (A.Th. 261.)
[Would you] speak as soon as possible[?] And I shall soon know.
10.4. Reported Commands
10.4.1. Reported Commands with Infinitive

Commands, requests and exhortations are most often reported in an
Infinitive phrase as direct Object of a verb of commanding. Most verbs of
commanding have a second direct Object in the Accusative, denoting the
person who is commanded to do something. Instead of this second direct
Object, particular verbs may have a Genitive of Separation or a Dative
indirect Object.
The Aspect of the Infinitive in a reported command reflects the Aspect
of the Imperative in the presumed direct command. And the Number of
the noun or pronoun in the Accusative Object (or Genitive or Dative)
of the reported command reflects the Number of the Imperative of the
presumed direct command. The negative with the Infinitive is μή.
ἤδη κελεύω τούσδ’ ἀπὸ γνώμης φέρειν
ψῆφον δικαίαν …; (A.Eu. 674–675.)
Do I now command these <jurors> to cast a just vote
on the basis of their judgment …?
Acc. (pl.) and (Imperf.) Infin.
Direct form: φέρετε.
82
LESSON 10. COMMANDS
… αὐτοῦ τε Κύρου ἐδέοντο ὡς προθυμοτάτου πρὸς τὸν πόλεμον

γενέσθαι. (X.Cyr. 1.5.2.)
… and they begged Cyrus himself to become as enthusiastic as possible for
the war.
Genitive (sg.) and (Aor.) Infinitive.
Direct form: γενοῦ.
οὐ γὰρ ὅτι τοὺς ἀδικοῦντας ἐκόλαζον, ἀλλ’ ἐνίοις καὶ
προσέταττον ἐξαμαρτάνειν. (Isoc. 18.17.)
For they were not only not punishing those acting unjustly, but they were
actually instructing some to do wrong.
Dative (pl.) and (Imperf.) Infinitive.
Direct form: ἐξαμαρτάνετε. (For οὐ(…)ὅτι meaning ‘not only not’;
see Smyth, 1956, §2763.b.)
ὃ δὲ ἐπιλέξας τῶν ἀστῶν τοὺς ὑπώπτυε μάλιστα ἐς ἐπανάστασιν
ἀπέπεμπε τεσσαράκοντα τριήρεσι, ἐντειλάμενος Καμβύσῃ
ὀπίσω τούτους μὴ ἀποπέμπειν. (Hdt. 3.44.2.)
And he, having picked out from the citizens those whom he most suspected
with respect to an uprising, sent them away on forty triremes, instructing
Cambyses not to send these <men> back again.
Dative (sg.) and (Imperf.) Infinitive with negative μή.
Direct form: τούτους μὴ ἀπόπεμπε. τούς (Ionic) = οὕς (Attic).
10.4.2. Reported Commands with ὅπως

In addition to the more common Infinitive construction, some verbs of
commanding may sometimes have as their Object a clause introduced by
ὅπως. In Primary sequence, ὅπως is followed either by Future Indicative
or by the Subjunctive (sometimes with ἄν). In Past sequence, ὅπως is
followed by the Optative. Vivid constructions, using Subjunctive or
Future Indicative in Past sequence, also occur. The negative is μή.
83
As the Object of a verb of commanding, these ὅπως clauses are

noun clauses. Contrary to Smyth (1956, §2218), the ὅπως clause
is best understood as merely stating the content of the command, not
‘the purpose in giving it’ as well. Purpose clauses with ὅπως are adverbial
clauses, not noun clauses.
τοῖς οὖν ἄρχουσι καὶ πρῶτον καὶ μάλιστα παραγγέλλει ὁ θεός,
ὅπως μηδενὸς οὕτω φύλακες ἀγαθοὶ ἔσονται μηδ’ οὕτω σφόδρα
φυλάξουσι μηδὲν ὡς τοὺς ἐκγόνους … (Pl.R. 415 B.)
Therefore the god both first and foremost commands the rulers to be good
guardians of nothing so much as the children, and to guard carefully nothing
so much <as them>…
ὅπως with Future Indicative and negative μή compounds in Primary
sequence.
λύουσι γάρ, ἔφη, οἱ ἕνδεκα Σωκράτη καὶ παραγγέλλουσιν ὅπως
ἂν τῇδε τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τελευτᾷ. (Pl.Phd. 59 E.)
‘For the Eleven’, he said, ‘are unchaining Socrates and are giving orders that
he is to die on this day’.
ὅπως with Subjunctive and ἄν in Primary sequence.
… ἐδέοντό τε τῶν στρατηγῶν ὅκως ἀπάγοιεν σφέας ὀπίσω …
(Hdt. 9.117.)
… and they begged their generals to lead [OR: that they should lead] them
away <and take them> back again …
ὅκως (Attic ὅπως) with Optative in Past sequence.
… καλέσας αὐτὸν Δημοκήδεα ἐδέετο αὐτοῦ ὅκως ἐξηγησάμενος
πᾶσαν καὶ ἐπιδέξας τὴν Ἑλλάδα τοῖσι Πέρσῃσι ὀπίσω ἥξει·
(Hdt. 3.135.2.)
… summoning Democedes himself, he required of him that, when he had
shown the way and had displayed all Greece to the Persians, he should come
back.
Vivid construction with Future Indicative in Past sequence.
Hom.Od. 3.327 seems to be the only instance of ἵνα + Subjunctive
expressing a reported request or command prior to the later classical or
Hellenistic periods.
84
LESSON 10. COMMANDS
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§237, 250–251,
259–260, 294, 297–298, 355–357, 746–747, Appendix II (pp. 389–397).
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1800, 1830, 1835–1836, 1840–1841, 1918–

1919, 1991–1992, 1996–1998, 2155, 2210, 2218, 2754, 2756–2757.
Goodwin (1889, Appendix II) has not convinced all his contemporaries nor all
subsequent scholars.
EXERCISE 10
Translate the following passages. The Imperative function of virtual
commands should be made clear in translation.
1. καί μοι τὰ μὲν παρόντα μὴ δύρεσθ’ ἄχη,
πέδοι δὲ βᾶσαι τὰς προσερπούσας τύχας
ἀκούσαθ’…
(ὀ)δύρεσθαι to lament (for) (+ Acc.)

ἄχος, -ους, τό pain
πέδοι (adv.) (on) to the ground
προσέρπειν to approach
ἀκούσαθ’ ἀκούσατε
2. στείχοις ἂν ἤδη· καὶ γὰρ ἐξεπίστασαι

τά γ’ ἐν δόμοισιν ὡς ἔχοντα τυγχάνει.
ὡς how (Introduces reported question

after ἐπίστασαι.)
3. μή μοι θάνῃς σὺ κοινά, μηδ’ ἃ μὴ ’θιγες

ποιοῦ σεαυτῆς·
κοινά (adverbial Acc. neut.) in common (with), jointly (with)

(+ Dat.)
μηδέ and (…) not
θιγγάνειν to touch, to handle
ποιεῖσθαι (Mid.) to make, to claim as; to regard as
(here + Possessive Gen.)
85
4. Euadne: ᾄσσω θανόντος Καπανέως τήνδ’ ἐς πυράν.

Iphis: ὦ θύγατερ, οὐ μὴ μῦθον ἐπὶ πολλοὺς ἐρεῖς;
ἀΐσσειν, ᾄσσειν to move quickly, to hurry

Καπανεύς, -έως, ὁ here Possessive Gen.
πυρά, -ᾶς, ἡ pyre
μῦθος, -ου, ὁ statement, announcement
ἐπί (+ Acc.) before, in the presence of (Some editors
emend to ἐς.)
5. αἱ μὲν γὰρ πλεῖσται πόλεις ἀφεῖσαι παιδεύειν ὅπως τις ἐθέλει

τοὺς ἑαυτοῦ παῖδας … προστάττουσιν αὐτοῖς μὴ κλέπτειν
μηδὲ ἁρπάζειν …
ἀφιέναι to allow
ὅπως (+ Indic.) as
6. καὶ Σεύθην ἐκέλευον παραγγεῖλαι ὅπως εἰς τὰ Ἑλληνικὰ

στρατόπεδα μηδεὶς τῶν Θρᾳκῶν εἴσεισι νυκτός·
καί And (Links whole sentence to preceding.)

Σεύθης, -ου, ὁ Seuthes
ἐκέλευον 3rd pers. pl.
στρατόπεδον, -ου, τό camp
εἰσιέναι to go into, to enter (Pres. Indic.
equivalent to Fut.)
7. Therefore, from a distance catching sight of us having set off for

home, Polemarchus the son of Cephalus told his slave to run and tell
[us] to wait for him. And the slave, catching me from behind by the
cloak, said, ‘Polemarchus tells you [pl.] to wait’.
from a distance πόρρωθεν

to catch sight of καθορᾶν, Aor. κατιδεῖν (+ Acc.)
to set off ὁρμᾶσθαι
Polemarchus Πολέμαρχος, -ου, ὁ
Cephalus Κέφαλος, -ου, ὁ
to run τρέχειν, Aor. δραμεῖν
86
LESSON 10. COMMANDS
to wait (for) περιμένειν (+ Acc.)

to catch (someone) λαμβάνεσθαι (Mid.) (+ double Gen.)
by (something)
from behind ὄπισθεν
cloak ἱμάτιον, -ου, τό
‘Polemarchus tells …’ Use direct speech in Greek.
87
LESSON 11
Wishes
11.1. Wishes for the Future

Wishes for the future are regularly expressed by a verb in the Optative
Mood. The usual Aspects are either Imperfect for continuous action or
Aorist for momentary action. The Perfect Aspect is normally limited
to verbs which are used in the Perfect with an Imperfect meaning.
The Intentive (‘Fut.’) Optative is not used for wishes. Introductory
particles often occur with this construction. The negative is μή.
11.1.1. Optative Alone

στέργοι δέ με σωφροσύνα, δώρημα κάλλιστον θεῶν· (E.Med. 636.)
And may moderation, finest gift of the gods, favour me.
εἰ δ’ οἵδ’ ἁμαρτάνουσι, μὴ πλείω κακὰ
πάθοιεν ἢ καὶ δρῶσιν ἐκδίκως ἐμέ. (S.Ant. 927–928.)
But if these men are making a mistake, may they suffer no more
harm than they are unjustly causing me.
Negative μή.
11.1.2. εἰ γάρ or εἴθε with Optative

The usual Epic spelling of these terms is αἲ γάρ and αἴθε. After Homer,
εἰ γάρ is found mainly in tragedy and especially in responses.
εἰ γὰρ τύχοιεν ὧν φρονοῦσι πρὸς θεῶν
αὐτοῖς ἐκείνοις ἀνοσίοις κομπάσμασιν· (A.Th. 550–551.)
May they obtain from the gods what they intend,
by reason of those very boasts <so> impious.
ὧν = τούτων ἅ.
89
αἴθ’ οὕτως, Εὔμαιε, φίλος Διὶ πατρὶ γένοιο

ὡς ἐμοί, ὅττι μ’ ἔπαυσας ἄλης καὶ ὀϊζύος αἰνῆς.
(Hom.Od. 15.341–342.)
May you, Eumaeus, become so dear to father Zeus
as to me, because you stopped me from my wandering and my dreadful misery!
11.1.3. εἰ or ὡς with Optative

The use of εἰ or ὡς with Optative is more restricted. εἰ alone occurs
mainly in poetry, including Homer. An exclamatory use of ὡς also
occurs in poetry, especially Homer.
εἴ μοι ξυνείη φέροντι μοῖρα τὰν
εὔσεπτον ἁγνείαν λόγων
ἔργων τε πάντων … (S.OT 863–865.)
May destiny be with me as I attain
reverent purity in all
words and actions …
ὡς ἔρις ἔκ τε θεῶν ἐκ τ’ ἀνθρώπων ἀπόλοιτο … (Hom.Il. 18.107.)
May strife perish from among gods and men …
11.1.4. πῶς ἄν and τίς ἄν with Optative

Sentences, which are in form questions introduced by πῶς ἄν or τίς ἄν
with the Optative, may function as wishes. The question ‘How would I …?’
is equivalent to the wish ‘May I …’. And the question ‘Who would …?’ is
equivalent to the wish ‘May someone …’. The negative in these virtual
wishes is μή, not οὐ as in genuine potential Optative constructions.
ὦ Ζεῦ, προγόνων προπάτωρ,
πῶς ἂν τὸν αἱμυλώτατον,
ἐχθρὸν ἄλημα, τούς τε δισσ-
άρχας ὀλέσσας βασιλῆς,
τέλος θάνοιμι καὐτός; (S.Aj. 387–391.)
O Zeus, forefather of my forbears,
may I, after destroying that most wily man,
a hateful trickster, and the jointly
ruling kings, <may I>
finally die myself.
90
LESSON 11. WISHES
τίς ἂν δῆτά μοι, τίς ἂν φιλοπόνων

ἁλιαδᾶν ἔχων ἀύπνους ἄγρας
ἢ τίς Ὀλυνπιάδων
θεᾶν, ἢ ῥυτῶν
Βοσπορίων ποταμῶν,
τὸν ὠμόθυμον εἴ ποθι
πλαζόμενον λεύσσων
ἀπύοι; (S.Aj. 879–887.)
May some one, then, some one of the hard-working
fishermen maintaining sleepless searches
or one of the Olympian
goddesses, or of the rivers
flowing into the Bosporus,
if seeing the savage-hearted man
wandering somewhere,
tell me.
11.2. Unfulfilled Wishes for the Present

and the Past
The negative in all the following constructions is μή.
11.2.1. εἰ γάρ or εἴθε with Indicative

This Indicative construction does not yet occur in Homer.
11.2.1.1. Wishes for the Present

Unfulfilled wishes for the present with εἰ γάρ or εἴθε use the Past
Imperfect Indicative.
εἰ γὰρ τοσαύτην δύναμιν εἶχον ὥστε σὴν
ἐς φῶς πορεῦσαι νερτέρων ἐκ δωμάτων
γυναῖκα καί σοι τήνδε πορσῦναι χάριν. (E.Alc. 1072–1074.)
If only I had (now) enough strength to convey
your wife to the light from the dwellings below
and to provide this favour for you.
91
εἴθ’ εἶχε φωνὴν εὔφρον’ ἀγγέλου δίκην … (A.Ch. 195.)

If only it had (now) a kindly voice in the manner of a messenger …
(Electra speaks about the lock of hair found at Agamemnon’s tomb.)
11.2.1.2. Wishes for the Past

Unfulfilled wishes for the past with εἰ γάρ or εἴθε use the Past Aorist
Indicative.
εἰ γάρ μ’ ὑπὸ γῆν νέρθεν θ’ Ἅιδου
τοῦ νεκροδέγμονος εἰς ἀπέραντον
Τάρταρον ἧκεν δεσμοῖς ἀλύτοις
ἀγρίως πελάσας … (A.Pr. 153–155.)
If only, having savagely put me in inescapable bonds,
he had sent me under the earth
and beneath Hades, who receives the dead,
to boundless Tartarus …
ἰὼ Λαΐειον ὦ τέκνον,
εἴθε σ’ εἴθε σε
μήποτ’ εἰδόμαν· (S.OT 1216–1218.)
Ah! O child of Laius,
if only, if only
I had never seen you.
11.2.2. ὤφελον with Infinitive

Unfulfilled wishes for the present or the past may also be expressed by
ὤφελον with an Infinitive. ὤφελον is first person singular Past Aorist
Indicative of ὀφείλειν ‘to owe’. The idiomatic English equivalent of
ὤφελον is ‘I ought’. ‘Ought’ is itself a past form of ‘owe’ in English,
and functions as an Imperfect Subjunctive (‘would owe’). In Homer,
besides the Past Aorist Indicative ὤφελον, the Past Imperfect Indicative
ὤφελλον occurs; both forms may appear without augment, ὄφελον,
ὄφελλον. Other forms besides first person singular occur.
11.2.2.1. Wishes for the Present

Unfulfilled wishes for the present with ὤφελον use the Imperfect
Infinitive.
92
LESSON 11. WISHES
ἀλλ’ ὤφελε μὲν Κῦρος ζῆν· (X.An. 2.1.4.)

Oh, if only Cyrus were alive.
Lit. ‘Oh, Cyrus ought to be alive’.
11.2.2.2. Wishes for the Past

Unfulfilled wishes for the past with ὤφελον generally use the Aorist
Infinitive, rarely the Perfect Infinitive. If the reference is to past continuous
or repeated action, the Imperfect Infinitive may be used.
ἔμπας τις αὐτὴν ἄλλος ὤφελεν λαχεῖν. (A.Pr. 48.)
Nevertheless, if only someone else had obtained it.
λαχεῖν (Aor. Infin.) is the usual construction. αὐτήν refers to
Hephaestus’s τέχνη.
Ἀτρεΐδη κύδιστε, ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν Ἀγάμεμνον,
μὴ ὄφελες λίσσεσθαι ἀμύμονα Πηλεΐωνα,
μυρία δῶρα διδούς· (Hom.Il. 9.697–699.)
Most honoured son of Atreus, lord of men Agamemnon,
if only you had not entreated the blameless son of Peleus,
offering ten thousand gifts.
Lit. ‘…you ought not to have entreated…’; λίσσεσθαι (Imperf. Infin.)
alludes to repeated or continuous action in the past.
11.2.2.3. Introductory Particles with ὤφελ(λ)ον

εἰ γάρ or εἴθε may introduce a wish expressed by ὤφελον with Infinitive.
ὡς is also often used in Homer and rarely in Attic poetry.
Δύσπαρι, εἶδος ἄριστε, γυναιμανές, ἠπεροπευτά,
αἴθ’ ὄφελες ἄγονος τ’ ἐμέναι ἄγαμος τ’ ἀπολέσθαι.
(Hom.Il. 3.39–40.)
Bad Paris, excellent in appearance, mad for women, deceiver,
if only you were unborn and had perished unmarried.
αἴθ’ ὄφελες (Past Aor. Indic.) with ἐμέναι (Infin. ‘to be’), then with
ἀπολέσθαι (Aor. Infin.), expresses an unfulfilled wish for the present,
then for the past.
93
ὡς ὄφελον θανέειν καὶ πότμον ἐπισπεῖν

αὐτοῦ ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ· (Hom.Od. 14.274–275.)
If only I had died and had met my fate
there in Egypt!
ὡς ὄφελον (Past Aor. Indic) with θανέειν and ἐπισπεῖν (Aor. Infin.;
Imperf. ἐφέπειν).
Lit. ‘How I ought to have died…!’
…ὡς μ’ ὄφελ’ ἤματι τῷ ὅτε με πρῶτον τέκε μήτηρ
οἴχεσθαι προφέρουσα κακὴ ἀνέμοιο θύελλα
εἰς ὄρος ἢ εἰς κῦμα πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης …
(Hom.Il. 6.345–347.)
…if only on that day, when first my mother bore me,
a bad squall of wind had carried me off and gone
into a mountain or into the swell of the loud-roaring sea …
ὡς … ὄφελ(ε) (Past Aor. Indic.) with οἴχεσθαι (Imperf. Infin. with
Perf. sense).
Lit. ‘how a bad squall … ought to have gone …’
11.2.3. An Additional Homeric Construction

In Homer, although the constructions in §11.2.1 are not yet used,
unfulfilled wishes for the Present are sometimes expressed by the Imperfect
Optative. These wishes are usually introduced by εἰ γάρ or εἴθε.
εἴθ’ ὣς ἡβώοιμι βίη δέ μοι ἔμπεδος εἴη,
ὡς ὁπότ’ Ἠλείοισι καὶ ἡμῖν νεῖκος ἐτύχθη
ἀμφὶ βοηλασίῃ … (Hom.Il. 11.670–672.)
If only I were thus young and my strength were firm,
as when a quarrel arose between the Eleans and us
over cattle-rustling …
94
LESSON 11. WISHES
11.3. Reported Wishes

Wishes may be reported in an Infinitive phrase after verbs such as
βούλεσθαι, (ἐ)θέλειν and ζητεῖν. When the Subject of the Infinitive
is the same as the Subject of the verb of wishing, it is usually not expressed
in Greek. If it is expressed, it is Nominative as in §11.4, second example
(where κἀγώ = καὶ ἐγώ). When the Subject of the Infinitive is different
to the Subject of the verb of wishing, it is expressed in the Accusative.
γράψαι δὲ βουλόμεθα καὶ ὡς δεῖ ὡπλίσθαι τὸν μέλλοντα ἐφ’
ἵππου κινδυνεύειν. (X.Eq. 12.1.)
And we want to describe also how the man, who is going to face danger
on horseback, needs to have been armed.
βούλεσθαι + Infinitive only.
οὐ γάρ σε βουλόμεθα οὐδὲν ἄχαρι πρὸς Ἀθηναίων παθεῖν ἐόντα
πρόξεινόν τε καὶ φίλον. (Hdt. 8.143.3.)
For we do not want you to suffer anything unpleasant from the Athenians,
since you are our patron and friend.
βούλεσθαι + Accusative and Infinitive.
11.4. Reported Wishes Instead of Direct Wishes

An unfulfilled wish for the present or the past is occasionally expressed
by the Past Imperfect Indicative ἐβουλόμην with Imperfect Infinitive
(referring to the present) or Aorist Infinitive (referring to the past). This
idiom expresses the wish less directly and therefore more gently.
ἐβουλόμην μὲν οὖν καὶ τὴν βουλὴν τοὺς πεντακοσίους καὶ τὰς
ἐκκλησίας ὑπὸ τῶν ἐφεστηκότων ὀρθῶς διοικεῖσθαι καὶ τοὺς
νόμους οὓς ἐνομοθέτησεν ὁ Σόλων περὶ τῆς τῶν ῥητόρων
εὐκοσμίας ἰσχύειν … (Aeschin. 3.2.)
Well then, I wish that both the council of the five hundred and the assemblies
were (now) being properly organised by those in charge, and that the laws
which Solon framed concerning the proper behaviour of public speakers were
(now) in force …
διοικεῖσθαι, ἰσχύειν: Imperfect Infinitive.
95
ἐβουλόμην, ὦ ἄνδρες, ὥσπερ Ξεναίνετος οὑτοσὶ δύναται

ψευδῆ λέγειν θαρραλέως, οὕτω κἀγὼ τἀληθῆ πρὸς ὑμᾶς περὶ ὧν
ἀμφισβητοῦμεν εἰπεῖν δυνηθῆναι· (Is. 10.1.)
I wish, O men, that, just as Xenaenetus here can confidently tell lies, so I too
could have told you the truth about the points on which we disagree.
δυνηθῆναι: Aorist Infinitive.
This idiom is made less direct by the use of ἄν with ἐβουλόμην.
ἐβουλόμην μέντ’ ἂν αὐτοὺς οὕτω προθύμους εἶναι σῴζειν τὴν
πόλιν, ὥσπερ οὗτοι ἀπολλύναι· (Lys. 12.86.)
But I wish that they were (now) so eager to save the city, as these men
<are eager > to destroy it.
Lit. ‘But I would (now) be wishing …’
11.5. Interrogative Wishes Combined with

Deliberative Subjunctive
Classical Greek uses a particular idiom corresponding to the English
question: ‘Do you want me to do this?’ The verb of wishing is regularly
second person (sg. or pl.) and the verb of doing is regularly first person
(sg. or pl.). In prose, βούλεσθαι is used as the verb of wishing; in verse,
both βούλεσθαι and (ἐ)θέλειν are used. The structure of these questions
is coordinate (paratactic)—‘Do you wish it? Am I to do it?’
βούλῃ τὸ πρᾶγμα τοῖς θεαταῖσιν φράσω; (Ar.Eq. 36.)
Do you want me to tell the matter to the spectators?
Lit. ‘Do you want? Am I to tell …?’
ὦ σεμνὰς πλάκας
ναίοντες ὀρέων, θέλετε θηρασώμεθα
Πενθέως Ἀγαύην μητέρ’ ἐκ βακχευμάτων
χάριν τ’ ἄνακτι θώμεθα; (E.Ba. 718–721.)
96
LESSON 11. WISHES
O <you>, inhabiting
the holy plateaus of the mountains, do you want us to hunt
Agaue mother of Pentheus from her Bacchic rites
and do a favour to our master?
Lit. ‘Do you want? Are we to hunt …?’
References
Denniston (1954), The Greek particles, pp. 89–95 (εἰ γάρ).
720–739.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1780–1782, 1789, 1806, 1814–1815, 1832,

2156.
EXERCISE 11
Translate the following passages. All expressions which may have the
function of a wish should be translated as wishes.
1. μηδάμ’ ὁ πάντα νέμων
θεῖτ’ ἐμᾷ γνώμᾳ κράτος ἀντίπαλον Ζεύς …
μηδαμά never (accent affected by elision)

νέμειν to control, to manage
γνώμη, -ης, ἡ will (here with Doric spelling)
ἀντίπαλος, -ον in opposition to, against (+ Dat.)
(here predicative)
2. εἰ γὰρ γενοίμην, τέκνον, ἀντὶ σοῦ νεκρός.

3. Ζεῦ πάτερ, αἴθ’ ὅσα εἶπε τελευτήσειεν ἅπαντα
Ἀλκίνοος·
Ἀλκίνοος, -ου, ὁ Alcinous
97
4. ὦ τέκνα τέκνα, πῶς ἄν, εἴ τις ἔντοπος,

τὸν πάντ’ ἄριστον δεῦρο Θησέα πόροι;
ἔντοπος, -ον at hand

πάντ(α) neut. pl. adj. as Acc. of Respect
Θησεύς, -έως, ὁ Theseus
πορεῖν (Aor.) to bring (usually, to provide)
5. ὦ πάτερ πάτερ,
τίς ἂν θεῶν σοι τόνδ’ ἄριστον ἄνδρ’ ἰδεῖν
δοίη, τὸν ἡμᾶς δεῦρο προσπέμψαντά σοι;
διδόναι to grant, to allow (+ Dat. and Infin.)

προσπέμπειν to conduct (to) (+ Dat.)
6. εἴθ’ ἦν ἐμαυτὸν προσβλέπειν ἐναντίον

στάνθ’, ὡς ἐδάκρυσ’ οἷα πάσχομεν κακά.
εἶναι to be <possible>
ἐναντίος, -α, -ον opposite
στάνθ’ στάντα (Acc. sg. masc.)
ὡς ἐδάκρυσ(α) so that I might lament (Unfulfilled
Purpose clause with Indic., dependent
on unfulfilled wish [Smyth, 1956,
§2185.c; Goodwin, 1889, §333]).
7. εἴθ’ ηὕρομεν σ’, Ἄδμητε, μὴ λυπούμενον.

8. … αἴθ’ ὤφελλες ἀεικελίου στρατοῦ ἄλλοῦ
σημαίνειν …
ἀεικέλιος, -α, -ον inferior

σημαίνειν to be in command (of ) (+ Gen.)
9. καὶ μηδὲ σαυτῆς γ’ ἐκμαθεῖν ζήτει πόνους.
μηδέ not … either

πόνος, -ου, ὁ trouble
98
LESSON 11. WISHES
10. Astyages, wishing the boy to dine as pleasantly as possible, was setting

all sorts of foods before him.
Astyages Ἀστυάγης, -ους, ὁ

to dine δειπνεῖν
to set (Acc.) before (Dat.) προσάγειν
all sorts of παντοδαποί, -αί, -ά
food βρῶμα, -ατος, τό
11. And I [would] wish, O council, that Simon had the same attitude
as I …
I [would] wish Use Past Imperf. Indic. of βούλεσθαι

with ἄν.
Simon Σίμων, -ωνος, ὁ
same … as αὐτός, -ή, -όν (+ Dat.)
attitude γνώμη, -ης, ἡ
12. Do you [pl.], therefore, want me … to converse with you to the

accompaniment of the flute?
to converse (with) διαλέγεσθαι (Mid.; also Aor. Pass.)

(+ Dat.)
to the accompaniment of ὑπό + Acc.
flute αὐλός, -οῦ, ὁ
99
LESSON 12
Directly Reported Speech
All speaking or writing may be directly reported in the exact words of the
original speaker or writer. The following sections quote examples from a
range of genres and periods.
12.1. Homer
Normally, the speeches in the Homeric epics were formally introduced.
And either their conclusion was marked, or the immediate response of the
next speaker was introduced.
πολλὰ δ’ ἔπειτ’ ἀπάνευθε κιὼν ἠρᾶθ’ ὁ γεραιὸς
Ἀπόλλωνι ἄνακτι, τὸν ἠΰκομος τέκε Λητώ·
κλῦθί μευ, ἀργυρότοξ’, ὃς Χρύσην ἀμφιβέβηκας
Κίλλαν τε ζαθέην Τενέδοιό τε ἶφι ἀνάσσεις,
Σμινθεῦ, εἴ ποτέ τοι χαριέντ’ ἐπὶ νηὸν ἔρεψα,
ἢ εἰ δή ποτέ τοι κατὰ πίονα μηρί’ ἔκηα
ταύρων ἠδ’ αἰγῶν, τόδε μοι κρήηνον ἐέλδωρ·
τίσειαν Δαναοὶ ἐμὰ δάκρυα σοῖσι βέλεσσιν.
ὣς ἔφατ’ εὐχόμενος, τοῦ δ’ ἔκλυε Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων …
(Hom.Il. 1.35–43.)
And then, going far away, he, the old man, earnestly prayed
to lord Apollo, whom lovely-haired Leto bore:
‘Hear me, you with the silver bow, who have taken your stand over Chryse
and sacred Cilla and rule with strength over Tenedos,
Smintheus, if ever I roofed over a shrine pleasing to you,
or if indeed ever I burned up for you fat thighs
of bulls and goats, fulfil this wish for me:
may the Danaans pay for my tears by your arrows’.
So he spoke as he prayed, and Phoebus Apollo heard him …
101
12.2. Drama
All dramatic dialogue is, by its nature, direct speech; but it is not directly
reported speech. However, in drama short passages of direct speech may
be quoted within a longer speech. Most commonly, this may occur within
a messenger’s speech.
Πενθεὺς δ’ ὁ τλήμων θῆλυν οὐχ ὁρῶν ὄχλον
ἔλεξε τοιάδ’· ὦ ξέν’, οὗ μὲν ἕσταμεν,
οὐκ ἐξικνοῦμαι μαινάδων ὄσσοις νόθων·
ὄχθων δ’ ἔπ’, ἀμβὰς ἐς ἐλάτην ὑψαύχενα,
ἴδοιμ’ ἂν ὀρθῶς μαινάδων αἰσχρουργίαν. (E.Ba. 1058–1062, within
the speech 1043–1152.)
But Pentheus, the poor man, not seeing the female crowd,
spoke in the following way: ‘O stranger, <from> where we are standing
I do not reach with my eyes the spurious maenads;
but on a mound, getting up into a stately fir-tree,
I would see properly the disgraceful-behaviour of the maenads’.
12.3. Historiography
The first passage of directly reported speech in Thucydides’s History of
the Peloponnesian War is formally introduced, begins with an elaborate
opening sentence, continues for five chapters and has its conclusion
formally marked.
καταστάσης δὲ ἐκκλησίας ἐς ἀντιλογίαν ἦλθον· καὶ οἱ μὲν
Κερκυραῖοι ἔλεξαν τοιάδε. δίκαιον, ὦ Ἀθηναῖοι, τοὺς μήτε
εὐεργεσίας μεγάλης μήτε ξυμμαχίας προυφειλομένης ἥκοντας
παρὰ τοὺς πέλας ἐπικουρίας, ὥσπερ καὶ ἡμεῖς νῦν, δεησομένους
ἀναδιδάξαι πρῶτον, μάλιστα μὲν ὡς καὶ ξύμφορα δέονται, εἰ δὲ μή,
ὅτι γε οὐκ ἐπιζήμια, ἔπειτα δὲ ὡς καὶ τὴν χάριν βέβαιον ἕξουσιν·
… τοιαῦτα μὲν οἱ Κερκυραῖοι εἶπον· (Th. 1.31.4–1.32.1; 1.36.4.)
And when an assembly had been arranged, they came to put their arguments;
and the Corcyreans spoke in the following way. ‘<It is> (only) fair, O
Athenians, that those, who have come to their neighbours, when there is prior
indebtedness neither for a great benefit nor for an alliance, to ask for aid, just
as indeed we <have> now, should first explain, especially that they are actually
making a request that is advantageous [i.e. to those who are asked], but
102
LESSON 12. DIRECTLY REPORTED SPEECH
otherwise, that at least <it is> one that is not disadvantageous <to them>, and
secondly that they [= providers] will get gratitude that is sure; …’ Such <were
the words which> the Corcyreans spoke.
12.4. Prose Quotation Formulae

In prose, short passages of reported speech are often marked by the insertion
of a form of φάναι (‘to say’) after an opening word, phrase or clause.
ἢν μέντοι ἐγὼ γένωμαι στρατηγός, ἔφη, πολεμήσω σοι, ὦ
Ἀγησίλαε, ὡς ἂν ἐγὼ δύνωμαι κράτιστα. (X.Ages. 3.5; biography.)
‘But if I become general’, he said, ‘I shall make war on you, O Agesilaus,
as forcefully as I possibly can’.
ἔφην is listed in Liddell and Scott (1996) as (Past) second Aorist. In some
grammars and in Montanari (2015), this form is treated as Past Imperfect.
According to Smyth (1956, §788), ἔφην is both (Past) Imperfect and
(Past) Aorist. Even those grammars which present the ἔφην forms as Past
Imperfect may translate these forms as ‘I said’, etc. It is indeed usual to
translate the ἔφην forms into English by a simple Past Tense, ‘I said’, etc.
Present and Past Imperfect forms of ἠμί (‘I say’) are used in the same way,
but they occur only in first person singular and third person singular.
These forms are regularly followed by δ(έ) (which serves no function)
and then by the first and third person singular pronouns ἐγώ and ὅς, ἥ.
The Past Imperfect forms function as a general Past Tense.
πρότερον δέ μοι, ἦ δ’ ὅς, εἰπέ, σὺ αὐτὸς παρεγένου τῇ συνουσίᾳ
ταύτῃ ἢ οὔ; (Pl.Smp. 172 B; philosophical dialogue.)
‘But first tell me’, he said, ‘did you yourself attend this gathering or not?’
12.5. ὅτι and ὡς as Quotation Markers

In prose, ὅτι (rarely ὡς) is sometimes used immediately before a passage of
directly reported speech. In this usage, ὅτι has the function of quotation
marks and should not be translated. This idiom is colloquial; it first occurs
at Hdt. 2.115.4–6. The fact that the following example contains a directly
reported statement, and not just a Vivid indirectly reported statement,
is confirmed by the second person pronouns ὑμᾶς and ὑμῶν.
103
… ὁ τελευταῖος διαπλεύσας αὐτοῖς ἀπὸ τῶν ἐκ τῆς ἠπείρου

Λακεδαιμονίων ἀνὴρ ἀπήγγειλεν ὅτι Λακεδαιμόνιοι κελεύουσιν
ὑμᾶς αὐτοὺς περὶ ὑμῶν αὐτῶν βουλεύεσθαι μηδὲν αἰσχρὸν
ποιοῦντας· (Th. 4.38.3.)
… the last man to sail across to them from the Spartans on the mainland
reported: ‘The Spartans order you yourselves to decide concerning yourselves,
provided that you do nothing shameful’.
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§662, 711.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2589–2590.
EXERCISE 12
1. καὶ τότε δή με ἔπεσσι προσηύδα πότνια Κίρκη·
ταῦτα μὲν οὕτω πάντα πεπείρανται·
προσαυδᾶν to address
2. ἐπεὶ δὲ μόχθων τέρματ’ οὐκ ἐξήνυτον,

ἔλεξ’ Ἀγαύη· φέρε, περιστᾶσαι κύκλῳ
πτόρθου λάβεσθε, μαινάδες, …
μόχθος, -ου, ὁ labour

ἐξανύ(τ)ειν to accomplish, to attain
φέρε come on! (sg. Impv. used also for pl.)
πτόρθος, -ου, ὁ sapling
λαμβάνεσθαι (Mid.) to take hold (of ) (+ Partitive Gen.)
104
LESSON 12. DIRECTLY REPORTED SPEECH
3. παρελθὼν δὲ Σθενελαΐδας τελευταῖος, εἷς τῶν ἐφόρων τότε ὤν,

ἔλεξεν τοῖς Λακεδαιμονίοις ὧδε. τοὺς μὲν λόγους τοὺς πολλοὺς
τῶν Ἀθηναίων οὐ γιγνώσκω· …
παρελθεῖν (Aor.) to come forward

Σθενελαΐδας, -ου, ὁ Sthenelaidas
ἔφορος, -ου, ὁ ephor (one of five annual magistrates
at Sparta)
Λακεδαιμόνιος, -α, -ον Spartan
4. ταῦτα μὲν τοίνυν προθυμησόμεθα, ἔφη, οὕτω ποιεῖν· θάπτωμεν

δέ σε τίνα τρόπον;
ὅπως ἄν, ἔφη, βούλησθε, ἐάνπερ γε λάβητέ με καὶ μὴ ἐκφύγω
ὑμᾶς.
τοίνυν well then

προθυμεῖσθαι (Mid.) to be eager, to be keen (+ Infin.)
θάπτειν to bury
τίνα (τρόπον) delayed interrogative
The second speaker responds to the first.
5. ἀλλὰ μὰ Δία, ἦν δ’ ἐγώ, οὐκ οἶδα, ἀλλὰ τῷ ὄντι αὐτὸς εἰλιγγιῶ
ὑπὸ τῆς τοῦ λόγου ἀπορίας …
τῷ ὄντι in reality

(ε)ἰλιγγιᾶν to be(come) dizzy
ὑπό (+ Gen.) under (the influence/effect of )
ἀπορία, -ας, ἡ difficulty
6. προσελθόντες δέ μοι τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ Μέλητος καὶ Εὐφίλητος

ἔλεγον ὅτι γεγένηται, ὦ Ἀνδοκίδη, καὶ πέπρακται ἡμῖν ταῦτα.
ὑστεραίᾳ Understand ἡμέρᾳ (standard idiom)

γίγνεσθαι to happen
ἡμῖν Dat. of Agent with Perf. Pass. verb
105
7. ‘I know’, he said, ‘both that you had been born a private citizen, and
that you are now a monarch’.
to have been born γεγενῆσθαι (Perf. Pass.)

private citizen ἰδιώτης, -ου, ὁ
monarch τύραννος, -ου, ὁ
106
LESSON 13
Reported Statements with ὅτι or ὡς
13.1. Introduction
This Lesson deals with reported statements in the form of a Simple
sentence and of the Main clause of a Complex sentence. The negative for
these reported statements is regularly οὐ. (Subordinate clauses in reported
discourse will be treated in Lesson 21.)
A statement may be reported indirectly after a verb of saying by means
of a Subordinate clause introduced by ὅτι or ὡς. ὅτι is generally used
after a positive leading verb. ὡς is likely to be used when the reported
statement is open to doubt. ὅτι and ὡς are regularly used with λέγειν
and εἰπεῖν, but rarely with φάναι (which normally takes an Infin.
phrase; see Lesson 14).
13.2. Reported Statements in Primary Sequence

In Primary sequence, that is, after a verb of saying in Present or Future
Time, the original Mood and Tense of direct speech are retained in the
reported clause after ὅτι or ὡς. There may, however, be a change of person
as in English idiom.
Directly reported statement: He says, ‘I am the king’.
Indirectly reported statement: He says that he is the king.
καὶ λέγουσιν ὅτι ἐπὶ τοῦτο ἔρχονται … (X.Cyr. 1.2.6.)
And they say that they come for this purpose …
Direct form: ἔρχονται, ‘They come’; Present Indicative retained in
reported form.
λέγει δ’ ὡς ὑβριστής εἰμι καὶ βίαιος καὶ λίαν ἀσελγῶς διακείμενος
… (Lys. 24.15.)
And he says that I am insolent and violent and have a very outrageous
attitude …
107
Direct form: ὑβριστής ἐστι, ‘He is insolent’; change of person in

reported form. Here, the speechwriter uses ὡς rather than ὅτι, since he
does not want his client to appear to admit the allegations against him.
ἴσως δ’ Εὐθύνους ἐρεῖ…, ὅτι οὐκ ἄν ποτ’ ἀδικεῖν ἐπιχειρῶν τὰ
μὲν δύο μέρη τῆς παρακαταθήκης ἀπέδωκε … (Isoc. 21.16.)
But perhaps Euthynus will say …, that, if attempting to do wrong, he would
not ever have paid back two-thirds of the deposit …
Direct form: οὐκ ἄν ποτ’ … ἀπέδωκα, ‘I would not ever … have paid
back’; Past Aorist Indicative with ἄν retained; change of person.
ἴσως οὖν εἴποιεν ἄν πολλοὶ τῶν φασκόντων φιλοσοφεῖν, ὅτι οὐκ
ἄν ποτε ὁ δίκαιος ἄδικος γένοιτο … (X.Mem. 1.2.19.)
Perhaps, therefore, many of those who claim to be philosophers would say, that
the just <man> would not ever become unjust …
Direct form: οὐκ ἄν ποτε ὁ δίκαιος ἄδικος γένοιτο, ‘the just man
would not ever become unjust’; Optative retained.
13.3. Reported Statements in Past Sequence

In Past sequence, that is, after a verb of saying in Past Time:
• Primary and Past Aorist Tenses of the Indicative are changed to the
same Aspect of the Optative
• Past Aorist Indicative with ἄν denoting potentiality is retained
• Past Imperfect and Past Perfect Indicatives are usually retained
• all Optatives are retained.
εἶπον αὐτοῖς ὅτι νομίζοιμι μὲν διὰ τὸ πρᾶγμα Εὐφίλητον πονηρὸν
εἶναι … (And. 1.64.)
I told them that I thought that Euphiletus was wicked because of the action …
Direct form: νομίζω, ‘I think’; Imperfect Aspect is retained in reported
form.
ἔλεξαν γὰρ ὡς ἐγὼ μηνύσαιμι περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων … (And. 1.19.)
For they said that I had lodged information concerning the mysteries …
108
LESSON 13. REPORTED STATEMENTS WITH ὅτι OR ὡς
Direct form: ἐμήνυσε, ‘He lodged information’; Aorist Aspect is retained

in reported form, with change of person. Here, Andocides uses ὡς, since
he does not admit the allegation.
ἐπιλέγων δὲ τὸν λόγον τόνδε ταῦτα ἐνετέλλετο, ὡς, εἰ μὲν
ἀπώλοντο οἱ κατάσκοποι, οὔτ’ ἂν τὰ ἑωυτοῦ πρήγματα προεπύθοντο
οἱ Ἕλληνες ἐόντα λόγου μέζω, οὔτ’ ἄν τι τοὺς πολεμίους μέγα
ἐσίναντο ἄνδρας τρεῖς ἀπολέσαντες· (Hdt. 7.147.1.)
And he was giving this command while explaining that, if the scouts had
perished, neither would the Greeks have learnt in advance that his own
importance was greater than common report, nor would they [= Persians]
have done any great harm to their enemy by destroying three men.
Past Aorist Indicative with ἄν retained in reported form. The use of ὡς
may be influenced by the potential nature of the expression.
ἐλθὼν δὲ … ἐς τὴν Λακεδαίμονα, ἢν κατηγορήσωσιν οἱ περὶ τὸν
Ἰσχαγόραν ὅτι οὐκ ἐπείθετο, … ἐπειδὴ εὗρε κατειλημμένους, …
κατὰ τάχος ἐπορεύετο. (Th. 5.21.3.)
And coming … to Sparta, in case the followers of Ischagoras made an accusation
that he had not been obedient, … when he found that they [= Spartans] had
been bound <by the agreement>, … he moved on with haste.
Direct form: οὐκ ἐπείθετο, ‘He was not obedient’; Past Imperfect
Indicative is retained in reported form.
Although the Past Imperfect Indicative of direct speech is usually retained
in reported speech after ὅτι or ὡς, the Imperfect Optative does sometimes
occur where the context is clear.
ἐπεὶ δὲ ἐψηφίσαντο αὐτῷ τὴν ἄδειαν, ἔλεγεν ὅτι ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ
Πουλυτίωνος γίγνοιτο μυστήρια· (And. 1.12.)
And when they had voted immunity to him, he said that mysteries had been
celebrated in the house of Poulytion.
In the context, it is clear that the speaker (in court) did not mean that
mysteries were currently being celebrated, but that they had previously
been (being) celebrated. Thus, the Imperfect Optative can be used without
ambiguity.
109
κατέκλῃσαν δὲ τοῦ αὐτοῦ χειμῶνος καὶ Μακεδόνας Ἀθηναῖοι,

Περδίκκᾳ ἐπικαλοῦντες … ὅτι … ἔψευστο τὴν ξυμμαχίαν …
(Th. 5.83.4.)
And within the same winter the Athenians also blockaded the Macedonians,
bringing an accusation against Perdiccas …, that … he had cheated the
alliance …
Original Past Perfect Indicative is retained in the reported form.
Εὐρυβιάδης δὲ τὴν ἐναντίην ταύτῃ γνώμην ἐτίθετο, λέγων ὡς,
εἰ λύσουσι τὰς σχεδίας, τοῦτ’ ἂν μέγιστον πάντων σφεῖς κακὸν
τὴν Ἑλλάδα ἐργασαίατο. (Hdt. 8.108.2.)
But Eurybiades put forward the opinion opposite to this one, saying that, if
they disconnected the pontoons, they would thereby wreak the greatest trouble
of all upon Greece.
Direct form: εἰ λύσομεν τὰς σχεδίας, τοῦτ’ ἄν μέγιστον πάντων
ἡμεῖς κακὸν Ἑλλάδα ἐργασαίμεθα, ‘If we [shall] disconnect the
pontoons, we would thereby wreak …’ (Mixed Fut. Open, Fut. Unfulfilled
Condition). Original potential Optative with ἄν is retained. τοῦτ(ο)
is strictly direct Object, and μέγιστον … κακόν Predict Accusative
ἐργασαίατο = ἐργάσαιντο (3rd pers. pl.).
13.4. Vivid Construction

The Optative Mood in Past sequence in reported statements is just
beginning to be used in Aeschylus (earlier fifth century BCE). By the
time of the late fifth to early fourth century BCE, usage still depends on
the preference of the writer. Thus, Thucydides more often than not uses
the Vivid construction, retaining the Mood and Tense of the direct form
of speech. But the orators and Plato and Xenophon prefer the Optative.
Both constructions may even occur within the same sentence written by
the same author.
οὗτοι ἔλεγον ὅτι Κῦρος μὲν τέθνηκεν, Ἀριαῖος δὲ πεφευγὼς ἐν
τῷ σταθμῷ εἴη μετὰ τῶν ἄλλων βαρβάρων ὅθεν τῇ προτεραίᾳ
ὥρμηντο … (X.An. 2.1.3.)
These <men> said that Cyrus had died, but that Ariaeus having fled was with
the rest of the natives at the stopping-point from where they had set out on the
previous day …
110
LESSON 13. REPORTED STATEMENTS WITH ὅτι OR ὡς
Direct form: Κῦρος μὲν τέθνηκεν, Ἀριαῖος δὲ … ἐν τῷ σταθμῷ ἐστὶ

… ὅθεν ὡρμήμεθα. ‘Cyrus has died, but Ariaeus … is at the stopping-
point … from where we had set out …’. In Xenophon’s actual form,
the original Mood and Tense has been retained in τέθνηκεν (Vivid);
Optative has been used in εἴη (normal Past sequence); and Past Perfect
Indicative has been retained in ὡρμήμεθα (the usual Vivid construction
for this Mood and Tense).
References
681.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2574–2600, 2613–2615, 2623.
EXERCISE 13
1. ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ προεῖπον ὑμῖν, ὦ ἄνδρες, ἐξ ἀρχῆς περὶ πάντων
ποιήσομαι τὴν ἀπολογίαν, … περὶ τῶν μυστηρίων ὡς οὔτ’ ἐμοὶ
ἠσέβηται οὐδὲν οὔτε μεμήνυται οὔθ’ ὡμολόγηται …
προειπεῖν (Aor.) to mention previously (here 1st pers. sg.)

ἀσεβεῖν to commit impiety
μηνύειν to lay information
ὁμολογεῖν to make a confession
The last three verbs are used impersonally in the Passive here.
2. διὰ ταῦτα εἶπον τῇ βουλῇ ὅτι εἰδείην τοὺς ποιήσαντας, καὶ
ἐξέδειξα τὰ γενόμενα, ὅτι εἰσηγήσατο μὲν … ταύτην τὴν
βουλὴν Εὐφίλητος, ἀντεῖπον δὲ ἐγώ …
βουλή, -ῆς, ἡ council (1st instance); plan (2nd instance)

ἐκδεικνύναι to reveal
εἰσηγεῖσθαι to introduce
111
3. ἐπειδὴ δὲ ταῦτα ἐγένετο, Πείσανδρος καὶ Χαρικλῆς … ἔλεγον

ὡς εἴη τὰ ἔργα τὰ γεγενημένα οὐκ ὀλίγων ἀνδρῶν ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ τῇ
τοῦ δήμου καταλύσει …
δῆμος, -ου, ὁ democracy

κατάλυσις, -εως, ἡ dissolution, overthrow
4. … ὁ Κῦρος εἰσκομίσας τὰ θηρία … ἔλεγεν ὅτι αὐτὸς ταῦτα

θηράσειεν …
εἰσκομίζειν to carry in
θηρίον, -ου, τό (wild) animal
θηρᾶν to hunt
5. ἐν ᾧ δὲ ὡπλίζοντο, ἧκον λέγοντες οἱ προπεμφθέντες σκοποὶ ὅτι

οὐχ ἱππεῖς εἶεν, ἀλλ᾿ ὑποζύγια νέμοιτο.
ἐν ᾧ (χρόνῳ) in which (time) (i.e. while)

ὑποζύγιον, -ου, τό pack-animal
νέμειν (Mid., of animals) to feed, to graze (Intr.)
6. And he went there and said, that he was a freeman and a Milesian by
birth, and [that] Pasion had sent him there to explain about the money.
And he ὅς (coordinating relative pronoun)

free(man) ἐλεύθερος, -ου (masc. adj.)
Milesian Μιλήσιος, -α, -ον
birth γένος, -ους, τό (Use Acc. of Respect)
Pasion Πασίων, -ωνος, ὁ
to send there εἰσπέμπειν
to explain διδάσκειν (Use Intentive/‘Fut.’ Partc.)
money χρήματα, -ων, τά
112
LESSON 14
Reported Statements with Infinitive
14.1. Aspect of the Infinitive

In classical Greek, some verbs of saying (especially φάναι) report
a statement by means of an Infinitive phrase. In this construction, the
Infinitive preserves the Aspect of the direct form of the statement. Thus,
an Imperfect Infinitive generally represents either a Present Imperfect
or a Past Imperfect Indicative of the original statement. A Future
(or ‘Intentive’) Infinitive represents an original Future Indicative.
An Aorist Infinitive generally represents a Past Aorist Indicative. And
a Perfect Infinitive generally represents either a Present Perfect or a Past
Perfect Indicative. Where an original potential statement with ἄν and the
Indicative is reported, ἄν is retained in the Infinitive phrase. In addition,
an original potential statement with ἄν and the Optative may be reported
in an Infinitive phrase with ἄν; the Infinitive preserves the Aspect of the
original Optative.
14.2. Accusative and Infinitive Phrases

Where the Subject of the direct statement is different to the Subject of
the verb of saying, it appears in the Accusative Case as the Subject of the
Infinitive. The whole Accusative and Infinitive phrase is the Object of
the verb of saying. In the following examples, the Subject of the Infinitive
is in the Accusative Case. These examples also illustrate the Aspect of the
Infinitive (as noted in §14.1).
φησὶ γὰρ ὁ κατήγορος οὐ δικαίως με λαμβάνειν τὸ παρὰ τῆς
πόλεως ργύριον· (Lys. 24.4.)
For my accuser says that I am unjustly receiving the money from the state.
Direct form: οὐ δικαίως λαμβάνει, ‘He is unjustly receiving’
(Pres. Imperf.). There is a change from third person (λαμβάνει, ‘he is
receiving’) of the direct form to first person (με, ‘I’) of the reported form.
113
… καὶ τὸν πατέρα ἔφη τὸν ἐμὸν παρεῖναι μέν, καθεύδειν δὲ

ἐγκεκαλυμμένον. (And. 1.17.)
… and he said that my father had been present, but had been asleep covered up.
Direct form: ὁ πατὴρ ὁ τούτου παρῆν μέν, ἐκάθευδε δέ, ‘The father
of this <man> was present, but was sleeping’ (Past Imperf.). There is a
change from third person (τούτου, ‘of this <man>’) in the direct form to
first person (ἐμόν, ‘my’) in the reported form.
… ἔφη … τὸν … πατέρα τὸν ἐμὸν τυχεῖν ἐξιόντα … (And. 1.41.)
… he said that my father had happened to be going out …
Direct form: ὁ πατὴρ ὁ τούτου ἔτυχεν ἐξιών, ‘His father happened to
be going out’ (Past Aor.). There is a change of person as in the previous
example.
οἱ δ’ Ἀθηναῖοι … οὐκ πεδίδοσαν, ἰσχυριζόμενοι ὅτι δὴ ἐίρητο,
ἐὰν ὁτιοῦν παραβαθῇ, λελύσθαι τὰς σπονδάς. (Th. 4.23.1.)
But the Athenians … were not giving back <the ships>, affirming that it had
indeed been stated, that, if any infringement at all had occurred, the treaty
had been broken.
Direct form: λέλυνται αἱ σπονδαί, ‘the treaty has been broken’
(Pres. Perf.).
14.3. Nominative and Infinitive Phrases

The Subject of an Infinitive phrase is normally omitted when it is the same
as the Subject of the verb of saying. An attribute or Complement of the
Subject of the Infinitive appears in the Nominative Case.
ἥκειν ἔφη τῇ ὑστεραίᾳ καὶ δὴ κόπτειν τὴν θύραν· (And. 1.41.)
He said that he had come on the following day and actually had been knocking
on the door.
Direct form: ἧκον … καὶ δὴ ἔκοπτον, ‘I had come and was actually
knocking’ (Past Imperf.). The Subject of the two Infinitives in the reported
form is omitted because it is the same as the Subject of ἔφη.
114
LESSON 14. REPORTED STATEMENTS WITH INFINITIVE
οἱ δὲ Θηβαῖοι … παρελθόντες ἔφασαν καὶ αὐτοὶ βούλεσθαι εἰπεῖν

… (Th. 3.60.)
And the Thebans … coming forward said that they themselves also wanted to
speak …
Direct form: καὶ αὐτοὶ βουλόμεθα εἰπεῖν, ‘we ourselves also want to
speak’ (Pres.). The attribute αὐτοί (‘-selves’) remains Nominative in the
reported form, because it refers to the Subject of ἔφασαν. The change of
person of the verb in the English reported form is not evident in Greek
because of the change of construction from Indicative to Infinitive.
… ἔφασαν … οὐδενὸς ὕστεροι γνώμῃ φανῆναι. (Th.1.91.5.)
… they said … that they had appeared inferior to none in judgment.
Direct form: οὐδενὸς ὕστεροι γνώμῃ ἐφάνημεν, ‘we appeared inferior
to none in judgment’ (Past Aor.). The Complement ὕστεροι remains
Nominative in the reported form, because it refers to the Subject of
ἔφασαν.
14.4. Exceptional Accusative and

Infinitive Phrases
For emphasis, an Accusative and Infinitive phrase is sometimes used, even
when the Subject of the Infinitive is the same as the Subject of the leading
verb. This usually occurs where a contrast or comparison is expressed or
implied. (The same phenomenon also appears with verbs of thinking and
hoping, and with Acc. and Partc. after verbs of perception.)
τῶν δ’ ἄλλων ἐμέ φημι πολὺ προφερέστερον εἶναι …
(Hom.Od. 8.221.)
But I say that I am much more proficient than the rest …
φημι (1st pers. sg.) with ἐμέ (Acc. 1st pers. sg.) and Infin. εἶναι.
115
14.5. Negative
The negative for statements reported by Infinitive phrases is regularly οὐ
and its compounds. The negative is usually placed before forms of φάναι,
unless it negates a particular word within the reported statement as in the
first example in §14.2 above.
καὶ γιγνομένων λόγων Εὐφαμίδας ὁ Κορίνθιος οὐκ ἔφη τοὺς
λόγους τοῖς ἔργοις ὁμολογεῖν· (Th. 5.55.1.)
And while discussions were taking place, Euphamidas the Corinthian said
that their discussions did not correspond with their actions.
The sentence does not mean: ‘he did not say that their discussions
corresponded with their actions’.
14.6. Usage
Among the verbs which introduce reported statements, whereas λέγειν
and εἰπεῖν are usually followed by ὅτι or ὡς, φάναι is usually followed
by an Infinitive phrase (see Lesson 13.1). When λέγειν and verbs of
saying other than φάναι are followed by an Infinitive, the meaning is
usually ‘to command’, ‘to tell someone to do something’. And in keeping
with the reported command, the negative is μή.
τά τε ἔξω ἔλεγον αὐτοῖς μὴ δικεῖν. (Th. 2.5.5.)
and they told them not to maltreat those outside.
14.7. Passive of λέγειν

A statement may be reported by the Passive of λέγειν used either personally
or impersonally with an Infinitive phrase. The personal construction is the
more usual.
καί τις καὶ ἄνεμος λέγεται αὐτοὺς κωλῦσαι. (Th. 2.93.4.)
And a certain wind also is said to have hindered them.
Personal: Nominative and Infinitive.
116
γνώμῃ δὲ τοιᾷδε λέγεται τὸν Ἀρχίδαμον περί τε τὰς Ἀχαρνὰς ὡς

ἐς μάχην ταξάμενον μεῖναι καὶ ἐς τὸ πεδίον ἐκείνῃ τῇ ἐσβολῇ οὐ
καταβῆναι· (Th. 2.20.1.)
And it is said that with such an intention Archidamus formed his army as for
battle and remained around Acharnae, and did not descend to the plain at
the time of that invasion.
Impersonal: Accusative and Infinitive. Structurally, the whole Accusative
and Infinitive phrase is Subject of λέγεται (cf. Lessons 3.4.1 and 6.2).
References
753–754.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1866–1867, 1982, 2016–2017, 2616, 2722–

2723.
EXERCISE 14
1. φήσει τις δημοκρατίαν οὔτε ξυνετὸν οὔτ’ ἴσον εἶναι, τοὺς δ’
ἔχοντας τὰ χρήματα καὶ ἄρχειν ἄριστα βελτίστους.
ξυνετός, -ή, -όν intelligent, wise

εἶναι Understand again with τοὺς δ’ ἔχοντας
… βελτίστους.
καί also
ἄρχειν Depends on βελτίστους;
see Lesson 3.4.3.3.
2. Σωκράτη φησὶν ἀδικεῖν τούς τε νέους διαφθείροντα καὶ θεοὺς

οὓς ἡ πόλις νομίζει οὐ νομίζοντα …
Σωκράτης, -ους, ὁ Socrates (here Acc.; see Smyth, 1956, §264.)

διαφθείρειν to corrupt
νομίζειν to believe in (+ Acc.)
117
3. ἔφασαν δὲ πολλοὺς προσχωρήσεσθαι μίσει τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων.
προσχωρεῖν to come over (to another side) (Mid. in Fut.)

μῖσος, -ους, τό hatred (felt by πολλούς)
τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων Objective Gen.
4. Λακεδαιμόνιοι δὲ τὰ μὲν δυνατὰ ἔφασαν πεποιηκέναι· τοὺς γὰρ

παρὰ σφίσι δεσμώτας ὄντας Ἀθηναίων ἀποδοῦναι καὶ τοὺς ἐπὶ
Θρᾴκης στρατιώτας ἀπαγαγεῖν …
δυνατός, -ή, -όν possible

δεσμώτης, -ου, ὁ prisoner
ἀποδιδόναι to give over
στρατιώτης, -ου, ὁ soldier
5. προσελθόντες οὖν τοῖς Λακεδαιμονίοις ἔφασαν βούλεσθαι καὶ

αὐτοὶ ἐς τὸ πλῆθος αὐτῶν εἰπεῖν …
ἐς to, before (persons, with verbs of speaking)

πλῆθος, -ους, τό assembly
6. οὔ φησ’ ἐάσειν τόνδε τὸν νεκρὸν ταφῆς

ἄμοιρον, ἀλλὰ πρὸς βίαν θάψειν ἐμοῦ.
φησ(ί) The Subject is masc.

ταφή, -ῆς, ἡ burial
ἄμοιρος, -ον without a share (in) (+ Gen.)
πρὸς βίαν in spite (of ), in defiance (of ) (+ Gen.)
7. … λέγομεν ὑμῖν, ἕως ἔτι αὐθαίρετος ἀμφοτέροις ἡ εὐβουλία,

σπονδάς μὴ λύειν μηδέ παραβαίνειν τοὺς ὅρκους …
αὐθαίρετος, -ον available

εὐβουλία, -ας, ἡ prudence
118
8. … he said that he desired to impose punishment on him …
… he… he … Refer to same person.

to desire χρῄζειν
to impose (Acc.) on ἐπιτιθέναι
(Dat.)
punishment δίκη, -ης, ἡ
9. And the Locrians are said to have established only this law in more
than two hundred years.
Locrians Λοκροί, -ῶν, οἱ

are said Use personal construction.
to establish τίθεσθαι (Mid.; use Aor. Infin.)
law νόμος, -ου, ὁ
in ἐν (+ Dat.)
more (adv. Acc.) πλεῖν (for πλεῖον)
two hundred διακόσιοι, -αι, -α
year ἔτος, -ους, τό
119
LESSON 15
Reported Knowledge and Perception
15.1. Introduction
Verbs of knowing and perceiving may take either ὅτι or ὡς with
a Subordinate clause, or a Participial phrase (or occasionally an Infin.
phrase). The negative for reported knowledge and perception, both after
ὅτι or ὡς and with Participial and Infinitive phrases, is normally οὐ. For
the occasional use of μή with Participial or Infinitive phrases, see the
examples at the end of §15.3 below.
15.2. Reported Knowledge or Perception with

ὅτι or ὡς
Reported knowledge or perception with ὅτι or ὡς is expressed in the
same way as reported statements. For Primary sequence, see Lesson 13.2.
For Past sequence, see Lesson 13.3; a Vivid construction may also be used
for reported knowledge or perception.
πάντες γὰρ ἐπίστασθε ὅτι ἐν ἐκείνῳ τῷ χωρίῳ, ὅταν τὰς τοῦ
φόνου δίκας δικάζωνται, οὐ διὰ τούτου τοῦ ὀνόματος τὰς
διωμοσίας ποιοῦνται … (Lys. 10.11.)
For you all know that in that place, when they try cases of murder, they do
not make sworn-statements by means of this term …
In Primary sequence, the verbs in the reported form have the same Mood
and Tense as in the direct form. There is no change of person in this
particular sentence. The negative is οὐ.
ἔνθα δὴ ὁ Ἀγεσίλαος, γιγνώσκων ὅτι τοῖς μὲν πολεμίοις οὔπω
παρείη τὸ πεζόν, αὐτῷ δὲ οὐδὲν ἀπείη τῶν παρεσκευασμένων,
καιρὸν ἡγήσατο μάχην συνάψαι, εἰ δύναιτο. (X.Ages. 1.31.)
121
Then indeed Agesilaus, realising that the infantry were not yet present for
the enemy, but for himself nothing of what had been prepared was missing,
thought it the time to join battle, if he could.
In Past sequence, the verbs in the reported form appear in the Optative
Mood instead of the Indicative Mood of the direct form. The Past sequence
is set by the Main verb ἡγήσατο (‘thought’), to which the Participle
γιγνώσκων (‘realising’) is subordinate. The negatives are οὐ compounds.
Direct form: οὔπω πάρεστι τὸ πέζον, … οὐδὲν ἄπεστι, ‘the infantry
are not yet present, … nothing is missing’.
καὶ ᾔσθετο μὲν ὅτι νικῶσιν οἱ μεθ’ ἑαυτοῦ … (Th.5.11.10.)
And he perceived that those with him were victorious …
Vivid construction: in Past sequence the direct form νικῶσιν (Pres. Indic.)
is retained, instead of being changed to Optative.

a Participial Phrase
With verbs of knowing and (intellectually) perceiving, the content
of knowledge or perception may be expressed by a Participial phrase,
analogous to the Infinitive phrase with verbs of saying such as φάναι.
Like the Infinitive, the Participle preserves the Aspect of the direct form
of expression. (Cf. Lesson 14.1.) The regular constructions are as follows.
Where the Subject of reported knowledge or perception is different to the
Subject of the verb of knowing, it appears in the Accusative Case with an
Accusative Participle.
οἶσθα οὖν μηνύσαντα Ἀνδρόμαχον τὰ ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ τῇ
Πουλυτίωνος γιγνόμενα; (And. 1.14.)
So do you know that Andromachus reported what had been going on in
Poulytion’s house?
Direct form: ἐμήνυσεν Ἀνδρόμαχος, ‘Andromachus reported’. In the
reported form, the Participle μηνύσαντα retains the Aspect of the direct
form.
122
LESSON 15. REPORTED KNOWLEDGE AND PERCEPTION
Where the Subject of a Participial phrase is the same as the Subject of the
verb of knowledge or perception, it is omitted, and the Participle itself
and any attribute or Complement appears in the Nominative Case.
καὶ νῦν ὁρῶ μὲν ἐξαμαρτάνων, γύναι,
ὅμως δὲ τεύξῃ τοῦδε. (E.Med. 350–351.)
And now I see that I am making a mistake, woman,
but nevertheless you will obtain this.
Direct form: ἐξαμαρτάνω, ‘I am making a mistake’. In the reported
form, the Participle retains the Aspect of the direct form.
Besides the regular constructions, the following variations also occur.
καὶ ὡς ᾔσθοντο παρόντα, ἐσκομίζουσι παρ’ αὑτοὺς ἐγχειρίδια
ἔχοντας ἄνδρας ψιλοὺς ἑπτά … (Th. 4.110.2.)
and when they realised that <he> was present, they brought in [Hist. Pres.]
to their presence seven light-armed men holding daggers …
The Accusative Subject of παρόντα is not expressed, since in the context
the Participle clearly refers to ‘him’ (Brasidas). The pronoun to be
understood as Subject of παρόντα must be in the same Case, Gender
and Number as the Participle, thus αὐτόν.
ὁρῶ δέ μ’ ἔργον δεινὸν ἐξειργασμένην. (S.Tr. 706.)
But I see that I have done a terrible deed.
Although the Subject of the Participle ἐξειργασμένην is the same as
the Subject of ὁρῶ, it is expressed and is in the Accusative Case. The
construction implies a greater degree of objectivity in the one who ‘see(s)’.
οἶδ’ ἐγώ σε μή τινα
ἐνθένδ’ ἀπάξοντ’ ἄνδρα πρὸς βίαν ἐμοῦ. (S.OC 656–657.)
I know that no man
will take you away from here in defiance of me.
Accusative and Participle with negative μή. Indefinite Subject (τινα) and
reference to a future situation.
123
καίτοι τοσοῦτόν γ’ οἶδα, μήτε μ’ ἂν νόσον

μήτ’ ἄλλο πέρσαι μηδέν· (S.OT 1455–1456.)
And yet so much I know, that neither would plague
nor anything else destroy me.
Accusative and Infinitive with negative μή. Reference to a potential
situation.
15.4. Physical Perception

A Participle may also be used with a verb expressing physical perception.
ὁρῶ δὲ καὶ Κρέοντα, τῆσδ’ ἄνακτα γῆς,
στείχοντα, καινῶν ἄγγελον βουλευμάτων. (E.Med. 269–270.)
But I see Creon, lord of this land,
approaching, messenger of new intentions.
ὁρῶ has a direct Object Κρέοντα followed by a supplementary Participle
στείχοντα.
The difference in function between physical and intellectual perception is
clear with verbs which normally take the Genitive Case.
ἐγὼ γὰρ ἐν τῷ χρόνῳ ᾧ ὑμῶν ἀκούω ἀπορούντων τί τὸ δίκαιον,
ἐν τούτῳ δικαιοτέρους τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ποιῶ. (X.Smp. 4.1.)
For in the time in which I hear you puzzling as to what justice <is>,
meantime I am making people more just.
Physical perception: Genitive and supplementary Participle after ἀκούειν.
… ἐπεὶ δὲ ἤκουσεν ἔργα ἀνδρὸς ἤδη διαχειριζόμενον τὸν
Κῦρον, ἀπεκάλει δή, ὅπως τὰ ἐν Πέρσαις ἐπιχώρια ἐπιτελοίη.
(X.Cyr. 1.4.25.)
… and when he heard that Cyrus was already managing the actions of
a man, he proceeded to recall <him>, so that he might complete the <training>
customary among the Persians.
Intellectual perception: Accusative and Participle after ἀκούειν.
124

an Infinitive Phrase
A common view is that the Infinitive construction expresses perception
of what is hypothetical or possible, whereas the Participial construction
expresses perception of what is actual.
πυνθάνομαι ἐπιβουλεύειν σε πρήγμασι μεγάλοισι, καὶ χρήματά
τοι οὐκ εἶναι κατὰ τὰ φρονήματα. (Hdt. 3.122.3.)
I hear that you are planning for great projects, and that you do not have
financial resources in accordance with your ideas.
τοι (Ionic) = σοι (Attic), Possessive Dative with εἶναι.
Thus, Montanari (2015) introducing ἀκούειν 1.C states that the
Participle usually expresses real indirect perception, the Infinitive generic
perception. On the other hand Goodwin (1889, §914) states that many
verbs which have the Participle in reported discourse may also take the
Infinitive ‘in nearly or quite the same sense’. Similarly, Smyth (1956,
§2144) gives a list of verbs which take Participle or Infinitive in reported
discourse ‘with no (or only slight) difference in meaning’. The following
phrases from the same paragraph of Herodotus would support this view.
πυθόμενοι δὲ Παίονες τοὺς Πέρσας ἐπὶ σφέας ἰέναι, ἁλισθέντες
ἐξεστρατεύσαντο πρὸς θαλάσσης … οἱ δὲ Παίονες, ὡς ἐπύθοντο
ἐχομένας τὰς πόλιας, αὐτίκα διασκεδασθέντες κατ’ ἑωυτοὺς
ἕκαστοι ἐτράποντο … (Hdt. 5.15.1, 3.)
And the Paeonians, learning that the Persians were coming against them,
gathered together and marched to the sea… And the Paeonians, when they
learned that their towns were occupied, immediately scattered and each
turned to his own way…
There is also variation of usage between one author and another. The
following statistics are limited to a sample of three words and to three
authors. Only the Accusative plus Participle and Accusative plus Infinitive
in reported discourse are considered. For Xenophon, only Anabasis,
Cyropaedia and Historia Graeca are considered.
125
αἰσθάνεσθαι ἀκούειν πυνθάνεσθαι

Acc. + Acc. + Acc. + Acc. + Acc. + Acc. +
Partc. Infin. Partc. Infin. Partc. Infin.
Hdt. 1 0 1 7 34 40
Th. 28 2 1 0 10 9
X. 10 0 0 23 2 1
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§669, 687–
688, 884, 914.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1874, 2106–2114, 2123, 2144–2145, 2576,

2614–2616, 2727, 2729–2731.
EXERCISE 15
1. … γιγνώσκω ὅτι οἱ τὰ μὴ πιστὰ δοκοῦντα εἶναι ἢ λέγοντες
ἢ ἀπαγγέλλοντες οὐ μόνον οὐ πείθουσιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἄφρονες
δοκοῦσιν εἶναι·
2. οἱ δὲ πράσσοντες αὐτῷ εἰδότες ὅτι ἥξοι, … ἐτήρουν τὴν
πρόσοδον …
πράσσειν to deal with (+ Dat.)

ἥκειν to (have) come
τηρεῖν to watch for (+ Acc.)
πρόσοδος, -ου, ἡ approach
3. … ὡς … ᾐσθάνοντο τὰ πυρὰ ἐξαίφνης πολλὰ ἐν τῇ πολεμίᾳ

φανέντα, ἔγνωσαν ὅτι ἐσπλέουσιν οἱ Πελοποννήσιοι.
ὡς when
πυρά, -ῶν, τά (watch-)fires
126
ἐξαίφνης (adv.) suddenly

πολεμία, -ας, ἡ enemy <territory> (fem. adj. as noun)
ἐσπλεῖν to sail in
4. τίς γὰρ οὐκ οἶδεν ὑμῶν πολλοὺς τῶν ὑπὸ τοῖς σοφισταῖς
γενομένων οὐ φενακισθέντας οὐδ’ οὕτω διατεθέντας ὡς οὗτοι
λέγουσιν …;
ὑμῶν Partitive Gen. with τίς

γίγνεσθαι ὑπό (+ Dat.) to come under (the influence of )
φενακίζειν to cheat
διατιθέναι to treat
5. οἱ δ’ Ἀθηναῖοι ἔγνωσαν οὐκ ἐπὶ τῷ βελτίονι λόγῳ

ἀποπεμπόμενοι, ἀλλά τινος ὑπόπτου γενομένου …
λόγος, -ου, ὁ reason

ἀποπεμπόμενοι Pass.
ὕποπτον, -ου, τό suspicion (neut. adj. as noun; here in
Gen. abs.)
6. ἀκούω δὲ καὶ ἄλλα ἔθνη πολλὰ τοιαῦτα εἶναι, ἃ οἶμαι ἂν

παῦσαι ἐνοχλοῦντα ἀεὶ τῇ ὑμετέρᾳ εὐδαιμονίᾳ.
ἔθνος, -ους, τό tribe

ἐνοχλεῖν to cause trouble (for) (+ Dat.)
7. And immediately they all realised that [the Persian] king had been
encamping somewhere nearby.
that Use ὅτι.

to encamp στρατοπεδεύεσθαι (Mid.)
somewhere που (enclitic)
nearby ἐγγύς
127
8. … when they realised that the army had come in and that it was
impossible to take the city by force, they withdrew …
that Use Acc. and Partc.

to take αἱρεῖν, Aor. ἑλεῖν
force βία, -ας, ἡ
128
LESSON 16
Reported Thoughts, Hopes,
Promises and Oaths
16.1. Reported Thoughts

The usual construction with verbs of thinking is an Infinitive phrase.
Where the Subject of the reported thought is different to the Subject of
the verb of thinking, it appears in the Accusative Case. Where the Subject
of the reported thought is the same as the Subject of the verb of thinking,
it is usually omitted. In this construction, an attribute or Complement
of the Subject of the reported thought appears in the Nominative Case.
For comparison or contrast the Subject of the Infinitive is sometimes
expressed in the Accusative, even when it is the same as the Subject of
the leading verb. The Infinitive preserves the Aspect of the direct form
of thought. An Infinitive with ἄν represents a direct form of thought
with ἄν and potential Indicative or Optative. The usual negative is οὐ.
The negative may precede the leading verb, rather than be attached to the
Infinitive (cf. Lesson 14.5).
οἱ γὰρ βάρβαροι … ἐς τὸ πλέον οὐκέτ’ ἐπηκολούθουν, νομίζοντες
καὶ ἐν μεθορίοις εἶναι αὐτοὺς ἤδη καὶ διαπεφευγέναι.
(Th.4.128.2.)
For the foreigners … for the most part no longer pursued, thinking both that
they were on the borders by now and that they had escaped.
Direct form: ἐν μεθορίοις εἰσὶν ἤδη καὶ διαπεφεύγασι, ‘They are
on the borders by now and have escaped’. αὐτούς (Acc.) shows that
‘they’ are not the ‘foreigners’. διαπεφευγέναι preserves the Aspect of
διαπεφεύγασι.
οὐ γὰρ ἱκανοὶ ἐνόμιζον εἶναι ἔν τε τῷ ἰσθμῷ φρουρεῖν καὶ ἐς
τὴν Παλλήνην διαβάντες τειχίζειν … (Th. 1.64.1.)
For they thought that they were not competent to keep watch on the
isthmus and to cross over to Pallene and build a wall …
129
Direct form: οὐχ ἱκανοί ἐσμεν … φρουρεῖν καὶ … διαβάντες

τειχίζειν, ‘We are not competent to keep watch … and … to cross
over and build a wall’. In the reported form, the Subject of the Infinitives
is omitted, since it is the same as the Subject of ἐνόμιζον; and the
Complement ἱκανοί and the circumstantial Participle διαβάντες remain
in the Nominative Case. The negative οὐ precedes ἐνόμιζον (as does the
Complement ἱκανοί in this instance).
καὶ σχεδόν τι οἶμαι ἐμὲ πλείω χρήματα εἰργάσθαι ἢ ἄλλους
σύνδυο οὕστινας βούλῃ τῶν σοφιστῶν. (Pl.Hp.Ma. 282 E.)
And I just about think that I have made more money than any other two
together of the sophists whom you wish <to name>.
Direct form: ἐγὼ πλείω χρήματα εἴργασμαι ἢ ἄλλοι σύνδυο, ‘I have
made more money than any other two together’. For comparison of
‘I’ with ‘any other two’, the Subject (ἐμέ) of the Infin. εἰργάσθαι is
expressed in the Accusative Case, although it is the same as the Subject of
the leading verb (οἶμαι).
… καὶ λαμπρότερόν τ’ ἂν φανῆναι τὸ ἔργον τῆς θήρας καὶ
ἱερείων ἂν πολλὴν ἀφθονίαν ἐνόμιζε γενέσθαι. (X.Cyr. 1.4.17.)
… and he thought that the action of the hunt would appear more
illustrious and that there would turn out to be a great abundance of
animals for slaughter.
Direct form: λαμπρότερόν τ’ ἂν φανείη τὸ ἔργον … καὶ … ἂν
πολλὴ ἀφθονία γένοιτο, ‘The action … would appear more illustrious
and there would turn out to be a great abundance’. ἄν used with the
potential Optative in the direct form is retained with the Infinitive in
the reported form.
ὡς ἐγὼ ἀκούων τινῶν ἐπαινουμένων, ὅτι νόμιμοι ἄνδρες εἰσίν,
οἶμαι μὴ ἂν δικαίως τούτου τυχεῖν τοῦ ἐπαίνου τὸν μὴ εἰδότα,
τί ἐστι νόμος. (X.Mem. 1.2.41.)
For, when I hear some people assigning praise, because men are law-abiding, I
think that the <man>, who does not know what a law is, would not justly
obtain this praise.
130
LESSON 16. REPORTED THOUGHTS, HOPES, PROMISES AND OATHS
In this sentence, μή with ἄν and the Infinitive may be influenced by the

Subject of the Infinitive, τὸν μὴ εἰδότα, where μή is generic, referring to
‘anyone who does not know’. (For the coordinating use of ὡς and ἐπεί,
see Lesson 23.4.)
16.2. Reported Hopes and Promises

In most respects, expressions of hoping (or expecting) and promising follow
the pattern of reported thoughts (§16.1). Because of their meaning, hopes
and promises are most often used with an Intentive (‘Fut.’) Infinitive.
However, hopes and promises may also be reported with an Imperfect
Infinitive expressing continuous action or with an Aorist Infinitive
expressing momentary action. Occasionally, the Aorist Infinitive reports
a hope that something had previously happened. And sometimes
manuscripts are divided in reading an Aorist or an Intentive Infinitive.
Frequently, in reported hopes, and regularly in reported promises, the
negative used with the Infinitive is μή; but οὐ does also occur.
καὶ ἤλπιζον πάσας τὰς ναῦς ἀπολήψεσθαι. (Th. 2.90.4.)
and they were hoping that they would cut off all their ships.
Direct form: ἀποληψόμεθα, ‘We shall cut off’. The Intentive (‘Fut.’)
Infinitive of the reported form corresponds to the Future Indicative of
the direct form.
καὶ νῦν ἐθέλομεν πίστιν δοῦναι, ἥτις ἐστὶ μεγίστη τοῖς
ἀνθρώποις, μὴ ἔχειν τῶν Ἀριστοφάνους χρημάτων … (Lys. 19.32.)
and now we are willing to give a pledge, which is the most serious for human
beings, that we do not hold <any parts> of the property of Aristophanes …
Direct form: οὐκ ἔχομεν, ‘We do not hold’. The Imperfect Infinitive and
negative μή of the reported form correspond to the Present Indicative
and negative οὐ of the direct form.
ὑπολείπεται τοίνυν αὐτῷ λέγειν ὡς … ἀδύνατος κατέστη
βοηθῆσαι εἰς τὸν Πειραιᾶ, … ἐπαγγειλάμενος αὐτὸς ἢ χρήματ’
εἰσενεγκεῖν εἰς τὸ πλῆθος τὸ ὑμέτερον ἢ ὁπλίσαι τινὰς τῶν
ἑαυτοῦ δημοτῶν … (Lys. 31.15.)
131
It remains, therefore, for him to state that … he became incapable of helping

at the Piraeus … although promising either to contribute money himself to
your community or to arm some of his fellow-citizens …
Direct form: εἰσενέγκω … ὁπλίσω, ‘Let me contribute … let me arm’.
The hortatory Aorist Subjunctive could be postulated as the equivalent
direct form. But at any rate the Aorist Infinitives εἰσενεγκεῖν …
ὁπλίσαι as verbal nouns are the direct Objects of ἐπαγγειλάμενος.
(Some scholars classify such Infinitives as ‘not in indirect discourse’.) And
the promise relates to action subsequent to the time at which it was made.
ἦ θήν μιν μάλα ἔλπετο θυμὸς ἑκάστου
χερσὶν ὑπ’ Αἴαντος θανέειν Τελαμωνιάδαο. (Hom.Il. 15.288–289.)
Certainly the heart of each firmly hoped
that he had died under the hands of Ajax, son of Telamon.
Direct form: εἰ γὰρ ἔθανε, ‘If only he had died!’ Such an unfulfilled wish
for the past is perhaps the closest approximation to a direct form of this
reported hope (cf. Lesson 11.2.1.2.). Unlike the previous example, the
Aorist Infinitive here relates to action prior to the time at which the hope
was reported.
ἤλπιζε γὰρ αὐτῶν οὐ μενεῖν τὴν τάξιν … (Th. 2.84.2.)
For he hoped that their battle-line would not remain <intact> …
Here, the negative οὐ is used with the Infinitive μενεῖν, rather than the
more usual μή as in Lys. 19.32 above.
16.3. Reported Oaths

Like hopes and promises, oaths about an intended action are most
commonly reported with an Intentive (‘Fut.’) Infinitive, and oaths about
a continuing action may be reported with an Imperfect Infinitive or
oaths about an action viewed as momentary may be reported with an
Aorist Infinitive. Again, the Aorist Infinitive may report an oath about an
intended action (swear to do something) or an oath about a prior action
(swear that one did something). An oath about completed action may also
be reported with a Perfect Infinitive. As with reported thoughts, hopes
and promises, ἄν is sometimes used to express potentiality.
132
ὀμωμόκατε ψηφιεῖσθαι κατὰ τοὺς νόμους καὶ τὰ ψηφίσματα

τὰ τοῦ δήμου καὶ τῆς βουλῆς τῶν πεντακοσίων. (D. 19.179.)
You have sworn that you will vote according to the laws and the decrees of
the people and of the council of the five hundred.
The Subject of the Intentive Infinitive is not expressed since it is the same
as the Subject of the leading verb.
ὅ τε πατὴρ ἡμῶν, ἐπειδὴ ἐγενόμεθα, εἰς τοὺς φράτορας ἡμᾶς
εἰσήγαγεν, ὀμόσας κατὰ τοὺς νόμους τοὺς κειμένους ἦ μὴν ἐξ
ἀστῆς καὶ ἐγγυητῆς γυναικὸς εἰσάγειν· (Is. 18.19.)
And our father, when we had been born, introduced us to the clansmen,
swearing in accordance with the established customs, that assuredly he was
introducing <children> from a married [and] Athenian woman.
The Imperfect Infinitive expresses a continuing action.
ὤμοσε δὲ πρὸς ἔμ’ αὐτόν, ἀποσπένδων ἐνὶ οἴκῳ,
νῆα κατειρύσθαι … (Hom.Od. 14.331–332.)
And he swore to me myself, as he poured a libation in his house,
that the ship had been drawn down …
The Accusative and Perfect (Pass.) Infinitive expresses completed action.
ἀλλ’ ὄμοσον μὴ μητρὶ φίλῃ τάδε μυθήσασθαι … (Hom.Od. 2.372.)
But swear not to tell this to my dear mother …
The Aorist Infinitive expresses intended action.
ἵππων ἁψάμενος γαιήοχον ἐννοσίγαιον
ὄμνυθι μὴ μὲν ἑκὼν τὸ ἐμὸν δόλῳ ἅρμα πεδῆσαι.
(Hom.Il. 23.584–585.)
laying a hand on your horses, swear by the one who holds the earth <and>
shakes the earth that you certainly did not intentionally impede my chariot
by trickery.
The Aorist Infinitive expresses prior action, with negative μή.
133
References
683–686, 751–752.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1845–1849, 1868, 2018, 2022–2024, 2580,

2692, 2722–2723, 2725–2726.
EXERCISE 16
1. ἴσως με οἴεσθε … ἀπορίᾳ λόγων ἑαλωκέναι τοιούτων οἷς ἂν
ὑμᾶς ἔπεισα …
ἀπορία, -ας, ἡ lack

οἴεσθαι to think (Mid. with Aor. Pass.)
ἁλίσκεσθαι to be convicted (Intr. Aor. and Perf. Act.
forms have Pass. sense)
2. ὅπλα μὲν οὖν ἔχοντες οἰόμεθα ἂν καὶ τῇ ἀρετῇ χρῆσθαι,

παραδόντες δ’ ἂν ταῦτα καὶ τῶν σωμάτων στερηθῆναι.
παραδιδόναι to hand over, to surrender
3. εἴ τοι νομίζεις ἄνδρα συγγενῆ κακῶς

δρῶν οὐχ ὑφέξειν τὴν δίκην, οὐκ εὖ φρονεῖς.
ὑπέχειν to suffer
4. ἐξ ὧν ἐλπίζω, εἰ τὴν πρὸς ἐμὲ ὁδὸν τράποιο, σφόδρ’ ἄν σε τῶν

καλῶν καὶ σεμνῶν ἐργάτην ἀγαθὸν γενέσθαι …
ἐξ ὧν And as a result of this (ὧν: coordinating

relative pronoun)
τρέπειν to turn
σφόδρ(α) certainly
σεμνός, -ή, -όν noble (here neut., as also καλῶν)
ἀγαθός, -ή, -όν beneficial
134
5. καὶ αὐτοὺς ἀπέπεμψαν ἐπαινέσαντες τοὺς λόγους … καὶ

πρέσβεις ὑποσχόμενοι ἀποστελεῖν περὶ τῆς ξυμμαχίας ἐς
῎Αργος.
̓
πρέσβεις, -εων, οἱ ambassadors (here Acc.)

ἀποστέλλειν to send out
6. ὀμόσας ἀπάξειν οἴκαδ’, ἐς Τροίαν μ’ ἄγει·

7. οἶμαι δὲ καὶ ἐμὲ τῶν ἔτι πόρρωθεν ἀφεστηκότων εἶναι.
πόρρωθεν far off (no emphasis on -θεν here)
8. But I think that I shall quickly make clear that we would not even be
able to establish this sovereignty.
to make clear δηλοῦν

to establish καθιστάσθαι (rarely Middle in this sense)
sovereignty ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ
9. But when he had arrived in Nemea, he delayed there, hoping that he

would catch the Athenians as they were going past …
Nemea Νεμέα, -ας, ἡ

to arrive in γίγνεσθαι ἐν
to delay διατρίβειν
to catch λαμβάνειν
to go past παριέναι
135
LESSON 17
Questions
17.1. Ordinary Questions

Ordinary questions may be expressed with or without an introductory
interrogative particle. The particles are normally the first element in
a sentence. Interrogative phrases, which include the negative οὐ, generally
expect a positive answer. Interrogative phrases, which include μή, are more
emotionally charged, but do not necessarily expect a negative answer.
καὶ νῦν φλογωπὸν πῦρ ἔχουσ’ ἐφήμεροι; (A.Pr. 253.)
And now do ephemeral <mortals> have flaming fire?
No interrogative particle.
ἦ θεωρήσων τύχας
ἐμὰς ἀφῖξαι καὶ συνασχαλῶν κακοῖς; (A.Pr. 302–303.)
Have you come to see
my fortunes and to sympathise with my troubles?
Question with ἦ is neutral.
ἆρ’ ἐγγὺς ἁνήρ; ἆρ’ ἔτ’ ἐμψύχου, τέκνα,
κιχήσεταί μου καὶ κατορθοῦντος φρένα; (S.OC 1486–1487.)
<Is> the man near? Will he find me, children,
still alive and in my right mind?
These questions with ἆρα are neutral.
ἆρ’ ὑμῖν δοκεῖ
ὁ τῶν θεῶν τύραννος ἐς τὰ πάνθ’ ὁμῶς
βίαιος εἶναι; (A.Pr. 735–737.)
Does it (not) seem to you
that the ruler of the gods in all respects alike
is violent?
137
This question with ἆρα expects a positive answer.

ἤδη δεῖ με δουλεύειν πάλιν
ἐν τοῖσιν ἐχθίστοισιν ἀνθρώπων ἐμοὶ
φονεῦσι πατρός. ἆρά μοι καλῶς ἔχει; (S.El. 814–816.)
Now I must be a slave again
among the people most hateful to me,
the murderers of my father. Does it go well with me?
This question with ἆρα expects a negative answer.
οὐ τοῦτο δειμαίνεις πλέον; (A.Pr. 41.)
Do you not fear this more?
Question with οὐ expects a positive answer.
ἆρ’ οὐκ ἄμεινον ἢ σὺ τἀν Θήβαις φρονῶ; (S.OC 791.)
Do I not understand the <situation> in Thebes better than you?
Question with ἆρ’ οὐκ expects a positive answer.
οὔκουν, Προμηθεῦ, τοῦτο γιγνώσκεις, ὅτι
ὀργῆς νοσούσης εἰσὶν ἰατροὶ λόγοι; (A.Pr. 377–378.)
Do you not know this, Prometheus, that
words are healers of the disease of anger?
οὔκουν with paroxytone accent emphasises the negative, and the question
expects a positive answer.
οὐκοῦν, ἔφη ὁ Χρυσάντας, εὖ σοι δοκοῦσι βουλεύεσθαι;
(X.Cyr. 7.1.8.)
‘Therefore do they not’, said Chrysantas, ‘seem to you to be laying their
plans well?’
οὐκοῦν with perispomenon accent emphasises the inferential force
of οὖν, while maintaining the negative value of οὐκ, and the question
expects a positive answer.
οὐκοῦν ψυχὴ οὐ δέχεται θάνατον; – οὔ. (Pl.Phd. 105 E.)
Therefore the soul does not admit of death? – No.
138
LESSON 17. QUESTIONS
The question with οὐκοῦν … οὐ expects (and receives) a negative answer.

For the accent on οὔ, see the comment preceding the second example in
§17.2 below.
μή πού τι προύβης τῶνδε καὶ περαιτέρω; (A.Pr. 247.)
Did you perhaps go even somewhat further than this?
μή gives a worried tone to the question.
ἆρα μὴ δοκεῖς
λυτήρι’ αὐτῇ ταῦτα τοῦ φόνου φέρειν;
οὐκ ἔστιν. (S.El. 446–448.)
Do you really think
that you are bringing these things as a deliverance for her from the murder?
It is not possible.
Despite her own attitude, Electra does not expect her sister Chrysothemis
to answer ‘No’. ἆρα μή indicates Electra’s emotion in opposing her sister’s
action.
τὴν δὲ τῆς μίξεως αἰτίαν καὶ γενέσεως τετάρτην λέγων ἆρα μὴ
πλημμελοίην ἄν τι; (Pl.Phlb. 27 C.)
And I would not be making any mistake in calling the cause of mixing and
generation the fourth <cause>, would I?
This question with ἆρα μή (delayed) expects a negative answer. ἆρα μή,
used in this and the preceding example, is not common in classical Greek.
μῶν ἄλγος ἴσχεις τῆς παρεστώσης νόσου; (S.Ph. 734.)
Do you have pain from your current sickness?
μῶν (derived from μὴ οὖν) expresses Neoptolemus’s concern at
Philoctetes’s pain.
17.2. Alternative Questions

Alternative questions are regularly introduced by πότερον (πότερα) …
ἤ … ; Further alternatives may be added by repetition of ἤ. The initial
πότερον (-α) is often omitted in Greek. And an initial ‘whether’ is no
longer used in direct alternative questions in English.
139
πότερα δ’ ἄν, εἰ νέμοι τις αἵρεσιν, λάβοις

φίλους ἀνιῶν αὐτὸς ἡδονὰς ἔχειν,
ἢ κοινὸς ἐν κοινοῖσι λυπεῖσθαι ξυνών; (S.Aj. 265–267.)
And, if someone were to give <you> a choice, would you choose [lit. accept]
to have pleasure yourself while distressing your friends,
or to be grieved while being together as a partner among partners?
The second alternative is sometimes a mere negative. If οὐ is immediately
followed by punctuation at the end of a clause or sentence, it has an
oxytone accent, οὔ.
… πότερον ταῦτα ποιῶν ἠδίκει καὶ παρεσπόνδει καὶ ἔλυε τὴν
εἰρήνην, ἢ οὔ; (D. 18.71.)
… in doing these things was he acting wrongly and was he violating the treaty
and was he breaking the peace, or not?
In the following example, continuous with the preceding, the Infinitive
construction with ἐχρῆν justifies μή as the negative for the second
alternative. (Cf. Smyth, 1956, §2714.)
καὶ πότερον φανῆναί τινα τῶν Ἑλλήνων τὸν ταῦτα κωλύσοντα
ποιεῖν αὐτὸν ἐχρῆν, ἢ μή; (D. 18.71.)
And was it right that one of the Greeks should appear as the one to prevent
him doing this, or not?
17.3. Questions with Interrogative Adjectives

or Adverbs
Questions may be introduced by interrogative adjectives or adverbs.
The adjectives may be used with or without a noun. Without a noun,
they function as pronouns.
τίς ἀχώ, τίς ὀδμὰ προσέπτα μ’ ἀφεγγής; (A.Pr. 115.)
What sound, what smell came upon me, unseen?
τίς is used as an interrogative adjective.
140
τίς ὧδε τλησικάρδιος

θεῶν, ὅτῳ τάδ’ ἐπιχαρῆ; (A.Pr. 160–161.)
Who <is> so hard-hearted
among the gods, that this <is> a joy to him?
τίς is used as an interrogative pronoun.
πῶς ἐτόλμησας, λιπὼν
ἐπώνυμόν τε ῥεῦμα καὶ πετρηρεφῆ
αὐτόκτιτ’ ἄντρα, τὴν σιδηρομήτορα
ἐλθεῖν ἐς αἶαν; (A.Pr. 299–302.)
How did you dare, leaving
the stream named after you and rock-vaulted
caverns formed by yourself, to come to this
iron-producing land?
πῶς is an interrogative adverb.
17.4. Deliberative Questions

Deliberative questions normally occur in the first person singular or
plural, and ask, for example: ‘Am I to do this?’ or ‘What are we to do?’
or ‘Where are we to go?’ They may be addressed to oneself, or to some
other person. The Mood is Subjunctive, and the negative is μή.
οἴμοι, τί δράσω; ποῖ φύγω μητρὸς χέρας; (E.Med. 1271.)
Alas, what am I to do? Where am I to flee from my mother’s hands?
Deliberation may also be expressed by the Future Indicative, by the modal
expressions δεῖ or χρή, or by the verbal adjectives expressing necessity.
17.5. Rhetorical Questions

Rhetorical questions have the form of a question, but the function of
a statement or a command. Thus, either they do not expect any answer
or an answer is provided by the speaker. Rhetorical questions differ from
other questions only in function, not in form.
141
τίς οὐ ξυνασχαλᾷ κακοῖς

τεοῖσι δίχα γε Διός; (A.Pr. 162–163.)
Who does not sympathise with your
troubles, apart from Zeus at least?
Function: There is nobody who does not sympathise … (Statement).
εἶἑν, τί μέλλεις καὶ κατοικτίζῃ μάτην; (A.Pr. 36.)
Enough! Why do you delay and pity <him> in vain?
Function: Do not delay … (Command).
ἔνερθε δὲ χθονὸς
κεκρυμμέν’ ἀνθρώποισιν ὠφελήματα
χαλκὸν σίδηρον ἄργυρον χρυσόν τε, τίς
φήσειεν ἂν πάροιθεν ἐξευρεῖν ἐμοῦ;
οὐδείς, σάφ’ οἶδα, μὴ μάτην φλῦσαι θέλων. (A.Pr. 500–504.)
And <as for> aids
for mankind hidden beneath the earth,
bronze, iron, silver and gold, who
would say that he discovered <them> before me?
No one, I am sure, unless wishing to babble on in vain.
The question is answered by the speaker, who thereby shows that the
question is equivalent to a statement: No one would say that he discovered
… before me.
References
Denniston (1954), The Greek particles, pp. 46–51 (ἆρα), 282–284 (ἦ), 430–436
(οὔκουν, οὐκοῦν).
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1805, 1807–1809, 2636–2662.
The present Lesson agrees with Denniston (1954) and Humbert (1954) on the
use of μή, ἆρα μή and μῶν, contrary to Smyth (1956, §2651), Montanari
(2015) and Liddell and Scott (1996). Smyth (1956) in §2657 has misquoted
D. 18.71, which should be placed in §2656.
142
EXERCISE 17
1. καὶ σὺ δὴ πόνων ἐμῶν
ἥκεις ἐπόπτης;
ἐπόπτης, -ου, ὁ observer
2. πῶς εἶπας; ἦ ’μὸς παῖς σ’ ἀπαλλάξει κακῶν;
λέγειν, εἰπεῖν to say; to mean

ἀπαλλάσσειν to release
3. ἆρ’ ἂν παρ’ ὑμῶν, ὦ ξένοι, μάθοιμ’ ὅπου

τὰ τοῦ τυράννου δώματ’ ἐστὶν Οἰδίπου;
4. ἆρ’ οὐκ ἄν, εἰ μὲν ἐπιθυμῶν τοῦ δοκεῖν ἱκανὸς εἶναι ταῦτα
πράττειν μὴ δύναιτο πείθειν, τοῦτ’ εἴη λυπηρόν …;
λυπηρός, -ά, -όν distressing
5. μή τί σοι δοκῶ
ταρβεῖν ὑποπτήσσειν τε τοὺς νέους θεούς;
ταρβεῖν to be fearful
ὑποπτήσσειν to cower before (+ Acc.)
6. τῆς δὲ κακῆς τε καὶ αἰσχρᾶς παιδείας ἐν πόλει ἆρα μή τι

μεῖζον ἕξεις λαβεῖν τεκμήριον …;
τεκμήριον, -ου, τό evidence (here + Gen. τῆς …

παιδείας)
7. τίνες κατῆρξαν, πότερον Ἕλληνες, μάχης,

ἢ παῖς ἐμός, πλήθει καταυχήσας νεῶν;
κατάρχειν to begin (+ Gen.)

καταυχεῖν to be overconfident
143
8. τί φῶ χέουσα τάσδε κηδείους χοάς;

πῶς εὔφρον’ εἴπω;
χεῖν to pour
κήδειος, -ον (funereal, sepulchral;) for the dead
χοή, -ῆς, ἡ (pouring out;) drink-offering
εὔφρων, -ον gracious
9. Therefore, the names of the men, against whom that [man] laid
information, are these?
against κατά (+ Gen.)

to lay information μηνύειν
10. Does Aeschines seem to you, O men of Athens, to be an employee or

a guest-friend of Alexander?
Does … or Use πότερον … ἤ.

Aeschines Αἰσχίνης, -ου, ὁ
employee μισθωτός, -ου, ὁ
guest-friend ξένος, -ου, ὁ
Alexander Ἀλέξανδρος, -ου, ὁ
144
LESSON 18
Reported Questions
18.1. Reported Ordinary Questions

The verbs in reported questions have the same usage of Mood and Tense
as in reported statements with ὅτι or ὡς. See Lessons 13.2 and 13.3.
Reported ordinary questions are regularly introduced by the conjunction
εἰ in the sense ‘whether’. οὐ or μή may be retained from the presumed
direct form of a reported question. The whole reported question is the
direct Object of the leading verb.
ὅρα νυν εἴ σοι ταῦτ’ ἀρωγὰ φαίνεται. (A.Pr. 997.)
Come now, see whether this seems helpful to you.
Direct form: (ἆρά) σοι ταῦτα ἀρωγὰ φαίνεται; ‘Does this seem helpful
to you?’ In Primary sequence, the Mood and Tense of the verb in the
reported form are the same as in the direct form.
ταῦτα εἰπὼν ἐπήρετο τὸν Μηδοσάδην εἰ ἀληθῆ ταῦτα εἴη.
(X.An. 7.2.25.)
After saying this he asked Medosades in addition, whether this was true.
Direct form: (ἆρα) ἀληθῆ ταῦτά ἐστι; ‘Is this true?’ In Past sequence,
the Indicative of the direct form becomes Optative in the reported form.
… καὶ ἠρώτα εἰ οὐχ ἱκανόν μοι εἴη αὐτῷ ἀπολυθῆναι τῆς ἐγγύης
τῆς προ͂ς τὴν τράπεζαν … (D. 33.11.)
… and he asked whether it was not enough for me to be released myself from
the security-paid to the bank …
Direct form: (ἆρα) οὐχ ἱκανόν σοί ἐστιν αὐτῷ ἀπολυθῆναι …;
‘Is it not enough for you yourself to be released …?’ οὐχ of the direct
form is retained in the reported form and implies the expectation of
a positive answer.
145
ἔστι δ’ ὁ νῦν ἀγὼν καὶ ἡ διαδικασία … εἰ μὴ προσήκει

ἐξελαθῆναι ἐκ τοῦ οἰκοῦ τοῦ Ἁγνίου τοὺς οἰκείους τοὺς Ἁγνίου
… (D. 43.61.)
And the present lawsuit and dispute are <about> … whether it is really
appropriate that the kinsmen of Hagnias should be driven out of the household
of Hagnias …
Direct form: (ἆρα) μὴ προσήκει …; ‘Is it really appropriate …?’ μή
of the direct form is retained in the reported form, and lends a more
emotional tone to the question (‘really’). μή does not in itself imply the
expectation of a negative answer.
18.2. ἆρα in Reported Questions

Sometimes, ἆρα seems to be used to introduce a reported ordinary
question. A noticeable proportion of the examples of this usage are
exhortations to ‘examine’ whether something is the case, especially
with forms of the verb σκέπτεσθαι. As in the following example, it is
frequently ambiguous whether the question is reported or actually direct.
τοῦτο μὲν τοίνυν, εἶπον, ἓν ἡμῖν κείσθω· δεύτερον δὲ τὸ ἐχόμενον
τούτου σκεψώμεθα ἆρά τι προσήκει ἡμῖν. (Pl.R. 526 C.)
Reported: ‘Let this one point, therefore’, I said, ‘be assumed for us; and let
us consider a second, following from this one, (as to) whether it is of any
concern to us’.
Direct: ‘and let us consider a second, following from this one. Is it of any
concern to us?’
18.3. Reported Alternative Questions

Reported alternative questions may be introduced by πότερον (-α)…ἤ,
as with direct alternative questions, or by ὁπότερον (-α)…ἤ. Or they
may be introduced by several other combinations of conjunctions, as
in the following examples. Where the second alternative is negative,
μή is sometimes used, rather than οὐ, without any obvious syntactical
justification.
146
LESSON 18. REPORTED QUESTIONS
… ἦ που περί γε τοῦ μήθ’ ἑαλωκότος μήτ’ ἐγνωσμένου, πότερον

δέδρακεν ἢ οὔ, καὶ πότερ’ ἄκων ἢ ἑκών, πάνδεινον γράφειν ὡς
ἐκδοτέον τοῖς ἐγκαλοῦσιν. (D. 23.79.)
… surely in the case of a man who has been neither convicted nor judged as
to whether he has done <something> or not, and whether accidentally or
deliberately, <it is> outrageous to draft <a law>, that it is necessary to hand
<him> over to his accusers.
πότερον (-α) … ἤ with two sets of alternatives. Negative οὐ with the
second alternative of the first set.
εἰ μέντοι χρήμαθ’ ἕξει τοσαῦτα ὅσα σὺ δίδως ἢ καὶ ἄλλα
πολλαπλάσια τούτων, οὐκ ἂν ἔχοιμι εἰπεῖν· (X.Cyr. 5.2.12.)
But whether he will have so much money as you are offering or actually other
<funds> many times more than this, I would not be able to say.
εἰ…ἤ gives preference to the second alternative, here reinforced by καί.
… καὶ δίδωμι ὑμῖν σὺν τοῖς ἄλλοις Χαλδαίοις βουλεύσασθαι εἴτε
βούλεσθε πολεμεῖν ἡμῖν εἴτε φίλοι εἶναι. (X.Cyr. 3.2.13.)
… and I am allowing you to consult with the rest of the Chaldaeans as to
whether you want to go to war with us or to be friends.
εἴτε…εἴτε gives equal value to each alternative.
δρᾶσαι γάρ, ὥσπερ ἔστιν, οὐκ ἀρνούμεθα·
ἀλλ’ εἰ δικαίως εἴτε μὴ τῇ σῇ φρενὶ
δοκεῖ, τόδ’ αἷμα κρῖνον … (A.Eu. 611–613.)
For, as it is, we do not deny that we did it.
But judge this murder, as to whether to your mind
it seems justly <done> or not …
εἰ…εἴτε also gives equal value to each alternative. Negative μή is used
with the second alternative.
147
18.4. Reported Questions with Interrogative

Adjectives or Adverbs
Reported questions may be introduced by the indirect form of interrogative
adjectives or adverbs. Corresponding to the direct forms τίς (‘Who?’),
πῶς (‘How?’) and so on, are the indirect forms ὅστις, ὅπως and so on.
However, quite often the direct forms are also used to introduce reported
questions. And sometimes the relative forms ὅς, ὡς and so on are used.
φέρε γὰρ
σήμαιν’ ὅ τι χρή σοι συμπράσσειν· (A.Pr. 294–295.)
So come,
indicate what <I> should do to help you.
Indirect interrogative pronoun ὅ τι.
σήμηνον ὅποι
γῆς ἡ μογερὰ πεπλάνημαι. (A.Pr. 564–565.)
Indicate to where
on earth I poor girl have wandered.
Indirect interrogative adverb ὅποι.
ὥστε οὐ ῥᾴδιον εὑρεῖν τί ἐν τῇ θήρᾳ ἄπεστι τῶν ἐν πολέμῳ
παρόντων. (X.Cyr. 1.2.10.)
And so <it is> not easy to find out which of the <elements> present in war
is absent in hunting.
Direct interrogative pronoun τί in reported question.
… κἄκρινα πρῶτος ἐξ ὀνειράτων ἃ χρὴ
ὕπαρ γενέσθαι … (A.Pr. 485–486.)
… and I first discerned among dreams, which ones should
become reality …
Relative adjective ἅ in reported question.
… τὸ μέλλον ᾗ κραίνοιτο προυτεθεσπίκει,
ὡς οὐ κατ’ ἰσχὺν οὐδὲ πρὸς τὸ καρτερὸν
χρείη, δόλῳ δὲ τοὺς ὑπερέχοντας κρατεῖν. (A.Pr. 211–213.)
148
… (she) had foretold in what way the future was being brought to pass,
how not by strength nor with force
should the winners prevail, but by cunning.
Direct form: πῇ τὸ μέλλον κραίνεται; πῶς χρὴ τοὺς ὑπερέχοντας
κρατεῖν; ‘In what way is the future being brought to pass? How should
the winners prevail?’ Relative adverbs ᾗ and ὡς in reported questions.
κραίνοιτο and χρείη are Optative in Past sequence after προυτεθεσπίκει
(Past Perf.).
18.5. Reported Deliberative Questions

Reported Deliberative questions follow a pattern of usage similar to that
of other types of reported discourse.
οὐκ οἶδ’ ὅπως σε φῶ βεβουλεῦσθαι καλῶς· (S.OT 1367.)
I do not know how I am to say that you have made a good decision.
Direct form: πῶς φῶ …; ‘How am I to say …?’ In Primary sequence,
the Mood and Aspect of the verb in the reported form is the same as in the
direct form.
φοιτᾷ γὰρ ἡμᾶς ἔγκος ἐξαιτῶν πορεῖν,
γυναῖκά τ’ οὐ γυναῖκα, μητρῷαν δ’ ὅπου
κίχοι διπλῆν ἄρουραν οὗ τε καὶ τέκνων. (S.OT 1255–1257.)
For he was wandering around, asking us to provide a sword,
and where he was to find the wife that was no wife, and the double
maternal field of himself and his children.
Direct form: ποῦ κίχω …; ‘Where am I to find …?’ In Past sequence, the
Subjunctive of the direct form becomes Optative in the same Aspect in
the reported form.
ἐπειδὴ γὰρ ἔδει τῷ ὀρφανῷ τὰ χρήματα ἀποδιδόναι, ὁ δ’ οὐκ
εἶχεν ὁπόθεν ἀποδῷ …, τὸ χωρίον ἐπώλει. (Is. 2.28.)
For when it had become necessary to pay back the money to the orphan, and he
did not know from where he was to pay <it> back …, he was <in favour
of> selling the property.
Direct form: πόθεν ἀποδῶ; ‘From where am I to pay <it> back?’
In a Vivid construction in Past sequence, the Mood and Aspect of the
direct form are retained in the reported form.
149
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§665, 667,
669–672, 677–681.
EXERCISE 18
Translate the following passages. For the Exercise, εἰ should preferably be
translated as ‘whether’.
1. ἐκ δὲ τούτου ἐπυνθάνετο ἤδη αὐτῶν καὶ ὁπόσην ὁδὸν διήλασαν
καὶ εἰ οἰκοῖτο ἡ χώρα.
ἐκ after
πυνθάνεσθαι to inquire (of someone) (+ Gen. and
reported questions)
καί … καί … also … and …
διελαύνειν to ride over
2. πέμπει οὖν πρὸς αὐτὸν καὶ ἐρωτᾷ πότερον βούλεται εἰρήνην ἢ

πόλεμον ἔχειν.
πέμπει…ἐρωτᾷ … Hist. Pres.

βούλεται Vivid construction
3. … ἀκούσαντες σκοπεῖτ’ εἴτ’ ὀρθῶς λογίζομαι ταῦτ’ εἴτε μή.
σκοπεῖτ(ε) Impv.
λογίζεσθαι (Mid.) to assess
4. ὃς μέν νυν τῶν ὑπάρχων στρατὸν κάλλιστα ἐσταλμένον ἀγαγὼν

τὰ προκείμενα παρὰ βασιλέος ἔλαβε δῶρα, οὐκ ἔχω φράσαι.
μέν νυν well now (transitional phrase)

ὕπαρχος, -ου, ὁ commander
στέλλειν to equip
προκεῖσθαι to be proffered
βασιλέος (Ionic Gen.) βασιλέως (Attic)
150
5. οὐκ οἶδ’ ὅπως ὑμῖν ἀπιστῆσαί με χρή …
ἀπιστεῖν to disobey (+ Dat.)
6. ὁ δ’ ἔς τε Πυθὼ κἀπὶ Δωδώνης πυκνοὺς

θεοπρόπους ἴαλλεν, ὡς μάθοι τί χρὴ
δρῶντ’ ἢ λέγοντα δαίμοσιν πράσσειν φίλα.
ὁ δ(έ) and he
Πυθώ, -οῦς, ἡ Pytho (region around Delphi)
ἐπί (+ Gen.) in the direction of, to
πυκνός, -ή, -όν frequent
θεοπρόπος, -ου, ὁ messenger (adj. as noun)
ἰάλλειν to send
φίλα (n. pl. Acc.) pleasing (to) (+ Dat.)
7. And all the aliens who are residents will know whether unjustly they
are excluding the thirty from the[ir] cities, or justly.
all … who ὅσοι (+ Indic.)

alien ξένος, -ου, ὁ
to be a resident ἐπιδημεῖν
to exclude (by proclamation) ἐκκηρύττειν
thirty (tyrants) τριάκοντα (indeclinable),
οἱ (installed in 404 BCE)
8. And on hearing this, Clearchus asked the messenger approximately

how big the country between the Tigris and the canal was.
Clearchus Κλέαρχος, -ου, ὁ

approximately how big Use τις (enclitic) in agreement
with (and after) the appropriate
gender of (ὁ)πόσος.
between ἐν μέσῳ (+ Gen.)
Tigris Τίγρης, -ητος, ὁ
canal διῶρυξ, -υχος, ἡ
151
LESSON 19
Conditions
19.1. Introduction
In the study of Greek syntax, various schemes of classification have been
used for Conditions. The following scheme is intended to be as simple
and clear as possible. It classifies the usual practice of the classical period,
according to type of Condition, with subdivisions according to time
reference. (Homeric Conditions show some differences; see Lesson 20.)
The negative in all types of Conditional clause is regularly μή.
Conditional clauses are adverbial clauses, which modify the verb in the
clause on which they depend. Most commonly, the leading clause is
the Main clause of a sentence. But a Conditional clause may depend on
another Subordinate clause, as in §19.4.1 below.
19.2. Open Conditions

Open Conditions leave it ‘open’ whether the Condition is, or is likely to
be, fulfilled.
19.2.1. Particular
Open Particular Conditions refer to ‘particular’ circumstances and,
therefore, use εἰ with Indicative in the if-clause, and Indicative in the
Main clause (if the Main clause is a statement).
Present
εἰ τοῦτο ποιοῦσιν, ἁμαρτάνουσιν.
If they are doing this, they are making a mistake.
Past
εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίουν, ἡμάρτανον.
If they were doing this, they were making a mistake.
153
Past Imperfect Indicative denotes continuous or repeated action.

εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίησαν, ἥμαρτον.
If they did this, they made a mistake.
Past Aorist Indicative denotes momentary action.
Future
εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσουσιν, ἁμαρτήσονται.
If they do this, they will make a mistake.
In English idiom, a Present form is regularly used in the if-clause of
a Future Open Condition (so also in §19.2.2 below). Future Open
Particular Conditions, with Indicative in the if-clause, are less common
but more emphatic than Future Open General Conditions. They are used
especially in threats or warnings.
εἰ σ’ ἡ ’πιοῦσα λάμπας ὄψεται θεοῦ
καὶ παῖδας ἐντὸς τῆσδε τερμόνων χθονὸς,
θανῇ· (E. Med. 352–354.)
If the coming light of god sees you
and your children within the limits of this land,
you will die.
19.2.2. General
Open General Conditions all refer to the circumstances of the Condition
in a ‘general’ or ‘indefinite’ way. Parallel to other indefinite constructions,
they therefore use ἐάν with Subjunctive in Primary sequence in if-clauses,
and εἰ with Optative in Past sequence. Alternative forms for ἐάν also
occur: ἤν, ἄν (with long α).
Present
ἐὰν τοῦτο ποιῶσιν, ἁμαρτάνουσιν.
If (ever) they do this, they are making a mistake.
ἐάν + Subjunctive in if-clause; Indicative in Main clause.
Past
εἰ τοῦτο ποιοῖεν, ἡμάρτανον.
If (ever) they were doing this, they were making a mistake.
154
LESSON 19. CONDITIONS
Imperfect Optative and Past Imperfect Indicative denote continuous or

repeated action.
εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσειαν, ἥμαρτον.
If (ever) they did this, they made a mistake.
Aorist Optative and Past Aorist Indicative denote momentary action.
In both Past examples, εἰ + Optative in if-clause; Indicative in Main clause.
Future
ἐὰν τοῦτο ποιῶσιν, ἁμαρτήσονται.
If (ever) they do this, they will make a mistake.
ἐάν + Subjunctive in if-clause; Indicative in Main clause.
19.3. Unfulfilled Conditions

Unfulfilled Conditions imply that the circumstances of the if-clause are
contrary to fact or ‘unfulfilled’. From a chronological point of view, any
Future Condition is necessarily unfulfilled. But the term ‘unfulfilled’ is
not applied to other Future Conditions. Future Unfulfilled Conditions
are unlikely to be fulfilled. They belong to the same category of
Condition as Present and Past Unfulfilled Conditions.
Especially in the scheme of Unfulfilled Conditions, it should be
noted that the headings ‘Present’, ‘Past’ and ‘Future’ indicate the time
reference of the Conditions, not necessarily the Tense of the Indicative
verbs, and certainly not the Aspect of the Optative verbs. The form of
the Past continuous Unfulfilled Condition is the same as the form of the
Present Unfulfilled Condition. In the if-clause of English Present and
Future Unfulfilled Conditions, ‘were’ is a Subjunctive form, not a Past
Indicative form.
Present
εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίουν, ἡμάρτανον ἄν.
If they were (now) doing this, they would be making a mistake.
εἰ + Past Imperfect Indicative in if-clause; Past Imperfect Indicative with
ἄν in Main clause.
155
Past
εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίουν, ἡμάρτανον ἄν.
If they had been doing this, they would have been making a mistake.
εἰ + Past Imperfect Indicative in if-clause; Past Imperfect Indicative with
ἄν in Main clause; continuous.
εἰ τοῦτο ἐποίησαν, ἥμαρτον ἄν.
If they had done this, they would have made a mistake.
εἰ + Past Aorist Indicative in if-clause; Past Aorist Indicative with ἄν in
Main clause; momentary.
Future
εἰ τοῦτο ποιοῖεν, ἁμαρτάνοιεν ἄν.
If they were to (be) do(ing) this, they would be making a mistake. Imperfect
Aspect; continuous.
εἰ τοῦτο ποιήσειαν, ἁμάρτοιεν ἄν.
If they were to do this, they would make a mistake. Aorist Aspect; momentary.
(Often expressed as: If they did this, …)
In both Future examples, εἰ + Optative in if-clause; Optative with ἄν in
Main clause.
19.4. Mixed Conditions
19.4.1. Mixed Times and Types

In some Conditional sentences, there may be a difference of time
reference or of type of Condition (or both) between the Main clause and
the if‑clause, as in the following sentence.
καὶ δῆλον ὅτι, εἰ τοῖς πλέοσιν ἀρέσκοντές ἐσμεν, τοῖσδ’ ἂν
μόνοις οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἀπαρέσκοιμεν … (Th. 1.38.4.)
And <it is> clear that, if we are acceptable to the greater number, we would
not rightly be unacceptable to these <people> alone …
Present Open Particular if-clause, Future Unfulfilled Main clause.
156
19.4.2. General Principles (with Primary Time Reference)

Open General Conditions, expressing a general principle, may sometimes
have Optative (rather than Subjunctive) in the if-clause, and Indicative
in the Main clause. The Indicative of the Main clause is usually Present
(sometimes with Future implications), sometimes Future, or rarely
Present Perfect. And sometimes, in the Main clause the verb ‘to be’ is
unexpressed.
καὶ οὐκ ἄδικος αὕτη ἡ ἀξίωσίς ἐστιν, εἰ τύχοιεν πρὸς ἀλλήλους οἵ
τε ἀφιστάμενοι καὶ ἀφ’ ὧν διακρίνοιντο ἴσοι μὲν τῇ γνώμῃ ὄντες
καὶ εὐνοίᾳ … (Th. 3.9.2.)
And this assessment is not unfair, if those who secede <from an alliance> and
<those> from whom they are separated [were to] happen to be on an equal
footing towards each other in attitude and good will …
In English style, it would be natural to omit the words ‘[were to]’. But
then the distinctive form of the Greek construction is lost in translation.
λυπουμένοις ὀχληρός, εἰ μόλοι, ξένος. (E.Alc. 540.)
A visitor, if he were to come, <is> annoying to people who are grieving.
The verb ‘to be’ is unexpressed in the Main clause in Greek. Again, in
English style it would be natural to say ‘comes’ rather than ‘were to come’.
19.4.3. Iterative Past Conditions

There is also an iterative form of Past Open General Condition, using εἰ
+ Optative in the if-clause, and ἄν with either Past Imperfect Indicative
or Past Aorist Indicative in the Main clause. The term ‘iterative’ indicates
repeated action.
… εἰ πολιορκουμένῃ τινὶ τῶν πόλεων τῶν συμμαχίδων εἷς μόνος
Λακεδαιμονίων βοηθήσειεν, ὑπὸ πάντων ἂν ὡμολογεῖτο παρὰ
τοῦτον γενέσθαι τὴν σωτηρίαν αὐτοῖς. (Isoc. 6.52.)
… if a single one of the Spartans came to help one of our allied cities when
it was under siege, it used to be agreed by all that due to this man safety had
come to them.
Past Imperfect Indicative in Main clause denotes continuous action.
157
εἰ δέ τις ὑμᾶς ὑποθωπεύσας λιπαρὰς καλέσειεν Ἀθήνας,

εὕρετο πᾶν διὰ τὰς λιπαράς, ἀφύων τιμὴν περιάψας.
(Ar.Ach. 639–640.)
And if anyone, using flattery, called you ‘shining Athens’,
he obtained everything on account of that ‘shining’, by surrounding small fry
with honour.
Past Aorist Indicative in Main clause denotes momentary action.
19.5. The Negative in If-Clauses

The negative in if-clauses is regularly μή (as noted in §19.1 above).
In particular circumstances, οὐ may occur:
• οὐ negates an individual word, for example, οὐκ ἐθέλειν, ‘to be
un‑willing’
• the factuality of a condition is emphasised
• οὐ negates one of two contrasted clauses, which are introduced by
a single εἰ with Indicative
• with expressions of emotion, οὐ may occur in a clause where ‘if ’ is
equivalent to ‘that’ (Lesson 34.4)
• οὐ may negate a clause, in which ‘if ’ is virtually Causal, meaning
‘since’, ‘because’ (Lessons 23.1 and 1.1).
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§162, 378–513.
The analyses of Goodwin (1889) and Smyth (1956) are more complex than that
which has been attempted here, and their terminology is different in part.
158
EXERCISE 19
1. εἰ δ’ ἔστιν ὅστις δαιμόνων ὑπερφρονεῖ,
ἐς τοῦδ’ ἀθρήσας θάνατον ἡγείσθω θεούς.
ὑπερφρονεῖν to look down on, to despise (+ Gen.)

ἀθρεῖν ἐς (+ Acc.) to look at, to observe
ἡγεῖσθαι to believe in (+ Acc.)
2. εἰ δ’ ἐργάσῃ
μὴ ταῦτα, λύπην πᾶσιν Ἀργείοις βαλεῖς.
3. εἰ γὰρ τὰ τοῦδε τόξα μὴ ληφθήσεται,
οὐκ ἔστι πέρσαι σοι τὸ Δαρδάνου πέδον.
τόξα, -ων, τά bow

πέρθειν to ravage, to sack
Δάρδανος, -ου, ὁ Dardanus (mythical ancestor of kings
of Troy)
πέδον, -ου, τό land
4. εἰ δ’ αὖ τι πράξαιτ’ ἀγαθὸν ἁττικωνικοί

κἄλθοιεν οἱ Λάκωνες εἰρήνης πέρι,
ἐλέγετ’ ἂν ὑμεῖς εὐθύς· ἐξαπατώμεθα …
δ’ αὖ and/but again (often enumerating)

ἁττικωνικοί οἱ Ἀττικωνικοί, ‘the Atticononians’
(coined to rhyme with Λακωνικοί,
Laconians)
κἄλθοιεν καὶ ἔλθοιεν
Λάκωνες, -ων, οἱ Laconians
ἐξαπατᾶν to deceive (here Pass., and beginning
direct speech)
159
5. ἢν δ’ αὖ γένηται ξυμφορά τις ἐς λέχος,

τὰ λῷστα καὶ κάλλιστα πολεμιώτατα
τίθεσθε.
λέχος, -ους, τό (bed, often referring to) marriage

λῷστος, -η, -ον best
τίθεσθαι (Mid.) to regard (as) (here Indic.)
6. εἰ παρῆσθα, τὸν θεὸν τὸν νῦν ψέγεις

εὐχαῖσιν ἂν μετῆλθες …
τόν (2nd instance) ὅν

ψέγειν to criticise
εὐχή, -ῆς, ἡ prayer
μετελθεῖν (Aor.) to approach (someone: Acc.) with
(something: Dat.)
7. ἐγὼ μὲν ἄν, ἔφη ὁ Κῦρος, εἰ σὺ εἴην, ὡς τάχιστα ὅπλα ποιοίμην

πᾶσι Πέρσαις τοῖς προσιοῦσιν …
προσιέναι to approach, to come (here)

(in friendly sense)
8. And perhaps I would have been put to death because of this, if the
government had not been quickly dissolved.
perhaps ἴσως
to be put to death = to die ἀποθνῄσκειν
government ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ
to dissolve καταλύειν
9. For I would not be speaking, if I did not care greatly for the whole
of Greece.
to care (for) κήδεσθαι (Mid.; + Gen.)
160
LESSON 20
Homeric Conditions
20.1. Introduction
In the Homeric poems, Conditional sentences have not yet attained
the regularity of the classical period. Some Homeric Conditions have the
same form as those of the classical period. Some may be explained as
mixed types. But some Homeric constructions no longer appear in the
classical period. On the other hand, some classical constructions have not
yet developed at the stage of the Homeric poems. The Doric and Aeolic
form αἰ may be used instead of εἰ in Homer. And the enclitic κε may
be used instead of ἄν. When κε occurs before a word beginning with
a vowel, either movable ν may be added, or ε may be elided.
The following sections of this Lesson contain some representative
examples of Homeric constructions which differ from the classical
standard. At the risk of anachronism, but for the sake of comparison, the
same categories are used as in Lesson 19. However, scholars do not always
agree in the classification or translation of Homeric Conditions.
20.2. Open Conditions
20.2.1. Open Particular Conditions

Open Particular Conditions normally have the same form in Homer as
in the classical period. However, in addition to the usual form of Future
Open Particular Condition (εἰ + Indic. in if-clause, Indic. in Main clause),
κε may appear with the Indicative in the if-clause in Homer.
σοὶ μὲν δή, Μενέλαε, κατηφείη καὶ ὄνειδος
ἔσσεται, εἴ κ’ Ἀχιλῆος ἀγαυοῦ πιστὸν ἑταῖρον
τείχει ὕπο Τρώων ταχέες κύνες ἑλκήσουσιν· (Hom. Il. 17.556–558.)
161
For you indeed, Menelaus, there will be dejection

and reproach, if swift hounds tear apart the trusted companion
of noble Achilles under the wall of the Trojans.
20.2.2. Open General Conditions

20.2.2.1. Present
In Present Open General Conditions, Homer regularly uses εἰ (αἰ) alone
and the Subjunctive without ἄν or κε.
εἰ δ’ ἄρα τις καὶ μοῦνος ἰὼν ξύμβληται ὁδίτης,
οὔ τι κατακρύπτουσιν, ἐπεί σφισιν ἐγγύθεν εἰμέν,
ὥς περ Κύκλωπές τε καὶ ἄγρια φῦλα Γιγάντων.
(Hom.Od. 7.204–206.)
And if, then, any one going alone as a wayfarer meets up with <them>,
they do not conceal at all, since we are near to them,
just as the Cyclopes and the wild tribes of the Giants.
ξύμβληται is third person singular Aorist Subjunctive Middle
of συμβάλλειν.
A classical equivalent of the Homeric construction occurs in the following
example.
τέλει γάρ, εἴ τι νὺξ ἀφῇ,
τοῦτ’ ἐπ’ ἦμαρ ἔρχεται· (S.OT 198–199.)
For, if night leaves anything out,
this day comes on for completion.
(Most editors emend τέλει to τελεῖν, and take τοῦτ(ο) as Acc.: day comes
on to complete this. On either reading ἐπ(ί) is an adv. not a preposition.)
20.2.2.2. Future
a. Future Open General Conditions are far more common in Homer
than Future Open Particular Conditions. (This tendency continues
into the classical period.) Homer most often uses εἰ (αἰ) and the
Subjunctive with κε (or occasionally ἄν), equivalent to classical ἐάν
and the Subjunctive, in the if-clause, and Future Indicative in the
Main clause. For the if-clause, ἤν is also frequent; but the forms ἐάν
and ἄν (with long α) do not occur in Homer.
162
LESSON 20. HOMERIC CONDITIONS
τούτῳ μὲν γὰρ κῦδος ἅμ’ ἕψεται, εἴ κεν Ἀχαιοὶ

Τρῶας δῃώσωσιν ἕλωσί τε Ἴλιον ἱρήν … (Hom.Il. 4.415–416.)
For renown will follow after this <man>, if the Achaeans
cut down the Trojans and capture sacred Ilios …
Future Indicative in Main clause, εἴ κεν with Subjunctive in if-clause.
b. Instead of the usual Future Indicative of the Main clause of a Future
Open General Conditional sentence, the Subjunctive (with κε or ἄν)
may occur in Homer. However, this usage is equivalent in function
to the Future Indicative, and is to be translated as a Future Indicative.
καὶ δέ κέ τοι εἴπῃσι, διοτρεφές, αἴ κ’ ἐθέλῃσθα,
ὅττι τοι ἐν μεγάροισι κακόν τ’ ἀγαθόν τε τέτυκται …
(Hom.Od. 4.391–392.)
And he will also tell you, <O man> favoured by Zeus, if you are willing,
what evil and what good has been done in your halls …
εἴπῃσι (3rd pers. sg. Aor. Subj. Act.) instead of ἐρεῖ (Fut. Indic.) in
Main clause. τοι = σοι.
c. A variation of this form is a mixed Condition, which uses εἰ with
Optative for the if-clause and κε or ἄν with Subjunctive in the
Main clause. The if-clause has the form of a Future Unfulfilled
Condition, but is to be translated as a Future Open General
Condition (Pres. Indic. in English). And the Main clause, again,
is to be translated by a Future Indicative in English. This form
occurs especially in threats or warnings; and the negative with the
Subjunctive in the Main clause is οὐ, not μή.
… εἰ μὲν δὴ ἀντίβιον σὺν τεύχεσι πειρηθείης,
οὐκ ἄν τοι χραίσμῃσι βιὸς καὶ ταρφέες ἰοί·
(Hom.Il. 11.386–387.)
… if indeed in opposition you [were to] make an attempt with
weapons,
your bow and dense <shower of> arrows will not protect you.
Negative οὐ with χραίσμῃσι (3rd pers. sg. Aor. Subj. Act.) in Main
clause.
163
d. εἰ alone without ἄν or κε is occasionally used with the Subjunctive

in Future Open General Conditions in Homer.
σχέτλιος· εἴ περ γάρ σε κατακτάνῃ, οὔ σ’ ἔτ’ ἐγώ γε
κλαύσομαι ἐν λεχέεσσι, φίλον θάλος, ὃν τέκον αὐτή,
οὐδ’ ἄλοχος πολύδωρος· (Hom.Il. 22.86–88.)
<He is> cruel. For if indeed he kills you, I for my part shall no longer
lament for you on your deathbed, dear child, whom I myself bore,
nor will your gifted wife.
A classical equivalent of the Homeric construction occurs in the
following example.
οὔ τοι μὰ τὴν Δήμητρά γ’, εἰ μὴ σ’ ἐκφάγω
ἐκ τῆσδε τῆς γῆς, οὐδέποτε βιώσομαι. (Ar.Eq. 698–699.)
No indeed by Demeter, if I do not eat you up
out of this land, I shall not even ever live.
(The reading of the earliest manuscript is given for line 698. Some
other manuscripts read ἐάν for εἰ and adjust the metre. But it is
unlikely that an original classical construction would have been
altered to a Homeric one.)
20.3. Unfulfilled Conditions
20.3.1. Present
There seem to be no Unfulfilled Conditional sentences in Homer, where
both the if-clause and the Main clause refer to the present. However,
there are mixed Conditions, in which the if-clause is Past Unfulfilled
with εἰ and Past Aorist Indicative, whereas the Main clause is Present
Unfulfilled with Optative and κε(ν) (not Past Imperf. Indic. with ἄν).
… εἰ μέν τις τὸν ὄνειρον Ἀχαιῶν ἄλλος ἔνισπεν,
ψεῦδός κεν φαῖμεν καὶ νοσφιζοίμεθα μᾶλλον. (Hom.Il. 2.80–81.)
… if any other of the Achaeans had reported this dream,
we would be calling <it> a falsehood and would rather be turning away
from <it>.
164
20.3.2. Past
Past Aorist Indicative is used in Past Unfulfilled Conditions in Homer as
in classical Attic. But Past Imperfect Indicative in Unfulfilled Conditions
in Homer always refers to past continuous action, and does not express
a Present Unfulfilled Condition.
Occasionally, Homer uses Indicative in the if-clause, but Optative with
κε(ν) in the Main clause of a Past Unfulfilled Condition. (There are
further examples of Main clauses of this type, without any if-clause.)
ἔνθα κε ῥεῖα φέροι κλυτὰ τεύχεα Πανθοΐδαο
Ἀτρεΐδης, εἰ μή οἱ ἀγάσσατο Φοῖβος Ἀπόλλων …
(Hom.Il. 17.70–71.)
Then easily would the son of Atreus have been carrying off the splendid
armour
of the son of Panthoüs, if Phoebus Apollo had not envied him.
20.3.3. Future
For Future Unfulfilled Conditions, Homer does use the same construction
as writers of the classical period: εἰ with Optative in the if-clause and
Optative with ἄν (κε) in the Main clause. But he also uses εἰ (αἰ) with
κε(ν) and Optative in the if-clause.
εἴ κ’ ἐθέλοις μοι, ξεῖνε, παρήμενος ἐν μεγάροισι
τέρπειν, οὔ κέ μοι ὕπνος ἐπὶ βλεφάροισι χυθείη.
(Hom.Od. 19.589–590.)
If you were to be willing, stranger, to sit by me in my halls
and cheer me up, sleep would not be poured over my eyelids.
References
450–454, 460–461, 468–471, 474, 488.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2311, 2327, 2334.
165
EXERCISE 20
1. εἰ δέ τίς ἐσσι βροτῶν, οἳ ἀρούρης καρπὸν ἔδουσιν,
ἆσσον ἴθ’…
ἐσσι (enclitic) εἶ (Attic)

ἄρουρα, -ας, ἡ earth, land
καρπός, -οῦ, ὁ roduce, harvest
ἔδειν to eat (Attic: ἐσθίειν)
ἆσσον (adv.) earer (comparative of ἄγχι)
ἴθ’ ἴθι
2. εἰ δ’ αὖ τις ῥαίῃσι θεῶν ἐνὶ οἴνοπι πόντῳ,

τλήσομαι, ἐν στήθεσσιν ἔχων ταλαπενθέα θυμόν·
ῥαίειν to cause a shipwreck

ῥαίῃ-σι 3rd pers. sg. Imperf. Subj. Act.
with suffix
ἐνί ἐν
ταλαπενθής, -ές long-suffering
3. εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἕλωμαι

ἢ τεὸν ἢ Αἴαντος ἰὼν γέρας, ἢ Ὀδυσῆος
ἄξω ἑλών·
δώωσιν Attic: δῶσι(ν)

δέ (2nd instance) then (apodotic after preceding
Conditional clause)
τεός, -ά, -όν Attic: σός, σή, σόν
Αἴας, -αντος, ὁ Ajax
166
4. οὐδὲ πόλινδε
ἔρχομαι, εἰ μή πού τι περίφρων Πηνελόπεια
ἐλθέμεν ὀτρύνῃσιν, ὅτ’ ἀγγελίη ποθὲν ἔλθῃ.
πόλιν-δε -δε, adv. suffix: motion towards

πού τι perhaps
ἐλθέμεν ἐλθεῖν (Attic)
ὀτρύνειν to urge
ὀτρύνῃ-σι 3rd pers. sg. Aor. Subj. Act. with suffix
ὅτ’ ὅτε
5. καί νύ κεν ἔνθ’ ἀπόλοιτο Ἄρης ἆτος πολέμοιο,

εἰ μὴ μητρυιὴ περικαλλὴς Ἠερίβοια
Ἑρμέᾳ ἐξήγγειλεν·
νυ (enclitic) indeed
ἄατος, (ἆτος) -ον insatiable (in) (+ Gen.)
μητρυιά, -ᾶς, ἡ stepmother (of the sons of Aloeus,
just mentioned)
περικαλλής, -ές very beautiful
Ἑρμῆς, -οῦ, ὁ Hermes (here Dat. uncontracted)
6. εἰ χ’ ἕτερον ἄξαις, ἕτερον κ’ ἐπὶ βουσὶ βάλοιο.
ἀγνύναι to break
ἕτερον Refers to one of two ploughs (τὰ ἄροτρα)
7. ἀλλά μοι αἰνὸν ἄχος σέθεν ἔσσεται, ὦ Μενέλαε,

αἴ κε θάνῃς καὶ πότμον ἀναπλήσῃς βιότοιο.
αἰνός, -ά, -ό́ν terrible

ἄχος, -ους, τό distress
σέθεν σοῦ (as Objective Gen.)
ἔσσεται ἔσται (Attic)
βίοτος, -ου (-οιο), ὁ life
167
8. τόν γ’ εἴ πως σὺ δύναιο λοχησάμενος λελαβέσθαι,

ὅς κέν τοι εἴπῃσιν ὁδὸν καὶ μέτρα κελεύθου
νόστον θ’, ὡς ἐπὶ πόντον ἐλεύσεαι ἰχθυόεντα.
τόν him
λοχᾶν to ambush
(λε)λαβέσθαι reduplicated Aor. Mid. Infin.
ὅς he
τοι (Epic) σοι (Attic)
εἴπῃ-σιν 3rd pers. sg. Aor. Subj. Act. with suffix
ὡς how
ἐπί over
ἐλεύσεαι ἐλεύσῃ (Attic)
ἰχθυόεις, -εσσα, -εν fish-filled
168
LESSON 21
Subordinate Clauses in
Reported Discourse
21.1. Reported Complex Sentences

A Complex sentence has a Main clause and one or more Subordinate
clauses. When a Complex sentence is reported, the Main clause has the
construction of a reported Simple sentence; any Subordinate clauses
have one of the following constructions in Primary (Pres. or Fut.) and
Past sequence respectively (§§21.2 and 21.3 below). The possible
constructions are the same, whether the Subordinate clauses depend on
original statements, questions, commands, knowledge, thoughts, hopes,
promises or oaths. And in reported statements, these constructions are the
same, whether the original Main clause is reported after ὅτι or ὡς, or in
an Infinitive phrase or a Participial phrase.
21.2. Reported Subordinate Clauses

in Primary Sequence
In reported Subordinate clauses in Primary sequence, the verb has the same
Mood and Tense (for Indic. verbs) or the same Aspect (for non-Indic. verbs)
as in the direct form of expression.
πιστεύω γὰρ δίκαια εἶναι ἃ λέγω … (Pl.Ap. 17 C.)
For I believe that what I am saying is just …
Direct form: δίκαιά ἐστιν ἃ λέγω, ‘What I am saying is just’.
169
21.3. Reported Subordinate Clauses

in Past Sequence
Reported Subordinate clauses in Past sequence are treated as follows.
Primary Tenses of the Indicative and all Subjunctives are regularly changed
to the same Aspect of the Optative.
All Past Tenses of the Indicative are retained.
All Optatives are retained.
ἄν with a subordinate Subjunctive in direct expression is omitted, when
the Subjunctive is changed to Optative in Past sequence. Thus, ἐάν,
ἐπειδάν, ὅταν, etc. become εἰ, ἐπειδή, ὅτε, etc.
Θηραμένης δέ, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, … εἶπεν ὅτι οὐδὲν αὐτῷ μέλοι
τοῦ ὑμετέρου θορύβου, ἐπειδὴ πολλοὺς μὲν Ἀθηναίων εἰδείη
τοὺς τὰ ὅμοια πράττοντας αὑτῷ… (Lys. 12.74.)
And Theramenes, O men of the jury, … said that he had no concern about
your uproar, since he knew many of the Athenians who were doing the same
thing as himself …
Direct form: οὐδὲν ἐμοὶ μέλει …, ἐπειδὴ … οἶδα …, ‘I have no
concern …, since I know …’
Indicative οἶδα becomes Optative εἰδείη (with change of person) in the
reported form.
… ἤλπιζον ἀποτρέψειν αὐτοὺς μάλιστα, εἰ ἀντιπαραλυποῖεν
πέμψαντες ἐπὶ τοὺς ξυμμά́χους αὐτῶν στρατιάν … (Th. 4.80.1.)
… they [Spartans] hoped that they would best deter them [Athenians], if
they annoyed them in turn by sending an army against their allies …
Direct form: ἀποτρέψομεν …, ἐὰν ἀντιπαραλυπῶμεν …, ‘We shall
deter …, if we annoy them in turn …’
ἐάν with Subjunctive becomes εἰ with Optative (with change of person)
in the reported form.
170
LESSON 21. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN REPORTED DISCOURSE
… τούς τε φεύγοντας ἐκέλευον κατ’ ἐπήρειαν δέχεσθαι

αὐτούς … τούς τε φρουρούς, οὓς Κορίνθιοι ἔπεμψαν, καὶ τοὺς
οἰκήτορας ἀποπέμπειν. (Th. 1.26.3.)
… they peremptorily ordered them to receive the exiles … and to send away
the garrison members, whom the Corinthians had sent, and the colonists.
Direct form: τούς φρουρούς, οὓς Κορίνθιοι ἔπεμψαν … ἀποπέμπετε,
‘Send away the garrison members whom the Corinthians sent …’
Past (Aor.) Indicative ἔπεμψαν is retained in the reported form. (The first
τε anticipates the second.)
καὶ γὰρ ἔργῳ ἐπεδείκνυτο καὶ ἔλεγεν ὅτι οὐκ ἄν ποτε προοῖτο,
ἐπεὶ ἅπαξ φίλος αὐτοῖς ἐγένετο, οὐδ’ εἰ ἔτι μὲν μείους
γένοιντο, ἔτι δὲ κάκιον πράξειαν. (X.An. 1.9.10.)
For he showed in action and stated that he would not ever abandon <them>,
when once he had become a friend to them, not even if they became even
fewer and fared even worse.
προοῖτο: third person singular second Aorist Middle Optative of προ-
ἱέναι.
Direct form: οὐκ ἄν ποτε προοῖμι, ἐπεὶ ἅπαξ φίλος ὑμῖν ἐγενόμην,
οὐδ’ εἰ … γένοισθε … πράξαισθε, ‘I would not ever abandon <you>,
when once I had become a friend to you, not even if … you became
[OR: were to become] … and fared [OR: were to fare] …’
Past Indicative ἐγενόμην (as in previous example) and Optative γένοισθε
and πράξαισθε are retained (all with appropriate change of person).
21.4. Assimilation of Construction

Normally, all Subordinate clauses, in both direct and reported discourse,
have a finite verb. However, in reported discourse, where an original
Main clause is reported in an Infinitive phrase, the Subject and verb of
a Subordinate clause are sometimes assimilated to the Accusative and
Infinitive construction of the reported Main clause.
171
καὶ τῇ πόλει ὠφελιμώτερον ἔφη εἶναι πρὸς τοὺς ἐν τῇ χώρᾳ
σφῶν ἐπιτειχίζοντας τὸν πόλεμον ποιεῖσθαι ἢ Συρακοσίους, οὓς
οὐκέτι ῥᾴδιον εἶναι χειρώσασθαι· (Th. 7.47.4.)
And he said that it was more helpful for the city to carry on the war against
those who were building fortifications in their own country than against the
Syracusans, whom it was no longer easy to defeat.
Direct form: ὠφελιμώτερόν ἐστι πρὸς τοὺς … ἐπιτειχίζοντας
τὸν πόλεμον ποιεῖσθαι ἢ Συρακοσίους, οὓς οὐκέτι ῥᾴδιόν ἐστι
χειρώσασθαι, ‘it is more helpful to carry on the war against those who
are building fortifications … than <against> the Syracusans, whom it is
no longer easy to defeat’.
21.5. Vivid Construction

The Optative is not always used to represent Primary Indicatives and any
Subjunctives in Subordinate clauses in Past sequence. Sometimes a Vivid
construction, retaining the Mood of direct expression, is used.
τῶν τε παρόντων στρατιωτῶν πολλοὺς καὶ τοὺς πλείους ἔφη, οἳ
νῦν βοῶσιν ὡς ἐν δεινοῖς ὄντες, ἐκεῖσε ἀφικομένους τἀναντία
βοήσεσθαι, ὡς ὑπὸ χρημάτων καταπροδόντες οἱ στρατηγοὶ
ἀπῆλθον. (Th. 7.48.4.)
And he said that many, indeed the majority, of the soldiers present [in Sicily],
who now were crying out on the grounds that they were in dire straits, on
arriving there [at Athens] would cry out the opposite, that under the influence
of money the generals had left them in the lurch and had gone away.
Indicative βοῶσιν is retained, instead of being converted to Optative.
References
755.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2617–2620, 2623, 2625, 2631–2632.
172
LESSON 21. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN REPORTED DISCOURSE
EXERCISE 21
1. … συλλέγεσθαί φησιν ἀνθρώπους ὡς ἐμὲ πονηροὺς καὶ
πολλούς, οἳ τὰ μὲν ἑαυτῶν ἀνηλώκασι, τοῖς δὲ τὰ σφέτερα
σῴζειν βουλομένοις ἐπιβουλεύουσιν.
συλλέγειν to gather together (Mid.: Intr.)

ὡς (+ Acc. of motion) to (a person)
ἀναλίσκειν to use up, to spend
2. … ἔλεγεν ὁ Θηραμένης, ὅτι, εἰ μή τις κοινωνοὺς ἱκανοὺς

λήψοιτο τῶν πραγμάτων, ἀδύνατον ἔσοιτο τὴν ὀλιγαρχίαν
διαμένειν.
κοινωνός, -οῦ, ὁ participant, partner (in) (+ Gen.)

πράγματα, -ων, τά public affairs; the government
3. Τισσαφέρνης μὲν ὤμοσεν Ἀγησιλάῳ, εἰ σπείσαιτο, ἕως ἔ λ̀ θοιεν,

οὓς πέμψειε πρὸς βασιλέα ἀγγέλους, διαπράξεσθαι αὐτῷ
ἀφεθῆναι αὐτονόμους τὰς ἐν τῇ Ἀσίᾳ πόλεις Ἑλληνίδας …
σπένδεσθαι (Mid.) to keep a truce

διαπράσσεσθαι to bring about, to accomplish (here +
Acc. and Infin.)
ἀφιέναι to set free
4. … καὶ νομίσαντες, εἰ αὐτὸν ἐξελάσειαν, πρῶτοι ἂν εἶναι,

ἐμεγάλυνον καὶ ἐβόων ὡς ἐπὶ δήμου καταλύσει τά τε μυστικὰ
καὶ ἡ τῶν Ἑρμῶν περικοπὴ γένοιτο καὶ οὐδὲν εἴη αὐτῶ ὅ τι οὐ
μετ’ ἐκείνου ἐπράχθη …
αὐτόν, ἐκείνου Both terms refer to Alcibiades.

ἐξελαύνειν to drive out, to expel
μεγαλύνειν to exaggerate
δῆμος, -ου, ὁ democracy
κατάλυσις, -εως, ἡ overthrow
μυστικός, -ή, -όν connected with the mysteries
173
τὰ μυστικά the matter of the mysteries (alluding to an

illegitimate private celebration)
Ἑρμῆς, -οῦ, ὁ (statue of ) Hermes
αὐτῶν neut.
5. For I know that, wherever I go, the young [men] will listen to me
[masc.] talking as I do here.
6. … they thought that within a few years they would demolish the
power of the Athenians, if they kept ravaging their land.
to demolish καθαιρεῖν
to keep ravaging τέμνειν (Use Imperf. Aspect.)
174
LESSON 22
Result Constructions
22.1. Natural Result

Natural Result is regularly expressed by ὥστε with Infinitive (normally
Imperf. or Aor.). The construction indicates what is likely to happen as
a result of the clause on which the ὥστε phrase depends. The result may
or may not actually happen. If the Subject of the Infinitive is the same as
the Subject of the leading verb, it is usually not expressed. If the Subject of
the Infinitive is different to that of the leading verb, it is usually expressed
in the Accusative Case. The negative is regularly μή. This construction has
hardly yet developed in Homer. (To preserve the open nature of the result,
it may sometimes be necessary to use a paraphrase in English translation.)
οὐκ εὐθὺς ἐπειδὰν λάβωσι τὰς δυναστείας, ἐν τοσούτοις
ἐμπεπλεγμένοι κακοῖς εἰσιν, ὥστ’ ἀναγκάζεσθαι πολεμεῖν μὲν
ἅπασι τοῖς πολίταις, μισεῖν δ’ ὑφ’ ὧν οὐδὲν κακὸν πεπόνθασιν
…; (Isoc. 8.111–112.)
Immediately after they have acquired supreme powers, have they not become
involved in troubles so serious, as to be compelled to make war on all
their fellow-citizens, and to hate those from whom they have experienced no
trouble… ?
Result Infinitive only, where the Subject of the Infinitive is the same as the
Subject of the leading verb εἰσιν.
τί οὖν; εἴποι τις ἄν, σὺ τοσοῦθ’ ὑπερῆρας ῥώμῃ καὶ τόλμῃ ὥστε
πάντα ποιεῖν αὐτός; (D. 18.220.)
‘What, then?’ someone might say, ‘Were you so superior in strength and daring
as to do everything yourself?’
Result Infinitive with Nominative attribute of Subject of leading verb
ὑπερῆρας.
175
οὐδὲ σθένειν τοσοῦτον ᾠόμην τὰ σὰ

κηρύγμαθ’, ὥστ’ ἄγραπτα κἀσφαλῆ θεῶν
νόμιμα δύνασθαι θνητὸν ὄνθ’ ὑπερδραμεῖν. (S.Ant. 453–455.)
And I did not think that your pronouncements had so much
strength, that a mortal being could
outrun the unwritten and secure laws of the gods.
Result Infinitive with Accusative Subject, which is different to the Subject
of the leading verb ᾠόμην.
ἐγὼ δέ, ὦ Ἀθηναῖοι, οὐκ ἀξιῶ τοὺς θεοὺς τοιαύτην γνώμην ἔχειν,
ὥστ’ εἰ ἐνόμιζον ὑπ’ ἐμοῦ ἀδικεῖσθαι, λαμβάνοντάς με ἐν τοῖς
μεγίστοις κινδύνοις μὴ τιμωρεῖσθαι. (And. 1.137.)
But I, O men of Athens, do not expect the gods to have such an attitude,
as not to punish me, when they caught me in the greatest danger, if they
thought that they were being wronged by me.
Negative μή with Result Infinitive.
ἄν with the Infinitive after ὥστε represents a potential construction,
corresponding to ἄν with Indicative or (as in the following example)
Optative.
εἴργασαι δέ μ’ ἄσκοπα,
ὥστ’ εἰ πατήρ μοι ζῶν ἵκοιτο, μηκέτ’ ἂν
τέρας νομίζειν αὐτό, πιστεύειν δ’ ὁρᾶν. (S.El. 1315–1317.)
And you have had a strange effect on me,
so that, if my father were to come here alive, I would no longer
think it a miracle, but would believe that I were seeing him.
Here, the Subject of the Infinitives νομίζειν and πιστεύειν is not
expressed, but is the same as the Object of the leading verb (εἴργασαι …
μ(ε)), and is identical with the speaker.
176
LESSON 22. RESULT CONSTRUCTIONS
22.2. Comparative Result

After a Comparative adjective or adverb, ἢ ὥστε with Infinitive is used in
the Result construction.
εἰ … ὑπ’ ἀναγκαίης μέζονος κατάζευχθε ἢ ὥστε ἀπίστασθαι,
ὑμεῖς δὲ ἐν τῷ ἔργῳ, ἐπεὰν συμμίσγωμεν, ἐθελοκακέετε …
(Hdt. 8.22.1.)
If … you have been tied down under compulsion too great to revolt from,
then you are to be deliberate losers in the action, when we join together
in battle …
… μέζονος … ἢ ὥστε ἀπίστασθαι: lit. ‘greater than so as to revolt from’.
22.3. Actual Result

Actual Result is regularly expressed by ὥστε with finite Moods, usually
Indicative. The Indicative emphasises that the result actually happens.
This construction first appears in Sophocles. The negative is οὐ.
σὺ δ’ εἰς τοσοῦτον τῶν μανιῶν ἐλήλυθας,
ὥστ’ ἀνδράσιν πείθῃ χολῶσιν; (Ar.Nu. 832–833.)
Have you come to so great <a degree> of madness,
that you trust provocative men?
οὕτω δὴ ἰόντες ἅμα τοὺς λόγους περὶ αὐτῶν ἐποιούμεθα, ὥστε,
ὅπερ ἀρχόμενος εἶπον, οὐκ ἀμελετήτως ἔχω. (Pl.Smp. 173 B–C.)
As we were going along at the same time we were conducting the discussion
about it in just such a way, that, as I said when I was beginning, I am not
unprepared.
Negative οὐκ in ὥστε clause.
Potential Indicative with ἄν or potential Optative with ἄν may also
appear in a finite Result clause.
ἥ τε γὰρ ἀγορὰ μεστὴ ἦν παντοδαπῶν καὶ ὅπλων καὶ ἵππων ὠνίων,
οἵ τε χαλκοτύποι καὶ οἱ τέκτονες καὶ οἱ σιδηρεῖς καὶ οἱ σκυτεῖς
καὶ οἱ γραφεῖς πάντες πολεμικὰ ὅπλα κατεσκεύαζον, ὥστε τὴν
πόλιν ὄντως ἂν ἡγήσω πολέμου ἐργαστήριον εἶναι. (X.Ages. 1.26.)
177
For the market was full of all sorts of weapons and horses for sale, and
the coppersmiths, carpenters, ironworkers, cobblers and painters were all
manufacturing weapons of war, so that you would have thought that the
city was really a factory of war.
ἂν ἡγήσω is potential Indicative.
καὶ ὁ μὲν Θεόδοτος τετέλευκεν, ὥστε οὐκ ἂν ἐκεῖνός γε αὐτοῦ
καταδεηθείη. (Pl.Ap. 33 E.)
And Theodotus has died, so that he at least would not entreat him.
ἂν … καταδεηθείη is potential Optative.
22.4. Adjectival Clauses of Result

Adjectival clauses of Result use the Indicative Mood, or potential Optative
with ἄν, parallel to ὥστε clauses with the Indicative. The antecedent of
these clauses is mostly negative or interrogative (implying a negative).
The indefinite form of the relative pronoun (ὅστις) is more common
than ὅς in this construction. The negative is οὐ.
καὶ τίς οὕτως ἐστὶν ἀναίσθητος ὅστις οὐκ ἂν ἀλγήσειε τοιαύτης
διαβολῆς περὶ αὑτὸν γιγνομένης; (Isoc. 15.218.)
And who is so insensitive that he would not feel pained if such a slander
were being made about himself?
22.5. Provisos
ἐφ’ ᾧ and ἐφ’ ᾧτε with the Infinitive (or Accusative and Infinitive) are
used in the sense ‘on the condition that’. The negative is μή.
… συνεχώρησαν αὐτοῖς καὶ Φλεασίοις καὶ τοῖς ἐλθοῦσι μετ’
αὐτῶν εἰς Θήβας τὴν εἰρήνην, ἐφ’ ὧτε ἔχειν τὴν ἑαυτῶν
ἑκάστους. (X.HG 7.4.10.)
… they granted peace to them and to the Phleasians and to those who had
come with them to Thebes, on the condition that each group should keep
their own <territory>.
178
ἐφ’ ᾧ and ἐφ’ ᾧτε are also used with the Future Indicative, at least in the
historians Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon. Both οὐ and μή occur
as negatives.
… ὁ Κλεομένης συντίθεται Λευτυχίδῃ …, ἐπ’ ᾧ τε, ἢν αὐτὸν
καταστήσῃ βασιλέα ἀντὶ Δημαρήτου, ἕψεταί οἱ ἐπ’ Αἰγινήτας.
(Hdt 6.65.1.)
… Cleomenes made an agreement with Leutychides … on condition that,
if he [Cleomenes] made him [Leutychides] king instead of Demaretus, he
would follow him against the Aeginetans.
ἐφ’ ᾧ or ἐφ’ ᾧτε sometimes follows a demonstrative antecedent phrase:
ἐπὶ τούτῳ or ἐπὶ τούτοις or ἐπὶ τοῖσδε. In English idiom, the phrases
need to be abbreviated to: ‘on this/these condition(s), that …’. In Greek,
the plural antecedents τούτοις and τοῖσδε are followed by the singular
form ᾧ. Both Infinitive and Indicative constructions occur after these
antecedent phrases.
οἳ δὲ ἐπὶ τοισίδε δώσειν ἔφασαν, ἐπ’ ᾧ ἀπάξουσι ἔτεος ἑκάστου
τῇ Ἀθηναίῃ τε τῇ πολιάδι ἱρὰ καὶ τῷ Ἐρεχθέϊ. (Hdt. 5.82.3.)
And they [= Athenians] said that they would give <the olive trees> on
these conditions, that they [= Epidaurians] would pay each year sacred
<offerings> to Athena Polias and to Erechtheus.
ἐφ’ ᾧ and ἐφ’ ᾧτε may also express ‘for the purpose of ’. This usage is not
treated in this Lesson and Exercise.
22.6. Antecedents for Result Constructions

Result clauses and phrases are frequently preceded by a demonstrative
adjective or adverb. The following examples have occurred in the preceding
sections.
τοσοῦτος … ὥστε
τοιοῦτος … ὥστε
οὕτω(ς) … ὥστε
οὕτως … ὅστις
179
22.7. ὥστε = ‘And so’

ὥστε may introduce a new sentence and have the meaning ‘And so’.
In this usage, it functions as a coordinating conjunction.
ἔπειτα καὶ ταῦθ’ ὑμῶν δέομαι, εὖ ποιῶν ὑμᾶς ὑφ’ ὑμῶν τιμᾶσθαι.
ὥστ’ ἐμοὶ μὲν πειθόμενοι οὐκ ἀποστερεῖσθε εἴ τι ἐγὼ δυνήσομαι
ὑμᾶς εὖ ποιεῖν· (And. 1.149.)
Secondly I ask this also of you, that, since I am your benefactor, I be held in
honour by you. And so by obeying me you are not <going to be> deprived if
I can bestow any benefit on you [OR: deprived of any benefit which I shall be
able to bestow on you].
References
Denniston (1954), The Greek particles, p. 528 (Provisos).
EXERCISE 22
1. ἐνδέης μέν γε χρημάτων καταλειφθεὶς οὕτω δίκαιον ἐμαυτὸν
παρέσχον, ὥστε μηδένα λυπῆσαι τῶν πολιτῶν·
2. … ἀλλ’ εἰς τοσοῦτον ἀνοίας ἐληλύθασιν, ὥστ’ οἴονται καὶ παρ’
ὑμῖν καὶ παρὰ τοῖς ἄλλοις εὐδοκιμήσειν …
εὐδοκιμεῖν to be (Fut. and Aor.: to become) highly regarded
3. … ἀλλ’ ὅμως οὐδὲ τῶν τοιούτων οὐδείς ἐστιν οὕτως ἀκρατὴς

ὅστις ἂν δέξαιτο καὶ τοὺς μαθητὰς εἶναι τοιούτους·
ἀκρατής, -ές uncontrolled

καί also
180
4. … τά τε ἄλλα καταφανέστερον ἢ ὥστε λανθάνειν οὐ προθύμως

ξυνεπολέμει.
τά … ἄλλα Acc. of Respect

τε Joins this clause to the preceding.
5. ὥστ’ ἐξ ἁπάντων τούτων εἰκὸς αὐτοὺς βελτίους γίγνεσθαι.
ἁπάντων τούτων neut.

εἰκός, -ότος neut. Perf. Partc. of ἐοικέναι; understand
ἐστί; + Acc. and Infin.
6. … διελύθησαν, ἐφ’ ᾧτε … τὸν Λεωκράτην … μήτε κακόνουν εἶναι

Πολυεύκτῳ τῶν τε πρὸς ἀλλήλους ἐγκλημάτων ἀπηλλάχθαι
πάντων.
διαλύειν to reconcile
ἔκλημα, -ατος, τό charge
τὸν Λεωκράτην is the Subject of εἶναι, but both men
(unspecified) are the Subject of ἀπηλλάχθαι.
7. … no one among men would suppose me so completely senseless, as

to bear false witness for this [man] …
to suppose ὑπολαμβάνειν
senseless ἄφρων, -ον
8. And I so strongly dissent from the others who are giving advice,
O men of Athens, that it does not even seem right to me to take
thought now concerning the Chersonese nor Byzantium …
so strongly τοσοῦτον (emphasised by enclitic γε)

to dissent ἀφεστηκέναι (Perf.; lit. ‘to have stood
away from’) (+ Gen.)
to seem right δοκεῖν
to give advice συμβουλεύειν
Chersonese Χερρόνησος, -ου, ἡ (Note spelling
and gender.)
Byzantium Βυζάντιον, -ου, τό
181
LESSON 23
Causal Constructions
23.1. Adverbial Clauses of Cause

Adverbial clauses of Cause are introduced by several subordinating
conjunctions: ὅτι, διότι, ἐπεί, ἐπειδή, ὡς and in poetry οὕνεκα
(= οὗ ἕνεκα) and ὁθούνεκα (= ὅτου ἕνεκα). ἐπεί is more frequent
than ἐπειδή in a Causal sense in early prose. The Indicative Mood is
normally used. The negative is οὐ, which is also used in virtual Causal
clauses introduced by εἰ (with Indic.) or by ἐάν or ἤν (with Subj.).
23.1.1. Indicative
ἆρα τὸ ὅσιον, ὅτι ὅσιόν ἐστι, φιλεῖται ὑπὸ τῶν θεῶν, ἤ, ὅτι
φιλεῖται, ὅσιόν ἐστι; (Pl.Euthphr. 10 A.)
Is holiness loved by the gods because it is holy, or is it holy because it is loved
<by the gods>?
τίθημι γάρ σε ὁμολογοῦντα, ἐπειδὴ οὐκ ἀποκρίνῃ. (Pl.Ap. 27 C.)
For I regard you as agreeing, since you do not reply.
Negative οὐ.
ἂν δὲ σιωπᾶν [sc. φῇ], πῶς οὐκ ἀδικεῖ͂, εἰ, παρὸν ἐξαμαρτάνειν
μέλλοντας ἀποτρέπειν, τοῦτο μὲν οὐκ ἐποίει … (D. 22.41.)
But if <he says> that he kept quiet, how is he not acting unjustly, since
[lit. ‘if ’], although it was possible to turn <them> aside when they were
intending to do wrong, he was not doing this…?
Virtual Causal clause introduced by εἰ with negative οὐ.
(Cf. Lesson 19.5, last dot point)
183
23.1.2. Potential Indicative or Optative

Potential Indicative or potential Optative with ἄν may also appear in
a Causal clause.
κακῶς ὄλοισθ’· ὀλεῖσθε δ’ ἠδικηκότες
τὸν ἄνδρα τόνδε, θεοῖσιν εἰ δίκης μέλει.
ἔξοιδα δ’ ὡς μέλει γ’ ἐπεὶ οὔποτ’ ἂν στόλον
ἐπλεύσατ’ ἂν τόνδ’ οὕνεκ’ ἀνδρὸς ἀθλίου,
εἰ μή τι κέντρον θεῖον ἦγ’ ὑμᾶς ἐμοῦ. (S.Ph. 1035–1039.)
May you perish miserably; and you will perish for having wronged
this man, if the gods are concerned about justice.
And I am sure that they are concerned, since never would you
have sailed on this voyage on account of a wretched man,
if some divine incentive to get me had not been driving you on.
ἐπεί with potential Indicative ἐπλεύσατ(ε) and ἄν (repeated).
οὐ γὰρ ἡλικίαν ἔχει
παρὰ σοὶ καθεύδειν τηλικοῦτος ὤν, ἐπεὶ
μήτηρ ἂν αὐτῷ μᾶλλον εἴης ἢ γυνή. (Ar.Ec. 1038–1040.)
For he is not of an age
to sleep with you, being of such a <young> age, since
you would be a mother for him rather than a wife!
ἐπεί with potential Optative and ἄν.
23.1.3. Optative of Alleged Reason

In Past sequence, the Optative (without ἄν) is used in a Causal clause to
denote an alleged reason. In the following sentence, ὡς with Optative
ἀποχωρήσειαν expresses the reason of the Athenians in the city, not that
of the writer Thucydides.
ἐλθόντας δὲ τοὺς στρατηγοὺς οἱ ἐν τῇ πόλει Ἀθηναῖοι τοὺς
μὲν φυγῇ ἐζημίωσαν, Πυθόδωρον καὶ Σοφόκλεα, τὸν δὲ τρίτον
Εὐρυμέδοντα χρήματα ἐπράξαντο, ὡς ἐξὸν αὐτοῖς τὰ ἐν Σικελίᾳ
καταστρέψασθαι δώροις πεισθέντες ἀποχωρήσειαν. (Th. 4.65.3.)
But when the commanders came, the Athenians in the city punished the <first
two>, Pythodorus and Sophocles, with exile and exacted money from the third,
Eurymedon, on the grounds that, although it had been possible for them to
gain control of affairs in Sicily, they had been bribed by gifts and had departed.
184
LESSON 23. CAUSAL CONSTRUCTIONS
23.1.4. ὅτε with a Causal Meaning

ὅτε sometimes has a virtual Causal force, already in Homer, and extending
to the classical period. (The practice of distinguishing ὅτε [Temporal]
from ὅ τε [Causal] in print dates only from the nineteenth century.)
Ζεῦ πάτερ, οὐκέτ’ ἐγώ γε μετ’ ἀθανάτοισι θεοῖσι
τιμήεις ἔσομαι, ὅτε με βροτοὶ οὔ τι τίουσι …
(Hom.Od. 13.128–129.)
Father Zeus, no longer shall I for my part be honoured among
the immortal gods, since mortals do not honour me at all …
Here, ὅτε does not denote a particular time (or particular times) ‘when’
mortals do not honour Poseidon. Rather, it gives the reason why gods will
not honour him, ‘since’ mortals do not honour him ‘at all’. The argument
proceeds a minore ad maius (from the lesser to the greater).
ὅτε δὴ τοῦτο οὕτως ἔχει, τόδε μοι ἀποκρίνασθε, φήσω.
(Pl.Prt. 356 C.)
‘Since indeed this is so, answer this for me’, I shall say.
Both ὅτι and ὅτε seem to be derived from the neuter singular relative
pronoun ὅ. ὅτι is the indefinite form of this pronoun. ὅτε is simple ὅ
followed by generalising enclitic τε, primarily an Epic usage (Liddell &
Scott, 1996: τε B.). The basic early meaning of either form could be
expressed as: ‘with respect to which’, or ‘with regard to the fact that’.
Many examples, from Homer and Hesiod onwards, are ambiguous
because of elision: ὅτ(ι) or ὅτ(ε). The usual view is that only ὅτ(ε) allows
elision. But two notable Hesiod scholars doubt this.
τῆς ὅτε δὴ Περσεὺς κεφαλὴν ἀπεδειροτόμησεν,
ἐξέθορε Χρυσάωρ τε μέγας καὶ Πήγασος ἵππος·
τῷ μὲν ἐπώνυμον ἦν ὅτ’ ἄρ’ Ὠκεανοῦ παρὰ πηγὰς
γένθ’… (Hes.Th. 280–283.)
Just when Perseus cut off her head,
there leapt out great Chrysaor and Pegasus the horse;
the latter had a significant name, because of course he was born beside
the waters of Ocean …
185
γένθ’ = ἐγένετο
Acknowledging the usual view, West (1966, p. 247) has commented
on this passage: ‘But if we ask which word we should see if it were not
before a vowel, the answer is certainly that we should see ὅτι …’. More
succinctly, Paley (1883, p. 204) has commented on the same passage: ‘ὅτ’
for ὅτι, not ὅτε’. If elision of the final iota of ὅτι is allowed in general,
there will be far fewer instances of ὅτ(ε) with a Causal meaning.
23.2. Adjectival Clauses of Cause

Cause may be expressed in adjectival clauses. The definite relative adjective
ὅς is more common than the indefinite ὅστις. The Mood is generally
Indicative and the negative is οὐ. (Similar clauses with μή are probably
better classified as Conditional adjectival clauses.)
ταῦτα λέγων τῷ Κροίσῳ οὔ κως οὔτε ἐχαρίζετο, οὔτε λόγου μιν
ποιησάμενος οὐδενὸς ἀποπέμπεται, κάρτα δόξας ἀμαθέα εἶναι,
ὃς τὰ παρέοντα ἀγαθὰ μετεὶς τὴν τελευτὴν παντὸς χρήματος
ὁρᾶν ἐκέλευε. (Hdt. 1.33.)
In saying this he was not at all pleasing to Croesus, and <the latter> considering
him of no importance sent him away, thinking him to be very ignorant, since,
setting aside present benefits, he was telling him to look at the outcome of
every matter.
ἀποπέμπεται is Historic Present.
23.3. Causal Participles

Participles may express Cause. See Lesson 4 on Participles, Lesson 5 on
Genitive absolute and Lesson 6 on Accusative absolute. Such Participles
may be reinforced by certain adverbs. ὡς before a Causal Participle
indicates that the Cause is expressed on the authority of the main Subject
or of another person prominent in the sentence. ἅτε, οἷα and οἷον
indicate that the Cause is expressed on the authority of the writer (or of the
person delivering a speech). Herodotus also uses ὥστε in a similar way.
186
… καὶ τὸν μὲν Περικλέα ἐν αἰτίᾳ εἶχον ὡς πείσαντα σφᾶς

πολεμεῖν … (Th. 2.59.2.)
… and they held Pericles to blame on the grounds that he had persuaded
them to go to war …
The reason introduced by ὡς is attributed to the Athenians, who are the
Subject of εἶχον.
… ἅτε τὸν χρυσὸν ἔχων πάντα τὸν ἐκ τῶν Σαρδίων, ἐπικούρους
τε ἐμισθοῦτο καὶ τοὺς ἐπιθαλασσίους ἀνθρώπους ἔπειθε σὺν
ἑωυτῷ στρατεύεσθαι. (Hdt. 1.154.)
… inasmuch as he held all the gold from Sardis, he was hiring mercenaries
and was persuading the men of the coast to go on campaign with him.
The reason introduced by ἅτε is that of the author Herodotus.
ὥστε δὲ περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεόμενος αὐτούς, παῖδάς σφι παρέδωκε
τὴν γλῶσσάν τε ἐκμαθεῖν καὶ τὴν τέχνην τῶν τόξων. (Hdt. 1.73.3.)
And inasmuch as he regarded them highly, he committed boys to them to
learn their language and the technique of the bow.
23.4. Coordinating Use of ἐπεί and ὡς

Editors sometimes treat ἐπεί and ὡς as introducing a Main clause at the
beginning of a sentence, and thus as being equivalent to γάρ. It might be
argued that this is a subordinating use in some long sentences. But that
argument is less convincing where the clause introduced by ἐπεί or ὡς
constitutes a question, wish or command rather than a statement.
ἐγὼ μὲν γὰρ πολλάκις θέλω τεθνάναι, εἰ ταῦτ’ ἔστιν ἀληθῆ·
ἐπεὶ ἔμοιγε καὶ αὐτῷ θαυμαστὴ ἂν εἴη ἡ διατριβὴ αὐτόθι, ὁπότε
ἐντύχοιμι Παλαμήδει καὶ Αἴαντι τῷ Τελαμῶνος καὶ εἴ τις ἄλλος
τῶν παλαιῶν διὰ κρίσιν ἄδικον τέθνηκεν … (Pl.Ap. 41 A–B.)
For I am willing to die many times, if this is true. For to me myself at least the
lifestyle would be wonderful there, when I met up with Palamedes and Ajax
son of Telamon and anyone else among early figures who has died because of
an unjust judgment …
187
References
712–719, 862–865.
Paley (Ed.) (1883), The Epics of Hesiod, p. 204.
West (Ed.) (1966), Hesiod: Theogony, p. 247.
EXERCISE 23
1. ἐπεί σε μανθάνω
θνητὴν φρονοῦσαν θνητὰ κοὐκ ἀγνώμονα,
πᾶν σοι φράσω τἀληθές, οὐδὲ κρύψομαι.
ἀγνώμων, -ον senseless (here Acc. neut. pl., as is θνητά)
2. ἐπεὶ σὺ φέγγος, Τειρεσία, τόδ’ οὐχ ὁρᾷς,

ἐγὼ προφήτης σοι λόγων γενήσομαι.
φέγγος, -εος, τό light (of day)

Τειρεσίας, -ου, ὁ Tiresias
λόγων (with)in my words (Gen. of Limits)
3. ἀλλά νιν περιπτυχεῖ

φάρει καλύψω τῷδε παμπήδην, ἐπεὶ
οὐδεὶς ἄν, ὅστις καὶ φίλος, τλαίη βλέπειν …
νιν (enclitic) him

περιπτυχής, -ές enfolding, wrapped around
φᾶρος, -εος, τό cloak
παμπήδην (adv.) completely
τλῆναι (2nd Aor.) to endure, to bear
188
4. … Κῦ ρ͂ ος … τῷ Κλεάρχῳ ἐβόα ἄγειν τὸ στράτευμα κατὰ μέσον

τὸ τῶν πολεμίων, ὅτι ἐκεῖ βασιλεὺς εἴη·
κατά at
5. … ἐβουλεύοντο ἰθυμαχίην μὲν μηδεμίαν ποιέεσθαι ἐκ τοῦ

ἐμφανέος, ὅτε δή σφι οὗτοί γε σύμμαχοι οὐ προσεγίνοντο …
ἰθυμαχία, -ας, ή (Attic) direct attack

ἐμφανής, ές (Attic) open (ground) (neut. adj. as noun)
προσγίγνεσθαι (Attic) to be added (to) (+ Dat.)
6. τί γὰρ ἂν καὶ βουλόμενος Ἀνδοκίδης ἀγῶνα τοσοῦτον

ὑπομείνειεν, ᾧ ἔξεστι μὲν ἀπελθόντι ἐντεῦθεν ἔχειν πάντα τὰ
ἐπιτήδεια …;
ἀγών, -ῶνος, ὁ trial

ὑπομένειν to submit to (+ Acc.)
ἐντεῦθεν (adv.) from here
ἐπιτήδειος, -α, -ον necessary, requisite
7. … the Sicilian Greeks themselves provided a greater number

[of troops] in all categories, inasmuch as they inhabited large cities.
Sicilian Greek Σικελιώτης, -ου, ὁ

number πλῆθος, -ους, τό
in all categories κατὰ πάντα
inasmuch as ἅτε (+ Partc.)
8. And you [pl.] think that the affairs of the Thebans are in a bad state
because they are mistreating their neighbours …
to be in a (certain) state ἔχειν (+ adv.)

to mistreat ἀδικεῖν (+ Acc.)
neighbour περίοικος, -ου, ὁ (adj. as noun)
189
LESSON 24
Constructions with Verbs
of Effort and Caution
24.1. Introduction
The most common construction with verbs of effort and caution is ὅπως
with Future Indicative in both Primary and Past sequence. The ὅπως
clause is a noun clause, Object of the verb of effort or caution. Besides
the construction with Future Indicative, there are other constructions in
Greek. These vary from one verb to another, and from one author to
another. Moreover, manuscripts may vary between Future Indicative and
Aorist Subjunctive in their reading of the same word. And editors have
been inclined to prefer a Future Indicative reading or to emend Aorist
Subjunctive to Future Indicative. The negative for all constructions is μή.
24.2. Primary Sequence
24.2.1. ὅπως with Future Indicative

εἰ δὲ Φοινίκων μᾶλλον βούλεσθε διαπειρᾶσθαι, ποιέειν χρεόν
ἐστι ὑμέας, ὁκότερα ἂν δὴ τούτων ἕλησθε, ὅκως τὸ κατ’ ὑμέας
ἔσται ἥ τε Ἰωνίη καὶ ἡ Κύπρος ἐλευθέρη. (Hdt. 5.109.2.)
But if you wish rather to try out the Phoenicians, it is right that you should
ensure, whichever of these <options> you choose, that so far as depends on
you, Ionia and Cyprus will be free.
ὅρα δ’ ὅπως ὠθήσομεν τούσδε τοὺς ἐξ ἄστεως
ἥκοντας … (Ar.Ec. 300–301.)
And see to it that we push aside these people who have come
from town …
191
… ὁρᾶτε ὅπως μὴ αἴσχιον καὶ ἀπορώτερον τῇ Πελοποννήσῳ

πράξομεν. (Th. 1.82.5.)
… take care that we do not create <a situation> more shameful and more
difficult for the Peloponnese.
Negative μή.
24.2.2. ὅπως with Subjunctive

… ἐπιμελητέον μὲν ὅπως τρέφωνται οἱ ἵπποι, ὡς ἂν δύνωνται
πόνους ὑποφέρειν· (X.Eq.Mag. 1.3.)
… <it is> necessary to take care that the horses are nourished, so that they
can endure hard work.
καὶ ὅρα, ὦ Κρίτων, ταῦτα καθομολογῶν, ὅπως μὴ παρὰ δόξαν
ὁμολογῇς. (Pl.Cri. 49 D.)
And see to it, Crito, in agreeing to this, that you do not agree contrary
to <your real> opinion.
Negative μή.
24.2.3. μή with Subjunctive

ἀλλὰ πρῶτον εὐλαβηθῶμέν τι πάθος μὴ πάθωμεν.
τὸ ποῖον; ἦν δ’ ἐγώ.
μὴ γενώμεθα, ἦ δ’ ὅς, μισόλογοι, ὥσπερ οἱ μισάνθρωποι
γιγνόμενοι. (Pl.Phd. 89 C.)
‘But first let us take care that we do not suffer any calamity’.
‘What sort <of calamity>?’ said I.
‘That we do not become’, said he, ‘haters of argument, just as those who
become haters of mankind’.
192
LESSON 24. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH VERBS OF EFFORT AND CAUTION
24.2.4. εἰ with Indicative

Some verbs of effort and caution occasionally have an εἰ clause as Subject
or Object. In the examples, in Primary and Past sequence the Indicative
Mood is used. And the leading verb either is negated or is a negative
compound.
καὶ οὐ τοσοῦτόν μοι μέλει, εἰ με δεῖ τὰ ὄντα ἀπολέσαι·
(Lys. 21.12.)
And it is not so great a concern to me, whether I must lose my possessions.
εἰ clause with Present Indicative is Subject of μέλει; lit. ‘Whether I must
lose … is not so great a concern …’.
ὥστε μηκέτι ἀπόρει, ὦ Σώκρατες, εἴ τι τοὐμὸν κάλλος ἀνθρώπους
ὠφελήσει. (X.Smp. 4.16.)
And so no longer be at a loss, O Socrates, <about> whether my beauty will
bring any benefit to people.
εἰ clause with Future Indicative is Object of ἀπόρει.
24.3. Past Sequence
24.3.1. ὅπως with Future Indicative

… καὶ παρεσκευάζοντο ὅπως κατὰ κορυφὴν ἐσβαλοῦσιν ἐς τὴν
κάτω Μακεδονίαν, ἧς ὁ Περδίκκας ἦρχε. (Th. 2.99.1.)
… and they were preparing to <go> over the ridge <and> invade lower
Macedonia, of which Perdiccas was ruler.
ἐγὼ δέ, ἐπείτε παρέλαβον τὸν θρόνον τοῦτον, ἐφρόντιζον ὅκως
μὴ λείψομαι τῶν πρότερον γενομένων ἐν τιμῇ τῇδε μηδὲ ἐλάσσω
προσκτήσομαι δύναμιν Πέρσῃσι· (Hdt. 7.8.α.2.)
And I, after I had succeeded to this throne, was wondering how I should
not be left behind those who had come before in this office, nor gain for the
Persians less power [i.e. than they did].
Here, ὅκως with Future Indicative is represented by ‘how I should…’
in English. Negative μή and compound.
193
24.3.2. ὅπως with Subjunctive

δεδιώς τε ἔπρασσεν ἔς τε τὴν Λακεδαίμονα πέμπων ὅπως
πόλεμος γένηται αὐτοῖς πρὸς Πελοποννησίους … (Th. 1.57.4.)
And in trepidation he [= Perdiccas] was trying to bring it about, by sending
<agents> to Sparta, that war would break out between them [= Athenians]
and the Peloponnesians …
(The second τε anticipates a following καί.)
ἐπεμελήθη δέ τις ἄλλως πώποτε πλὴν Ἀγεσίλαος, ἢ ὅπως φῦλόν
τι ἀποστήσεται τοῦ Πέρσου ἢ ὅπως τὸ ἀποστὰν μὴ ἀπόληται …
(X.Ages.7.7.)
But did anyone except Agesilaus ever otherwise take care, either that some
tribe should revolt from the Persian or that the <tribe> which rebelled should
not perish …?
Negative μή. (The first ὅπως clause uses Fut. Indic.)
24.3.3. ὅπως with Optative

In accordance with the more usual practice of sequence of Moods in
subordinate constructions, ὅπως with Imperfect or Aorist Optative
in Past sequence corresponds to Subjunctive of the same Aspects in Primary
sequence. Likewise, ὅπως with Intentive (‘Fut.’) Optative corresponds to
the Future Indicative of Primary sequence.
ἐπεμέλετο γὰρ καὶ τούτου ὁ Κῦρος, ὅπως ἁλίσκοιντο παρ’ ὧν
ἔμελλε πεύσεσθαί τι· (X.Cyr. 6.2.9.)
For Cyrus used to be concerned for this also, that <prisoners> should be
captured, from whom he was likely to learn something.
Imperfect Optative. The ὅπως clause is in apposition with τούτου.
πῶς οὖν, ἐὰν μὴ βοηθῆτε οὕτω περιφανῶς ἡμῖν ἀδικουμένοις, οὐ
παρὰ τοὺς ὅρκους ποιήσετε; καὶ ταῦτα ὧν αὐτοὶ ἐπεμελήθητε
ὅρκων ὅπως πᾶσιν ὑμῖν πάντες ἡμεῖς ὀμόσαιμεν; (X.HG 6.5.37.)
How, then, if you do not help us when we are so obviously being wronged, will
you not act contrary to your oaths? And these, oaths which you yourselves took
care that we all should swear to you all?
194
Aorist Optative.
ἐπεμελήθη δ’, ὅπως οἱ στρατιῶται τοὺς πόνους δυνήσοιντο
ὑποφέρειν· (X.Ages. 2.8.)
And he took care that the soldiers would be able to endure their labours.
Intentive (‘Fut.’) Optative.
ἐπεμέλετο δὲ καὶ τούτου ὁ Κῦρος ὅπως μήποτε ἀνίδρωτοι
γενόμενοι ἐπὶ τὸ ἄριστον καὶ τὸ δεῖπνον εἰσίοιεν. (X.Cyr. 2.1.29.)
And Cyrus took care of this too, <namely> that they should never go in to
lunch and dinner without having raised a sweat.
Negative μήποτε.
24.3.4. μή with Optative

οὐ μέντοι οὐδὲ ἀπέκλινε, φυλαττόμενος μὴ δοκοίη φεύγειν …
(X.An. 2.2.16.)
However, he was not turning aside either, being careful that he should not
seem to be retreating …
24.3.5. εἰ with Indicative

Corresponding to the examples in Primary sequence (§24.2.4), the
following examples have the same structure in Past sequence.
οὐ γὰρ ἂν αὐτοῖς ἔμελεν, εἴ τις ἐν Πελοποννήσῳ τινὰς ὠνεῖται
καὶ διαφθείρει, μὴ τοῦθ’ ὑπολαμβάνουσιν· (D. 9.45.)
For it would not have been a concern to them, whether any one in the
Peloponnese was bribing and corrupting any <persons>, if they had not
been making this assumption.
εἰ clause with Present Indicative (Vivid) is Subject of ἔμελεν (in a Past
potential Main clause); lit. ‘Whether any one … was bribing … would not
have been a concern …’. ὑπολαμβάνουσιν is a Dative plural Participle
with Conditional force, agreeing with αὐτοῖς.
195
οὕτω δ’ ἠμέλησας, εἰ μηδὲν ὁμολογούμενον ἐρεῖς, ὥστε φῂς μὲν

αὐτὸν τὴν Αἰόλου καὶ τὴν Ὀρφέως ζηλῶσαι δόξαν, ἀποφαίνεις δ’
οὐδὲν τῶν αὐτῶν ἐκείνοις ἐπιτηδεύσαντα. (Isoc. 11.7.)
And you were so careless, <about> whether you were going to say nothing
consistent, that you say that he emulated the reputation of Aeolus and Orpheus,
but you show that he accomplished none of the same <achievements> as they
<did>.
εἰ clause with Future Indicative is Object of ἠμέλησας, which is Past
Aorist Indicative of negative compound ἀμελεῖν.
24.4. Variations of the Constructions in §§24.2

and 24.3
In some Attic authors (especially Aristophanes, Xenophon and Plato),
ἄν may be added to ὅπως with Subjunctive.
Xenophon mostly uses the common constructions. But in addition, he
sometimes uses ὡς (instead of ὅπως) with Future Indicative, Subjunctive
and Optative, and ἄν may be added to ὡς with Subjunctive.
With verbs of planning and trying (especially φράζεσθαι, βουλεύειν,
μερμηρίζειν and πειρᾶν), Homer uses ὅπως or ὡς with Subjunctive
in Primary sequence and Optative (but sometimes Subj.) in Past
sequence. κε(ν) (enclitic), equivalent to ἄν, is generally used with ὡς and
Subjunctive, less often with ὅπως and Subjunctive.
24.5. Infinitive Constructions

Besides the constructions with Subordinate clauses, Infinitive phrases are
sometimes used with verbs of effort and caution.
ἃ γάρ, ὅτε ἐσπένδοντο, διεπράττοντο, μὴ καίειν τὴν βασιλέως
χώραν, νῦν αὐτοὶ καίουσιν ὡς ἀλλοτρίαν. (X.An. 3.5.5.)
For as to what they were arranging when they were making the truce,
<namely> not to burn the king’s territory, now they themselves are burning
<it>, as <if it were> someone else’s.
196
The use of μή with the Infinitive after a verb of caution may reinforce the
idea of caution rather than contradicting it. Compare the following two
uses of εὐλαβεῖσθαι with Infinitive.
καλῶς ἔλεξεν, εὐλαβουμένῳ πεσεῖν … (S.OT 616.)
He spoke well, in the judgment of anyone wary of falling …
… ὀρχησάμενοι θεοῖσιν εὐλαβώμεθα
τὸ λοιπὸν αὖθις μὴ ’εξαμαρτάνειν ἔτι. (Ar.Lys. 1276–1277.)
… leading the dance in honour of the gods let us take care
not to offend ever again in future.
24.6. Omission of Main Clause

Expressions of effort or caution may be made by means of a ὅπως
clause without any Main clause. However, an imperatival or hortatory
verb is always implied as introducing the ὅπως clause: ‘<See to it> that
…’, ‘<Take care> that … (not) …’. Consequently, such ὅπως clauses
are always in Primary sequence. Positive clauses use ὅπως with Future
Indicative. Negative clauses use ὅπως μή with Future Indicative or with
Subjunctive.
ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον ὅκως λόγον δώσεις τῶν μετεχείρισας χρημάτων.
(Hdt. 3.142.5.)
But rather <make sure> that you give an account of the money which you
managed.
ὅκως (for Attic ὅπως) with Future Indicative τῶν (Ionic) = ὧν (Attic).
ὅπως τοίνυν ταῦτα μηδεὶς ἀνθρώπων πεύσεται· (Lys. 1.21.)
So <make sure> that no one among men learns about this.
ὅπως … μηδείς with Future Indicative.
καὶ ὅπως γε μηδὲ τὸ χωρίον ἡδέως ὁρῶσιν ἔνθα κατέκανον ἡμῶν
τοὺς συμμάχους· (X.Cyr. 5.4.21.)
And <let us make> quite <sure> that they will not even see with pleasure
the place where they killed our allies.
ὅπως μηδέ with Imperfect Subjunctive.
197
References
339–354, 361.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2209–2217, 2220.
EXERCISE 24
1. … χρημάτων μὲν οὐκ αἰσχύνῃ ἐπιμελούμενος ὅπως σοι ἔσται
ὡς πλεῖστα, καὶ δόξης καὶ τιμῆς, φρονήσεως δὲ καὶ ἀληθείας
καὶ τῆς ψύχης ὅπως ὡς βελτίστη ἔσται οὐκ ἐπιμελῇ οὐδὲ
φροντίζεις;
χρήματα, -ων, τά money

αἰσχύνεσθαι (Mid. and to be ashamed (of ) (+ Partc.)
Pass.)
ἐπιμελούμενος + Gen. χρημάτων, δόξης, τιμῆς.
πλεῖστα (neut. pl.) Refers to χρημάτων.
ἐπιμελῇ + Gen. φρονήσεως, ἀληθείας, τῆς
ψυχῆς.
2. … ἀλλὰ τοῦτ’ ἐφιλοσοφεῖ καὶ τοῦτ’ ἔπραττεν, ὅπως μηδεμία

τῶν πόλεων αὐτὸν φοβήσεται τῶν Ἑλληνίδων, ἀλλὰ πᾶσαι
θαρρήσουσι πλὴν τῶν ἀδικουσῶν.
φιλοσοφεῖν to pursue (an aim or activity)

πράττειν to strive for (+ Acc.)
θαρρεῖν to be confident
3. περὶ μέντοι ἡγεμονίας αὐτόθεν διεπράττοντο ὅπως ἐν τῇ

ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστοι ἡγήσοιντο.
μέντοι moreover (less common than the

adversative meaning)
αὐτόθεν immediately
τῇ Understand γῇ.
198
4. εὐλαβοῦ δὲ μὴ ’κφύγῃ σε·
(ἐ)κφύγῃ The Subject is masc.
5. φυλάξομαι δὲ τάσδε μεμνῆσθαι σέθεν

κεδνὰς ἐφετμάς·
κεδνός, -ή, -όν wise

ἐφετμή, -ῆς, ἡ command
6. οὐδ’ ὄμμ’ ἔδειξεν, ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ σκήπτροις ἔχων

τὴν ἐλπίδ’ ηὐλαβεῖτο μὴ σῴζειν φίλους.
ὄμμα, -ατος, τό face

σκῆπτρον, -ου, τό staff; sceptre; (often in pl., as here)
royal power
φίλος, -ου, ὁ family member
Orestes speaks ironically to Electra about Menelaus.
7. Πενθεὺς δ’ ὅπως μὴ πένθος εἰσοίσει δόμοις

τοῖς σοῖσι, Κάδμε·
Πενθεύς Belongs within ὅπως clause.
8. … those who are going to be capable of this … must see to it that

they have a more sensible attitude than the others.
to be capable of δύνασθαι (+ Acc.)

to see to it σκοπεῖν
to have an attitude διακεῖσθαι (Mid.; + adv.)
sensible φρόνιμος, (-η,) -ον
9. And these [men], by canvassing each of the citizens, were trying

to ensure that they would make the city revolt from the Athenians.
to canvass μετιέναι
to try to ensure πράσσειν (Use Past Imperf. Indic.)
to make … revolt ἀφιστάναι
199
LESSON 25
Adjectival Clauses
25.1. Introduction
An adjectival clause performs the same function as an adjective in qualifying
a noun or pronoun. In form, adjectival clauses are introduced by a relative
adjective or pronoun and normally contain a finite verb (although this is
sometimes only implied in the context). The construction of the adjectival
clause may be any of the constructions possible in a Simple sentence or in
the Main clause of a Complex sentence—Indicative, Imperative, Jussive
(Subjunctive) or potential (ἄν with Indicative or Optative). In Greek
(as in English), the antecedent noun or pronoun is not always expressed.
Thus, οἵ, for example, may stand for ‘<those> who’.
The present Lesson is concerned primarily with the distinction in form
and function between definite and indefinite adjectival clauses. From this
point of view, three main categories of adjectival clause will be considered:
1. Definite clauses introduced by ὅς
2. Indefinite clauses introduced by ὅς
3. Indefinite clauses introduced by ὅστις.
25.2. Definite Clauses Introduced by ὅς

Definite clauses refer to a particular person or thing as antecedent.
Provided that the adjectival clause represents a statement, its verb is in the
Indicative Mood. The negative within such a clause is οὐ.
Ἥφαιστε, σοὶ δὲ χρὴ μέλειν ἐπιστολὰς
ἅς σοι πάτηρ ἐφεῖτο … (A.Pr. 3–4.)
And the commands, which the father laid upon you,
should be your concern, Hephaestus …
… νόμον δὲ ἔθεντο ἐν τῷ παρόντι, ὃς οὔπω πρότερον ἐγένετο
αὐτοῖς· (Th. 5.63.4.)
201
… but in the present situation they made a law, which did not yet previously
exist for them.
Negative οὐ compound.
However, if the adjectival clause represents a command, its verb is
Imperative or Subjunctive. And the negative within such a clause is μή.
κάτισον τῶν δορυφόρων ἐπὶ πάσῃσι τῇσι πύλῃσι φυλάκους, ὁί
λέγ̓όντων πρὸς τοὺς ἐκφέροντας τὰ χρήματα ἀπαιρεόμενοι ὥς
σφεα ἀναγκαίως ἔχει δεκατευθῆναι τῷ Διί. (Hdt. 1.89.3.)
Set at all the gates guards from among the spearmen, who are to say to those
carrying out the goods, as they take <them> away, that it is necessary that they
be paid as a tithe to Zeus.
Third person plural Imperfect Imperative Active.
ἥξεις δ’ Ὑβριστὴν ποταμὸν οὐ ψευδώνυμον,
ὃν μὴ περάσῃς … (A.Pr. 717–718.)
And you will come to the Raging River, not falsely named,
which you are not to cross …
A potential Optative may also be used in a definite adjectival clause.
οὓς γὰρ ὁμολογήσαιμεν ἂν πονηροτάτους εἶναι τῶν πολιτῶν,
τούτους πιστοτάτους φύλακας ἡγούμεθα τῆς πολιτείας εἶναι·
(Isoc. 8.53.)
For we think that these, whom we would agree to be the most wicked of the
citizens, are the most reliable guards of the community.
25.3. Indefinite Clauses Introduced by ὅς

Indefinite clauses do not normally refer to a particular person or thing but
to ‘anyone who’ or ‘whoever’. Two types of construction occur:
1. ὃς ἄν with Subjunctive in Primary sequence, and ὅς with Optative
in Past sequence
2. ὅς with Indicative.
The negative for both these types of construction is μή.
202
LESSON 25. ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES
25.3.1. Subjunctive and Optative

πρῶτον δὴ ἡμῖν, ὡς ἔοικεν, ἐπιστατητέον τοῖς μυθοποιοῖς, καὶ
ὃν μὲν ἂν καλὸν ποιήσωσιν, ἐγκριτέον, ὃν δ’ ἂν μή, ἀποκριτέον.
(Pl.R. 377 B–C.)
<It is> first necessary for us, as it seems, to take charge of the makers of myths,
and to accept the one which they make good, but to reject the one which
they do not.
ὃς ἄν with Subj. in Primary sequence; negative μή. As antecedent of ὅν,
μῦθον is to be understood from μυθοποιοῖς.
ὁ δὲ Σάκας … ἐτύγχανε … τιμὴν ἔχων προσάγειν τοὺς δεομένους
Ἀστυάγους καὶ ἀποκωλύειν οὓς μὴ καιρὸς αὐτῷ δοκοίη εἶναι
προσάγειν. (X.Cyr. 1.3.8.)
And Sacas … happened … to have the duty to introduce those requesting <an
audience with> Astyages and to exclude those whom it did not seem to him
to be appropriate to introduce.
οὕς with Optative in Past sequence; negative μή.
25.3.2. Indicative
Positive indefinite clauses with Indicative have the same form as positive
definite clauses. Their indefinite reference must be deduced from their
context and content. However, negative indefinite clauses with Indicative
use μή, whereas negative definite clauses with Indicative use οὐ.
ὃς δ’ ἐπ’ ἐόντι φέρει, ὃ δ’ ἀλέξεται αἴθοπα λιμόν. (Hes.Op. 363.)
And he, who adds to what is <in store>, [he] then will ward off raging
hunger.
Indicative in positive indefinite clause.
ὅ is masculine; the second δέ is apodotic (‘then’), as if the ὅς clause were
Conditional.
ὃ δὲ μὴ βλάπτει κακόν τι ποιεῖ; (Pl.R. 379 B.)
‘And does <that>, which does not cause harm, produce any evil?’
μή with Indicative in negative indefinite clause.
203
25.4. Indefinite Clauses Introduced by ὅστις

ὅστις, when used as an indefinite relative adjective or pronoun, shows
a mixture of the constructions in §§25.2 and 25.3 above. Its antecedent
is generally indefinite or negative or interrogative, and it may be
unexpressed.
25.4.1. ὅστις with Indicative and Negative οὐ

In one usage, ὅστις is treated as containing the notion of indefiniteness
within itself. And in texts of Homer it is conventionally written as two
words, ὅς τις. The negative within the ὅστις clause is οὐ.
ὅστις ποθ’ ὑμῶν Λάϊον τὸν Λαβδάκου
κάτοιδεν ἀνδρὸς ἐκ τίνος διώλετο,
τοῦτον κελεύω πάντα σημαίνειν ἐμοί· (S.OT 224–226.)
I command this <man>, who ever among you
knows by what man Laius son of Labdacus
perished, to reveal all to me.
The grammatical antecedent (τοῦτον) of the ὅστις clause is indefinite.
πέμψει δέ τοι οὖρον ὄπισθεν
ἀθανάτων ὅς τίς σε φυλάσσει τε ῥύεταί τε. (Hom.Od. 15.34–35.)
And indeed whichever one of the immortals
guards and protects you, will send a fair wind behind <you>.
The antecedent is indefinite and unexpressed.
οὐ γὰρ γυναικὶ τοὺς λόγους ἐρεῖς κακῇ,
οὐδ’ ἥτις οὐ κάτοιδε τἀνθρώπων … (S.Tr. 438–439.)
For you will not be addressing your words to an incompetent woman,
nor (to one) who does not understand the <ways> of mankind …
In this sentence, the antecedent clause is negative (οὐ … οὐδ(έ)), the
negative within the ὅστις clause is οὐ and, although the antecedent
is definite (the speaker refers to herself ), the ὅστις clause is used in
a characterising way. (Deianeira claims not to be an incompetent sort
of person.)
204
οὐ is used as a negative within a ὅστις clause especially in the stereotyped

phrase οὐδεὶς ὅστις οὐ, ‘<There is> no one who does not …’. (οὐδείς
is often attracted to the Case of ὅστις in Acc., Gen. and Dat.)
τοῦτο μὲν γὰρ ἡμέων ἐόντων τοιῶνδε οὐδεὶς ὅστις οὐ παρήσει
… (Hdt. 3.72.3.)
For on the one hand, since we are such as we are, <there is> no one who will
not let <us> pass …
25.4.2. ὅστις with Indicative and Negative μή

ὅστις with Indicative sometimes has μή as its negative, parallel to the use
of ὅς with the Indicative and μή in negative indefinite clauses.
τοὺς μὲν Ἀθηναίους ὅστις μὴ βούλεται οὕτω κακῶς φρονῆσαι
καὶ ὑποχειρίους ἡμῖν γενέσθαι ἐνθάδε ἐλθόντας, ἢ δειλός ἐστιν
ἢ τῇ πόλει οὐκ εὔνους· (Th. 6.36.1.)
Whoever does not want the Athenians to think so wrongly and to become
subject to us when they come here, is either cowardly or not well disposed to
the city.
25.4.3. ὅστις with Subjunctive and Optative

ὅστις may also have a construction with ἄν and Subjunctive in Primary
sequence and Optative in Past sequence.
… ἅπας δὲ τραχὺς ὅστις ἂν νέον κρατῇ. (A.Pr. 35.)
… and everyone, who is new to power, <is> harsh.
ὅστις ἄν with Subjunctive in Primary sequence.
… Ἀντιφῶν ἦν … πλεῖστα εἷς ἀνήρ, ὅστις ξυμβουλεύσαιτό τι,
δυνάμενος ὠφελεῖν. (Th. 8.68.1.)
… Antiphon was … the one man most able to help anyone who asked for
some advice.
ὅστις with Optative in Past sequence. ὅστις presumes an indefinite
Accusative antecedent, Object of ὠφελεῖν.
205
25.5. Coordinating Use of the Relative Adjective

or Pronoun
The relative adjective or pronoun may be used to begin a new sentence.
In this situation, ὅς needs to be translated not as ‘Who’, but by such
phrases as ‘And he’, ‘But he’ or ‘For he’. To some extent it is a matter of
editorial choice whether such occurrences are to be treated as coordinating
or subordinating. But certainly some Greek sentences would be artificially
long, if this rationale were not adopted.
θεὸς θεῶν γὰρ οὐχ ὑποπτήσσων χόλον
βροτοῖσι τιμὰς ὤπασας πέρα δίκης·
ἀνθ’ ὧν ἀτερπῆ τήνδε φρουρήσεις πέτραν
ὀρθοστάδην ἄυπνος, οὐ κάμπτων γόνυ· (A.Pr. 29–32.)
For you, a god, not cowering before the anger of the gods,
bestowed honours on mortals beyond due measure.
And in return for this you will guard this joyless rock,
standing upright, unsleeping, not bending the knee.
25.6. Parenthetic ὅστις Clause

A clause introduced by ὅστις may be used parenthetically in Greek,
more often with the Indicative (‘whoever he is’), but sometimes with
Subjunctive and ἄν (‘whatever it may be’). The idiom occurs both
with and without an antecedent.
… κλύω δὲ νεοχμὰ τήνδ’ ἀνὰ πτόλιν κακά,
γυναῖκας ἡμῖν δώματ’ ἐκλελοιπέναι
πλασταῖσι βακχείαισιν, ἐν δὲ δασκίοις
ὄρεσι θοάζειν, τὸν νεωστὶ δαίμονα
Διόνυσον, ὅστις ἔστι, τιμώσας χοροῖς· (E.Ba. 216–220.)
… and I hear of new troubles throughout this city,
that our women have abandoned their homes
in feigned Bacchic rites, and on shadowy
mountains are running around, honouring with dances
this newfound deity, Dionysus, whoever he is.
ὅστις with Indicative and antecedent Διόνυσον.
206
ὅ τι δ’ ἂν τούτων πρᾶξαι δυνηθῇς ἢ καὶ μόνον ἐπιχειρήσῃς, οὐκ

ἔσθ’ ὅπως οὐ μᾶλλον τῶν ἄλλων εὐδοκιμήσεις … (Isoc. 5.123.)
But whatever <part> of this you may be able to accomplish or even may
only attempt, it is not possible that you will not become more distinguished
than the rest …
ὅ τι with ἄν and Subjunctive but no antecedent.
ὅ τι γὰρ μὴ τοιοῦτον ἀποβήσεται παρ’ ὑμῶν, εἰς ἐμὲ τὸ ἐλλεῖπον
ἥξει. (X.Cyr. 1.5.13.)
For whatever does not turn out from you <to be> such, the deficiency will
fall upon me.
ὅ τι with Indicative and negative μή (cf. §25.4.2 above), but no
antecedent.
25.7. Special Uses of ὅστις and ὃς ἄν

In some sentences, ὅστις and ὃς ἄν clauses are not properly related to the
Main clause grammatically, but in function they usually serve as Subject
for the Main clause. ὅστις and ὅς may appear in any Gender and may
be singular or plural, but they are regularly used in the Nominative Case.
ὅστις clauses of this type regularly have an Indicative verb. (But, for
example, the oldest manuscript of Sophocles’s Ajax at line 761 has a Subj.
φρονῇ [without ἄν], which a later scribe has altered to Indic. φρονεῖ.)
ὃς ἄν clauses have Subjunctive verbs.
ὅστις μὲν οὖν ἐς μίαν ἀποβλέπων τύχην
πρὸς θεῶν κακοῦται, βαρὺ μέν, οἰστέον δ’ ὅμως. (E.Hel. 267–268.)
Well then, when any one, focusing on one fortune,
is maltreated by the gods, <that is> burdensome, but still able to be borne.
Structurally: ‘Maltreatment by the gods <is> burdensome’. (Subject)
οὐκ αἰνῶ φόβον,
ὅστις φοβεῖται μὴ διεξελθὼν λόγῳ. (E.Tr. 1165–1166.)
I do not approve fear,
when someone has fear without examining it with reason.
207
Structurally: ‘I do not approve irrational fear’. (In this passage, the ὅστις
clause serves as Object in apposition with φόβον, the grammatical Object
of the Main clause.)
τὸ δ’ εὐτυχές, οἳ ἂν τῆς εὐπρεπεστάτης λάχωσιν, ὥσπερ οἵδε
μὲν νῦν, τελευτῆς … (Th. 2.44.1.)
And <it is> good fortune, when <men> obtain a most decent end, just as
these <do> now …
Structurally: ‘Obtaining a most decent end <is> fortunate’. (Subject)
References
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2488–2552(–2573).
Lesson 25 does not cover all issues in the Sections of Goodwin (1889) and Smyth
(1956), and it is not always in agreement with them.
EXERCISE 25
1. σπορᾶς γε μὴν ἐκ τῆσδε φύσεται θρασύς,
τόξοισι κλεινό́ς, ὃς πόνων ἐκ τῶνδ’ ἐμὲ
λύσει.
σπορά, -ᾶς, ἡ origin

γε μήν but at any rate (Denniston, 1954, p. 348)
θρασύς, (-εῖα, -ύ) (a) courageous (figure) (Subject)
κλεινός, -ή, -όν famous (+ Causal Dat.; in apposition with
Subject)
2. ὃς πρῶτον μὲν τῆς προτέρας ὀλιγαρχίας αἰτιώτατος ἐγένετο,

πείσας ὑμᾶς τὴν ἐπὶ τῶν τετρακοσίων πολιτείαν ἑλέσθαι.
αἴτιος, -α, -ον responsible (for) (+ Gen.)

ἐπί (+ Gen.) in the time of
πολιτεία, -ας, ἡ administration, government
208
3. … καὶ τοὺς αὐτοὺς τούτους κυρίους ἁπάντων τῶν κοινῶν

καθίσταμεν, οἷς οὐδεὶς ἂν οὐδὲν τῶν ἰδίων ἐπιτρέψειεν.
κοινῶν (Gen. neut. pl.) public affairs

καθίσταμεν Pres. Indic.
ἰδίων neut.
4. τοιαῦτα φῆμαι μαντικαὶ διώρισαν,

ὧν ἐντρέπου σὺ μηδέν·
ἐντρέπειν to pay attention (to) (+ Gen.)
5. οἳ δὲ δίκας ξείνοισι καὶ ἐνδήμοισι διδοῦσιν

ἰθείας καὶ μή τι παρεκβαίνουσι δικαίου,
τοῖσι τέθηλε πόλις, λαοὶ δ’ ἀνθεῦσιν ἐν αὐτῇ·
δίκη, -ης, ἡ judgment

ξεῖνος ξένος
διδοῦσιν διδόασι(ν)
ἰθύς, -εῖα, -ύ straight (lit. and metaphorical)
τοῖσι demonstrative pronoun, antecedent
of οἵ
θάλλειν to sprout; (Perf. in Imperf. sense)
to flourish
ἀνθεῖν to bloom (here Ionic 3rd pers. pl.)
6. ταῦτ’ οὐχὶ δεινῆς ἀγχόνης ἔστ’ ἄξια,

ὕβρεις ὑβρίζειν, ὅστις ἔστιν ὁ ξένος;
ἀγχόνη, -ης, ἡ hanging

ὕβρις, -εως, ἡ (act of ) insolence (here internal Acc.
with cognate verb)
7. … I became reconciled on account of this danger with none of my

enemies, who more gladly speak ill of me than commend themselves.
to reconcile (with) διαλλάσσειν, Aor. Pass. διαλλαγῆναι

(also διαλλαχθῆναι) (+ Dat.)
to commend ἐπαινεῖν
209
8. … but they are sending against me such [men], whom you [pl.] would
not rightly trust.
to send (Acc.) against (Dat.) ἐπιπέμπειν

to trust πιστεύειν (+ Dat.)
210
LESSON 26
Concessive Constructions
26.1. Introduction
Concession may be expressed by a Participial phrase or by a Subordinate
clause. In both constructions ὅμως (‘nevertheless’) often appears in the
leading clause (that is, the clause on which the Concessive clause or
phrase depends).
26.2. Concessive Participial Phrases

When a Participial phrase expresses Concession, the Participle itself may
carry the Concessive force; or the Participle may be reinforced by καίπερ
or occasionally by καί or (mainly in Homer and tragedy) by περ alone.
After καίπερ, the Participle of the verb ‘to be’ may be omitted with an
adjective or noun. In Homer, καί and περ are almost always separated
by the Participle or by another significant word. A Genitive absolute or
an Accusative absolute may have Concessive force. See Lessons 4, 5 and 6
on Participles.
A negated Concessive Participial phrase (‘not even if ’, ‘not even though’)
has οὐδέ (regularly reinforced by περ) in place of καίπερ, when the
phrase is subordinate to a verb which is (or could be) negated by οὐ,
as with Indicative or potential Optative. In Homer, περ is regularly
separated from οὐδέ.
εἶπον δὲ καὶ πρίν, οὐκ ἄνευ δήμου τάδε
πράξαιμ’ ἄν, οὐδέ περ κρατῶν … (A.Suppl. 398–399.)
And I said also previously: ‘I would not do this
without <the consent of> the people, not even though I am ruling …’
οὐκ with potential Optative is followed by οὐδέ περ.
211
… οὐκ ἄρ’ ἔμελλες,

οὐδ’ ἐν σῇ περ ἐὼν γαίῃ, λήξειν ἀπατάων …
(Hom.Od. 13.293–294.)
… so you were not likely,
not even when you were in your own land, to cease from deceits …
οὐκ with Indicative is followed by οὐδ’ … περ.
μηδέ is used with a Participle subordinate to a verb which is (or could be)
negated by μή, as with Imperative or Subjunctive.
μὴ γὰρ ἐγχάνῃ ποτὲ
μηδέ περ γέροντας ὄντας ἐκφυγὼν Ἀχαρνέας. (Ar.Ach. 221–222.)
For he is not ever to taunt us
with his having escaped the Acharnians, not even if we are old.
μή with Jussive Subjunctive is followed by μηδέ περ.
26.3. Concessive Clauses
26.3.1. The Usual Constructions

Greek Concessive clauses are, in form, a variety of Conditional clause.
They are introduced by καὶ εἰ or καὶ ἐάν and by εἰ καί or ἐὰν καί.
A broad distinction can be made between καὶ εἰ (ἐάν) meaning ‘even
if ’ and εἰ (ἐὰν) καί meaning ‘although’, ‘even though’. The range
of constructions corresponds to that of other Conditional sentences.
The negative within a Concessive clause (‘even if … not’, ‘although …
not’) is μή, as in a Conditional clause. (Contrast §26.3.5 below.)
κερδαλέος κ’ εἴη καὶ ἐπίκλοπος, ὅς σε παρέλθοι
ἐν πάντεσσι δόλοισι, καὶ εἰ θεὸς ἀντιάσειε. (Hom.Od. 13.291–
292.)
Crafty would he be and wily, who surpassed you
in all tricks, even if a god were to encounter <you>.
καὶ εἰ with Optative.
212
LESSON 26. CONCESSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
φήσουσι γᾶρ δή με σοφὸν εἶναι, εἰ καὶ μή εἰμι, οἱ βουλόμενοι

ὑμῖν ὀνειδίζειν. (Pl.Ap. 38 C.)
For indeed those, who want to censure you, will say that I am wise, although
I am not.
εἰ καί with Indicative and negative μή.
26.3.2. Variations from the Usual Constructions

The senses ‘even if ’ (καὶ εἰ) and ‘although’ (εἰ καί) not only overlap,
but appear to be reversed in some Greek sentences. This is especially true
in verse.
Moreover, not every sentence with καὶ εἰ or εἰ καί will have the
Concessive meanings ‘even if ’ or ‘although’. καί and εἰ, in either order,
may function separately at the beginning of a Conditional clause.
Thus, καὶ εἰ may mean ‘and if ’. And εἰ καί may mean:
a. ‘if indeed’, referring to the whole clause
b. ‘if also/even/actually’, referring to a particular item following in the
clause.
26.3.3. εἴπερ (εἴ περ, ἐάν περ)

εἴπερ may have the meaning ‘even if ’. It is sometimes followed
(immediately or later) by other particles such as καί, τε, γε.
καὶ μὴν οὐδὲ τοῦτο εἰκὸς αὐτῷ πιστεύειν, εἴπερ ἀληθῆ λέγει
φάσκων ἀντειπεῖν, ὡς αὐτῷ προσετάχθη. (Lys. 12.27.)
Moreover, even if he is telling the truth in saying that he spoke in opposition,
<it is> not reasonable to believe him in this claim either, that instructions
were given to him.
οὐδέ = ‘not … either’; τοῦτο anticipates the ὡς clause.
213
26.3.4. εἰ or ἐάν Alone

εἰ or ἐάν alone may have Concessive force.
εἰ γὰρ εἴρηται ἐν ταῖς σπονδαῖς ἐξεῖναι παρ’ ὁποτέρους τις
βούλεται τῶν ἀγράφων πόλεων ἐλθεῖν, οὐ τοῖς ἐπὶ βλάβῃ ἑτέρων
ἰοῦσιν ἡ ξυνθήκη ἐστίν … (Th. 1.40.2.)
For <even> if it has been stated in the treaty that it is permissible for any one
of the unregistered city-states to go to whichever of the two sides it wishes, the
clause is not <intended> for those going to harm the others …
26.3.5. Negated Concessive Clauses

For negated Concessive clauses (‘not even if ’), οὐδέ or μηδέ precedes
the Conditional conjunctions εἰ or ἐάν. οὐδέ is used where the leading
clause requires οὐ, as with Indicative or potential Optative. μηδέ is used
where the leading clause requires μή, as with Imperative, Subjunctive, or
Optative in Past sequence representing a Primary Subjunctive. (Cf. §26.2
above.) The negative is often repeated within the leading clause.
σέθεν δ’ ἐγὼ οὐκ ἀλεγίζω
χωομένης, οὐδ’ εἴ κε τὰ νείατα πείραθ’ ἵκηαι
γαίης καὶ πόντοιο … (Hom.Il. 8.477–479.)
But I am not worried about you
in your anger, not even if you go so far as the furthest limits
of earth and sea …
ἵκηαι is second person singular Aorist Middle Subjunctive.
οἱ δὲ Συρακόσιοι τόν τε λιμένα εὐθὺς παρέπλεον ἀδεῶς καὶ τὸ
στόμα αὐτοῦ διενοοῦντο κλῄσειν, ὅπως μηκέτι μηδ’ εἰ βούλοιντο
λάθοιεν αὐτοὺς οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι ἐκπλεύσαντες. (Th. 7.56.1.)
And the Syracusans immediately began to sail along the harbour without fear
and were intending to block its mouth, so that the Athenians might no longer
escape their notice in sailing out, not even if they wanted to.
214
LESSON 26. CONCESSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
References
Denniston (1954), The Greek particles, pp. 299–305, 486–487.
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§842, 859–861
(Participles only).
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2066, 2070.c, 2082–2083 (Participles); 2369–

2382 (clauses).
EXERCISE 26
1. ὁρῶ, Προμηθεῦ, καὶ παραινέσαι γέ σοι
θέλω τὰ λῷστα καίπερ ὄντι ποικίλῳ.
παραινεῖν to give advice (Acc.) to (Dat.)

λῷστος, -η, -ον best
ποικίλος, -η, -ον subtle, ingenious
2. τὸ γὰρ ἐμόν ποτ’ εὐγενὲς

οὐκ ἂν προδοίην, οὐδέ περ πράσσων κακῶς.
εὐγενής, -ές of noble birth (here neut. of adj. for

abstract noun)
προδιδόναι to betray
πράσσειν to fare, to get on
3. … αὐτὴ ξίφος λαβοῦσα, κεἰ μέλλω θανεῖν,

κτενῶ σφε …
σφε them (Acc.)
4. καὶ ταῦτ’ Ἰάσων παῖδας ἐξανέξεται

πάσχοντας, εἰ καὶ μητρὶ διαφορὰν ἔχει;
ἐξανέχεσθαι (Mid.) to endure, to put up with (+ Acc.)

διαφορά, -ᾶς, ἡ difference, disagreement
215
5. φίλους δὲ λέγεις εἶναι πότερον τοὺς δοκοῦντας ἑκάστῳ

χρηστοὺς εἶναι, ἢ τοὺς ὄντας κἂν μὴ δοκῶσι;
χρηστός, -ή, -όν good
This sentence is a direct Alternative Question.
6. ἐγὼ γὰρ δή σοι λέγω …, ὅτι οὐ πείθομαι οὐδ’ οἶμαι ἀδικίαν

δικαιοσύνης κερδαλεώτερον εἶναι, οὐδ’ ἐὰν ἐᾷ τις αὐτὴν …
πράττειν ἃ βούλεται·
κερδαλέος, -α, -ον profitable
7. For this city must realise fully, even if it is not willing [to],
that it is uninitiated in my Bacchic rites …
to realise fully ἐκμανθάνειν (+ Acc. and Partc.)

even if Use a clause.
uninitiated (in) ἀτέλεστος, -ον (+ Gen.)
8. But I think that, although concerning the other [matters] it is

appropriate that the [men] of such an age should keep silent, at least
concerning going to war or not, it is fitting that these especially
should give advice …
to think ἡγεῖσθαι (Mid.; + Infin.)

to be appropriate πρέπειν (+ Acc. and Infin.)
of such an age τηλικοῦτος, -αύτη, -οῦτον
concerning going to war preposition + articular Infin. πολεμεῖν
to be fitting προσήκειν (+ Acc. and Infin.)
especially μάλιστα
to give advice συμβουλεύειν
216
LESSON 27
Purpose Constructions
27.1. Prepositions
Purpose may be expressed by the prepositions εἰς, ἐπί and πρός with
the Accusative, ἐπί with the Dative, and ὑπέρ with the Genitive of the
articular Infinitive.
τὸν οὖν παρόντα πέμψον ἐς κατασκοπήν … (S.Ph. 45.)
So send the man, who is present, to reconnoitre …
ἦλθον οἱ Ἰνδοὶ ἐκ τῶν πολεμίων, οὓς ἐπεπόμφει Κῦρος ἐπὶ
κατασκοπήν … (X.Cyr. 6.2.9.)
the Indians, whom Cyrus had sent to reconnoitre, came from the enemy …
τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἑστίας μεσομφάλου
ἕστηκεν ἤδη μῆλα πρὸς σφαγὰς πάρος. (A.Ag. 1056–1057.)
For now the animals
stand <ready> for slaughter before the central hearth.
Ἀχιλλέως παῖ, δεῖ σ’ ἐφ’ οἷς ἐλήλυθας
γενναῖον εἶναι. (S.Ph. 50–51.)
Son of Achilles, you must be noble <for the purposes>
for which you have come.
πολῖται γὰρ δορυφοροῦσι … ἀλλήλους ἄνευ μισθοῦ … ἐπὶ
τοὺς κακούργους ὑπὲρ τοῦ μηδένα τῶν πολιτῶν βιαίῳ θανάτῳ
ἀποθνῄσκειν. (X.Hier. 4.3.)
For the citizens guard … one another without pay … against evil-doers,
so that no one of the citizens may die by a violent death.
217
27.2. Infinitive
For the Infinitive expressing Purpose with certain verbs, see Lessons 3.4.3.1
and 3.5.3.
27.3. Participles
Participles may express Purpose, occasionally in the Imperfect Aspect, but
mainly in the Intentive Aspect. ὡς is frequently used with the Intentive
(‘Fut.’) Participle expressing Purpose. A Participle is used to express
Purpose especially with such verbs as ‘come’, ‘go’, ‘send’ and ‘summon’.
τούτους θανόντας ἦλθον ἐξαιτῶν πόλιν. (E.Supp. 120.)
I went to the city to request these dead <men>.
Imperf. Partc.
… καὶ ὡς διαβαλῶν δὴ ἔρχεται εἰς τὸ δικαστήριον … (Pl.Euthphr.
3 B.)
… and he is going to court precisely to slander <you> …
Intentive (‘Fut.’) Participle.
27.4. Adjectival Clauses of Purpose

Adjectival clauses with the Future Indicative may be used to express
Purpose. (Goodwin [1889, §565], Smyth [1956, §§2554, 2705.f.] and
other elementary and advanced grammars state that the negative for this
construction is μή. However, they cite no negative examples. Negative
examples can be cited for adverbial clauses of Place.)
ἀλλὰ νῦν οἱ μὲν πολιτευόμενοι ἐν ταῖς πατρίσι καὶ νόμους
τίθενται, ἵνα μὴ ἀδικῶνται, … καὶ ὅπλα κτῶνται, οἷς ἀμυνοῦνται
τοὺς ἀδικοῦντας … (X.Mem. 2.1.14.)
But now those who participate in the government in their fatherlands not only
frame laws, so that they may not be wronged, … but also obtain weapons,
with which to ward off wrongdoers …
218
LESSON 27. PURPOSE CONSTRUCTIONS
In adjectival clauses of Purpose, Homer normally uses the Subjunctive,

generally with κε(ν), in Primary sequence, and Optative, without κε(ν),
in Past sequence. The Optative in Past sequence also occurs in Attic
literature sometimes.
ἀλλ’ ἄγετε, κλητοὺς ὀτρύνομεν, οἵ κε τάχιστα
ἔλθωσ’ ἐς κλισίην Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος. (Hom.Il. 9.165–166.)
Well come on, let us urge on recruited men, that they may very quickly
go to the hut of Peleus’s son, Achilles.
Subjunctive with κε in Primary sequence. ὀτρύνομεν is an Epic Aorist
Subjunctive form with short vowel, equivalent to Attic ὀτρύνωμεν.
οὐδένα γὰρ εἶχον ὅστις ἀγγείλαι μολὼν
ἐς Ἄργος αὖθις, τάς ‹τ’› ἐμὰς ἐπιστολὰς
πέμψειε σωθεὶς τῶν ἐμῶν φίλων τινί. (E.IT 588–590.)
For I had no one to go back
to Argos and report, and, having been saved, to convey
my letter to one of my dear ones.
Optative ἀγγείλαι and πέμψειε in Past sequence.
27.5. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

Adverbial clauses of Purpose are introduced by a variety of conjunctions,
but mainly ἵνα and ὅπως. They regularly have Subjunctive in Primary
sequence and Optative in Past sequence. In early Greek, negative Purpose
clauses could be introduced by μή alone. But μή increasingly came to
be used only as a negative within a Purpose clause introduced by one of
the other (positive) conjunctions.
ἠῶθεν δ’ ἀγορήνδε καθεζώμεσθα κιόντες
πάντες, ἵν’ ὑμῖν μῦθον ἀπηλεγέως ἀποείπω,
ἐξιέναι μεγάρων· (Hom.Od. 1.372–374.)
And from dawn let us all go to the place of assembly
and sit down, so that I may declare to you my word unrestrainedly,
to go out from the halls.
ἵνα with Subjunctive in Primary sequence.
219
… ἐγὼ δ’ ἄπειμι, μὴ κατοπτευθῶ παρών … (S.Ph. 124.)

… but I shall go away, so that I may not be observed being present …
μή alone with Subjunctive in Primary sequence.
ἐπὶ δ’ αὐτῷ εἴκοσι ἔταξαν τὰς ἄριστα πλεούσας, ὅπως … μὴ
διαφύγοιεν πλέοντα τὸν ἐπίπλουν σφῶν οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι … (Th.
2.90.2.)
And on it [= the right wing] they stationed the twenty <ships> which sailed
best, in order that … the Athenians might not escape through their line-
of-attack as it sailed …
ὅπως μή with Optative in Past sequence.
ἵνα is the main Purpose conjunction in Herodotus, Aristophanes, Plato
and the orators. ὅπως is the main conjunction in Thucydides. ὅπως is
slightly more common than ἵνα in Xenophon. ὅπως with Subjunctive
sometimes has ἄν in positive clauses.
ὡς with κε(ν) or ἄν and the Subjunctive occurs in Homer, Attic poetry
and Herodotus (Ionic). ὄφρα is the most common Purpose conjunction in
Homer; occasionally κε(ν) or ἄν is used with ὄφρα and the Subjunctive.
The Vivid construction, with Subjunctive instead of Optative in Past
sequence, is used more often than not by the historians Herodotus and
Thucydides.
The Future Indicative may be used instead of the Subjunctive especially
in poetry, mainly with ὅπως, rarely with ὄφρα, ὡς and μή, but never
with ἵνα.
ἐπειδὴ δὲ ἤλθομεν ὡς αὐτὸν ἡμεῖς οἱ πρέσβεις, ἐμισθώσατο
μὲν τοῦτον εὐθέως, ὅπως συνερεῖ καὶ συναγωνιεῖται τῷ
μιαρῷ Φιλοκράτει καὶ τῶν τὰ δίκαια βουλομένων ἡμῶν πράττειν
περιέσται … (D. 19.316.)
But when we, the ambassadors, had come to him, he immediately hired this
<fellow>, so that he might speak with and assist the abominable Philocrates
and overtake us who wanted to do the right thing …
ὅπως with Future Indicative.
220
LESSON 27. PURPOSE CONSTRUCTIONS
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§302–338;
802; 840.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1686.1.d, 1689.2.c, 3.d, 1695.3.c, 1697.1.b

(Prepositions); 2065, 2086 (Participles); 2554 (adjectival clauses); 2193–
2206 (adverbial clauses).
EXERCISE 27
1. ὅταν τι δρᾷς ἐς κέρδος, οὐκ ὀκνεῖν πρέπει.
2. ὣς ἄρα οἱ φρονέοντι δοάσσατο κέρδιον εἶναι,
λίσσεσθαι ἐπέεσσιν ἀποσταδὰ μειλιχίοισι,
μή οἱ γοῦνα λαβόντι χολώσαιτο φρένα κούρη.
οἱ Dat. masc. sg.

δοάσσατο it seemed
ἀποσταδά (adv.) standing apart
μειλίχιος, -α, -ον gentle, soothing
γόνυ, γόνατος, τό knee (here Acc. pl. with alternative
spelling)
3. προεῖπε δὲ καὶ τοῦτο τοῖς στρατιώταις, ὡς εὐθὺς ἡγήσοιτο τὴν

συντομωτάτην ἐπὶ τὰ κράτιστα τῆς χώρας, ὅπως αὐτόθεν αὐτῷ
τὰ σώματα καὶ τὴν γνώμην παρασκευάζοιντο ὡς ἀγωνιούμενοι.
προειπεῖν (Aor.) to say in advance

σύντομος, -ον short (Here understand ὁδόν, Acc.
of Extent.)
αὐτόθεν at once
ἀγωνίζεσθαι (Mid.) to take part in the struggle
221
4. φίλος ἐβούλετο εἶναι τοῖς μέγιστα δυναμένοις, ἵνα ἀδικῶν μὴ

διδοίη δίκην.
φίλος Complement of εἶναι

διδόναι δίκην to pay the penalty
5. μὴ πρόσλευσσε, γενναῖός περ ὤν,

ἡμῶν ὅπως μὴ τὴν τύχην διαφθερεῖς.
προσλεύσσειν to look at (Understand αὐτόν as Object.)
6. For not in order that I may criticise the city of the Spartans in the
presence of the rest have I spoken in this way about them, but in
order that I may stop those [men] themselves … [from] having such
an attitude.
in order that ἵνα (both instances)

to criticise διαβάλλειν
Spartan Λακεδαιμόνιος, -α, -ον
in the presence of πρός (+ Acc.)
attitude γνώμη, -ης, ἡ
7. … and he was no longer willing to accept payment from me, pushing

[me] aside, so that that [man], but not I, might seem to be burying
my grandfather.
to accept payment ἀπολαμβάνειν (no Object necessary)

to push aside ὑποπαρωθεῖν
so that ὅπως
grandfather πάππος, -ου, ὁ
222
LESSON 28
Clauses of Comparison
28.1. Introduction
Clauses of Comparison are introduced by relative adjectives and by relative
adverbs of manner, quality, quantity or degree. The relative adjective or
adverb is frequently balanced by the corresponding demonstrative adjective
or adverb in the leading clause (on which the clause of Comparison
depends). For example: ὡς … οὕτω(ς) … ‘As … so …’ Either or both
of these adverbs may be reinforced by καί: ὡς καί … οὕτω καί …: ‘Just
as …, even so …’ [OR: ‘so too …’]. In Homer, ὥς (accented) frequently
stands for οὕτως.
28.2. Definite Comparison

The simplest form of comparison presents the circumstances of the
comparison as factual and uses the Indicative Mood in the clause of
Comparison.
καὶ οἱ μὲν Δήλιοι Ἀτραμύττειον Φαρνάκου δόντος αὐτοῖς ἐν τῇ
Ἀσίᾳ ᾤκησαν οὕτως ὡς ἕκαστος ὥρμητο. (Th. 5.1.)
And the Delians settled Atramyttium in Asia, when Pharnaces had granted
it to them, in such a way as each <man> had set out.
(There was no organised colony, but settlement was individual and
piecemeal.)
As adverbs, οὕτως modifies the verb ᾤκησαν, and ὡς modifies the verb
ὥρμητο.
223
28.3. Indefinite Comparison

An indefinite form of comparison uses the Subjunctive Mood with ἄν
in Primary sequence. Compare the difference between Open Particular
and Open General Conditions, Lesson 19.2.1 and Lesson 19.2.2. In the
following sentence, the ὅπως clause refers to any occasion on which
Nicocles influences the attitude of his citizens.
ὅπως γὰρ ἂν τοὺς ἄλλους πρὸς σαυτὸν διαθῇς, οὕτω καὶ σὺ
πρὸς ἐκείνους ἕξεις. (Isoc. 2.23.)
For as you dispose the rest <of the community> towards yourself, so too will
you be inclined towards those <people>.
The equivalent of this construction in Past sequence has the Optative
without ἄν. (A Vivid construction, using Subj. with ἄν, may also occur
in Past sequence.)
ἐπιπόνως δὲ ηὑρίσκετο, διότι οἱ πάροντες τοῖς ἔργοις ἑκάστοις
οὐ ταὐτὰ περὶ τῶν αὐτῶν ἔλεγον, ἀλλ’ ὡς ἑκατέρων τις εὐνοίας
ἢ μνήμης ἔχοι. (Th. 1.22.3.)
And the discoveries were painstakingly made, because those who had been
present at particular actions did not say the same things about the same
<events>, but <spoke> as any one had some goodwill towards either side or
some memory <of what had happened>.
(The Partitive Genitives singular εὐνοίας and μνήμης function as direct
Objects of ἔχοι. Cf. Lesson 37.3.4.)
28.4. Potential, Conditional and

Temporal Constructions
Potential, Conditional and Temporal constructions may occur within
a comparison.
28.4.1. Potential
… ἐγὼ δὲ οὐδὲν ἄρα τούτων ποιήσω, καὶ ταῦτα κινδυνεύων, ὡς
ἂν δόξαιμι, τὸν ἔσχατον κίνδυνον. (Pl.Ap. 34 C.)
224
LESSON 28. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
… but I shall actually do none of these things—and this, when I am running,

as I would seem <to be>, the extreme risk.
ὡς with ἄν and potential Optative in Primary sequence.
28.4.2. Conditional
αὐτὰρ ἔπειτα
λαοὶ ἕπονθ’, ὡς εἴ τε μετὰ κτίλον ἕσπετο μῆλα
πιόμεν’ ἐκ βοτάνης· (Hom.Il. 13.491–493.)
And then
the men were following, as if sheep <had> followed after a ram
from pasture, going to drink.
ὡς εἰ with Past Aorist Indicative in Past sequence.
οὗτος γὰρ ἐμοὶ φαίνεται τὰ ἐναντία λέγειν αὐτὸς ἑαυτῷ ἐν τῇ
γραφῇ, ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ εἴποι· ἀδικεῖ Σωκράτης θεοὺς οὐ νομίζων,
ἀλλὰ θεοὺς νομίζων. (Pl.Ap. 27 A.)
For this <man> appears to me to say the opposite [himself] to himself in his
indictment, as (he would) if he were to say: ‘Socrates does wrong in not
believing in gods but in believing in gods’.
ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ with Optative in Primary sequence.
28.4.3. Temporal
ὡς ὅτε (or ὡς ὁπότε) is especially common in Homeric similes.
The Mood is sometimes Indicative. But in Homer, an initial Subjunctive
without ἄν is often continued by Indicatives. The construction with
Subjunctive is indefinite.
αὐτὰρ ὁ θυμὸν ἄϊσθε καὶ ἤρυγεν, ὡς ὅτε ταῦρος
ἤρυγεν ἑλκόμενος … (Hom.Il. 20.403–404.)
Then he was breathing out his spirit and bellowed, as when a bull
bellows (lit. bellowed; Indic.) while being dragged along …
ὡς ὅτε with Past Aorist Indicative (definite).
225
ὡς δ’ ὅτ’ ἀνὴρ ἀπάλαμνος, ἰὼν πόλεος πεδίοιο,

στήῃ ἐπ’ ὠκυρόῳ ποταμῷ ἅλαδε προρέοντι,
ἀφρῷ μορμύροντα ἰδών, ἀνά τ’ ἔδραμ’ ὀπίσσω,
ὣς τότε Τυδεΐδης ἀνεχάζετο … (Hom.Il. 5.597–600.)
And as when a helpless man, going over a large plain,
stops (Subj.) at a swift-flowing river flowing on to the sea,
seeing it seething with foam, and runs (lit. ran; Indic.) backwards,
so at that time the son of Tydeus was recoiling …
ὡς ὅτε with Aorist Subjunctive (indefinite) continued by Past Aorist
Indicative (definite).
28.5. Other Correlative Adjectives and Adverbs

Other correlative adjectives and adverbs also express comparison.
Λοκρῶν δ’ ἡγεμόνευεν Ὀϊλῆος ταχὺς Αἴας,
μείων, οὔ τι τόσος γε ὅσος Τελαμώνιος Αἴας,
ἀλλὰ πολὺ μείων. (Hom.Il. 2.527–529.)
And of the Locrians the leader was Oeleus’s <son>, swift Ajax,
smaller, not at all so big as Telamon’s son Ajax,
but much smaller.
References
543–549.
226
LESSON 28. CLAUSES OF COMPARISON
EXERCISE 28
1. … καὶ τὸ τελευταῖον, ὅπως ἐβούλοντο, οὕτω τὸν πόλεμον
κατέθεντο.
τὸ τελευταῖον adverbial
κατατίθεσθαι (Mid.) to put an end to (+ Acc.)
2. ἦν μὲν γὰρ σελήνη λαμπρά, ἑώρων δὲ οὕτως ἀλλήλους ὡς

ἐν σελήνῃ εἰκὸς τὴν μὲν ὄψιν τοῦ σώματος προορᾶν, τὴν δὲ
γνῶσιν τοῦ οἰκείου ἀπιστεῖσθαι.
σελήνη, -ης, ἡ moonlight

τὴν … γνῶσιν Subject of ἀπιστεῖσθαι (Pass.)
τοῦ οἰκείου acquaintance (either masc. or
collective neut.)
3. ὅμοιον γὰρ ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ φαίη εἰδέναι, καὶ μὴ παραγενόμενος,
ὅσα ὑμεῖς πάντες πράττετε.
ὅμοιον (neut.) Understand ἐστί.
4. ὡς δ’ ἀπὸ σώματος οὔ τι λέοντ’ αἴθωνα δύνανται

ποιμένες ἄγραυλοι μέγα πεινάοντα δίεσθαι,
ὥς ῥα τὸν οὐκ ἐδύναντο δύω Αἴαντε κορυστὰ
Ἕκτορα Πριαμίδην ἀπὸ νεκροῦ δειδίξασθαι.
αἴθων, -ωνος, ὁ, ἡ tawny

ἄγραυλος, -ον (living) in the field(s)
πεινᾶν to be hungry
δίεσθαι (Mid.) to put to flight, to drive away
ῥα (enclitic adv.) just (modifying ὥς)
κορυστής, -οῦ, ὁ (a) helmeted (man) (here dual)
δειδίσσεσθαι (Mid.) to frighten, to alarm, to scare away
227
5. ὡς δ’ ὅτ’ ἂν ἐκ νεφέων πτῆται νιφὰς ἠὲ χάλαζα

ψυχρὴ ὑπὸ ῥιπῆς αἰθρηγενέος Βορέαο,
ὣς κραιπνῶς μεμαυῖα διέπτατο ὠκέα Ἶρις,
ἀγχοῦ δ’ ἱσταμένη προσέφη κλυτὸν ἐννοσίγαιον·
πέτεσθαι to fly
χάλαζα, -ης, ἡ hail
αἰθρηγενής, -ές born in the (bright) sky
κραιπνῶς quickly
μεμονέναι to be eager (Perf. with Imperf. meaning)
μεμαώς, -υῖα, -ός short form of Partc. of μεμονέναι
ὠκύς, -εῖα, -ύ swift (Epic fem. ὠκέα)
ἀγχοῦ (adv.) near
6. And concerning the mutilation of the statues and the laying

of information, just as I promised you (pl.), so too I shall do.
mutilation περικοπή, -ῆς, ἡ

statue ἀνάθημα, -ατος, τό
laying of information μήνυσις, -εως, ἡ
to promise (to someone) ὑπισχνεῖσθαι (+ Dat.)
228
LESSON 29
Expressions of Hindering,
Forbidding, Denying and Failing
29.1. Introduction
Verbs (and other expressions) of hindering take a direct Object in the
Accusative Case. The Object may be a person or a thing. Occasionally, both
person and thing occur in the same expression with a double Accusative
construction: ‘to hinder someone <from> something’. More often the thing,
from which someone is hindered, is expressed by a Genitive of Separation
with or without a preposition (ἀπό, ἐκ). When a thing is the direct Object
of such a verb, it is most often expressed by an Infinitive without, or less
often with, the definite article. And the most common construction for
expressing ‘to hinder someone from doing something’ is technically a
double Accusative of person and thing (Infin.): lit. ‘to hinder someone to
do something’.
In positive and negative expressions of hindering, a redundant negative
μή may occur with the Infinitive. And in negative (or interrogative)
expressions of hindering, a double redundant negative μὴ οὐ may occur
with the Infinitive.
Occasionally, an Accusative and Participle (instead of Infinitive)
construction is used (cf. Lesson 4.3.3, Supplementary Participle). More
rarely, constructions of Result, Effort and Condition are used with the
function of a hindering expression; cf. Lessons 22, 24 and 19 respectively.
In Passive expressions, the personal Object of the usual construction
becomes the Subject and the Infinitive is retained: ‘they are hindered from
doing something’ (lit. ‘they are hindered to do something’). In the Passive
form of an Accusative and Participle construction, both the Accusative
noun or pronoun and the Participle become Nominative.
229
29.2. Direct Object
29.2.1. Person
ταῦτα δὲ βουλομένους ποιεῖν ἄνεμος καὶ χειμὼν διεκώλυσεν
αὐτοὺς μέγας γενόμενος· (X.HG 1.6.35.)
But although they were wanting to do this, a great wind and storm arose and
prevented them.
29.2.2. Thing
ἀλλὰ μὴ ἀστρολόγος, ἔφη, βούλῃ γενέσθαι; ὡς δὲ καὶ τοῦτο
ἠρνεῖτο, ἀλλὰ μὴ ῥαψῳδός; ἔφη· (X.Mem. 4.2.10.)
‘Well, do you want’, he said, ‘to become an astronomer?’ And since he was
denying this also, ‘Well’, he said, ‘a reciter?’
29.2.3. Person and Thing

τί φής; τίς ἔσται μ’ οὑπικωλύσων τάδε; (S.Ph. 1242.)
What do you mean? Who will there be who will debar me from this?
29.3. Genitive of Separation
29.3.1. Simple Genitive

… οὗτοι ἄν σοι, εἴ τινι ἐντυγχάνοιεν τῶν Ἀρμενίων, τοὺς μὲν ἄν
συλλαμβάνοντες αὐτῶν κωλύοιεν τῶν ἐξαγγελιῶν …
(X.Cyr. 2.4.23.)
… these men, if they encountered any one of the Armenians, would seize some
of them for you and would prevent <them> from <making> reports …
29.3.2. Preposition with Genitive

… ὁ δῆμος … τούτῳ προσεῖχεν … ὅπως … τούς τε τοιούτους
ἅπαντας ἀπείργειν ἀπὸ τοῦ συμβουλεύειν ἕκαστος οἰήσεται
δεῖν … (Isoc. 12.139–141.)
230
LESSON 29. EXPRESSIONS OF HINDERING, FORBIDDING, DENYING AND FAILING
… the people … attended to this … that each should think that it was
necessary to debar all such <men> from giving advice …
(τε anticipates a following τε.)
29.4. Infinitive after a Positive Expression
29.4.1. Infinitive Only

… τάδε καὶ θρηνῶ κἀπιθεάζω,
μαρτυρόμενος δαίμονας ὥς μοι
τέκνα κτείνασ’ ἀποκωλύεις
ψαῦσαί τε χεροῖν θάψαι τε νεκρούς … (E.Med. 1409–1412.)
… I both make this lament and invoke the gods,
calling the deities to witness that, having
killed my children, you are preventing
both the touching with one’s hands and the burying of their bodies …
29.4.2. Accusative and Infinitive

εἰ δ’ ὑμῖν γνώμη ἐστὶ κωλύειν τε ἡμᾶς ἐπὶ Κέρκυραν ἢ ἄλλοσε
εἴ ποι βουλόμεθα πλεῖν καὶ τὰς σπονδὰς λύετε, ἡμᾶς τούσδε
πρώτους λαβόντας χρήσασθε ὡς πολεμίοις. (Th. 1.53.2.)
But if you have the intention of preventing us from sailing to Corcyra or to
anywhere else that we want to, and (if ) you are breaking the treaty, seize us
here first and treat <us> as enemies.
29.4.3. Infinitive with Redundant μή

κομίζετ’ αὐτόν, ὡς ἰδὼν ἐν ὄμμασιν
τὸν τἄμ’ ἀπαρνηθέντα μὴ χρᾶναι λέχη
λόγοις τ’ ἐλέγξω δαιμόνων τε συμφοραῖς. (E.Hipp. 1265–1267.)
Bring him, so that I may see with my eyes
the one who denied that he polluted my bed
and (so that I) may make a refutation with words and with the disaster from
the gods.
231
29.4.4. Accusative and Articular Infinitive

ἔστιν τις ἔστιν ὅς σε κωλύσει τὸ δρᾶν. (S.Ph. 1241.)
There is, there is someone who will prevent you from acting.
29.4.5. Accusative and Articular Infinitive with

Redundant μή
τὸ δὲ μὴ λεηλατῆσαι ἑλόντας σφέας τὴν πόλιν ἔσχε τόδε.
(Hdt. 5.101.1.)
And this kept them from plundering the city when they captured it.
29.4.6. Accusative and Genitive Articular Infinitive

τούτους αὖ τοιαῦτα λέγων ἔσχε τοῦ ἐκπεπλῆχθαι. (X.HG 4.8.5.)
Moreover, by making such statements he kept these men from being [OR:
having become] panic-stricken.
29.4.7. Accusative and Genitive Articular Infinitive

with Redundant μή
ὃ δὲ συννήσας πυρὴν μεγάλην ἀνεβίβασε ἐπ’ αὐτὴν τὸν
Κροῖσον…, βουλόμενος εἰδέναι εἴ τίς μιν δαιμόνων ῥύσεται τοῦ
μὴ ζῶντα κατακαυθῆναι. (Hdt. 1.86.2.)
And he, having built a big pyre, made Croesus go up on to it … wanting to
know whether any one of the deities would rescue him from being burned
alive.
29.5. ἐμποδών
The adverb ἐμποδών introduces a variety of constructions which express
hindering. The basic idea is ‘getting in the way’, ‘blocking’. The grammatical
constructions include Infinitive with or without definite article. The definite
article may be in the Accusative or the Genitive Case. The Infinitive may
have an explicit or implicit Accusative Subject; the implicit Subject may be
indicated by an Accusative Participle. Redundant negatives may be used
with the Infinitive, with or without the definite article.
232
ὧν τίς ἄλλος φανήσεται προνοηθείς, ἢ τίς ἐμποδὼν καταστὰς

τοῦ μηδὲν ἔτι γενέσθαι τοιοῦτον … (Isoc. 12.80.)
For who else among them will appear as taking precautions, or who as getting
in the way of any such thing happening again …?
Genitive articular Infinitive with Accusative Subject.
ὥστε τὸ αὐτὸ πάντες ἐμποδών εἰσιν, ἐάν τι δι’ ἄλλων ἀγαθὸν
ὑμῖν φαίνηται. (Lys. 25.33.)
And so all together they are in the way for any good to appear for you
through other <people>.
ἐάν + Subjunctive: ‘in the way if any good should appear’. Conditional
construction as in §29.8 below.
29.6. Infinitive after a Negative Expression
29.6.1. Infinitive Only

ἀ̓κοῦσαι μέντοι γε οὐδὲν κωλύει. (X.Cyr. 5.5.24.)
But at any rate nothing prevents listening.
29.6.2. Accusative and Infinitive

… οὐ μέντοι ἱκανόν γε ἔσται ἐπιτειχίζειν τε κωλύειν ἡμᾶς
πλεύσαντας ἐς τὴν ἐκείνων καί, ᾗπερ ἰσχύομεν, ταῖς ναυσὶν
ἀμύνεσθαι· (Th. 1.142.4.)
… however, it will not be sufficient to prevent us from building-a-fort
after sailing to their <territory> and, where our strength lies, defending
ourselves with our ships.
29.6.3. Infinitive with Redundant μή

… καὶ μόλις φθάνει
θρόνοισιν ἐμπεσοῦσα μὴ χαμαὶ πεσεῖν. (E.Med. 1169–1170.)
… and, by falling on to her chair,
she scarcely avoided falling to the ground.
μόλις (‘scarcely’) is a virtual negative. φθάνει is Historic Present.
233
29.6.4. Articular Infinitive Only

μαθὼν γὰρ οὐκ ἂν ἀρνοίμην τὸ δρᾶν. (S.Ph. 118.)
For, if I learned <this>, I would not refuse to act.
29.6.5. Articular Infinitive with Redundant μή

… οὐκ ἂν ἐσχόμην
τὸ μὴ ἀποκλῇσαι τοὐμὸν ἄθλιον δέμας,
ἵν’ ἦ τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων μηδέν· (S.OT 1387–1389.)
… I would not have kept myself
from shutting up my wretched body,
so that I might be blind and hearing nothing.
ἦ is Past Indicative in a Purpose clause dependent on the Main clause
of an Unfulfilled Conditional sentence (Smyth, 1956, §2185.c.).
29.6.6. Accusative and Infinitive with Redundant μὴ οὐ

τοὺς οὔτε νιφετός, οὐκ ὄμβρος, οὐ καῦμα, οὐ νὺξ ἔργει μὴ
οὐ κατανῦσαι τὸν προκείμενον αὐτῷ δρόμον τὴν ταχίστην.
(Hdt. 8.98.1.)
Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor night hinder them from covering in
the quickest way the course appointed by him.
29.6.7. Accusative and Articular Infinitive with

Redundant μὴ οὐ
… καὶ τοσόνδ’ ἐκόμπασεν,
μηδ’ ἂν τὸ σεμνὸν πῦρ νιν εἰργάθειν Διὸς
τὸ μὴ οὐ κατ’ ἄκρων περγάμων ἑλεῖν πόλιν. (E.Ph. 1174–1176.)
… and he made his great boast,
that not even the sacred fire of Zeus would prevent him
from capturing the city down from its highest citadel.
234
29.6.8. Genitive Articular Infinitive

… Εὐθύδημος οὑτοσὶ ἐν ἡλικίᾳ γενόμενος, τῆς πόλεως λόγον
περί τινος προτιθείσης, οὐκ ἀφέξεται τοῦ συμβουλεύειν …
(X.Mem. 4.2.3.)
… Euthydemus here, when he comes of age, <and>when the city is proposing
a discussion about something, will not restrain himself from giving advice.
29.6.9. Genitive Articular Infinitive with Redundant μή

… ἐνούσης δ’ οὐδεμίας ἔτ’ ἀποστροφῆς τοῦ μή τὰ χρήματ’
ἔχειν ὑμᾶς, Τιμοκράτης οὑτοσὶ τοσοῦθ’ ὑπερεῖδεν ἅπαντα τὰ
πράγματα ὥστε τίθησι τουτονὶ τὸν νόμον … (D. 24.9.)
… and when there was no longer any means-of-preventing your having
the money, Timocrates here overlooked all the issues to so great an extent that
he is proposing this law …
29.7. Result Construction
29.7.1. ὥστε with Simple Infinitive

ὥστε γὰρ τὴν σύντομον πρὸς τοὺς Πελληνέας ἀφικέσθαι ἡ πρὸ
τοῦ τείχους φάραγξ εἶργε. (X.HG 7.2.13.)
For the ravine in front of the wall was preventing <them> from reaching
the Pellenians along the short <route>.
29.7.2. ὥστε and Infinitive with Redundant μή

ἡμεῖς οὖν εἰ μέλλοιμεν τούτους εἴργειν ὥστε μὴ δύνασθαι
βλάπτειν ἡμᾶς πορευομένους, σφενδοντῶν τὴν ταχίστην δεῖ καὶ
ἰππέων. (X.An. 3.3.16.)
Therefore, if we were going to prevent these <men> from being able to
harm us as we proceeded, there would be need of slingers very quickly and
horsemen.
δεῖ, as a modal verb (‘need’, ‘must’, ‘ought’, etc.), is used in the Indicative
in Greek, where English uses a potential idiom.
235
29.8. Effort Construction

… κωλυόντων κοινῇ βασιλεὺς καὶ Λακεδαιμόνιοι καὶ οἱ ξύμμαχοι,
ὅπως μήτε χρήματα λαμβάνωσιν Ἀθηναῖοι μήτ’ ἄλλο μηδέν.
(Th. 8.18.1.)
… let the king and the Spartans and their allies in common prevent the
Athenians from receiving either the money or anything else.
κωλυόντων (3rd pers. pl. Imperf. Impv.) with ὅπως + Subjunctive and
negative μή compounds.
29.9. Conditional Construction

οἶμαι τοίνυν ἐγὼ ταῦτα λέγειν ἔχειν, μὴ κωλύων εἴ τις ἄλλος
ἐπαγγέλλεταί τι. (D. 4.15.)
So I think that I can say this without preventing anyone else from making
any promise.
κωλύων with εἰ + Present Indicative: ‘not preventing that anyone else
should be making any promise’. εἰ introduces a noun clause (cf. Lesson 34).
29.10. Participial Construction

καὶ οὐκ ἔστιν ὅστις … πλέοντας ὑμᾶς … κωλύσει. (Th. 2.62.2.)
And there is no one who … will prevent … you from sailing.
This construction is parallel to the Accusative and Participle with παύειν:
‘to stop someone from doing something’.
29.11. Passive Constructions
29.11.1. Passive Verb Only

μέγιστον δέ, τῇ τῶν χρημάτων σπάνει κωλύσονται, ὅταν σχολῇ
αὐτὰ ποριζόμενοι διαμέλλωσιν· (Th.1.142.1.)
And most important, they will be hindered by lack of funds, when by
procrastinating they delay in acquiring them.
236
29.11.2. Passive Verb with Infinitive

ἐδεήθησαν δὲ καὶ τῶν Μεγαρέων ναυσὶ σφᾶς ξυμπροπέμψαι, εἰ
ἄρα κωλύοιντο ὑπὸ Κερκυραίων πλεῖν· (Th. 1.27.2.)
And they asked the Megarians also to join in escorting them with ships, in case
they were prevented by the Corcyreans from sailing.
29.11.3. Passive Verb with Participle

ἐπορεύθησαν δὲ πεζῇ ἐς Ἀπολλωνίαν, Κορινθίων οὖσαν ἀποικίαν,
δέει τῶν Κερκυραίων μὴ κωλύωνται ὑπ’ αὐτῶν κατὰ θάλασσαν
περαιούμενοι. (Th. 1.26.2.)
And they travelled by land to Apollonia, since it was a colony of the Corinthians,
out of fear of the Corcyreans, in case they were prevented by them from
crossing by sea.
References
EXERCISE 29
1. πεφύκασί τε ἅπαντες καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ δημοσίᾳ ἁμαρτάνειν, καὶ οὐκ
ἔστι νόμος ὅστις ἀπείξει τούτου …
πεφυκέναι to be inclined(to) (+ Infin.; Perf. with

Imperf. meaning)
τε and (Joins whole sentence to preceding.)
τούτου Refers to ἅμαρτάνειν.
2. βεβοηθηκότες γὰρ ἦσαν τοῖς Βιθυνοῖς, βουλόμενοι σὺν τοῖς

Βιθυνοῖς, εἰ δύναιντο, ἀποκωλῦσαι τοὺς Ἕλληνας μὴ ἐλθεῖν εἰς
τὴν Φρυγίαν·
237
3. τῶν γὰρ ἄλλων μόνους ἂν ὑμᾶς οἴονται ἐμποδὼν γενέσθαι τοῦ
ἄρξαι αὐτοὺς τῶν Ἑλλήνων.
ἄρχειν to rule
4. οὐ μὴν κωλύει γ’ οὐδὲν κἀμὲ διὰ βραχέων ἐπιμνησθῆναι τῶν

πεπραγμένων αὐτῷ.
μήν however
οὐδέν Nom.
5. λείπει μὲν οὐδ’ ἃ πρόσθεν ᾔδεμεν τὸ μὴ οὐ

βαρύστον’ εἶναι·
λείπειν to fall short of (+ Infin., here articular)

ᾔδεμεν More often ᾖσμεν (Infin. εἰδέναι).
6. κἀκείνου τὸ μὲν παρ’ ἐμοῦ κομισθὲν ἀργύριον οὐκ ἐθελήσαντος

ἀπολαβεῖν, … οὐκ ἐκωλυόμην συνθάπτειν ἀλλὰ πάντα
συνεποίουν·
παρά (+ Gen.) by
συνθάπτειν to join in the burial
7. And these [men] were staying behind and preventing the Athenians
from carrying stones and from dispersing further away.
to stay behind ὑπομένειν

to carry stones λιθοφορεῖν
to disperse (Intr.) ἀποσκίδνασθαι (Pass.; α stem)
further away μακροτέραν (adverbial Acc.)
8. For if I had not been caught off my guard with oaths to the gods,
I would not ever have kept from declaring this to my father.
to catch αἱρεῖν
off guard ἄφαρκτος, -ον
oath (to) ὅρκος, -ου, ὁ (+ Gen.)
to keep (Intr.) (from) ἔχειν, (Aor.) σχεῖν (+ Infin. with
redundant negatives μὴ οὐ)
238
LESSON 30
Temporal Constructions 1:
Clauses in Primary Sequence
30.1. Introduction
Three Lessons will deal with Subordinate Temporal clauses and with the
Temporal phrases which use πρίν and the Infinitive. For convenience, all
πρίν constructions (clauses and phrases) will be treated together after the
other Temporal constructions. Lesson 30 deals with Temporal clauses in
Primary sequence—the verbs in the leading clause refer to the present or
the future, as do the Temporal clauses themselves.
Some prepositions may have a Temporal force: ἀπό from, since; εἰς
until; ἐκ after. Such prepositions will be considered here, only when they
introduce an adjectival clause with Temporal force, for example, ἀφ’ οὗ
from what <time>, ever since.
Only the more common Temporal conjunctions and conjunctive phrases
will be used in the Lessons and Exercises.
When a Temporal clause refers to a definite time, the Indicative Mood is
used; the negative is οὐ. When a Temporal clause refers to an indefinite time,
the Subjunctive Mood with ἄν is used in Primary sequence; the negative
is μή. In Epic, κε(ν) (enclitic) is equivalent to ἄν. For the most part,
Temporal clauses referring to the future use the indefinite construction,
since what is in the future has not yet happened. In indefinite Temporal
clauses in Primary sequence, some conjunctions, which end with a vowel,
coalesce with ἄν.
ὅτε ἄν = ὅταν
ὁπότε ἄν = ὁπόταν
ἐπεὶ ἄν = ἐπήν, also ἐπάν (Aristotle +), ἐπεάν (Ionic)
ἐπειδὴ ἄν = ἐπειδάν
239
30.2. Contemporaneous Action in

Temporal Clause
The main conjunctions are: ὅτε when; ὁπότε when(ever) (slightly less
definite); ἡνίκα (at the time) when; ἔστε, ἕως, μέχρι so long as, while.
The limits or duration of time may be emphasised in clauses introduced
by ἐν ᾧ during the time that, while; ὅσον χρόνον all through the time that,
so long as.
30.2.1. Definite
καὶ … ἄν, ὦ Κυαξάρη, μᾶλλόν σε ἐκόσμουν … ἢ νῦν, ὅτε σὺν
τοιαύτῃ καὶ τοσαύτῃ δυνάμει οὕτω σοι ὀξέως ὑπακούω …
(X.Cyr. 2.4.6.)
And would I be showing you, O Cyaxares, more respect … than now, when
I am obeying you so quickly with a force of such character and size …?
ὅτε with Present Indicative in the Temporal clause, contemporaneous
with the Present potential Main clause (expressed by Past Imperf. Indic.
with ἄν).
νὺξ δ’ ἔσται, ὅτε δὴ στυγερὸς γάμος ἀντιβολήσει
οὐλομένης ἐμέθεν, τῆς τε Ζεὺς ὄλβον ἀπηύρα.
(Hom.Od. 18.272–273.)
And there will be a night, when indeed a hateful marriage will come upon
poor me, <the one> whose happiness Zeus took away.
ὅτε with Future Indicative in the Temporal clause (rare), contemporaneous
with the Future Indicative of the Main clause. (τῆς τε: For this
‘untranslatable τε’ see Smyth, 1956, §2970; Hom.Od. 13.31, 60).
30.2.2. Indefinite
ἀλλ’ ὅταν σπεύδῃ τις αὐτός, χὠ θεὸς συνάπτεται. (A.Pers. 742.)
But when someone himself hastens on <to his doom>, the god also cooperates.
ὅταν with Subjunctive in the Temporal clause, contemporaneous with
the Present Indicative of the Main clause (referring to repeated action).
240
LESSON 30. TEMPORAL CONSTRUCTIONS 1
καὶ ἐν ᾧ ἂν ζῶμεν, οὕτως, ὡς ἔοικεν, ἐγγυτάτω ἐσόμεθα

τοῦ εἰδέναι, ἐὰν ὅτι μάλιστα μηδὲν ὁμιλῶμεν τῷ σώματι …
(Pl.Phd. 67 A.)
And while we are alive, we shall on this condition, as it seems, be nearest to
knowledge, if as much as possible we have no association with the body …
ἐν ᾧ with ἄν and Subjunctive (slightly emphasising the duration of time)
in the Temporal clause, contemporaneous with the Future Indicative
of the Main clause.
30.3. Prior Action in Temporal Clause

The conjunctions ἐπεί, ἐπειδή and ὡς all have the meaning: when, since,
after. In prose, ἐπειδή is more frequent than ἐπεί in a Temporal sense.
ἐπεί, ἐπειδή and ὡς may be used with the Superlative adverb τάχιστα
to emphasise immediate priority: as soon as. The adverb τάχιστα is
sometimes separated from the conjunction by one or more words.
The separation occurs especially with ὡς, to avoid confusion with the
idiom ὡς τάχιστα meaning ‘as soon as possible’.
In addition, the phrases ἐξ οὗ, ἐξ οὗτε, ἀφ’ οὗ and ἀφ’ οὗπερ all
mean: from what <time>, ever since. These phrases introduce an adjectival-
Temporal clause which emphasises a time limit, while the clause on which
they depend expresses subsequent duration or repeated action.
30.3.1. Definite
ἐξ οὗ δ’ οἱ διερωτῶντες ὑμᾶς οὗτοι πεφήνασι ῥήτορες, τί
βούλεσθε; τί γράψω; τί ὑμῖν χαρίσωμαι; προπέποται τῆς
παραυτίκα χάριτος τὰ τῆς πόλεως πράγματα … (D. 3.22.)
But ever since these orators have appeared, who constantly ask you, ‘What do
you want? What <law> am I to propose? In what <way> am I to oblige you?’,
the interests of the city have been squandered for <the price of> momentary
gratification.
ἐξ οὗ with Present Perfect Indicative emphasises a limit (which has been
reached), while the Main clause expresses subsequent repeated action.
241
30.3.2. Indefinite
ἄνδρες γὰρ ἐπειδάν, ᾧ ἀξιοῦσι προύχειν, κολουσθῶσι, τό γ’
ὑπόλοιπον αὐτῶν τῆς δόξης ἀσθενέστερον αὐτὸ ἑαυτοῦ ἐστιν …
(Th. 7.66.3.)
For, when men are thwarted in that in which they claim to excel, what is left
of their reputation is weaker than its former self [lit. ‘is itself weaker than
itself ’] …
ἐπειδάν with Subjunctive in the Temporal clause denotes action prior to
the ongoing state expressed by the verb ‘to be’ in the Main clause.
ὡς γὰρ ἡμεῖς εἰκάζομεν, οὐκ ἑκὰς πάρεσται ὁ βάρβαρος
ἐσβαλὼν ἐς τὴν ἡμετέρην, ἀλλ’ ἐπειδὰν τάχιστα πύθηται τὴν
ἀγγελίην ὅτι οὐδὲν ποιήσομεν τῶν ἐκεῖνος ἡμέων προσεδέετο.
(Hdt. 8.144.5.)
For as we surmise, the foreigner will invade our <country> and will be upon
us not in any long time, but as soon as he has heard the message, that we shall
do nothing of what that man was asking of us.
ἐπειδὰν τάχιστα with Subjunctive in the Temporal clause emphasises
immediate priority in relation to the Future Indicative of the Main clause.
τῶν (Ionic) = ὧν (Attic).
30.4. Subsequent Action in Temporal Clause:

Indefinite
The conjunctions ἔστε, ἕως and μέχρι all have the meaning: until.
(As noted in §30.2, these conjunctions may also express contemporaneous
action: while.) Temporal clauses expressing subsequent action in Primary
sequence are always indefinite, since it is not known exactly when the time
limit (‘until’) will be reached. Temporal clauses expressing subsequent
action may be anticipated by Temporal adverbs such as πρίν (Epic) or
πρότερον (Attic), or by adverbial phrases such as μέχρι τούτον. These
expressions are redundant but emphatic.
242
καὶ μέχρι γε τούτου πλανῶνται, ἕως ἂν τῇ τοῦ

ξυνεπακολουθοῦντος τοῦ σωματοειδοῦς ἐπιθυμίᾳ ἐνδεθῶσιν εἰς
σῶμα. (Pl.Phd. 81 D–E.)
And right up to this <time> they wander around, until, by reason of the
desire for the bodily-nature which follows along with <them>, they are bound
to a body.
ἕως ἄν with Subjunctive in the Temporal clause denotes action at any
time prior to that of the Main clause. As here, the Subjunctive is most
often Aorist.
References
529, 532–533, 539–540, 556, 558 (Temporal clauses awkwardly treated as
‘Relative’ clauses together with adjectival clauses and adverbial clauses of place
and manner); 611–612, 613.3–613.5 and 615–620 (Temporal constructions
referring to subsequent action, except πρίν).
EXERCISE 30
1. ἕως οὖν ἔτι ἀπαράσκευοι θαρσοῦσι …, ἐγὼ μὲν ἔχων τοὺς μετ’
ἐμαυτοῦ καὶ φθάσας, ἢν δύνωμαι, προσπεσοῦμαι δρόμῳ κατὰ
μέσον τὸ στράτευμα·
δρόμῳ at a run
2. τῶν μὲν γὰρ ὀργιζομένων ἐστὶν ὀξέως τι κακὸν τὸν λελυπηκότ’

ἐργάσασθαι, τῶν δ’ ἀδικουμένων, ὅταν ποθ’ ὑφ’ αὑτοῖς λάβωσι
τὸν ἠδικηκότα, τότε τιμωρήσασθαι.
ἐστίν it is <characteristic of> (+ Gen.)

ὑπό (+ Dat.) under <the control of>
τιμωρεῖν (Act. and Mid.) to punish
243
3. ἐπὴν διαλλαγῆτε, ταῦτα δράσετε.

4. εἰ δ’ ἂν ἐμοὶ τιμὴν Πρίαμος Πριάμοιό τε παῖδες
τίνειν οὐκ ἐθέλωσιν Ἀλεξάνδροιο πεσόντος,
αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ καὶ ἔπειτα μαχήσομαι εἵνεκα ποινῆς
αὖθι μένων, ἧός κε τέλος πολέμοιο κιχείω.
τιμή, -ῆς, ἡ price

Πριάμοιο (Epic) Πριάμου (Attic)
Ἀλεξάνδροιο πεσόντος Gen. abs. (Temporal)
αὐτάρ (adv.) then (drawing consequence of
a condition)
ποινή, -ῆς, ἡ recompense
αὖθι (adv.) here
ἧός κε (Epic) ἕως ἄν (Attic)
κι(γ)χάνειν to reach (here 1st pers. sg. Aor. Subj.)
5. τοῖς δὲ τυράννοις οὐδὲν ὑπάρχει τοιοῦτον, ἀλλ’ …, ἐπειδὰν εἰς

τὴν ἀρχὴν καταστῶσιν, ἀνουθέτητοι διατελοῦσιν·
οὐδὲν … τοιοῦτο(ν) Nom. neut. sg.; understand help,

advantage.
διατελεῖν to continue
6. Wait until you [sg.] learn the rest in addition.
to learn in addition προσμανθάνειν
7. And when I have accomplished what I want, I shall come fully

prepared, in order to lead you [pl.] away to Greece and to go away
myself to my own command.
to accomplish διαπράσσεσθαι (Mid.)

fully prepared Aor. or Perf. Mid. Partc. of
συσκευάζειν
command ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ
244
LESSON 31
Temporal Constructions 2:
Clauses in Past Sequence
31.1. Introduction
In Past sequence, when a Temporal clause refers to a definite time, the
Indicative Mood is used; the negative is οὐ. When a Temporal clause
refers to an indefinite time, the Optative Mood without ἄν is used; the
negative is μή. But sometimes the Primary construction is used even in
Past sequence (‘Vivid’ construction). The common conjunctions and
conjunctive phrases are the same as in Lesson 30.
31.2. Contemporaneous Action in

Temporal Clause
31.2.1. Definite
ὅσον δὲ χρόνον ἐκαθέζετο ὁ Κῦρος ἀμφὶ τὴν περὶ τὸ φρούριον
οἰκονομίαν, τῶν Ἀσσυρίων τῶν κατὰ ταῦτα τὰ χωρία πολλοὶ
μὲν ἀπῆγον ἵππους, πολλοὶ δὲ ἀπέφερον ὅπλα, φοβούμενοι ἤδη
πάντας τοὺς προσχώρους. (X.Cyr. 5.3.25.)
And all through the time that Cyrus remained inactive concerning
arrangements about the fort, many of the Assyrians in these parts were
withdrawing their horses, and many were handing in weapons, since by now
they were in fear of all their neighbours.
ὅσον χρόνον with Past Imperfect Indicative emphasises the duration
of time.
245
31.2.2. Indefinite
… ἀλλ’ ἐπὶ τελευτῆς, ὅτ’ ἤδη μέλλοιεν ἀποπλεῖν ὡς τοὺς γονέας
καὶ τοὺς φίλους τοὺς ἑαυτῶν, οὕτως ἠγάπων τὴν διατριβὴν ὥστε
μετὰ πόθου καὶ δακρύων ποιεῖσθαι τὴν ἀπαλλαγήν. (Isoc. 15.88.)
… but at the end, when they were now about to sail away to their parents
and their own family members, they were so content with their way of life as
to make their departure with regret and tears.
ὅτ(ε) and Optative without ἄν denotes any (rather than every) time
contemporaneous with the repeated action of the Main clause.
31.3. Prior Action in Temporal Clause

With the Past Aorist Indicative, the conjunctions ἐπεί, ἐπειδή and ὡς
usually imply action prior to that of the clause on which they depend.
The Past Perfect Indicative is much less common in a Temporal clause,
and often implies a past state resulting from completed action.
31.3.1. Definite
ἐπεὶ θεράπνας τῆσδε Θηβαίας χθονὸς
λιπόντες ἐξέβημεν Ἀσωποῦ ῥοάς,
λέπας Κιθαιρώνειον εἰσεβάλλομεν … (E.Ba. 1043–1045.)
When we had left the dwellings of this Theban
land and had crossed the streams of Asopus,
we began to head into the broken-country of Cithaeron …
ἐπεί with Past Aorist Indicative denotes action prior to that of the
Main clause.
ὡς γὰρ ἐπετρόπευσε τάχιστα, μετέστησε τὰ νόμιμα πάντα, καὶ
ἐφύλαξε ταῦτα μὴ παραβαίνειν· (Hdt. 1.65.5.)
For as soon as he had become guardian, he changed all the customs,
and ensured that <people> should not transgress these.
ὡς … τάχιστα with Past Aorist Indicative emphasises immediate
priority.
246
ὃς ἐπειδὴ ἐπολιορκέετο ὑπὸ Ἀθηναίων καὶ Κίμωνος τοῦ

Μιλτιάδεω, παρεὸν αὐτῷ ὑπόσπονδον ἐξελθεῖν καὶ νοστῆσαι ἐς
τὴν Ἀσίην, οὐκ ἐθέλησε … (Hdt. 7.107.1.)
And when he was being besieged by the Athenians and Cimon son of Miltiades,
although it was possible for him to go out under truce and to return to Asia,
he refused …
ἐπειδή with Past Imperfect Indicative denotes an action that has
begun but not been completed. Thus, ἐπειδὴ ἐπολιορκέετο could be
translated: ‘after he began [OR: had begun] to be besieged’.
31.3.2. Indefinite
ἐπειδὴ γὰρ προσβάλοιεν ἀλλήλοις, οὐ ῥᾳδίως ἀπελύοντο ὑπό τε
τοῦ πλήθους καὶ ὄχλου τῶν νεῶν … (Th. 1.49.3.)
For when(ever) they (had) made an attack on each other, they did not easily
extricate themselves due to the number and density of the ships …
ἐπειδή and Optative without ἄν denotes any action in this battle prior to
that of the clause. (τε anticipates a second καί in the next phrase.)
31.4. Subsequent Action in Temporal Clause
31.4.1. Definite
καὶ οἱ μὲν Ἕλληνες τεταγμένοι τε προσῇσαν καὶ διὰ φυλακῆς
ἔχοντες, ἕως ἐστρατοπεδεύσαντο ἐν ἐπιτηδείῳ· (Th. 2.81.4.)
And the Greeks kept advancing, drawn up in ranks and remaining on guard,
until they pitched camp in a suitable <place>.
ἕως with Past Aorist Indicative denotes instantaneous action subsequent
to the continuous action expressed by the Past Imperfect Indicative of the
Main clause.
247
31.4.2. Indefinite
… τά τε ἄλλα χωρία εἶχον, μένοντες ἕως σφισι κἀκεῖνοι
ποιήσειαν τὰ εἰρημένα. (Th. 5.35.4.)
… and they [= Athenians] kept control of the other places, waiting until
those <troops> [= Spartans] should have done for them what had been stated.
(OR: waiting for those <troops> to do for them what had been stated.)
ἕως and Optative without ἄν denotes the anticipated but indefinite limit
for which the Athenians (Subject of the Main clause) were waiting.
References
532, 535, 553, 613.1–613.2, 613.5, 614.2, 615–619.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2388, 2395–2396, 2414–2417.
EXERCISE 31
1. καὶ ὑπέσχετο μὲν δεομένου σου τὸ ναῦλον τῶν ξύλων
παρασχήσειν, ὅτε ἀνήγου ὡς βασιλέα·
δεῖσθαι (Mid. + Aor. Pass.) to request

ναῦλον, -ου, τό freight-payment
ἀνάγεσθαι (Mid.) to set sail
2. ἔτι δὲ ὁπότε αὐτόμολοι, ὡς εἰκός, πρὸς βασιλέα ἰόντες χρήματα

ἐθέλοιεν ὑφηγεῖσθαι, καὶ ταῦτα ἐπεμέλετο ὡς διὰ τῶν φίλων
ἁλίσκοιτο …
αὐτόμολος, -ου, ὁ deserter (adj. as noun)

χρήματα, -ων, τά merchandise
ὑφηγεῖσθαι (Mid.) to show the way to (+ Acc.)
καί also, modifying ταῦτα
ταῦτα direct Object of ἐπεμέλετο,
anticipating ὡς clause
248
3. ἐπειδὴ δὲ εἰρήνης ἐπιθυμήσαντες οἱ πολέμιοι ἐπρεσβεύοντο,

Ἀγησίλαος ἀντεῖπε τῇ εἰρήνῃ, ἕως τοὺς διὰ Λακεδαιμονίους
φυγόντας Κορινθίων καὶ Θηβαίων ἠνάγκασε τὰς πόλεις οἴκαδε
καταδέξασθαι.
πρεσβεύεσθαι (Mid.) to send embassies

τοὺς … φυγόντας Object of καταδέξασθαι
Κορινθίων καὶ Θηβαίων Possessive Gen. qualifying τὰς πόλεις
4. ἀναδιδάσκοντες αὐτὸν τῶν Αἰτωλῶν ὡς εἴη ῥᾳδία ἡ αἵρεσις,

ἰέναι ἐκέλευον ὅτι τάχιστα ἐπὶ τὰς κώμας καὶ μὴ μένειν ἕως
ἂν ξύμπαντες ἁθροισθέντες ἀντιτάξωνται …
ἀναδιδάσκειν to explain
Αἰτωλοί, -ῶν, οἱ Aetolians (The Gen. pl. qualifies ἡ
αἵρεσις.)
αἵρεσις, -εως, ἡ capture
ὅτι τάχιστα ὡς τάχιστα
5. … διὰ παντὸς ἐπολέμουν ἀνθρώποις νεοκαταστάτοις, ἕως

ἐξετρύχωσαν …
διὰ παντός constantly

νεοκατάστατος, -ον newly established
ἐκτρυχοῦν to wear (someone) out, to exhaust
6. ἐπειδὴ δέ τι ἐμφάγοιεν, ἀνίσταντο καὶ ἐπορεύοντο.
ἐμφαγεῖν (Aor.) to eat hastily
7. … and the rest of the foreigners, when they had seen them giving
way, no longer held their ground, but took to flight.
to give way ἐνδιδόναι

to hold one’s ground ὑπομένειν
249
8. Up to this [point] Lasthenes used to be named a friend, until he

betrayed Olynthus.
up to μέχρι (+ Gen.)
Lasthenes Λασθένης, -ους, ὁ
Olynthus Ὄλυνθος, -ου, ἡ (place)
250
LESSON 32
Temporal Constructions with πρίν
32.1. Introduction
In classical Attic Greek, πρίν introduces two basically different
constructions, which express action subsequent to that of the leading clause.
When πρίν functions like a preposition and introduces an Infinitive
phrase, it usually means ‘before’, and usually occurs in a positive sentence.
When πρίν functions as a conjunction and introduces a clause with
a finite verb, it usually means ‘until’, and usually occurs in a negative
sentence. πρίν may be preceded by a redundant πρίν (Homer) or by
a redundant πρότερον or πρόσθεν (Attic) in the leading clause.
πρὶν(…)ἤ (‘earlier than’) is used with the same function as πρίν, mainly
in Herodotus, and mostly with Infinitive; but Herodotus also uses
πρὶν(…)ἤ with Indicative and with Subjunctive (without ἄν). Similarly,
especially in Herodotus and Thucydides, πρότερον(…)ἤ may be used
with Infinitive, or with Subjunctive without ἄν (mainly in Herodotus),
or sometimes with Indicative.
32.2. πρίν with an Infinitive Phrase

The Subject of the Infinitive, if it is the same as the Subject of the leading
verb, is normally not expressed; and if the Subject of the Infinitive has an
adjective agreeing with it, or a Complement referring to it, the adjective
or Complement is in the Nominative Case. However, sometimes an
unexpressed Subject for the Infinitive is not the same as the Subject of
the leading verb, but must be understood from the context. The Subject
of the Infinitive, if it is different to the Subject of the leading verb, is
normally expressed and is in the Accusative Case. Because πρίν denotes
a chronological limit, it frequently introduces an Aorist Infinitive
indicating a point of time.
251
… ἃ πρὶν μολεῖν δεῦρ’ ἐκμεμόχθηκεν φράσω … (A.Pr. 825.)

… I shall tell what she has struggled through before she came here …
πρίν with Aorist Infinitive occurs in a positive sentence. The Subject of
μολεῖν is not expressed, since it is the same as the Subject of the leading
verb ἐκμεμόχθηκεν.
… πρὶν ἔκπυστος γενέσθαι προσῆλθε τῇ τῶν Μεγαρέων πόλει,
λαθὼν τοὺς Ἀθηναίους ὄντας περὶ τὴν θάλασσαν … (Th. 4.70.2.)
… before he was detected, he approached the city of the Megarians, escaping
the notice of the Athenians since they were near the sea …
πρίν with Aorist Infinitive and Nominative Complement occurs in a
positive sentence.
ὁ δὲ πεισθεὶς πορευομένους αὐτοὺς διὰ τῆς Θρᾴκης ἐπὶ τὸ
πλοῖον ᾧ ἔμελλον τὸν Ἑλλήσποντον περαιώσειν, πρὶν ἐσβαίνειν
ξυλλαμβάνει … (Th. 2.67.3.)
And he was persuaded and, as they were travelling through Thrace to the boat
on which they were intending to cross the Hellespont, he seized them before
they (could) embark …
πρίν with Imperfect Infinitive, whose unexpressed Subject is not the same
as the Subject of the leading verb ξυλλαμβάνει (Hist. Pres.).
οὐδ’ εἴ μοι τόσα δοίη ὅσα ψάμαθός τε κόνις τε,
οὐδέ κεν ὣς ἔτι θυμὸν ἐμὸν πείσει’ Ἀγαμέμνων,
πρίν γ’ ἀπὸ πᾶσαν ἐμοὶ δόμεναι θυμαλγέα λώβην.
(Hom.Il. 9.385–387.)
Not even if he were to give me so much as the sand and the dust,
not even so would Agamemnon yet persuade my spirit,
before at least he repaid me (for) all the heart-rending dishonour.
πρίν with Aorist Infinitive occurs in a negative sentence.
252
LESSON 32. TEMPORAL CONSTRUCTIONS WITH πρίν
… πολὺ πλείων ἐλπίς ἐστιν ἕτερον ἀποστῆναι πρὶν ἐκεῖνον

ἐκπολιορκηθῆναι· (Isoc. 4.141.)
… there is much greater expectation that another <may> revolt before that
<man> is forced-to-surrender-under-siege.
πρίν with Accusative and Aorist (Pass.) Infinitive occurs in a positive
sentence.
32.3. πρίν with a Finite Verb
32.3.1. Definite
When πρίν with a finite verb refers to a definite time, the verb is in the
Indicative Mood and is usually in the Past Aorist Tense.
… οὐδ’ ἀπῆλθε, πρὶν … τοὺς βαρβάρους ἔπαυσεν ὑβρίζοντας.
(Isoc. 15.83.)
… nor did he go away, until … he stopped the foreigners (from) acting
insolently.
πρίν with Past Aorist Indicative occurs in a negative sentence.
παραπλήσια δὲ καὶ οἱ ἐπὶ τῶν νεῶν αὐτοῖς ἔπασχον, πρίν γε
δὴ οἱ Συρακόσιοι καὶ οἱ σύμμαχοι ἐπὶ πολὺ ἀντισχούσης τῆς
ναυμαχίας ἔτρεψάν τε τοὺς Ἀθηναίους καὶ … κατεδίωκον ἐς
τὴν γῆν. (Th. 7.71.5.)
And those on the ships also were experiencing much the same as they <were>,
until finally the Syracusans and their allies, after the naval battle had lasted
for a long time, put the Athenians to flight and … vigorously pursued
them to land.
πρίν with Past Aorist Indicative occurs in a positive sentence. This
construction is much less common than Indicative in a negative sentence.
γε δή (‘finally’) is literally ‘at least indeed’.
253
32.3.2. Indefinite
32.3.2.1. Primary Sequence
When πρίν with a finite verb refers to an indefinite time in Primary
sequence, the verb is regularly in the Subjunctive Mood, and in Attic
(especially in prose) normally has ἄν.
στερεάς τ’
οὔποτ’ ἀπειλὰς πτήξας τόδ’ ἐγὼ
καταμηνύσω, πρὶν ἂν ἐξ ἀγρίων
δεσμῶν χαλάσῃ ποινάς τε τίνειν
τῆσδ’ αἰκείας ἐθελήσῃ. (A.Pr. 173–177.)
and never,
cowering before his harsh threats, shall I
make this known, until he releases <me>
from savage bonds and becomes willing
to make recompense for this maltreatment.
πρὶν ἄν with Aorist Subjunctive occurs in a negative sentence.
ὥστε χρὴ σκοπεῖν τινα αὐτὰ καὶ μὴ μετεώρῳ τῇ πόλει ἀξιοῦν
κινδυνεύειν καὶ ἀρχῆς ἄλλης ὀρέγεσθαι, πρὶν ἣν ἔχομεν
βεβαιωσώμεθα … (Th. 6.10.5.)
And so one should examine them [= the points just mentioned] and not
think it right to put the city at risk when it is at sea and to reach for another
empire, until we make secure the one which we have …
πρίν and Aorist Subjunctive (without ἄν) occurs in a negative sentence
(μή). Homer does not yet use ἄν or κε in this construction. The
Subjunctive without ἄν occurs occasionally in Herodotus, Thucydides
and Attic drama.
τῇ πόλει … κινδυνεύειν: lit. ‘to run a risk to (the disadvantage of ) the
city’. μετεώρῳ is metaphorical.
ὄλοιο μή πω, πρὶν μάθοιμ’ εἰ καὶ πάλιν
γνώμην μετοίσεις· (S.Ph. 961–962.)
May you perish—not yet, until I learn whether you will actually change
your mind again.
In this negative sentence (μή), πρίν and Optative (without ἄν) depends
on an Optative of Wish in the Main clause (‘assimilation of Mood’).
254
32.3.2.2. Past Sequence

In Past sequence, πρίν and Optative (without ἄν) occurs only in
suboblique constructions—that is, where the Temporal clause is included
in reported discourse (whether in a clause introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, or in
a phrase with Infinitive or Participle), or depends on another Optative
clause (cf. §32.3.2.1. Primary Sequence, last example). Vivid constructions
with πρίν or πρὶν ἄν and Subjunctive also occur in Past sequence, but
again only in suboblique constructions. All the following passages contain
negative expressions antecedent to the πρίν clauses: ‘not … until’.
… οὐχ ἡγοῦντ’ οὐδὲν οἷοί τ’ εἶναι κινεῖν τῶν καθεστώτων, πρὶν
ἐκποδὼν ἐκεῖνος αὐτοῖς γένοιτο. (Isoc. 16.5.)
… they did not think that they were able to make any change in the
constitution, until that <man> got out of their way.
πρίν and Optative (without ἄν) depends on the Nominative and Infinitive
construction of reported thought after a negated Main verb.
παρανῖσχον δὲ καὶ οἱ ἐκ τῆς πόλεως Πλαταιῆς ἀπὸ τοῦ τείχους
φρυκτοὺς πολλοὺς … ὅπως ἀσαφῆ τὰ σημεῖα τῆς φρυκτωρίας τοῖς
πολεμίοις ᾖ καὶ μὴ βοηθοῖεν, … πρὶν σφῶν οἱ ἄνδρες οἱ ἐξιόντες
διαφύγοιεν καὶ τοῦ ἀσφαλοῦς ἀντιλάβοιντο. (Th. 3.22.8.)
But the Plataeans in [lit. ‘out of ’] the city also raised-in-answer from the wall
many beacons … in order that the enemy’s beacon-signals might be unclear,
and that … they [= Thebans] might not come to help, until their own
[= Plataeans’] men who were going out escaped and reached safety.
πρίν and Optative (without ἄν) depends on a negative Purpose clause
with Optative.
εἶπον μηδένα τῶν ὄπισθεν κινεῖσθαι, πρὶν ἂν ὁ πρόσθεν ἡγῆται
… (X.Cyr. 2.2.8.)
I said that none of those at the rear was to move, until the one in front
<of him> led the way …
πρὶ̀ν ἄν and Subjunctive in a Vivid construction depends on a negative
reported command.
255
… ἐποιήσαντο νόμον τε καὶ κατάρην μὴ πρότερον θρέψειν κόμην

Ἀργείων μηδένα, μηδὲ τὰς γυναῖκάς σφι χρυσοφορήσειν, πρὶν
Θυρέας ἀνασώσωνται. (Hdt. 1.82.7.)
… they made a law and a curse that no one of the Argives would grow his
hair, nor their women wear gold any earlier, until they recovered Thyreae.
πρίν and Subjunctive (without ἄν) in a Vivid construction depends on
a negative reported command with anticipatory πρότερον.
References
EXERCISE 32
1. βασιλεὺς δὲ Δαρεῖος, πρὶν μὲν αἰχμαλώτους γενέσθαι τοὺς
Ἐρετριέας, ἐνεῖχέ σφι δεινὸν χόλον, οἷα ἀρξάντων ἀδικίης
προτέρων τῶν Ἐρετριέων·
Ἐρετριεύς, -έως, ὁ Eretrian

ἐνέχειν χόλον to harbour a grudge (against) (+ Dat.)
σφι (enclitic) them (Dat. pl.)
οἷα (adverbial) inasmuch as (+ Partc. phrase)
2. ὦ σχέτλι’, ἦ ’τολμήσατ’ ἀντ’ ἐμοῦ τινι

δοῦναι τὰ τεύχη τἀμά, πρὶν μαθεῖν ἐμοῦ;
σχέτλι(ε) scoundrel (Voc.)

’τολμήσατ’ ἐτολμήσατε (pl. despite Voc. sg.)
τεῦχος, -ους, τό (mostly pl.) weapon(s)
256
3. οὗτοι γὰρ πρὶν ἢ Σκύθας ἀπικέσθαι ἦρχον τῆς Ἀσίης.
Σκύθης, -ου, ὁ Scythian

ἀπικνεῖσθαι to arrive (Ionic π for Attic φ)
4. καὶ Μεσσηνίους μὲν πολιορκοῦντες οὐ πρότερον ἐπαύσαντο,

πρὶν ἐξέλαβον ἐκ τῆς χώρας …
πολιορκεῖν to besiege
5. οἱ δὲ Ἕλληνες τήν τε ἱππασίαν ἐθαύμαζον ἐκ τοῦ στρατοπέδου

ὁρῶντες καὶ ὅ τι ἐποίουν, πρὶν Νίκαρχος Ἀρκὰς ἧκε …
ἱππασία, -ας, ἡ cavalry manoeuvre

ἀμφιγνοεῖν to be doubtful about (+ Acc.; here with
double augment)
Ἀρκάς, -άδος, ὁ, (ἡ) Arcadian (proper adj.)
6. οὐκ ἔστιν αἴκισμ’ οὐδὲ μηχάνημ’, ὅτῳ

προτρέψεταί με Ζεὺς γεγωνῆσαι τάδε,
πρὶν ἂν χαλασθῇ δεσμὰ λυμαντήρια.
αἴκισμα, -ατος, τό torture

προτρέπειν to impel (Act. and Mid.)
γεγωνῆσαι to declare (Aor. Infin. ending on Perf.
stem with Imperf. meaning)
λυμαντήριος, -α, -ον torturous, excruciating
7. Well then, I shall go out of the way of this

disaster, before Agaue comes to the house.
out of the way ἐκποδών (adv. + Dat.)

Agaue Ἀγαύη, -ης, ἡ
8. Do not groan until you [sg.] learn [this].
to groan στενάζειν
257
9. … I decided not to make the voyage secretly,

until I (had) told you [sg.] …
to make ποιεῖσθαι (Mid.)

voyage πλοῦς, πλοῦ, ὁ (contracted from
πλόος)
secretly σῖγα (lit. ‘in silence’)
to tell φράζειν, Aor. φράσαι
258
LESSON 33
Adverbial Clauses of Place
and Manner
33.1. Adverbial Clauses of Place
33.1.1. Introduction
Adverbial clauses of Place (or Local clauses) are introduced by relative
adverbs which have the function of subordinating conjunctions. These
adverbs cover the meanings ‘where’, ‘to where’ (‘whither’) and ‘from where’
(‘whence’). Some of these adverbs may be used in either a definite or an
indefinite form. And all forms may be used with either the Indicative Mood
or the Subjunctive in Primary sequence, and with either the Indicative
Mood or the Optative in Past sequence. There is no established convention
for expressing the full range of definiteness in English translation. For
convenience, it is suggested that, for example, both οὗ and ὅπου when used
with the Indicative should be translated as ‘where’, and that when used with
the Subjunctive or Optative they should be translated as ‘wherever’. Even
so, the ‘-ever’ suffix should be avoided in English translation, if the Greek
implies ‘any time’ something happens, when the English implies ‘every
time’ something happens. In Primary sequence, ἄν is normally used with
the Subjunctive in prose, but may be omitted in verse.
οὗ, ὅπου; ᾗ, ὅπῃ where

οἷ, ὅποι to where
ὅθεν, ὁπόθεν from where
There is also a pair of adverbs which may have a demonstrative meaning

as well as their relative meaning.
ἔνθα where (also ‘there’), to where, from where

ἔνθεν from where (also ‘from there’)
259
In addition, ἵνα appears to have been originally a relative adverb of place

meaning ‘where’. This usage continues into the classical period, but fades
out in the Hellenistic period. (However, already in Homer the use of ἵνα
as a Purpose conjunction outweighs its Local meaning.)
The negative is usually οὐ for the Indicative and μή for the Subjunctive
and Optative. However, μή may also be used when the Indicative expresses
a general situation, or when the Future Indicative expresses Purpose (see
§33.3 below).
The relative adverbs may be emphasised by the enclitic particle περ.
Editorial practice varies in treating this particle as part of the preceding
word or as a separate word (e.g. ἵναπερ or ἵνα περ).
Quite often, a Genitive of Limits of Space (a subcategory of the Partitive
Genitive) modifies a relative adverb. As the following two examples
show, the relative adverbs may be used either in a literal sense, or in
a figurative sense.
χωρήσομαί τἄρ’ οἷπερ ἐστάλην ὅδου. (S.El. 404.)
I shall go, then, to that point of my path where I was sent.
Literal reference to place; strictly: ‘to where indeed within my path …’.
ὅμως δ’, ἵν’ ἕσταμεν
χρείας, ἄμεινον ἐκμαθεῖν τί δραστέον. (S.OT 1442–1443.)
Nevertheless, where (with)in our present need
we stand, <it is> better to learn fully what <it is> necessary to do.
Figurative reference to place.
33.1.2. Primary Sequence

33.1.2.1. Definite
… καὶ ἢν σφαλῶμεν, τὰ τῶν ξυμμάχων, ὅθεν ἰσχύομεν,
προσαπόλλυται· (Th. 1.143.5.)
… and if we fail, the <resources> of our allies, from where we draw our
strength, are lost as well.
ὅθεν + Present Indicative.
260
LESSON 33. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PLACE AND MANNER
ἐνθαῦτα λειμών ἐστι, ἵνα σφι ἀγορή τε ἐγίνετο καὶ πρητήριον·

(Hdt. 7.23.4.)
A meadow is there, where an assembly-area and market-place was made
by them.
ἵνα + Past Imperfect Indicative in the context of Present narrative.
33.1.2.2. Indefinite
καὶ ταῦτα οὖν κηρύττετε πάντα ἀποφέρειν πρὸς ὑμᾶς, ὅπου ἂν
καθέζησθε· (X.Cyr. 4.5.41.)
Tell <them>, therefore, to deliver all this also to you, wherever you are situated.
ὅπου + ἄν with Subjunctive in prose.
ἀλλ’ εἶμι κἀγὼ κεῖσ’, ὅποιπερ ἂν σθένω. (S.Aj. 810.)
But I too shall go there, to wherever indeed I have the strength.
ὅποιπερ + ἄν with Subjunctive in verse.
φεῦ φεῦ, φρονεῖν ὡς δεινὸν ἔνθα μὴ τέλη
λύῃ φρονοῦντι. (S.OT 316–317.)
Oh oh, how terrible <it is> to be wise where there is no
profit for the wise man.
ἔνθα + negative μή and Subjunctive without ἄν in verse. (τέλη λύῃ is
equivalent to λυσιτελῇ.)
οὗ μή ’στι καιρὸς, μὴ μακρὰν βούλου λέγειν. (S.El. 1259.)
Where it is not the right time, do not wish to speak at length.
οὗ + negative μή and Indicative. Compare Lesson 25.3.2: indefinite
adjectival clauses with negative μή and Indicative.
33.1.3. Past Sequence

33.1.3.1. Definite
παραπλέων δὲ πάλιν ἔσχε καὶ ἐς Νότιον τὸ Κολοφωνίων, οὗ
κατῴκηντο Κολοφώνιοι … (Th. 3.34.1.)
And as he sailed back along the coast he also put in at Notium the <port> of
the Colophonians, where the Colophonians had settled …
261
οὗ + Past Perfect Indicative.

οἱ δὲ Πελοποννήσιοι, ἐπειδὴ ἔτεμον τὸ πεδίον, παρῆλθον ἐς τὴν
Πάραλον γῆν καλούμενον μέχρι Λαυρίου, οὗ τὰ ἀργύρεια μέταλλά
ἐστιν Ἀθηναίοις. (Th. 2.55.1.)
And the Peloponnesians, when they had ravaged the plain, passed on to the
region called Paralus, where the Athenians have their silver mines.
οὗ + Present Indicative in the context of past narrative.
33.1.3.2. Indefinite
καὶ προσβολαί, ὥσπερ εἰώθεσαν, ἐγίγνοντο τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἱππέων
ὅπῃ παρείκοι … (Th. 3.1.2.)
And attacks by the Athenian horsemen, as indeed had been customary, were
being made, wherever it was practicable …
ὅπῃ + Optative.
… οἱ Λακεδαιμόνιοι ἐψηφίσαντο τοὺς μὲν μετὰ Βρασίδου Εἵλωτας
μαχεσαμένους ἐλευθέρους εἶναι καὶ οἰκεῖν ὅπου ἂν βούλωνται·
(Th. 5.34.1.)
… the Spartans voted that the Helots who had fought with Brasidas should be
free and live wherever they wished.
ὅπου + ἄν with Subjunctive in a Vivid construction.
33.2. Adverbial Clauses of Manner

In so far as the conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses of Comparison
are ‘properly conjunctive relative adverbs of manner’ (Smyth, 1956,
§2463), adverbial clauses of Manner have already been treated in
Lesson 28. However, that Lesson included adjectival as well as adverbial
clauses; and it covered the categories of quality, quantity and degree as
well as Manner. On the other hand, the conjunctive relative adverbs ᾗ
and ὅπῃ may express Manner (‘in what way’) as well as location (‘in what
place’, ‘to what place’, ‘by which route’). This section thus provides a link
both to Lesson 28 and to the earlier part of the present Lesson. The
following examples illustrate the same pattern as with clauses of Place.
262
ταῦτα μὲν οὖν, ὅπως ἂν ἡμῖν συμπίπτῃ, ποιήσομεν. (Isoc. 15.74.)

Well then, we shall do this, in whatever way it comes to pass for us.
ὅπως + ἄν with Subjunctive in Primary sequence (indefinite).
… ὁ μὲν δὴ Φεραύλας, οὕτω διαδοὺς ᾗ ἐτάχθη, εὐθὺς ἐπεμέλετο
τῶν εἰς τὴν ἐξέλασιν … (X.Cyr. 8.3.8.)
… Pheraulas indeed, having thus made the distribution as he had been
instructed, immediately took care of matters relating to the procession …
ᾗ with Indicative in Past sequence (definite).
ἐπεὶ δὲ ἤρξαντο βουλεύεσθαι ὅπως ἂν ἐξείη αὐτοῖς τῇ πόλει
χρῆσθαι ὅπως βούλοιντο, … ἔπεισαν Λύσανδρον φρουροὺς σφίσι
συμπρᾶξαι ἐλθεῖν … (X.HG 2.3.13.)
But when they began to consider how it would be possible for them to treat the
city however they wished … they persuaded Lysander to cooperate in getting
a garrison to come to them …
ὅπως + Optative in Past sequence (indefinite).
33.3. Adverbial Clauses of Place Expressing

Purpose
Sometimes adverbial clauses of Place simultaneously express Purpose. The
relative adverb of Place is expressed in translation as a Purpose conjunction
+ demonstrative adverb: ‘where you may …’ becomes ‘in order that there
you may …’. In Primary sequence, the Mood of the verb in these clauses
is either Subjunctive with ἄν or Future Indicative; in Past sequence the
Mood is Optative. The negative is μή.
μολών τε χῶρον ἔνθ’ ἂν ἀστιβῆ κίχω
κρύψω τόδ’ ἔγχος τοὐμόν … (S.Aj. 657–658.)
And going where I may find an untrodden place
I shall hide this sword of mine …
(i.e. ‘in order that somewhere I may find …’)
ἔνθα + ἄν with Subjunctive in Primary sequence.
263
μέλλουσι γάρ σ’, εἰ τῶνδε μὴ λήξεις γόων,

ἐνταῦθα πέμψειν ἔνθα μή ποθ’ ἡλίου
φέγγος προσόψει … (S.El. 379–381.)
For they intend, if you do not cease from these laments,
to send you there where you may not ever look upon
the light of the sun …
(i.e. ‘in order that there you may not ever look upon the light of the
sun …’)
ἔνθα + negative μή with Future Indicative in Primary sequence.
… κρύψασ’ ἑαυτὴν ἔνθα μή τις εἰσίδοι,
βρυχᾶτο μὲν βωμοῖσι προσπίπτουσ’ ὅτι
γένοιτ’ ἐρήμη … (S.Tr. 903–905.)
… hiding herself where no one might see,
falling before the altars she screamed that
she had become desolate …
(i.e. ‘hiding herself that there no one might see …’)
ἔνθα + negative μή with Optative in Past sequence.
33.4. Adverbial Clauses Distinguished from

Noun Clauses
The same conjunctive relative adverbs as introduce adverbial clauses
of Place or Manner may also introduce certain types of noun clause.
Such noun clauses occur especially as reported questions, where the whole
clause is the Object of a verb of saying, asking, knowing or seeing. Such
a clause may also be the Subject of the verb ‘to be’, or the Object of a verb
of effort or caution.
ὦ τλῆμον, οὐκ οἶσθ’ οἷ κακῶν ἐλήλυθας,
Ἰᾶσον· (E.Med. 1306–1307.)
O poor <man>, you do not know to what point of troubles you have come,
Jason.
The reported question, οἷ … ἐλήλυθας, is the Object of οἶσθ(α).
264
οὐ γάρ τις ὅρμος ἔστιν, οὐδ’ ὅποι πλέων

ἐξεμπολήσει κέρδος ἢ ξενώσεται. (S.Ph. 302–303.)
For there does not exist any harbour, nor anywhere one will sail to
and make a gainful trade or be welcomed as a guest.
The noun clause, ὅποι … ξενώσεται, is the Subject of ἔστιν. More
literally: ‘(the place,) to where (by) sailing one will make a gainful trade
… does not exist’.
… τῶν δὲ ἀπείρων καὶ ἀνεπιστημόνων ὅπῃ τράπωνται,
ἐσπίπτοντες ἔς τε χαράδρας καὶ τὰς προλελοχισμένας ἐνέδρας
διεφθείροντο. (Th. 3.112.6.)
… but since they were inexperienced and ignorant of where they were to turn,
falling into ravines and ambushes set beforehand they were being destroyed.
The reported question, ὅπῃ τράπωνται, is Object of the adjective
ἀνεπιστημόνων (with ὄντων understood in an improper Gen. abs.).
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§529, 540,
556.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2498–2499. Cf. 346, 2463 (list of relative
adverbs).
EXERCISE 33
Translate the following passages. (The Exercise does not include any
reported questions or clauses of effort or caution.)
1. τὰ δ’ ἐπιτήδεια, ὅπου μὲν ἡμεῖς ἐληλύθαμεν, ὑφ’ ἡμῶν ἀνήλωται·
ἐπιτήδεια, -ων, τά provisions (neut. pl. adj. as noun)
2. … ἐξέστω ἀπιέναι ὅποι ἂν βούλωνται …

3. ἐκκλῄομαι γὰρ δωμάτων ὅποι μόλω.
ἐκκλῄειν to shut out (here Pass.)
265
4. ἔφευγον, ἔνθα μήποτ’ ὀψοίμην κακῶν

χρησμῶν ὀνείδη τῶν ἐμῶν τελούμενα.
φεύγειν to be in exile
χρησμός, -οῦ, ὁ oracle (i.e. oracular utterance)
ἐμός, -ή, -όν my (i.e. about me)
5. ὅκου γὰρ ἰθύσειε στρατεύεσθαι, πάντα οἱ ἐχώρεε εὐτυχέως.
ὅκου (Ionic) ὅπου (Attic)

ἰθύειν to strive (+ Infin.)
οἱ Dat. masc. sg.
χωρεῖν to turn out (Intr.; uncontracted in Ionic)
6. καὶ ἐψηφίσαντο πλεύσαντα τὸν Πείσανδρον καὶ δέκα ἄνδρας

μετ’ αὐτοῦ πράσσειν, ὅπῃ αὐτοῖς δοκοίη ἄριστα ἕξειν, τά τε
πρὸς τὸν Τισσαφέρνη καὶ τὸν Ἀλκιβιάδην.
πράσσειν to negotiate (+ Acc.)
7. … ἐλθόντες εἰς τὴν οἰκίαν ἵν’ ἦν κεκρυμμένη, βίᾳ λαβόντες

αὐτὴν καὶ ἀγαγόντες ἐπὶ τὸ δικαστήριον ζῶσαν ἅπασι τοῖς
παροῦσιν ἐπέδειξαν.
This passage concerns the concealment of a female slave, in order to
gain a legal advantage by falsely claiming that she had died.
8. … πρᾶσσε θαρσῶν καὶ τὰ ἐμὰ καὶ τὰ σὰ ὅπῃ κάλλιστα καὶ
ἄριστα ἕξει ἀμφοτέροις.
9. And if they were to become subject, all matters would be accomplished
as we wish.
subject (to authority) ὑποχείριος, (-α,) -ον

as ᾗ (+ Indic.)
The Conditional clause may be translated by a Gen. abs.
266
10. … they held out for a short time, but then they turned to Panormus,
from where indeed they had set sail.
to hold out ὑπομένειν (here referring to a naval battle)

to turn (Intr.) τρέπεσθαι (Mid.)
Panormus Πάνορμος, -ου, ὁ
267
LESSON 34
Noun Clauses with Expressions
of Emotion
34.1. Introduction
Noun clauses introduced by ὅτι or εἰ meaning ‘that’ are used as the
Object of various verbs of emotion, or as the Subject of the verb ‘to
be’ with an adjective of emotion as Complement. Typical emotions are
surprise, shame, blame, anger, love, hate, pleasure and pain. Since already
in Homer ὅτι may mean either ‘that’ or ‘because’, it is necessary to
distinguish noun clauses from adverbial clauses of Cause. And likewise, it is
necessary to distinguish noun clauses introduced by εἰ from the common
adverbial clauses of Condition introduced by the same conjunction.
Other noun clauses, which are introduced by εἰ, are reported questions
(Lesson 18), clauses of effort and caution (Lesson 24) and clauses of
fearing (Lesson 35).
In order to demonstrate the construction of verbs of emotion with a direct
Object, the following sections will contain examples of such verbs with
a noun as direct Object, then with a pronoun, and then with a pronoun
anticipating a noun clause introduced by ὅτι or εἰ. After that, examples
of verbs of emotion with a plain ὅτι or εἰ clause as direct Object will
be given.
Further sections will provide examples of εἰ introducing a noun clause as
Subject of the verb ‘to be’ with an adjective of emotion as Complement.
Such noun clauses are also sometimes the Subject of certain other verbs.
Finally, the use of negatives in noun clauses introduced by ὅτι or εἰ will
be considered.
269
34.2. Verbs of Emotion
34.2.1. Noun as Direct Object

Verbs of emotion may have as direct Object a noun which is abstract or
concrete and which refers to a person or thing.
νῦν δ’ εἰς τοῦτο τὰ πράγματα περιέστηκεν, ὥσθ’ οἱ μὲν μισοῦσι
τὴν πόλιν, οἱ δὲ καταφρονοῦσιν ἡμῶν. (Isoc. 7.81.)
But now circumstances have come around to this <point>, that they [= Greeks]
hate the city [= Athens], and they [= foreigners] despise us.
The Object is concrete and personal (collective).
Κλεόμενες, σπουδὴν μὲν τὴν ἐμὴν μὴ θαυμάσῃς τῆς ἐνθαῦτα
ἀπίξιος· (Hdt. 5.49.2.)
Cleomenes, do not be surprised at my eagerness for coming here.
The Object is abstract and denotes a thing.
34.2.2. Pronoun as Direct Object

The pronoun is regularly neuter singular or plural.
καὶ τοῦθ’ ἥδομαι. (Ar.Ra. 748.)
I enjoy this too.
The pronoun is neuter singular.
καίτοι τὸν τῶν νόμων καὶ τῆς πολιτείας φάσκοντα φροντίζειν …
τοῦτο γ’ ἔχειν δεῖ, ταὐτὰ λυπεῖσθαι καὶ ταὐτὰ χαίρειν τοῖς
πολλοῖς … (D. 18.292.)
And yet the one who claims to be concerned for the laws and the constitution
… must be capable of this, to feel grief at the same things and to rejoice
at the same things as the general public …
The pronouns are neuter plural.
270
LESSON 34. NOUN CLAUSES WITH EXPRESSIONS OF EMOTION
34.2.3. Pronoun Anticipating a ὅτι Clause

In the following example, ταῦτα refers to the content of the ὅτι clause:
‘my father’ is annoyed at ‘this’, namely, ‘that I am proceeding’. ὅτι does
not mean ‘because’: the ὅτι clause expresses what ‘my father’ is annoyed
at, not why he is annoyed. Thus, the ὅτι clause is the direct Object of
ἀγανακτεῖ and in apposition with ταῦτα. In other words, the ὅτι
clause is an Objective predicate of the pronoun ταῦτα.
ταῦτα δὴ οὖν καὶ ἀγανακτεῖ ὅ τε πατὴρ καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι οἰκεῖοι,
ὅτι ἐγὼ ὑπὲρ τοῦ ἀνδροφόνου τῷ πατρὶ φόνου ἐπέρχομαι …
(Pl.Euthphr. 4 D.)
So indeed my father and the rest of the family members are annoyed at
this, that I, on behalf of the murderer, am proceeding against my father for
murder …
34.2.4. Pronoun Anticipating an εἰ Clause

Similarly in this next example αὐτὸ τοῦτο refers to the content
of the εἰ clause. This clause expresses what the Subject of the leading
clause is surprised at, rather than why he is surprised. In function the
εἰ clause is not an adverbial Conditional clause, but a noun clause as
direct Object of θαυμάζω and in apposition with αὐτὸ τοῦτο. In other
words, the εἰ clause is an Objective predicate of the pronominal phrase
αὐτὸ τοῦτο.
ἐγὼ δὲ πρῶτον μὲν αὐτὸ τοῦτο θαυμάζω, εἰ στεφανοῦν ἐπὶ τοῖς
ἠτυχημένοις ἠξίου τὴν βουλήν· (D. 22.17.)
But I in the first place am surprised at this very <point>, that he thought
it appropriate to reward the council for the unfortunate <events>.
271
34.2.5. ὅτι Clause Alone as Direct Object

A ὅτι clause may be the direct Object of a verb of emotion even without
an anticipatory pronoun. But again, the ὅτι clause is a noun clause, not
an adverbial Causal clause.
θαυμάζω δ’ ὅτι τοὺς αὐτοὺς ὁρῶ ὑπὲρ Αἰγυπτίων τἀναντία
πράττειν βασιλεῖ τὴν πόλιν πείθοντας, ὑπὲρ δὲ τοῦ Ῥοδίων δήμου
φοβουμένους τὸν ἄνδρα τοῦτον. (D. 15.5.)
But I am surprised that I see the same <men> trying-to-persuade the city to
act in opposition to the (Persian) king where the Egyptians are concerned, but
being afraid of this man where the democracy of the Rhodians is concerned.
34.2.6. εἰ Clause Alone as Direct Object

Similarly, an εἰ clause may be the direct Object of a verb of emotion
without an anticipatory pronoun. And the εἰ clause also is a noun clause,
not an adverbial Conditional clause.
θυμοῦμαι μὲν τῇ ξυντυχίᾳ, καί μου τὰ σπλάγχν’ ἀγανακτεῖ,
εἰ πρὸς τοῦτον δεῖ μ’ ἀντιλέγειν· (Ar.Ra. 1006–1007.)
I am angry at the turn of events, and my emotions are annoyed,
that it is necessary that I should speak against this <fellow>.
34.2.7. εἰ Clause as Direct Object with an Adjective

of Emotion
An εἰ clause may be a direct Object in apposition with an adjective of
emotion. In the following example, it is appropriate to understand the
adjective as an Objective predicate.
ἦ θαυμαστὸν νομίζεις εἰ καὶ τῷ θεῷ δοκεῖ ἐμὲ βέλτιον εἶναι ἤδη
τελευτᾶν; (X.Ap. 5.)
Do you think <it> surprising that even to (the) god it seems to be better that
I should die now?
English idiom regularly uses the pronoun ‘it’ anticipating the ‘that’ clause;
compare the Greek anticipatory pronouns in §§34.2.3 and 34.2.4 above.
272
34.3. εἰ Clause as Subject
34.3.1. εἰ Clause as Subject of εἶναι

When an εἰ clause is the Subject of a sentence, it is most commonly
the Subject of the verb ‘to be’ εἶναι and has an adjectival Complement.
Sometimes, the Complement is a full adjectival clause. And sometimes,
the negative pronoun οὐδέν or the interrogative pronoun τί is combined
with the adjectival Complement.
ἐμοὶ μὲν θαυμαστὸν δοκεῖ εἶναι, εἴ τις ἐλεύθερος ἄνθρωπος ἢ
κτῆμά τι τούτου ἥδιον κέκτηται ἢ ἐπιμέλειαν ἡδίω τινὰ ταύτης
εὕρηκεν ἢ ὠφελιμωτέραν εἰς τὸν βίον. (X.Oec. 5.11.)
To me <it> seems to be amazing, that any free man has obtained any
possession more pleasant than this or has found any occupation more pleasant
than this or more helpful for his livelihood.
As in the previous example, English idiom uses the anticipatory pronoun
‘it’. More literally: ‘That any free man has obtained … seems to me to be
amazing’.
Indicative forms of εἶναι are regularly omitted, as in the following four
examples.
καίτοι δεινόν, εἰ ἐπὶ μὲν τοῖς ὑμετέροις αὐτῶν πράγμασιν
ἐμμένετε τοῖς ὅρκοις, ἐπὶ δὲ τῇ τούτου συκοφαντίᾳ παραβαίνειν
ἐπιχειρήσετε … (Isoc. 17.24.)
And yet <it is> terrible, that in the matter of your own affairs you abide by
your oaths, but in the case of the vexatious prosecution by this <man> you are
going to attempt to transgress them …
More literally: ‘That in the matter of your own affairs you abide … <is>
terrible’.
ὃ δὲ πάντων σχετλιώτατον, εἰ φιλοπονώτατοι δοκοῦντες εἶναι
τῶν Ἑλλήνων ῥᾳθυμότερον τῶν ἄλλων βουλευσόμεθα περὶ τούτων.
(Isoc. 6.56.)
And what <is> most shocking of all <is> that we, although seeming to be
the most energetic of the Greeks, are going to deliberate more lightly than the
rest about this.
273
In this example, the Complement is a full adjectival clause, ὃ …

σχετλιώτατον, and the Indicative of the verb ‘to be’ is omitted both as
the Main verb and as the verb of the ὅ clause. Both Greek and English
allow a reversal of word order for the sake of emphasis. The order Subject,
<verb>, Complement would run: ‘And that we are going to deliberate
more lightly than the rest about this <is> what <is> most shocking of all’.
τὸν μὲν οὖν πρόσθεν χρόνον ὑμεῖς τε τοξόται καὶ ἀκοντισταὶ
ἦτε καὶ ἡμεῖς, καὶ εἴ τι χείρους ἡμῶν ταῦτα ποιεῖν ἦτε, οὐδὲν
θαυμαστόν· (X.Cyr. 2.1.16.)
Well then, during the previous time you were archers and lancers and
<so were> we, and that you were somewhat inferior to us at doing this,
<is> nothing surprising.
[OR: ‘<it is> nothing surprising that…’.] The negative pronoun οὐδέν
is combined with the adjectival Complement θαυμαστόν.
… τί θαυμαστὸν εἰ καὶ τὰ νῦν καθεστῶτα λήψεταί τινα
μετάστασιν; (Isoc. 6.40.)
… what <is> surprising <about the idea> that also our present circumstances
are going to undergo [lit. ‘receive’] some change?
The interrogative pronoun τί is combined with the adjectival Complement
θαυμαστόν.
34.3.2. εἰ Clause as Subject of Other Verbs

An εἰ clause may also be the Subject of a limited number of other verbs of
emotion. ἐξαρκεῖν and μεταμελεῖν belong to this group.
ἆρ’ οὖν ἂν ἐξαρκέσειεν ἡμῖν, εἰ τήν τε πόλιν ἀσφαλῶς οἰκοῖμεν
καὶ τὰ περὶ τὸν βίον εὐπορώτεροι γιγνόμεθα … (Isoc. 8.19.)
Would <it> satisfy us, then, that we should inhabit the city in safety and
should become well provided regarding what concerns our livelihood …?
Grammatical structure: ‘Would <the possibility>, that we should inhabit
… satisfy us?’ The Optative οἰκοῖμεν in the εἰ clause corresponds to
the potential Optative ἐξαρκέσειεν of the Main verb. The construction
of the whole sentence is analogous to a Future Unfulfilled Conditional
sentence. However, the εἰ clause is a noun clause, expressing what ‘would
satisfy us’, not an adverbial Conditional clause.
274
Similarly, an adjective of emotion is sometimes used in apposition with

the εἰ clause as Subject of a non-emotional verb.
ὥστε πάντων ἄν μοι συμβαίη δεινότατον, εἰ τοιαύτην πολιτείαν
εἰσηγούμενος νεωτέρων δόξαιμι πραγμάτων ἐπιθυμεῖν. (Isoc. 7.59.)
And so the strangest of all things would happen to me, that in introducing
such a form of government I should seem to desire revolution.
Here, συμβαίνειν corresponds to εἶναι as used in §34.3.1 above,
but δεινότατον is part of the Subject not the Complement.
34.4. Negatives with ὅτι and εἰ Clauses

ὅτι clauses regularly use οὐ and its compounds. εἰ clauses sometimes use
οὐ, but often use μή and its compounds. οὐ and μή may even occur in
the same εἰ clause, when it is divided by μέν and δέ.
καὶ σέ γε ἐζήτουν κατ’ ἀγορὰν καὶ ἐθαύμαζον ὅτι οὐχ οἷός τ’ ἦ
εὑρεῖν. (Pl.Tht. 142 A.)
And I was looking for you (all) over the market-place and I was surprised
that I was not able to find <you>.
ὅτι with negative οὐ and Indicative.
… ἔφη τοὺς ξυμπρέσβεις ἀναμένειν … καὶ θαυμάζειν ὡς οὔπω
πάρεισιν. (Th. 1.90.5.)
… he said that he was waiting for his fellow-ambassadors … and that he was
surprised that they were not yet present.
ὡς with negative οὔπω and Indicative. (ὡς is an unusual alternative for
ὅτι. Here it is sometimes regarded as meaning ‘how’ not ‘that’.)
δεινὸν δέ μοι δοκεῖ εἶναι, εἰ, ὅταν εἰσφορὰν εἰσενεγκεῖν δέῃ, ἣν
πάντες εἴσεσθαι μέλλουσιν, οὐκ ἐθέλουσιν … (Lys. 30.32.)
And it seems to me to be terrible, that, when it is necessary to pay
a contribution, which all are going to know about, they are not willing …
εἰ with οὐ and Indicative, which would not normally occur in a genuine
Condition (cf. Lesson 19.5).
275
θαυμάζω δ’ εἰ μὴ δύνασθε συνιδεῖν ὅτι γένος οὐδέν ἐστι

κακονούστερον τῷ πλήθει πονηρῶν ῥητόρων καὶ δημαγωγῶν·
(Isoc. 8.129.)
But I am surprised that you are not able to see that no group is more
ill‑disposed to the general public than incompetent orators and politicians.
εἰ with μή and Indicative.
σχέτλιον δ’ ἂν εἴη, εἰ οὗτος μὲν ἅπαντας τοὺς πολίτας περὶ
οὐδενὸς ἡγήσατο, ὑμεῖς δὲ τοῦτον ἕνα ὄντα μὴ ἀποδοκιμάσαιτε.
(Lys. 31.31.)
It would be shocking, that this <man> considered all the citizens worth
nothing, but <that> you should not disqualify this <man> when he is
<just> one <person>.
εἰ with οὐδενός and Indicative denoting a past fact, then with μή and
Optative denoting an imminent possibility from which the speaker is
dissuading his audience. The εἰ clause is divided by μέν and δέ.
34.5. General Comments
34.5.1. ἐάν
Sometimes, ἐάν with Subjunctive is mentioned as having the same
function as εἰ or ὅτι with expressions of emotion. However, there are
few examples. And, it may be that ἐάν should be regarded as introducing
a genuine Conditional clause, even with an expression of emotion.
Moreover, the classical prose author Isocrates frequently uses εἰ to
introduce noun clauses with expressions of emotion; but all (18) ἐάν
clauses are genuine Conditional clauses, and are not used with expressions
of emotion.
34.5.2. Scholarly Views

Standard treatments of Ancient Greek grammar in English, French and
German differ somewhat in their view of expressions of emotion with
clauses introduced by ὅτι and εἰ. In German, Kühner (1890–1904)
regards such clauses as noun clauses (Substantivsätze). Schwyzer (1950)
appears to agree for ὅτι and ὡς clauses; for εἰ (ἐάν), he merely refers
276
to Kühner. In French, Humbert (1954) first discusses Causal clauses

introduced by ὅτι or ὡς, then adds Object (completive) clauses with
verbs of emotion. ‘The content of these emotions is expressed by the
Causal clause, introduced by εἰ, “if it is true that, since…”’ (§337). This
formulation seems deliberately to blur the distinction between adverbial
Conditional and Causal clauses on the one hand and noun clauses on the
other hand.
In English, Goodwin (1889) treats clauses with expressions of emotion in
a separate section in the midst of Conditional clauses. He acknowledges
that, with many expressions of emotion, ‘a protasis with εἰ may be used
to express the object of the emotion’, although ‘a causal sentence would
generally seem more natural’ (§494). And he maintains, ‘These expressions
may also be followed by ὅτι and a causal sentence’ (§496). After treating
the usual Causal constructions including ὅτι and ὡς clauses, Smyth
(1956, §2247) continues by writing that, ‘Many verbs of emotion state
the cause more delicately with εἰ (ἐάν) if as a mere supposition than by
ὅτι’. He acknowledges that ὅτι clauses are also used with these verbs
(§2248). But he ends with the comment, ‘ὅτι after verbs of emotion
really means that, not because’ (§2248.a.).
This Lesson follows the view that, with expressions of emotion, clauses
introduced by ὅτι, ὡς and εἰ are noun clauses, and that the subordinating
conjunctions are appropriately translated as ‘that’, not ‘because’ nor ‘if ’.
References
Humbert (1954), Syntaxe Grecque, §337.
Kühner (1904), Ausführliche Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache (Vol. 2.2),

pp. 369–370.
Liddell & Scott (1996), A Greek–English lexicon, εἰ B. V.
Schwyzer (1950), Syntax und Syntaktische Stilistik (Griechische Grammatik,

vol. 2), pp. 645–646, 688.
277
EXERCISE 34A
Translate the following passages. Both ὅτι and εἰ, when introducing noun
clauses of the type treated in Lesson 34, should consistently be translated
as ‘that’.
1. … τίς οὐκ οἶδε τῶν πρεσβυτέρων τοὺς μὲν δημοτικοὺς
καλουμένους … δεινὸν ἡγουμένους, εἴ τις ὄψεται τὴν πόλιν
τὴν τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἄρξασαν ταύτην ὑφ’ ἑτέροις οὖσαν …;
πρεσβύτερος, -α, -ον older

ἡγουμένους Reflects Past Imperf. of direct
knowledge: ἡγοῦντο.
2. θαυμαστὸν δ’, εἰ τοὺς μὲν ἐπὶ τῆς ὀλιγαρχίας ὑβρίσαντας

ἀξίους θανάτου νομίζετε, τοὺς δ’ ἐν δημοκρατίᾳ ταὔτ’ ἐκείνοις
ἐπιτηδεύοντας ἀζημίους ἀφήσετε.
ὑβρίζειν to act violently

ἐπιτηδεύειν to commit
ἀζήμιος, -ον unpunished
3. ὥστ’ οὐδὲν θαυμαστόν, εἰ πάνυ ἐν τάχει πάλιν ἡμῖν πράγματα

παρέχειν δυνήσονται.
πράγματα παρέχειν to cause trouble
4. ἤν τε γὰρ αὐτὸν μετρίως θωμάζῃς, ἄχθεται, ὅτι οὐ κάρτα

θεραπεύεται, ἤν τε θεραπεύῃ τις κάρτα, ἄχθεται ἅτε θωπί.
θωμάζειν (Ionic) to admire

ἄχθεσθαι to be annoyed
θεραπεύειν to pay attention to (1st instance Pass.)
θώψ, θωπός, ὁ flatterer
5. … προειλόμην πορρωτέρωθεν ποιήσασθαι τὴν ἀρχήν, …

αἰσχυνόμενος, εἰ … περὶ τῶν προγόνων τῶν τὴν πόλιν κάλλιστα
διοικησάντων μηδὲ μικρὰν ποιήσομαι μνείαν …
278
The speaker is referring to the composition of his speech.
διοικεῖν to administer
6. And let no one of you be surprised, that we know [this] accurately.
accurately ἀκριβῶς
7. For we are able to make also this criticism against them, that for
their own city they compel their neighbours to be serfs …
to make a criticism against ἐπιτιμᾶν (+ Acc. ‘this’ and Dat. ‘them’)

neighbour ὅμορος, -ου, ὁ
to be a serf εἱλωτεύειν
EXERCISE 34B
Translate the following passages. Both ὅτι and εἰ, when introducing noun
clauses of the type treated in Lesson 34, should consistently be translated
as ‘that’.
1. αἰσχύνομαι γάρ, εἴ τισι δόξω δεδιὼς ὑπὲρ γήρως καὶ μικροῦ
βίου προδιδόναι τὴν ἀληθείαν.
αἰσχύνεσθαι to be ashamed
γῆρας, -ως (-αος), τό old age
μικροῦ Refers to speaker’s remaining,
not total, life.
2. πάντων δ’ ἂν εἴη δεινότατον, εἰ … ἐγὼ διὰ τὴν ἐκείνου φυγὴν

ζημιωθείην.
φυγή, -ῆς, ἡ exile

ζημιοῦν to punish
3. ὃ δὲ πάντων δεινότατον, εἰ τοῖς μὲν συνεχῶς μετὰ

Λακεδαιμονίων γεγενημένοις δεδογμένον ὑμῖν ἐστὶ βοηθεῖν …
279
4. … τί θαυμαστόν, εἰ περὶ τῆς ἀρχῆς τῆς κατὰ θάλατταν

ἀγνοοῦσι …;
5. ὥστε πάντων ἂν συμβαίη δεινότατον, εἰ τοὺς βουλομένους τοῖς
αὐτοῖς τούτοις διενεγκεῖν τῶν ἡλικιωτῶν … διαφθείρεσθαι
ψηφίσαισθε …
τοῖς αὐτοῖς τούτοις neut.

διαφέρειν to outclass (+ Gen. of Comparison)
ἡλικιώτης, -ου, ὁ comrade
διαφθείρειν to corrupt
6. δεινὸν δέ μοι δοκεῖ εἶναι, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, εἰ τούτου

… οὐκ ἐπεχείρησαν δεῖσθαι, ὡς χρή, παύσασθαι εἰς ὑμᾶς
ἐξαμαρτάνοντα …
δεῖσθαι to request (of ) (+ Gen.)

ἐξαμαρτάνοντα Acc. masc. sg.; refers to τούτου despite
change of Case.
7. For I am ashamed, that, having said so much in advance about the

excellence of Agamemnon, I am going to mention nothing of what
has been achieved by that [man]…
to have said in advance προειρηκέναι (Perf.)

Agamemnon Ἀγαμέμνων, -ονος, ὁ
to mention μιμνήσκεσθαι
8. But it seems to me that I would reasonably be annoyed, … that they

were willing to make the mattter equal to the most serious grounds
of complaint.
to make equal with ἐξισοῦν (+ Acc. ‘matter’ and Dat.

‘ground’)
ground of complaint ἔγκλημα, -ατος, τό
280
LESSON 35
Expressions of Fearing
35.1. Introduction
Fears are most commonly expressed by a verb of fearing with a direct
Object. The Object may be a noun or a pronoun referring to a person or
a thing. But the Object may also be an Infinitive phrase, with or without
the neuter singular definite article. A verb of fearing may also have as its
direct Object a noun clause, which is most commonly introduced by μή.
The following verbs are those which are most often used in expressions of
fearing. φοβεῖσθαι is Passive in form, but Active in function, since it has
a direct Object. (Coincidentally, ‘to be afraid’ in English was originally a
Pass. form of the Act. verb ‘to affray’.) δεδοικέναι (or δεδιέναι) is
a Perfect form with Imperfect meaning: ‘to have become afraid’ and hence
‘to be afraid’ or ‘to fear’. δειμαίνειν has the same meaning. ταρβεῖν,
also synonymous, is mainly restricted to verse. In addition to expressions
of fear with verbs, there are various idioms which use nouns such as ὁ
φόβος, τὸ δέος, τὸ δεῖμα and τὸ τάρβος.
35.2. Verbs of Fearing with Noun or Pronoun

as Object
πολὺ δὲ κἀκεῖνοι μᾶλλον ἡμᾶς φοβήσονται, ὅταν ἀκούσωσιν
ὅτι οὐ φοβούμενοι πτήσσομεν αὐτοὺς οἴκοι καθήμενοι …
(X.Cyr. 3.3.18.)
And those <men> also will much more be afraid of us, when they hear that
we are not cowering in fear before them…
Acc. pronouns (persons) as Object.
281
… ἀλλὰ δείσας τό τε μῆκος τοῦ πλόου καὶ τὴν ἐρημίην ἀπῆλθε

ὀπίσω … (Hdt. 4.43.1.)
… but fearing the length of the voyage and the isolation he went back
again …
Acc. nouns (abstract things) as Object.
35.3. Verbs of Fearing with Infinitive Phrase

as Object
… καὶ οὐκ αἰσχύνονται τοιαύτῃ παρρησίᾳ χρώμενοι περὶ
τοῦ τεθνεῶτος, ἣν ἔδεισαν ἂν ποιήσασθαι περὶ ζῶντος, …
(Isoc. 16.22.)
… and they are not ashamed to employ such outspokenness about him now
that he is dead, as [lit. ‘which’] they would have feared to use concerning
<him when he was> living …
Plain Infin. as Object.
αὐτὸ μὲν γὰρ τὸ ἀποθνῄσκειν οὐδεὶς φοβεῖται, ὅστις μὴ
παντάπασιν ἀλόγιστός τε και ἄνανδρός ἐστι, τὸ δ’ ἀδικεῖν
φοβεῖται· (Pl.Grg. 522 E.)
For no one, who is not altogether irrational and unmanly, fears actual dying,
but he fears acting unjustly.
Articular Infin. as Object.
[The sentence is slightly illogical. The intended meaning is as follows.
‘For any one, who is not altogether irrational and unmanly, does not fear
actual dying, but he fears acting unjustly’.
ὅστις γὰρ μὴ παντάπασιν ἀλόγιστός τε καὶ ἄνανδρός ἐστι, αὐτὸ
τὸ ἀποθνῄσκειν οὐ φοβεῖται, τὸ δ’ ἀδικεῖν φοβεῖται.]
282
LESSON 35. EXPRESSIONS OF FEARING
35.4. Verbs of Fearing with a μή Clause as Object
35.4.1. Fears that Something May Happen

In Primary sequence, fears that something may happen are generally
expressed by μή with the Subjunctive Mood. In Past sequence, the
Optative Mood may replace the Subjunctive; but a Vivid construction,
retaining the Subjunctive, is also common.
δέδοικα δέ, μὴ λίαν ὁμολογούμενα λέγων ἐνοχλεῖν ὑμῖν δόξω.
(Is. 8.34.)
But I fear, that I may seem to you to be annoying you by saying what
is generally agreed.
Primary sequence with μή and Subj.
… ἠπόρουν καὶ ἐδεδοίκεσαν, μὴ σφῶν χειμὼν τὴν φυλακὴν
ἐπιλάβοι … (Th. 4.27.1.)
… they were puzzled and were afraid, that winter might overtake their
blockade …
Past sequence with μή and Optative.
… καὶ ἐδέδισαν, μή ποτε αὖθις ξυμφορά τις αὐτοῖς περιτύχῃ,
οἵα καὶ ἐν τῇ νήσῳ … (Th. 4.55.3.)
… and they were afraid, that one day some disaster might again befall
them, such as <had happened> also on the island …
Vivid construction with μή and Subj.
… καὶ ἅμα δεδιὼς τὸν Φίλιππον, μὴ καταμαρτυροίη αὐτοῦ ἐν
τῷ ἀγῶνι, προσελθὼν τῷ πατρὶ τῷ ἐμῷ ἐδεήθη ἀπαλλάξαι τὸν
Φίλιππον … (D. 49.17.)
… and at the same time fearing, that Philip might testify against him at
the trial, he approached my father and begged <him> to pay off Philip …
Past sequence with μή and Opt. τὸν Φίλιππον is Acc. Object of δεδιώς
instead of Nom. Subject of καταμαρτυροίη. ‘He’ does not fear ‘Philip’,
but fears ‘that’ Philip may testify.
283
… ἐκεῖνο φοβοῦμαι, μὴ τῶν εἰργασμένων αὐτῷ κακῶν

ὑποληφθῇ οὗτος ἐλάττων· (D. 18.142.)
… I am afraid of that, that this <man> may be supposed incapable of the
evils perpetrated by him.
Primary sequence with μή and Subj. ἐκεῖνο is neut. Acc. pronoun as
Object of φοβοῦμαι and in apposition with the whole μή clause.
35.4.2. Fears that Something May Not Happen

When a fear is expressed that something may not happen, οὐ and its
compounds are used within the μή clause. In Primary sequence, the
Subjunctive Mood is used. But it is doubtful whether the Optative Mood
is ever used in Past sequence. A Vivid construction is used instead, whether
the leading verb is Past or Historic Present.
ὃ καὶ δέδοικα, μή με δικτύων ἔσω
λαβόντες οὐκ ἐκφρῶσ’ ἀναίμακτον χρόα. (E.Ph. 263–264.)
And in regard to this I am also afraid, that having caught me inside
the nets they may not let me out with my flesh unstained by blood.
Primary sequence with Subj. and negative οὐκ. ἐκφρῶσ(ι) from ἐκφρεῖν.
ἀναίμακτον Accusative agreeing with με; χρόα Accusative of Respect
referring to ἀναίμακτον: lit. ‘not (ἀν-) bloodstained as to my flesh’.
δεδιότες δέ, μὴ οὐδ’ οὕτω δύνωνται ὀλίγοι πρὸς πολλοὺς
ἀντέχειν, προσεπεξηῦρον τόδε· (Th. 2.76.3.)
But fearing, that not even so might they be able to hold out, <being> few
against many, they contrived this <plan> in addition.
Vivid construction with Subj. and negative οὐδ(έ).
ἀλλὰ ἀρρωδέομεν, μὴ ὑμῖν οὐκ ἡδέες γένωνται οἱ λόγοι.
(Hdt. 9.46.3.)
But we were afraid, that our words might not turn out to be pleasing
to you.
Vivid construction with Subj. and negative οὐκ after Historic Pres. leading
verb.
284
35.5. Fears that Something is (etc.) Actually

Happening
In order to emphasise a fear that something is actually happening, the
Indicative Mood is used in some μή clauses in Primary sequence. Within
the μή clauses there are examples of Present, Future, Past Aorist and
Present Perfect Indicative verbs. In Past sequence, an Optative in the μή
clause represents an Indicative of the Primary form of the expression of
fear. The negative within the μή clause is again οὐ, as in §35.4.2.
εἰ δ’ οἱ μὲν κακοὶ μηδὲν ποιήσουσιν, οἱ δ’ ἀγαθοὶ καὶ δυνατοὶ
ἀθυμῶς ἕξουσι, δέδοικα, ἔφη, μὴ ἄλλου τινὸς μᾶλλον ἢ τοῦ
ἀγαθοῦ μεθέξω πλεῖον μέρος ἢ ἐγὼ βούλομαι. (X.Cyr. 2.3.6.)
‘But if the bad do nothing, and the good and powerful become fainthearted,
I fear’, he said, ‘that I shall have a rather larger share than I wish of
something other than good’.
Primary sequence with μή and Fut. Indic.
ἣν δέδοικα μέν, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, δέδοικα, μὴ λελήθαμεν
ὥσπερ οἱ δανειζόμενοι ἐπὶ πολλῷ ἄγοντες· (D. 19.99.)
And I fear, O men of Athens, I do fear, that we have missed seeing that we
are enjoying it just as those who are borrowing at a high interest rate.
Primary sequence with μή and Pres. Perf. Indic. ἥν is coordinating relative
pronoun: ‘And … it’, referring to ‘peace’ (εἰρήνη) in the previous sentence.
Δημοκήδης δὲ δείσας, μή εὑ ἐκπειρῷτο Δαρεῖος, οὔτι ἐπιδραμὼν
πάντα τὰ διδόμενα ἐδέκετο … (Hdt. 3.135.3.)
But Democedes fearing, that Darius was testing him, was in no hurry to
accept all that was being offered … [lit. ‘not at all rushing was accepting’]
Past sequence with μή and Imperfect Optative, representing Present
Indicative of Primary sequence: δείδω μή μου ἐκπειρᾶται Δαρεῖος,
‘I am afraid that Darius is testing me’. (A Subj. in Primary sequence
would mean: ‘I am afraid that Darius may test me’. This would not
make sense in the context, despite the ambiguity of the Indic. and Subj.
form ἐκπειρᾶται.) εὑ is Ionic Genitive third person singular masculine
pronoun (enclitic).
285
… κατέβαλε τὸ Ἡρακλεωτῶν τεῖχος, δῆλον ὅτι οὐ φοβούμενος,

μή τινες ἀναπεπταμένης ταύτης τῆς παρόδου πορεύσοιντο ἐπὶ
τὴν ἐκείνου δύναμιν … (X.HG 6.4.27.)
… he overthrew the fortress of the Heracleots, clearly not fearing, that, since
this passage had been laid open, certain people would proceed against that
<man’s> power …
Past sequence with μή and Intentive (‘Fut.’) Opt., representing Fut. Indic.
of Primary sequence: οὐ φοβεῖται μή τινες πορεύσονται, ‘he does not
fear that certain people will proceed …’.
35.6. Fears Expressed with Other Conjunctions
35.6.1. ὅπως μή
In this construction, ὅπως should be translated as ‘that’. μή may be
regarded as redundant and should not be translated.
δέδοιχ’, ὅπως μοι μὴ λίαν φανῇς σοφή. (E.Hipp. 518.)
I am afraid, that you may appear too clever for my good.
Primary sequence with ὅπως μή and second Aor. Subj.
ἐκ δὲ τούτων περιγίγνεται ὑμῖν μὲν ἡ σχολὴ καὶ τὸ μηδὲν ἤδη
ποιεῖν, ἃ δέδοιχ’ ὅπως μή ποθ’ ἡγήσεσθ’ ἐπὶ πολλῷ γεγενῆσθαι
… (D. 8.53.)
But from this there results for you leisure and doing nothing now, which I am
afraid that one day you will think has been achieved at a high price …
Primary sequence with ὅπως μή and Fut. Indic.
καὶ γὰρ … ἐδεδοίκει … περὶ τοῦ γραμματείου, ὅπως μὴ ὑπὸ τοῦ
Μενεξένου συλληφθήσοιτο. (Isoc. 17.22.)
For indeed … he was afraid … concerning the document, that it would be
seized by Menexenus.
Past sequence with ὅπως μή and Intentive (‘Fut.’) Opt., representing Fut.
Indic. of Primary sequence: δέδοικα, ὅπως μὴ … συλληφθήσεται, ‘I
am afraid, that it will be seized …’.
286
35.6.2. ὅτι
When a ὅτι clause occurs in relation to an expression of fear, the ὅτι
clause is usually an adverbial clause of Cause and not part of a fearing
construction as such. Moreover, in a construction of the form διὰ τοῦτο
φοβεῖσθαι, ὅτι … ‘to fear on account of this, (namely) that …’, the ὅτι
clause is indeed a noun clause, but is in apposition with the pronoun
τοῦτο. Cause is here expressed by the preposition διά in the adverbial
phrase διὰ τοῦτο; so Isoc. 6.60 and X.HG 3.5.10, cited by Goodwin
(1889, §377). However, in the following example, the ὅτι clause is
a genuine noun clause of fearing. And ὅτι should be translated as ‘that’,
not ‘because’.
ἐπεὶ καὶ τῷ πλήθει τῶν νεῶν οὐκ ὠφελήσονται, εἴ τις καὶ τόδε
ὑμῶν, ὅτι οὐκ ἴσαις ναυμαχήσει, πεφόβηται. (Th. 7.67.3.)
For indeed they will not be helped by the number of their ships, if any
one of you has become afraid of this, that he will fight at sea with an
unequal number.
In Primary sequence, the ὅτι clause with Fut. Indic. is in apposition with
the neut. pronoun τόδε as Object of πεφόβηται.
35.6.3. ὡς
ὡς may be used in the same way as ὅτι, and should also be translated
‘that’.
μηδὲν μέντοι τοῦτο φοβεῖσθε, ὡς ἢ τὸ δημόσιον οὕτω
κατασκευαζόμενον παραλυπήσει τοὺς ἰδιώτας ἢ οἱ ἰδιῶται τὸ
δημόσιον· (X.Vect. 4.32.)
However, do not at all fear this, that either the public company being set
up in this way will bother private citizens or private citizens <bother> the
company.
In Primary sequence the ὡς clause with Fut. Indic. is in apposition with
the neut. pronoun τοῦτο as Object of φοβεῖσθε. (παραλυπήσει is an
emendation for the impossible readings of the manuscripts, παραλυπηση
or παραλυπησειν.)
287
… κατέστησεν ἐπὶ γηλόφων τινῶν ἐναντίους αὐτοῖς καὶ ἱππέας

καὶ ὁπλίτας, φόβον βουλόμενος καὶ τούτοις παρέχειν, ὡς, εἰ
βοηθήσαιεν, ὄπισθεν οὗτοι ἐπικείσοιντο αὐτοῖς. (X.HG 7.5.24.)
… he set up on some hills both horsemen and infantrymen opposite them,
wishing to create fear in these also, that, if they came to help, these would
press upon them from behind.
In Past sequence, the ὡς clause with Intentive (‘Fut.’) Opt. represents
a Fut. Indic. of Primary sequence: βούλομαι φόβον παρέχειν, ὡς
ἐπικείσονται, ‘I wish to create fear, that they will press upon …’.
(For the introductory noun phrase, cf. §35.7 below.)
35.6.4. εἰ
In both Primary and Past sequence, a fear is sometimes expressed by an
εἰ clause with Present or Future Indicative. The construction is similar to
that of reported questions with εἰ (= ‘whether’). However, in the following
example the negative within the εἰ clause is μή, used as in Conditions,
not as in reported questions. (Cf. Lessons 18.1, 19.1 and 19.5.)
… εἷς ἕκαστος ὑμῶν … οἴκαδ’ ἄπεισιν οὐδὲν φροντίζων οὐδὲ
μεταστρεφόμενος οὐδὲ φοβούμενος, οὔτ’ εἰ φίλος οὔτ’ εἰ μὴ
φίλος αὑτῷ συντεύξεταί τις, οὐδέ γε εἰ μέγας ἢ μικρός, οὐδ’ εἰ
ἰσχυρὸς ἢ ἀσθενής, οὐδὲ τῶν τοιούτων οὐδέν. (D. 21.221.)
… each one of you … will go off home not worrying about anything nor
looking behind nor fearing, neither whether any friend nor whether any
one not a friend is going to encounter him, nor yet whether <he is> big or
little, nor whether strong or weak, nor any of such <issues>.
Primary sequence with εἰ μή and Fut. Indic. (A Pres. or Fut. verb ‘to be’
may be understood with the subsequent two occurrences of εἰ.)
288
35.7. Introductory Noun Phrases

Various noun phrases may be used instead of a verb to introduce a clause
of fearing. A selection of examples follows.
ὡς ἔστι μάλιστα τοῦτο δέος, μὴ πανοῦργος ὢν καὶ δεινὸς
ἄνθρωπος πράγμασι χρῆσθαι … τρέψηται καὶ παρασπάσηταί
τι τῶν ὅλων πραγμάτων. (D. 1.3.)
For there exists especially this fear, that being unscrupulous and a person
clever at exploiting circumstances … he may turn to his own advantage
and wrest aside something of the whole set of circumstances.
δέος (Nom.) with verb ἔστι and μή with Subj. in Primary sequence.
ἀτειχίστου γὰρ οὔσης τῆς Ἰωνίας μέγα τὸ δέος ἐγένετο,
μὴ παραπλέοντες οἱ Πελοποννήσιοι … πορθῶσιν ἅμα
προσπίπτοντες τὰς πόλεις. (Th. 3.33.2.)
For, since Ionia was unfortified, great <was> the fear <which> arose, that
the Peloponnesians … as they were sailing past might fall upon their cities
and ravage <them>.
τὸ δέος (Nom.) with verb ἐγένετο and μή with Subj. in Vivid
construction.
… φόβον δὲ οὐκ ἂν ἔχοις, ἀλλ’ ἄλλοις παρέχοις, μή τι πάθῃς …
(X.Hier. 11.11.)
… and you would not have fear, but you would create for others <fear>,
that you might suffer something …
Verbs ἔχοις and παρέχοις with φόβον (Acc.) and μή with Subj. in
Primary sequence.
… σοὶ δ’ οὐ δέος ἔστ’ ἀπολέσθαι· (Hom.Il. 12.246.)
… yet there is no fear that you should perish. [lit. ‘there is not fear for
you to perish’]
δέος (Nom.) with verb ἔστ(ι) and Infin.
289
… ἀλλ’ αἰεὶ διὰ φόβου εἰσί, μή ποτε Ἀθηναῖοι αὐτοῖς ἐπὶ τὴν
πόλιν ἔλθωσιν … (Th. 6.34.2.)
… but they are constantly in fear, that at some time the Athenians may
come against them <and attack> their city …
Prepositional phrase διὰ φόβου with verb εἰσί and μή with Subj.
in Primary sequence.
35.8. Note
English translations of fearing clauses in the Greek passages in the Lesson
observe the following conventions of Tense and Mood, especially where
English auxiliary verbs are required:
• ‘may’ is used in Primary sequence for the Greek Subj.
• ‘might’ is used in Past sequence for Imperf. or Aorist Opt. or for Vivid
Subj.
• ‘would’ is used in Past sequence for Intentive (‘Fut.’) Opt.
• Indic. is used for Greek Indic. and for Opt. in Past sequence when it
represents a Pres. or Past Indic. of Primary sequence.
It is recommended that these conventions be observed in the Exercise.
References
376–377.
290
EXERCISE 35A
1. καὶ δέδοικα μέντοι, μή ποτε πολλὰ πειρῶντες καὶ κατορθώσωσιν.
μέντοι moreover
κατορθοῦν to succeed
2. … δεδιώς, μὴ ἀντιχειροτονῶν κακόνους δόξειεν εἶναι τῇ πόλει,

ἡσυχίαν ἦγεν.
ἀντιχειροτονεῖν to vote in opposition
3. … ἔδεισαν, μὴ μονοθῶσι καὶ ἐς Λακεδαιμονίους πᾶσα ἡ

ξυμμαχία χωρήσῃ·
μονοῦν to isolate
χωρεῖν to go over
4. …ἐγὼ δ’ αὐτὸ τοὺτο φοβοῦμαι, μὴ διὰ τὴν ἀπειρίαν οὐ δυνηθῶ
δηλῶσαι περὶ τῶν πραγμάτων ὑμῖν·
δηλοῦν to explain
5. φοβοῦμαι … μή, ὥσπερ ἀνθρώποις ἀλαζόσι, λόγοις τισὶ

τοιούτοις ἐντετυχήκαμεν περὶ τοῦ φίλου.
ὥσπερ (just) as if
ἀλαζών, -όνος, ὁ, ἡ deceptive
λόγος, -ου, ὁ argument
ἐντυγχάνειν to meet up with (+ Dat., both
ἀνθρώποις and λόγοις)
τοῦ φίλου neut. Adj. for abstract noun
6. μηκέτ’ ἐκφοβοῦ,
μητρῷον ὥς σε λῆμ’ ἀτιμάσει ποτέ.
λῆμα, -ατος, τό spirit
291
7. τοὺς δὲ θεατὰς,

εἰ καινοτομεῖν ἐθελήσουσιν καὶ μὴ τοῖς ἠθάσι λίαν
τοῖς τ’ ἀρχαίοις ἐνδιατρίβειν, τοῦτ’ ἔσθ’ ὃ μάλιστα δέδοικα.
θεατής, -ου, ὁ spectator

καινοτομεῖν to try something new
ἠθάς, -άδος, τό usual <practice> [more often a masc.
or fem. adj.]
λίαν (adv.) too long
ἐνδιατρίβειν to continue in (+ Dat.)
8. δέος δ’ ἐγένετο τῇ πανηγύρει μέγα, μὴ ξὺν ὅπλοις ἔλθωσιν οἱ
Λακεδαιμόνιοι …
πανήγυρις, -εως, ἡ assembly
9. … they are afraid of him, but perhaps they would become willing
actually to bear witness for me.
10. For only so many of the twenty men at first appointed did not
become afraid to enter.
twenty εἴκοσι(ν) (indeclinable)

to appoint τάσσειν
EXERCISE 35B
1. … φοβοῦμαι δέ, μὴ λίαν ἐγγὺς ᾖ τοῦτ’ ἤδη.
2. … ἔδεισαν, μὴ ὁμολογήσωσι τῷ Πέρσῃ Ἀθηναῖοι, αὐτίκα τέ σφι
ἔδοξε πέμπειν ἀγγέλους.
σφι Dat. 3rd pers. pl. masc. pronoun
3. καὶ τοὺς ξυμμάχους ἅμα ἐδέδισαν σφῶν, μὴ διὰ τὰ σφάλματα
ἐπαιρόμενοι ἐπὶ πλέον ἀποστῶσι …
ἐδέδισαν 3rd pers. pl. Past Perf. Indic. Act.

δεδιέναι
292
4. … δείσαντες δέ, μὴ οὐ σφίσι πιστοὶ ὦσι, πέμπουσι ἐς

Λακεδαίμονα ἑλόμενοι πρεσβευτὴν Τεισαμενόν.
πέμπουσι Hist. Pres.

πρεσβευτής, -οῦ, ὁ ambassador
5. ξύμφημι δή σοι καὶ δέδοικα, μὴ ’κ θεοῦ

πληγή τις ἥκει.
πληγή, -ῆς, ἡ blow (lit. and metaphorical)
6. τὸ δὲ θατέρου σχῆμα διὰ τὴν ἐν τοῖς λόγοις κυλίνδησιν ἔχει
πολλὴν ὑποψίαν καὶ φόβον, ὡς ἀγνοεῖ ταῦτα …
θατέρου τοῦ ἑτέρου

σχῆμα, -ατος, τό character
κυλίνδησις, -εως, ἡ involvement
ὑποψία, -ας, ἡ suspicion
7. φόβος γάρ, εἴ μοι ζῶσιν, οὓς ἐγὼ θέλω.

8. So then, are we to fear this [man], whom fortune and the divine
demonstrate [to be] an unprofitable friend and an appropriate foe?
So then, ...; εἶτα ...;

divine δαιμόνιος, -α, -ον
to demonstrate ἐμφανίζειν
unprofitable λυσιτελής, -ές
appropriate συμφέρων, -ουσα, -ον (Partc. as
ordinary adj.)
9. … and I would be afraid to follow the guide whom he gave, in case

he led us [to a place] from where it will not be possible to go out.
guide ἡγεμών, -όνος, ὁ

gave, led Both terms refer to a future possibility.
in case μή + Subj.
293
LESSON 36
Nominative and Vocative Cases
36.1. Nominative as Subject

The primary function of the Nominative Case is to express the Subject
of a finite verb.
ἰδίᾳ γὰρ ταῦτα οἱ Κορίνθιοι ἔπραξαν. (Th. 1.66.)
For the Corinthians did this independently.
36.2. Nominative as Complement

The Nominative also expresses the Complement of verbs such as ‘to be’,
‘to become’, or ‘to seem (to be)’. The Complement refers back to
the Subject.
οὐκ ἦσθ’ ἄρ’ ὀρθῶς τοῦδε σώματος πατήρ; (E.Alc. 636.)
Were you, then, not genuinely father of this person?
The noun Complement refers back to the Subject contained within the
verb ἦσθα.
εἰ γὰρ δόξει δίκαιος εἶναι, ἔσονται αὐτῷ τιμαὶ καὶ δωρεαὶ
δοκοῦντι τοιούτῳ εἶναι· (Pl.R. 361 B–C.)
For if he is going to seem to be just, there will be honours and gifts for him as
seeming to be such.
The adjectival Complement refers back to the Subject contained within
the verb δόξει.
295
36.3. Predicate Nominative with Passive Verb

Some verbs in the Active Voice may take a double direct Object, where the
second Accusative term is a predicate of the first.
ποῦ χρὴ τίθεσθαι ταῦτα, ποῦ δ’ αἰνεῖν, ὅταν
τὰ θεῖ’ ἐπαινῶν τοὺς θεοὺς εὕρω κακούς; (S.Ph. 451–452.)
How should I regard this, and how approve, when
while I praise the <actions> of the gods I find the gods nasty?
κακούς (without article) refers back to τοὺς θεούς (with article).
If such Active constructions are transposed to the Passive Voice, the first
Accusative becomes the Subject and the predicate Accusative becomes
a predicate Nominative.
κεῖνος δ’ ἀπ’ οἴκων εὐθὺς ἐξορμώμενος
ἄνους καλῶς λέγοντος ηὑρέθη πατρός. (S.Aj. 762–763.)
But that <man>, as soon as he was setting out from home,
was found <to be> senseless, although his father spoke well.
The Active equivalent of this expression would be: ‘they found that <man>
<to be> senseless’. In the actual Passive expression, the first Accusative (‘that
<man>’) becomes the Subject; and the predicate Accusative (‘senseless’)
becomes a predicate Nominative (ἄνους).
36.4. Quoted Nominative

A term may be quoted in the Nominative, even if the syntax of its
clause requires another Case (usually Acc., in practice). Sometimes, the
quoted term appears without introduction, or preceded only by the
neuter singular definite article τό (regardless of the Number and Gender
of the quoted term itself ). Sometimes, a word such as ὄνομα (‘term’) or
σύνθημα (‘watchword’) introduces the quoted term.
ταῦτ’ εἰπὼν καὶ σύνθημα παρεγγυήσας Ζεὺς σωτὴρ καὶ ἡγεμὼν
ἐπορεύετο. (X.Cyr. 7.1.10.)
After saying this and passing along the watchword ‘Zeus saviour and
leader’, he moved on.
296
LESSON 36. NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES
36.5. Nominative Address

Nominative forms are sometimes used with a Vocative function.
(In poetry there may be metrical reasons for this usage.) In the following
sentence, στυγνός is unambiguously Nominative: the Vocative form is
στυγνέ. The form αἰών in itself may be either Nominative or Vocative;
but, following στυγνός, it is to be understood as Nominative. The Main
verbs of the sentence (ἔχεις, ἀφῆκας) address the ‘life’ (αἰών) in the
second person singular. The opening phrase ὦ στυγνὸς αἰών is, thus,
a Nominative address, not an exclamation.
ὦ στυγνὸς αἰών, τί με, τί δῆτ’ ἔχεις ἄνω
βλέποντα, κοὐκ ἀφῆκας εἰς Ἅιδου μολεῖν; (S.Ph. 1348–1349.)
O hateful life, why, why indeed do you keep me up here
seeing <the light of day>, and <why> did you not allow me to go to <the
house> of Hades?
36.6. Nominative Exclamation

In the following quotation, there is no Main verb. In the long opening
phrase, all nouns and adjectives, except one, are unambiguously
Nominative. The form νυμφεῖον, therefore, which could in itself be
either Nominative or Vocative, should be understood as Nominative.
The opening phrase is thus a Nominative exclamation.
ὦ τύμβος, ὦ νυμφεῖον, ὦ κατασκαφὴς
οἴκησις ἀείφρουρος, οἷ πορεύομαι
πρὸς τοὺς ἐμαυτῆς, ὧν ἀριθμὸν ἐν νεκροῖς
πλεῖστον δέδεκται Φερσέφασσ’ ὀλωλότων· (S.Ant. 891–894.)
O tomb, O bridal chamber, O deep-hollowed
dwelling ever-guarding, to where I am going
to my own <relatives>, the largest number of whom,
having perished, Persephone has received among the dead.
297
36.7. Vocative
The Vocative Case is used to address someone or something. It is isolated
from the syntax of the sentence in which it occurs. Hence, it has sometimes
been regarded as ‘not really a case’. However, the forms of the Vocative
are just as much a part of the inflexion of nouns and adjectives as the
other Cases. But again, the Vocative uses the shortest form of the stem
of nouns and adjectives. And, although some subtypes of the three main
declensions have separate forms for the Vocative, other subtypes use the
same form as the Nominative. For example, ἄνθρωπε (2nd declension
masc. sg. Voc.) is distinguished from ἄνθρωπος (Nom.); but τέκνον
(2nd declension neut. sg.) serves both as Nominative and as Vocative.
Vocative forms are frequently preceded by ὦ. (Conventionally, ὦ is used
with Vocatives, and ὤ with exclamations. But this convention is not
consistently observed in manuscripts and printed texts.) Especially where
there are not separate forms for Nominative and Vocative, a preceding ὦ
helps to indicate the function of a Vocative phrase.
Typically, a Vocative is placed after the opening phrase of a sentence in
order to catch the addressee’s attention. However, since the positions of
primary and secondary emphasis in a sentence are the beginning and the
end, a Vocative may occur first or even last. When a Vocative phrase is
placed first in a sentence, a connective particle may be delayed until after
the Vocative.
In addition to its basic function, a Vocative phrase may mark the beginning
of a new paragraph in speeches. For example, ὦ ἄνδρες is used after the
opening phrase at Andocides 1.1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, etc.
παῦσαι δέ, πρέσβυ, παῖδα σὸν κακορροθῶν. (E.Alc. 707.)
And stop, old man, abusing your son.
Simple Voc. after opening phrase.
ὦ τόνδε μὲν σώσασ’, ἀναστήσασα δὲ
ἡμᾶς πίτνοντας, χαῖρε, κἀν Ἅιδου δόμοις
εὖ σοι γένοιτο. (E.Alc. 625–627.)
O you who saved this <man>, and raised us up
when we were falling, farewell, and may it go well for you
in the house of Hades.
Elaborate Voc. with ὦ and Participial phrases at beginning of sentence.
298
γυνὴ μὲν οὖν ὄλωλεν Ἀδμήτου, ξένε. (E.Alc. 821.)

No, <it is> the wife of Admetus <who> has perished, friend.
Simple Voc. at end of sentence (in stichomythia).
ὦ παῖ, σὺ δ’ ἡμᾶς ἄπαγε πρὸς δόμους, ἵνα
τὸν θυμὸν οὗτος ἐς νεωτέρους ἀφῇ… (S.Ant. 1087–1088.)
But you, O <my> boy, lead us away to our home, so that
this man may vent his anger on younger people …
Connective particle δέ delayed until after opening Voc.
36.8. Hanging Vocative

Some Vocative phrases are left ‘hanging’ without a proper Main clause.
This may happen when an opening Vocative phrase is immediately
followed either by an explanatory clause with γάρ, or by an adjectival or
adverbial clause.
Ἀχελῴου θύγατερ,
πότνι’ εὐπάρθενε Δίρκα,
σὺ γὰρ ἐν σαῖς ποτε παγαῖς
τὸ Διὸς βρέφος ἔλαβες,
ὅτε μηρῷ πυρὸς ἐξ ἀθανάτου Ζεὺς
ὁ τεκὼν ἥρπασέ νιν, τάδ’ ἀναβοάσας·
ἴθι, Διθύραμβ’, ἐμὰν ἄρ-
σενα τάνδε βᾶθι νηδύν·
ἀναφαίνω σε τόδ’, ὦ Βάκ-
χιε, Θήβαις ὀνομάζειν.
σὺ δέ μ’, ὦ μάκαιρα Δίρκα,
στεφανηφόρους ἀπωθῇ
θιάσους ἔχουσαν ἐν σοί. (E.Ba. 519–532.)
Achelous’s daughter,
virgin queen Dirce, <I invoke you>;
for you once received in your waters
the infant-child of Zeus,
when Zeus who begot him snatched him
from the immortal fire <and put him> in his thigh, letting out this cry:
‘Come, Dithyrambos, enter this
299
male womb of mine;

I proclaim to Thebes, O Bacchius,
that I call you by this name’.
But you thrust me away from yourself,
O blessed Dirce, when I hold
my garlanded celebrations on you<r banks>.
In this passage, the Chorus of Bacchants address the river Dirce
and then immediately explain why they are invoking the addressee.
The construction drifts away from the Vocative by way of the explanatory
clause with γάρ, a Temporal clause with ὅτε and direct quotation of the
cry of Zeus. At this point, the Chorus state their complaint against Dirce
(‘But you thrust me away …’) and renew the Vocative in briefer form
(‘O blessed Dirce’).
ἰὼ δαῖμον,
μόνον ὅς με κασίγνητον συλᾷς
Ἀίδᾳ πέμψας, ᾧ τάσδε χοὰς
μέλλω κρατῆρά τε τὸν φθιμένων
ὑδραίνειν γαίας ἐν νώτοις
πηγάς τ’ οὐρείων ἐκ μόσχων
Βάκχου τ’ οἰνηρὰς λιβὰς
ξουθᾶν τε πόνημα μελισσᾶν,
ἃ νεκροῖς θελκτήρια κεῖται. (E.IT 157–166.)
Ah, deity,
who, by sending <him> to Hades, rob<bed> me
of my only brother, for whom I am going to sprinkle
on the surface of the earth this
bowl of liquid-offerings for the departed:
streams from the mountain heifers
and libations of the wine of Bacchus
and produce of the busy bees,
which are appointed as charms for the dead.
Hanging Vocative with adjectival clause.
300
Ἀσιάτιδος γῆς σχῆμα, Θηβαία πόλι,

ὅθεν ποθ’ ἕδνων σὺν πολυχρύσῳ χλιδῇ
Πριάμου τύραννον ἑστίαν ἀφικόμην
δάμαρ δοθεῖσα παιδοποιὸς Ἕκτορι,
ζηλωτὸς ἔν γε τῷ πρὶν Ἀνδρομάχη χρόνῳ,
νῦν δ’, εἴ τις ἄλλη, δυστυχεστάτη γυνή· (E.Andr. 1–6.)
Form of the Asian land, city of Thebe,
from where once with the glory of my dowry rich-in-gold
I came to the royal hearth of Priam
given as wife to produce children for Hector,
Andromache, to be envied at least in that early time,
but now, if anyone else <is>, a most unfortunate woman.
Hanging Vocative with adverbial clause.
References
Denniston (1954), The Greek particles, pp. lx, 189 (on postponement of connective
particles in sentences beginning with a Vocative, exclamation or oath); 60
(γάρ clauses explaining what has just been said, including hanging Vocatives).
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§907, 917–918, 927, 938–945, 973–974

(Nominative); 949–972 (variations of agreement in Number between Subject
and Predicate); 1283–1288 (Vocative).
EXERCISE 36
2. Indicate for each term or phrase printed in bold type:
• whether it is Nominative or Vocative in function
• whether, if Nominative (except Nom. Address), it is Subject,
Complement, predicative Nominative or quoted Nominative,
and with which verb (citing the form in the text) it is constructed
• whether, if Vocative, it is a particular usage (hanging Voc., initial
Voc. with delayed connective particle, etc.)
• whether there are contextual grounds for deciding the function
of any examples which are ambiguous in form.
301
Example
ἀφικόμενος προπέρυσιν εἰς τὴν πόλιν, οὔπω δύο μῆνας
ἐπιδεδημηκὼς κατελέγην στρατιώτης. (Lys. 9.4.)
Having arrived the year before last in the city, when I had not yet been in
residence for two months I was enlisted <as> a soldier.
Predicate Nominative with Passive verb κατελέγην.
1. ὁ δὲ πρεσβύτης ἀκούσας ἔδεισέ τε καὶ ἀπῄει σιγῇ…
πρεσβύτης, -ου, ὁ old man

δεῖσαι (Aor.) to become afraid
2. ἐδόκει γὰρ αὐτοῖς … πολὺς ὁ παράλογος εἶναι …
παράλογος, -ου, ὁ uncertain element (adj. as noun)
3. αὐτὸς δὲ δοκῶν εὐνούστατος εἶναι … στρατηγὸς ὑπ’ αὐτῶν

ᾑρέθη.
4. ἕως δ’ ἔτι ἔξω βελῶν ἦσαν, παρηγγύα ὁ Κῦρος σύνθημα Ζεὺς
σύμμαχος καὶ ἡγεμών.
ἔξω outside <the range of>
5. ψυχὴ γὰρ ηὔδα πολλά μοι μυθουμένη·

τάλας, τί χωρεῖς οἷ μολὼν δώσεις δίκην;
αὐδᾶν to speak out (here Intr.)

μυθεῖσθαι (Mid.) to converse (+ internal Acc. and Dat.)
6. φέρε δή, ὦ ἄνδρες, μετὰ ταῦτα τί ἐγένετο;
φέρε δή well now (+ rhetorical question)
7. ὦ γῆς μέγιστα τῆσδ’ ἀεὶ τιμώμενοι,

οἷ’ ἔργ’ ἀκούσεσθ’, οἷα δ’ εἰσόψεσθ’, ὅσον
δ’ ἀρεῖσθε πένθος …
αἴρεσθαι (Mid.) to take upon oneself
302
8. ἥκω κακοῖσι σοῖσι συγκάμνων, τέκνον·

9. ἰήϊε Φοῖβε, σοὶ δὲ
ταῦτ’ ἀρέστ’ εἴη.
ἰήϊος, (-α,) -ον healing

ἀρεστός, -ά, -όν pleasing (accent affected by elision)
10. ὦ παγκάκιστε, τοῦτο γάρ σ’ εἰπεῖν ἔχω

γλώσσῃ μέγιστον εἰς ἀνανδρίαν κακόν·
303
LESSON 37
Accusative Case
37.1. Accusative as Direct Object
37.1.1. Simple Direct Object

The most basic function of the Accusative Case is to express the direct
Object of a verb.
καί μοι ἐπίλαβε τὸ ὕδωρ. (Lys. 23.4.)
And please stop the water(-clock).
37.1.2. Predicate Accusative

A second Accusative term may be added to the simple direct Object after
factitive verbs such as ‘to make’, ‘to appoint’, ‘to think’, ‘to call’ (somebody
something). (Cf. Lesson 36.3.)
… οἱ βουλεύοντες γεραίτεροι αἱροῦνται αὐτὸν ἄρχοντα τῆς εἰς
Μήδους στρατιᾶς. (X.Cyr. 1.5.5.)
… the elders sitting in council chose [Hist. Pres.] him commander of the
expedition to the Medes.
37.1.3. Double Object

Some verbs may have a double Object, where the second Accusative is not
predicative. Frequently, the first Object is a person, the second a thing,
for example, ‘to teach’ somebody something, ‘to ask’ somebody something
and (in Greek) ‘to deprive’ somebody (of ) something or ‘to conceal’
something (from) somebody.
305
πᾶσι γὰρ ἀνθρώποισιν ἐπιχθονίοισιν ἀοιδοὶ

τιμῆς ἔμμοροί εἰσι καὶ αἰδοῦς, οὕνεκ’ ἄρα σφέας
οἴμας μοῦσ’ ἐδίδαξε, φίλησε δὲ φῦλον ἀοιδῶν.
(Hom.Od. 8.479–481.)
For among all people on the earth singers
are participants in honour and respect, just because the muse
taught them the ways <of singing>, and loved the race of singers.
The second Object is an ordinary noun.
Τηλέμαχ’, ἦ μάλα δή σε διδάσκουσιν θεοὶ αὐτοὶ
ὑψαγόρην τ’ ἔμεναι καὶ θαρσαλέως ἀγορεύειν.
(Hom.Od. 1.384–385.)
Telemachus, assuredly the gods themselves are teaching you
to be a boaster and to speak boldly.
The second Object is a pair of Infinitive phrases (i.e. verbal noun phrases).
37.1.4. Retained Accusative

When a verb, which may take a double Object of person and thing, is
used in the Passive Voice, the person becomes the Subject and the thing
is ‘retained’ in the Accusative.
ἐν γὰρ τῇ πόλει τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ αὐτῶν … σεσυλήμεθα τὰ ἡμέτερ’
αὐτῶν ὑπὸ Φασηλιτῶν … (D. 35.26.)
For in our own city … we have been robbed of our own <possessions> by the
people of Phaselis …
Active equivalent: ‘The people of Phaselis have robbed us of our own
<possessions>’ (double Acc.).
An equivalent Passive construction may be used with verbs, which in the
Active take a direct Object of the thing in the Accusative and an indirect
Object of the person in the Dative. For example, ἐπιστέλλειν in the
Active Voice may mean ‘to give instructions (Acc.) to someone (Dat.)’.
306
LESSON 37. ACCUSATIVE CASE
καὶ οἱ μὲν Βοιωτοὶ καὶ Κορίνθιοι ταῦτα ἐπεσταλμένοι … ἑκάτεροι

ἀνεχώρουν. (Th. 5.37.1.)
And the Boeotians and the Corinthians, having been given these instructions
… both withdrew.
Active equivalent: ‘having given these instructions to the Boeotians and
Corinthians’ (Acc. and Dat.).
37.1.5. Accusative with a Phrase Equivalent to a Verb

An Accusative term sometimes provides a virtual direct Object for
a phrase, in which a verb with Object is equivalent to a simple verb.
ὑμεῖς δ’ ἐπευφημήσατ’, ὦ νεανίδες,
παιᾶνα τἠμῇ συμφορᾷ Διὸς κόρην
Ἄρτεμιν· (E.IA 1467–1469.)
But you, O young women, sing
praise <to> the daughter of Zeus, Artemis, for my
situation.
The phrase ἐπευφημήσατ(ε) … παιᾶνα is equivalent to παιωνίσατε
(‘praise’) with direct Object κόρην Ἄρτεμιν. Some scholars prefer
to explain this construction in terms of a noun directly dependent on
another noun (of action), without reference to a verb.
37.1.6. Accusative of Whole and Part

Sometimes a direct Object is more narrowly defined by a second Accusative
in apposition with it. The usage is mainly poetic.
μέθες με, πρὸς θεῶν, χεῖρα, φίλτατον τέκνον. (S.Ph. 1301.)
Let me go, by the gods, <let go my> hand, dearest boy.
37.1.7. Cognate Accusative

So far in this Lesson, all examples in §§37.1.1–3 and 37.5–6 have contained
‘external’ or ‘affected’ Objects. The action of the verb is exercised upon an
already existing person or thing. An ‘internal’ or ‘effected’ Object denotes
the content or result of the action of the verb: the grammatical Object
307
does not exist until the action of the verb takes place. Usually such an
internal or effected Object is a noun either etymologically or conceptually
related to (or ‘cognate’ with) the verb whose Object it is. Otherwise, the
cognate Accusative may be a demonstrative or relative adjective used as
a pronoun.
πλεῖς δ’ ὡς πρὸς οἶκον, ἐκλιπὼν τὸ ναυτικὸν
στράτευμ’ Ἀχαιῶν, ἔχθος ἐχθήρας μέγα … (S.Ph. 58–59.)
And you are sailing as for home, leaving the naval
expedition of the Achaeans, having developed a great hatred …
The Accusative ἔχθος is etymologically cognate with ἐχθήρας.
… ἀλλ’ αὐτός, ὦ παῖ, τοῦτο κήδευσον λέχος. (S.Tr. 1227.)
… but you yourself, my boy, undertake this marriage.
The Accusative λέχος is conceptually cognate with κήδευσον.
Λάμαχος μὲν ταῦτα εἰπὼν ὅμως προσέθετο καὶ αὐτὸς τῇ
Ἀλκιβιάδου γνώμῃ. (Th. 6.50.1.)
Although having made these statements, Lamachus himself nevertheless sided
with the opinion of Alcibiades.
The internal Accusative of the demonstrative adjective ταῦτα refers to the
content of the verb. (In the second example in §37.1.4 above, ταῦτα is
a retained internal Acc.)
Verbs sometimes have both an internal and an external Object. Verbs
meaning ‘to divide, to distribute’ belong to this group.
τρεῖς μοίρας ὁ Ξέρξης δασάμενος πάντα τὸν πεζὸν στρατόν,
μίαν αὐτέων ἔταξε παρὰ θάλασσαν ἰέναι ὁμοῦ τῷ ναυτικῷ·
(Hdt. 7.121.2.)
Dividing all the infantry force <into> three parts, Xerxes appointed one
of them to go along the sea<-coast> parallel with the fleet.
The ‘infantry force’ existed before the division was made (external
Object), but the ‘three parts’ did not exist until the division was made
(internal Object).
308
37.1.8. Oaths
Verbs of swearing take various Objective constructions:
1. to swear to do something (mostly Intentive/‘Fut.’ Infin.), or that one
is doing something (Imperf. Infin.), or did something (Aor. Infin.),
or would have done something (Aor. Infin. with ἄν) or that one has
done something (Perf. Infin.). See Lesson 16.3.
2. (a) to swear an oath (internal Acc.).
τὰς δὲ βασιληίας ἱστίας νόμος Σκύθῃσι τὰ μάλιστα ἐστὶ τότε
ἐπεὰν τὸν μέγιστον ὅρκον ἐθέλωσι ὀμνύναι. (Hdt. 4.68.2.)
And it is the custom for the Scythians generally to swear by the king’s
hearth(s) then, when(ever) they want to swear the most serious oath.
(b) to swear to something, to confirm by oath (external Acc.).
εἰρήνην μὲν γὰρ ὠμωμόκει· (D. 9.16.)
For he had sworn to peace.
(c) to swear by someone or something (external Acc.).
καὶ λέγουσι οὗτοι ὡς τὸ ἐπίπαν μάλιστα τάδε, ὡς τὰς
βασιληίας ἱστίας ἐπιώρκηκε ὃς καὶ ὅς, λέγοντες τῶν
ἀστῶν τὸν ἂν δὴ λέγωσι. (Hdt. 4.68.1.)
And these [Scythians] for the most part generally say this, that so and so
(stating whoever they actually state of the townsmen) has sworn falsely
by the king’s hearth(s).
3. An oath formula may also be used parenthetically in the Accusative.
Various positive, negative or neutral particles may precede the oath.
μὰ τοὺς παρ’ Ἅιδῃ νερτέρους ἀλάστορας,
οὔτοι ποτ’ ἔσται τοῦθ’, ὅπως ἐχθροῖς ἐγὼ
παῖδας παρήσω τοὺς ἐμοὺς καθυβρίσαι. (E.Med. 1059–1061.)
By the avengers below with Hades,
this will certainly not ever be, that I should give up
my own children for my enemies to maltreat.
309
37.2. Adverbial Uses of the Accusative

Several uses of the Accusative are more appropriately regarded as adverbial,
expressing relationships of space, time, manner, degree and respect.
37.2.1. Accusative of Goal (or ‘motion towards’)

ἥκω Διὸς παῖς τήνδε Θηβαίων χθόνα … (E.Ba. 1.)
I have come the son of Zeus to this land of the Thebans …
This usage is poetic.
37.2.2. Accusative of Extent of Space

Μενέλαε, μαστεύων σε κιγχάνω μόλις,
πᾶσαν πλανηθεὶς τήνδε βάρβαρον χθόνα … (E.Hel. 597–598.)
Menelaus, in my search I scarcely <manage to> reach you,
after wandering all over this foreign land …
General area.
ἀπέχει δὲ ἡ Πλάταια τῶν Θηβῶν σταδίους ἑβδομήκοντα …
(Th. 2.5.2.)
And Plataea is distant seventy stades from Thebes …
Specific distance. (70 stades = c. 13 km.)
37.2.3. Accusative of Extent of Time

… τὸν μὲν πρῶτον ἐνιαυτὸν ἐν Πειραιεῖ διῃτῶντο· (Lys. 32.8.)
… they lived for the first year in the Piraeus.
37.2.4. Accusative of Manner

… καὶ ἀντικαταστάντες ταῖς ναυσὶ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον αὖθις
ἐπὶ πολὺ διῆγον τῆς ἡμέρας πειρώμενοι ἀλλήλων … (Th. 7.39.2.)
… and taking their stand in opposition with their ships, in the same way
they again continued for a large part of the day making attempts on each
other …
310
37.2.5. Accusative of Degree

Degree is often expressed by the neuter Accusative singular or plural of
adjectives of size and number, indefinite adjectives or negative adjectives.
πολὺ δὲ ἐν πλέονι αἰτίᾳ ἡμεῖς μὴ πείσαντες ὑμᾶς ἕξομεν·
(Th. 1.35.4.)
But we shall hold you much more at fault if we do not persuade you.
πολύ (adverbial Acc. of Degree) modifies the Comparative adjective
πλέονι.
37.2.6. Accusative of Respect

With verbs used intransitively or in the Passive Voice or with adjectives,
the Accusative may denote the respect in which the verb or adjective is
defined. The usage ranges from the completely general (‘in all respects’),
through spheres of activity or attributes, to the body or especially a part
of the body.
ἦ πολλὰ πολλοῖς εἰμι διάφορος βροτῶν. (E.Med. 579.)
Certainly in many respects I am in disagreement with many among mortals.
General; with adjective.
οὐ γὰρ δέσποιν’ ἐμὴ
Μήδεια πύργους γῆς ἔπλευσ’ Ἰωλκίας
ἔρωτι θυμὸν ἐκπλαγεῖσ’ Ἰάσονος· (E.Med. 6–8.)
For my mistress Medea
would not have sailed to the ramparts of the land of Iolcus,
struck in her heart with love for Jason.
Particular; with Pass. Partc.
… ὁ Ἱστιαῖος … τιτρώσκεται τὸν μηρὸν ὑπό τευ τῶν Μιλησίων.
(Hdt. 6.5.2.)
… Histiaeus … was wounded in the thigh by one of the Milesians.
Here the Accusative of Respect denotes the part of the body of Histiaeus
which ‘was wounded’ (Pass.; Hist. Pres.). Although this usage has been
classified as adverbial, it is essentially the Passive form of the Accusative of
311
whole and part (classified as direct Object at §37.1.6 above). The Active
form of the present sentence would be: ‘One of the Milesians wounded
Histiaeus [Acc. of whole] <in> the thigh [Acc. of part]’: τῶν Μιλησίων
τις τὸν Ἱστιαῖον τιτρώσκει τὸν μηρόν.
37.3. Accusative in Apposition to a Sentence

Sometimes, an Accusative appears to be independent of its sentence and
to refer to a phrase, clause or even all the rest of the sentence. For some
instances, the rationale of an ‘internal Accusative’ is plausible. In other
instances, the Accusative may be regarded as being in apposition with
another Accusative (or Object Infin.). But sometimes these explanations
seem strained, except as background to a stereotyped construction.
καὶ τῶνδ’ ἔλεγχον τοῦτο μὲν Πυθώδ’ ἰὼν
πεύθου τὰ χρησθέντ᾿ εἰ σαφῶς ἤγγειλά σοι. (S.OT 603–604.)
And as proof of this, first go to Pytho
and inquire, whether I clearly reported the oracle to you.
Creon is addressing Oedipus. ‘This’ is Creon’s claim that he has no designs
on the kingship of Thebes. ‘First’ translates τοῦτο μέν (an adverbial
Acc.). The first item of ‘proof ’ is finding out whether Creon clearly
reported the oracle to Oedipus. Thus, the whole content of the sentence
after the ‘Accusative in apposition’ constitutes the ‘proof ’. ἔλεγχον is not
in apposition with any other Accusative in the sentence, and it hardly
provides an ‘internal Accusative’ for any verbal element in the sentence.
References
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§985, 991, 1551–1635, 2894 (μά); 2922 (ναί);
2923 (νή).
EXERCISE 37
Translate the following passages. Comment briefly on the function of
the Accusative phrases in bold type in each passage, for example, direct
Object of what verb (citing the form in the text), Accusative in apposition
with (the rest of ) the sentence.
312
Example
διδάσκουσι δὲ τοὺς παῖδας καὶ σωφροσύνην·(X.Cyr. 1.2.8.)
And they teach their children moderation also.
Double direct Object of διδάσκουσι, person and thing.
1. τί δῆτα χρῄζεις; ἦ δόμους στείχειν ἐμούς;
2. θανάτῳ γὰρ ἴσον πάθος ἐκπεύσῃ.
3. … τοὺς Ἀσσυρίους ὑποχειρίους ἐποιήσαντο πλὴν τῆς
Βαβυλωνίης μοίρης.
μοῖρα, -ας (Ionic -ης), ἡ province
4. … λέξον ἡμῖν πόθεν ἤρξατό σε διδάσκειν τὴν στρατηγίαν.
πόθεν how
5. … τελευτὴν τοῦ βίου μέλλει τελεῖν …
μέλλει The Subject is masc.
6. … ᾖσαν τὴν πρὸς τὸ ὄρος φέρουσαν ὁδὸν ἐς Ἐρυθράς …

7. σπονδὰς τέμωμεν καὶ διαλλάχθητί μοι.
σπονδή, -ῆς, ἡ (pl.) agreement, treaty

τέμνειν to make peace
διαλλάσσειν (usu. mid.) to speak
8. οἱ δὲ Συρακόσιοι καὶ οἱ ξύμμαχοι προσέκειντο τὸν αὐτὸν

τρόπον …
προσκεῖσθαι to press hard (upon) (+ Dat., when

expressed)
9. … ὡς αὐτίκα μάλα τὰς γνάθους ἀλγήσετε.
ὡς how …! (exclamatory with ἀλγήσετε)

γνάθος, -ου, ἡ jaw
313
10. Ἕκτορα δ’ αἰνὸν ἄχος πύκασε φρένας ἡνιόχοιο.
πυκάζειν to cover
ἡνίοχος, -ου (-οιο), ὁ charioteer
11. … κούφοις πνεύμασιν βόσκου, νέαν

ψυχὴν ἀτάλλων, μητρὶ τῇδε χαρμονήν.
βόσκειν to feed (here Pass.)

ἀτάλλειν to nurture, to rear
χαρμονή, -ῆς, ἡ joy
12. ὅσοι τε ἵππους ἀπεστέρηνται, ταχὺ πάλιν ἄλλους ἵππους

κτήσονται·
τε Joins this sentence to the preceding
13. νῦν δ’ εἶμι Φθίηνδ’, ἐπεὶ ἦ πολὺ φέρτερόν ἐστιν

οἴκαδ’ ἴμεν σὺν νηυσί …
Φθίην-δ(ε) to Phthia
φέρτερος, -α, -ον better
ἴμεν = ἰέναι
νηυσί (Epic/Ionic) ναυσί (Attic)
314
LESSON 38
Genitive Case 1
38.1. Introduction
This Lesson deals with Genitive phrases which qualify a noun or pronoun;
hence, they are sometimes called ‘adnominal’ Genitives. The function
of such phrases is similar to that of an adjective; hence, they are also
sometimes called ‘adjectival’ Genitives. All types of usage in this Lesson
are basically Possessive.
38.2. Simple Possessive Genitive

The qualified noun belongs to the person or thing denoted by the
Genitive phrase.
ἤδη δὲ τόνδε Θάνατον εἰσορῶ πέλας,
ἱερῆ θανόντων, ὅς νιν εἰς Ἅιδου δόμους
μέλλει κατάξειν. (E.Alc. 24–26.)
And now I see Death here nearby,
priest of the dead, who is going to lead her down
to the house of Hades.
The ‘house’ belongs to ‘Hades’.
38.3. Subjective Genitive

Many Genitive phrases of a generally ‘possessive’ type may be subdivided
as either ‘Subjective’ or ‘Objective’. The Subjective Genitive corresponds
to the Subject of a verb equivalent in meaning to the qualified noun.
οὐκ ἤρεσκέ σοι μόρον Ἀδμήτου
διακωλῦσαι, …; (E.Alc. 32–33.)
315
Was it not sufficient for you to prevent

the fate of Admetus …?
‘Admetus’ (Subject) was due to suffer his ‘fate’.
38.4. Objective Genitive

The Objective Genitive corresponds to the Object of a verb equivalent in
meaning to the qualified noun.
… μετὰ δὲ τὴν τῶν τυράννων κατάλυσιν ἐκ τῆς Ἑλλάδος οὐ
πολλοῖς ἔτεσιν ὕστερον καὶ ἡ ἐν Μαραθῶνι μάχη Μήδων πρὸς
Ἀθηναίους ἐγένετο. (Th. 1.18.1.)
… and after the removal of the tyrants from Greece, not many years later
the battle at Marathon of the Persians against the Athenians also took place.
The Spartans ‘removed’ ‘the tyrants’ (Object) from Greece.
38.5. Partitive Genitive

The Partitive Genitive denotes the whole class of which the qualified noun
forms a part.
ἦσαν δὲ καὶ τοῖς Κορινθίοις ἐν τῇ ἠπείρῳ πολλοὶ τῶν βαρβάρων
παραβεβοηθηκότες· (Th. 1.47.3.)
And many of the foreigners, having come to help, were also <available> on
the mainland for the Corinthians.
The ‘many’ constitute a part of the total number of ‘the foreigners’.
38.6. Genitive of Definition (or Apposition)

The Genitive of Definition is a more specific term which defines a more
general word. Since both terms refer to the same reality, this usage is also
called the Genitive of Apposition.
σπεύσεις θανάτου τελευτάν;
μηδὲν τόδε λίσσου. (E.Med. 153–154.)
316
LESSON 38. GENITIVE CASE 1
Will you hasten the end that is death?

Make no prayer for this.
The ‘end’ is more closely defined as ‘death’.
38.7. Genitive of Description (or Quality)

The Genitive of Description or Quality expresses the character or purpose
of the qualified noun.
ὦ πατρίς, ὦ δώματα, μὴ
δῆτ’ ἄπολις γενοίμαν
τὸν ἀμηχανίας ἔχουσα δυσπέρατον αἰῶν(α)… (E.Med. 645–648.)
O fatherland, O home, may I certainly
not become city-less,
having that life of helplessness, hard to cross over …
‘Helplessness’ indicates the character of ‘that life’.
38.8. Genitive of Material

The Genitive of Material (as also of Measure, and of Price or Value) may
be considered a subtype of the Genitive of Description. The Genitive of
Material indicates what the qualified noun is made of, or consists of.
… πρῶτοι δὲ ἀνθρώπων τῶν ἡμεῖς ἴδμεν νόμισμα χρυσοῦ καὶ
ἀργύρου κοψάμενοι ἐχρήσαντο, … (Hdt. 1.94.1.)
… and they first among men whom we know stamped coinage of gold and
of silver and used it …
The material of the ‘coinage’ is ‘gold’ and ‘silver’. (Ionic τῶν = Attic ὧν,
attracted to Case of antecedent. Ionic ἴδμεν = Attic ἴσμεν.)
317
38.9. Genitive of Measure

The Genitive of Measure describes the qualified noun by indicating its
size or duration.
… κίνδυνόν τε τοσόνδε ἀνερρίψαμεν διὰ τῆς ἀλλοτρίας πολλῶν
ἡμερῶν ὁδὸν ἰόντες καὶ πᾶν τὸ πρόθυμον παρεχόμενοι·
(Th. 4.85.4.)
… we ran so great a risk by travelling on a journey of many days through
enemy territory and while showing all eagerness.
The ‘many days’ indicate how much time the ‘journey’ takes.
38.10. Genitive of Price or Value

The Genitive of Price or Value describes the cost or worth of the
qualified noun.
καίτοι ὁ μὲν ἐμὸς πατὴρ πέντε καὶ τετταράκοντα μνῶν μόνων
ἑκατέρῳ, ἐμοὶ καὶ τῷ ἀδελφῷ, τὴν οὐσίαν κατέλιπεν … (D. 42.22.)
And yet my father bequeathed to each, my brother and me, the estate
of forty‑five minae only …
The ‘estate’ was worth ‘forty-five minae’.
References
EXERCISE 38
Translate the following passages. Briefly indicate the particular function
of the Genitive phrases in bold type. For example, Partitive Genitive,
Genitive of Material, etc. In passages 2 and 3, the Genitive phrases are
either Subjective or Objective; briefly indicate the reason for your choice
between these two possibilities.
318
1. ἀνέστησαν δὲ καὶ ἐκ τῆς νῦν Ἐορδίας καλουμένης Ἐορδούς,

ὧν οἱ μὲν πολλοὶ ἐφθάρησαν, βραχὺ δέ τι αὐτῶν περὶ Φύσκαν
κατῴκηται …
ἀνιστάναι to remove (people from a place)

βραχὺ … τι (Nom. adj.) Understand a noun such as group.
2. … καὶ προῖκα ἐπιδίδωμι Ἀρχίππῃ τάλαντον μὲν τὸ ἐκ Πεπαρήθου,

τάλαντον δὲ τὸ αὐτόθεν, συνοικίαν ἑκατὸν μνῶν …
προίξ, προικός, ἡ dowry

Πεπάρηθος, -ου, ἡ (an Aegean island)
αὐτόθεν (adv.) from here (referring to Athens)
συνοικία, -ας, ἡ tenement house
3. βρόχον κρεμαστὸν ἀγχόνης ἀνήψατο.
ἀνήψατο The implied Subject is fem.
4. ἔκλῃον οὖν τόν τε λιμένα εὐθὺς τὸν μέγαν, ἔχοντα τὸ στόμα

ὀκτὼ σταδίων μάλιστα, τριήρεσι πλαγίαις καὶ πλοίοις καὶ
ἀκάτοις …
κλῄειν to shut up, to block (here 3rd pers. pl.)

τε Anticipates a καί (not quoted);
need not be translated.
λιμήν, -ένος, ὁ harbour
μάλιστα approximately
πλάγιος, (-α,) -ον placed sideways, broadside on
ἄκατος, -ου, ἡ (ὁ) light vessel
5. … πάρεισιν ἀνδρὸς τοῦδε παῖς τε καὶ γυνή …

6. τοιάδ’ ἐπ’ αὐτοῖς ἦλθε συμφορὰ πάθους, …
7. … πέμπει ἐπὶ τὴν νέα τὴν Ἀδειμάντου τάλαντα ἀργυρίου τρία.
πέμπει Hist. Pres.

ἀργύριον, -ου, τό silver
319
8. … οὐκ οἶδα τοιοῦδ’ ἀνδρὸς ἔργα …

9. … ἡ Δεκέλεια … πολλὰ ἔβλαπτε τοὺς Ἀθηναίους, καὶ ἐν τοῖς
πρῶτον χρημάτων τ’ ὀλέθρῳ καὶ ἀνθρώπων φθορᾷ ἐκάκωσε
τὰ πράγματα.
Δεκέλεια, -ας, ἡ Decelea (place)

πολλά internal Acc.
ἐν τοῖς πρῶτον in the first place
φθορά, -ᾶς, ἡ annihilation
320
LESSON 39
Genitive Case 2
39.1. Introduction
This Lesson deals with Genitive constructions which are used with verbs,
adjectives and adverbs. The function of such phrases is similar to that of
an adverb; hence, they are sometimes called ‘adverbial’ Genitives. Some of
the basically Possessive functions (including Partitive), which were treated
in Lesson 38, may also be used predicatively with verbs. In addition, the
Genitive of Separation (or Ablatival Gen.) includes a number of other
particular functions.
39.2. Possessive Genitive
39.2.1. Complement and Equivalent

of Predicate Nominative
The simple Possessive Genitive may be used predicatively as Complement
of verbs meaning ‘to be’, ‘to become’, ‘to seem’; and, as the equivalent of
a predicate Nominative, with the Passive of verbs (whose Act. may take a
predicate Acc.), such as ‘to be called’, ‘to be considered’. (Cf. Lesson 36.2
and Lesson 36.3.)
… καὶ ἐγένετο Μεσσήνη Λοκρῶν τινα χρόνον. (Th. 5.5.1.)
… and Messene became <the possession> of the Locrians for some time.
Complement of ἐγένετο.
τίς δ’ ἔσθ’ ὁ χῶρος; τοῦ θεῶν νομίζεται; (S.OC 38.)
And which is the place? To which of the gods is it regarded <as belonging>?
Equivalent of predicative Nominative, with the Passive verb νομίζεται.
321
39.2.2. Complement to an Infinitive Subject

The simple Possessive Genitive may be used predicatively as Complement
of the verb ‘to be’, where the Subject is an Infinitive phrase. This idiom
expresses the idea: ‘It is the nature/responsibility/habit etc. of someone to
do something’. (Grammatically: ‘To do something is <the nature etc.>
of someone’.)
καίτοι τό γ’ αἴνιγμ’ οὐχὶ τοὐπιόντος ἦν
ἀνδρὸς διειπεῖν, ἀλλὰ μαντείας ἔδει· (S.OT 393–394.)
And yet it was not <the responsibility> of any man who came along
to expound the riddle, but there was need of prophecy.
39.2.3. Equivalent of Predicative Accusative

The simple Possessive Genitive may be used with the Active of verbs
meaning ‘to think’, ‘to make’, ‘to appoint’, etc. as the equivalent of
a predicative Accusative. (Cf. Lesson 37.1.2.)
ὃ δέ μιν προσιδὼν ἀντείρετο εἰ ἑωυτοῦ ποιέεται τὸ Κύρου ἔργον.
(Hdt. 1.129.2.)
And he, looking at him, asked in turn whether he regarded the action of Cyrus
as his own.
39.2.4. Genitive of Material

The Genitive of Material may modify a verb and indicate what something
is made of. The Genitive may be a Complement of the verb ‘to be’ or
the equivalent of a predicative Accusative with verbs such as ‘to make’.
(Cf. Lessons 36.2 and 37.1.2.)
… συγκειμένου σφι πωρίνου λίθου ποιέειν τὸν νηόν, Παρίου τὰ
ἔμπροσθε αὐτοῦ ἐξεποίησαν. (Hdt. 5.62.3.)
… although it had been agreed for them to make the temple of limestone,
they made the front of it of Parian <marble>.
(The adj. πωρίνου may alternatively refer to tufa.)
322
39.2.5. Genitive of Measure

The Genitive of Measure may be used as Complement of the verb ‘to be’.
(Cf. Lesson 36.2.)
ξυνέβησάν τε πρῶτα μὲν τὰ μακρὰ τείχη ἑλεῖν Ἀθηναίους (ἦν δὲ
σταδίων μάλιστα ὀκτὼ ἀπὸ τῆς πόλεως ἐπὶ τὴν Νίσαιαν τὸν
λιμένα αὐτῶν), … (Th. 4.66.3.)
And they agreed that first the Athenians should take the long walls (and they
were of approximately eight stades <in length> from the city to Nisaea
their harbour), …
39.2.6. Genitive of Price or Value

The Genitive of Price or Value may be used adverbially with appropriate
verbs (such as ‘to buy’, ‘to value’) and with adjectives (such as ἄξιος,
‘worth’, ‘worthy of ’).
κατεγγυῶντος γὰρ Μενεξένου πρὸς τὸν πολέμαρχον τὸν παῖδα,
Πασίων αὐτὸν ἑπτὰ ταλάντων διηγγυήσατο. (Isoc. 17.14.)
For when Menexenus required Pasion to give security before the polemarch
for the slave, he provided security for him <to the amount> of seven talents.
39.3. Partitive Genitive

As noted in Lesson 38 and in §39.1 above, the Partitive Genitive is
properly a subcategory of the Possessive Genitive. The part ‘belongs to’
the whole.
39.3.1. Complement of the Verb ‘to be’

The simple Partitive Genitive may form the Complement of verbs such
as ‘to be’ or ‘to become’.
καὶ ἐς οἴκημα οὐ μέγα ὃ ἦν τοῦ ἱεροῦ ἐσελθών, ἵνα μὴ ὑπαίθριος
ταλαιπωροίη, ἡσύχαζεν. (Th. 1.134.1.)
And entering a small room which was <part> of the temple, so that he might
not suffer from exposure, he kept quiet.
323
39.3.2. With Verbs Meaning ‘to have or give a share of ’

The simple Partitive Genitive may function as the Object of verbs meaning
‘to have or give a share of ’. This construction is analogous to the basic use
of the Partitive Genitive with nouns. In the adnominal phrase ‘one of the
citizens’, ‘one’ is the part and ‘of the citizens’ denotes the whole group
(Gen. in Greek). So, in the present example, ‘to have a share’ or ‘to take
part’ (μετέχειν) is followed by a Genitive phrase denoting the whole
group of actions.
… Φείδων αἱρεθεὶς ὑμᾶς διαλλάξαι καὶ καταγαγεῖν τῶν αὐτῶν
ἔργων Ἐρατοσθένει μετεῖχε … (Lys. 12.58.)
… Phidon, having been chosen to reconcile you and bring you back,
participated in the same actions as Eratosthenes …
39.3.3. With Verbs of Perception

Verbs of perception may take a Genitive. For example, the common
construction with verbs of hearing is Accusative of the sound, voice, etc.
and/or Genitive of the person making the sound or possessing the voice.
The sound, voice, etc. is part of the person or of the person’s activity.
… εἰκὸς ὑμᾶς καὶ τῶν κατηγόρων ἀκροᾶσθαι … (Lys. 14.24.)
… <it is> reasonable that you should listen also to accusers …
The article τῶν is used generically.
39.3.4. Equivalent to a Direct Object

Sometimes a verb, which otherwise takes a direct Object in the Accusative,
may take a Partitive Genitive equivalent to a direct Object. (Cf. Lesson
37.1.1.)
… λέγει ὅτι … ποιήσει ὥστε μήτε τῶν τειχῶν διελεῖν μήτε ἄλλο
τὴν πόλιν ἐλαττῶσαι μηδέν· (Lys. 13.9.)
… he said that … he would see to it that neither <would any one> take down
<part> of the walls, nor <would> anything else diminish <the standing of>
the city.
λέγει is Historic Present. The Subject of the Infinitive διελεῖν is not
explicit.
324
39.3.5. Genitive of Limits of Time

The Genitive of Limits of Time is a Partitive Genitive—an action takes
place for only part of the time specified by the Genitive phrase.
… ᾤοντο ὀλίγων ἐτῶν καθαιρήσειν τὴν τῶν Ἀθηναίων δύναμιν
… (Th. 5.14.3.)
… they thought that within a few years they would demolish the power of
the Athenians …
ἔτεος δὲ ἐκάστου ἁμάξας πεντήκοντα καὶ ἑκατὸν ἐπινέουσι
φρυγάνων· (Hdt. 4.62.2.)
And [within] each year they pile on one hundred and fifty wagon-loads
of sticks.
The Genitive of Limits of Time is commonly used to express frequency.
39.3.6. Genitive of Limits of Space

Similarly, the Genitive of Limits of Space is a Partitive Genitive—an
action takes place with reference only to part of the space specified by the
Genitive phrase.
θαυμάζω δέ, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, εἴ τις ἀξιοῖ, ἐὰν μέν τις
προσιόντων τῶν πολεμίων τῆς πρώτης τάξεως τεταγμένος
τῆς δευτέρας γένηται, τούτου μὲν δειλίαν καταψηφίζεσθαι, ἐὰν
δέ τις ἐν τοῖς ὁπλίταις τεταγμένος ἐν τοῖς ἱππεῦσιν ἀναφανῇ,
τούτῳ συγγνώμην ἔχειν. (Lys. 14.11.)
And I am surprised, O men of the jury, that anyone thinks it right, if, as the
enemy approaches, someone placed in the first rank turns up in the second
rank, to vote this <man> guilty of cowardice, but if someone placed among
the infantry appears among the cavalry, to grant pardon to this <man>.
The construction with ἐν + Dat. (ἐν τοῖς ὁπλίταις, ἐν τοῖς ἱππεῦσιν)
is practically equivalent in meaning to the Genitive construction.
325
39.3.7. Other Partitive Constructions

The Genitive used with many other verbs (and related adjectives or
adverbs) is usually classed as Partitive. The following selected examples
show that this classification is not always satisfactory.
In the expressions ‘to fill something with water’ (verb) or to be ‘full of
water’ (adj.), ‘water’ regularly appears in the Genitive Case in Greek.
The ‘Partitive’ rationale for this construction is that only some water
(not all) is needed for the filling.
ἀλλ’ ἐπάμυνε τάχιστα, καὶ ἐμπίμπληθι ῥέεθρα
ὕδατος ἐκ πηγέων, … (Hom.Il. 21.311–312.)
Come, bring assistance very quickly, and fill your streams
with water from your springs, …
River Scamander addresses River Simois.
ταφρὸς μὲν πρῶτά μιν βαθέα τε καὶ εὐρέα καὶ πλέη ὕδατος
περιθέει, … (Hdt. 1.178.3.)
First a moat runs round it [= Babylon], deep and broad and full of water, …
It is not so clear that a Partitive explanation can be applied to the group
of verbs meaning ‘to remember, to forget; to care for, to neglect’.
… σὺ δέ, ὦ Νικόμαχε, … μόνῳ σοὶ τῶν πολιτῶν ἐξεῖναι νομίζεις
ἄρχειν πολὺν χρόνον, καὶ μήτε εὐθύνας διδόναι μήτε τοῖς
ψηφίσμασι πείθεσθαι μήτε τῶν νόμων φροντίζειν … (Lys. 30.5.)
… but you, O Nicomachus … think that it is permissible for you alone of the
citizens to hold office for a long time, and neither to submit to an examination,
nor to obey the decrees, nor to take notice of the laws …
φροντίζειν may take a direct Object in the Accusative when it means
‘to consider’. When this verb takes a Genitive, it is most often negated
and has the sense ‘not to worry about’. And from Herodotus onwards,
the Genitive may be used with the preposition περί. But it can hardly
be said that Nicomachus is ‘not worried about’ only some of the laws.
Thus, a Partitive explanation for the construction seems inadequate.
Indeed, a Causal explanation seems more plausible: Nicomachus is ‘not
worried’ because of the laws. The Causal Genitive is basically a Genitive of
Separation (see §39.4.3 below).
326
The Genitive with adjectives, which are compounded with the negative
prefix ἀ-, is usually classed as Partitive.
νέος μὲν καὶ ἄπειρος δικῶν ἔγωγε ἔτι, … (Antipho 1.1.)
For my part <I am> still young and without experience of lawsuits, …
Here, the speaker may be regarded as inexperienced ‘within the sphere’
of lawsuits, in a construction analogous to the Genitive of Limits of
Time or Space.
39.4. Genitive of Separation

The Genitive of Separation is used with a wide range of verbs, adjectives
and adverbs.
39.4.1. Simple Genitive of Separation

Most simply, the Genitive of Separation is used with verbs meaning ‘to be
distant from’, ‘to separate someone (Acc.) from something (Gen.)’ or
‘to deprive someone (Acc.) of something (Gen.)’.
καὶ νοσφιεῖς με τοῦδε δευτέρου νεκροῦ; (E.Alc. 43.)
And will you deprive me of this second corpse?
39.4.2. Genitive of Comparison

The Genitive of Comparison is a particular type of Genitive of Separation.
39.4.2.1. With Comparative Adjectives

The Comparative adjective qualifies the person or thing being compared;
the Genitive indicates the standard of comparison. The idea of ‘separation’
is involved, in that some people may be, for example, more or less
numerous or strong in ‘departing from’ the standard of others.
οὗτοι δὲ τὸ πλῆθος μὲν οὐκ ἐλάσσονες ἦσαν τῶν Περσέων, ῥώμῃ
δὲ ἥσσονες. (Hdt. 8.113.3.)
These were not less in number than the Persians, but were inferior in strength.
327
39.4.2.2. With Verbs Denoting Difference

εἶτ’ ἐμὴν ἀψυχίαν
λέγεις, γυναικός, ὦ κάκισθ’, ἡσσημένος,
ἣ τοῦ καλοῦ σοῦ προύθανεν νεανίου; (E.Alc. 696–698.)
Then do you speak of my
faintheartedness, O <you> scoundrel, having become inferior to your wife,
who died for you, her fine young man?
39.4.3. Genitive of Cause

The Genitive of Cause is also a particular type of Genitive of Separation.
39.4.3.1. With Verbs of Emotion

The Genitive denotes Cause with verbs of emotion, such as ‘to be
surprised at’ or ‘to blame someone (Dat.) for something (Gen.)’. The idea
of ‘separation’ is involved, in that the emotion ‘arises from’ the thing or
person specified in the Genitive.
τιμῆ͂ς ἐμέμφθη σωφρονοῦντι δ’ ἤχθετο. (E.Hipp. 1402.)
She [= Aphrodite] complained of the honour <which you did not show her>
and got annoyed with <you> for being restrained.
39.4.3.2. In Exclamations
The following exclamation presents a standard form: first an interjection
(‘Oh alas’), then an explanation of the interjection, given in the Genitive.
The interjection ‘arises from’ the matter specified in the Genitive.
ὦ πόποι κεδνῆς ἀρωγῆς κἀπικουρίας στρατοῦ. (A.Pers. 731.)
Oh alas for our army’s trusty help and defence!
39.5. Genitive with Compound Verbs

The Genitive Case is used with some compound verbs, including multiple
compounds (with more than one adverbial prefix). The type of Genitive
usage depends on the meaning of a particular simple verb and on the
meaning of its prefix(es). Legal terms with the prefix κατα– comprise
a common group of compound verbs. For example, κατηγορεῖν takes
(among other constructions) a Genitive of the person condemned, with
or without an Accusative of the charge or crime.
328
… πολὺ μᾶλλον αὐτοὺς προσήκει τῶν λιπόντων τὴν τάξιν

κατηγορεῖν ἢ ὑπὲρ τῶν τοιούτων ἀπολογεῖσθαι. (Lys. 14.21.)
… it is much more appropriate for them to accuse those who desert their post
than to make a defence on behalf of such people.
References
EXERCISE 39
Translate the following passages. For each passage, briefly indicate the
general and particular function of the Genitive phrases in bold type, for
example, Partitive (general), Limits of Time (particular) and modifying
which verb, adjective or adverb.
1. … πορεύεσθαι διενοεῖτο πρὸς αὐτοὺς ἐπὶ τοῦ Ἑλλησπόντου,
ὅπως μέμψηται … τῶν περὶ τὴν Ἄντανδρον γεγενημένων …
διανοεῖσθαι (Mid.) to intend

περί (+ Acc.) near
2. … καὶ πλεύσαντες ἐς Λευκάδα τὴν Κορινθίων ἀποικίαν τῆς

γῆς ἔτεμον καὶ Κυλλήνην … ἐνέπρησαν …
Κυλλήνην Object of ἐνέπρησαν
3. σφῷν γὰρ ἐστερημένη

λυπρὸν διάξω βίοτον ἀλγεινόν τ’ ἐμοί·
σφῷν Gen. dual 2nd pers. pronoun
4. τοῦ δ’ ἐπιγιγνομένου θέρους Πελοποννήσιοι καὶ οἱ ξύμμαχοι

ἅμα τῷ σίτῳ ἀκμάζοντι ἐστράτευσαν ἐς τὴν Ἀττικήν …
ἐπιγίγνεσθαι to follow (chronologically)

ἅμα (adv.) at the same time as (+ Dat. with Partc.)
ἀκμάζειν to be ripe
329
5. ἐπειρώτεον ὦν οἱ Ἐπιδαύριοι κότερα χαλκοῦ ποιέωνται τὰ

ἀγάλματα ἢ λίθου·
ἐπειρωτέειν (Ionic) to inquire (here 3rd pers. pl. Past

Imperf. Indic. Act.)
ὦν οὖν (Attic)
κότερα (Ionic) πότερα (Attic)
ἄγαλμα, -ατος, τό statue
The two Gen. terms have the same function.
6. αὐτουργοί τε γάρ εἰσι Πελοποννήσιοι καὶ … χρονίων πολέμων

καὶ διαποντίων ἄπειροι …
αὐτουργός, -όν self-employed

διαπόντιος, -ον overseas
7. ὑμεῖς δ’, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, Σμίκρῳ δέκα ταλάντων

ἐτιμήσατε …
τιμᾶν to set the penalty
8. ἐπεὶ πλείων χρόνος

ὃν δεῖ μ’ ἀρέσκειν τοῖς κάτω τῶν ἐνθάδε.
τοῖς, τῶν masc.
9. … οὐ μνημονεύεις οὐκέτ’ οὐδέν, ἡνίκα

ἑρκέων ποθ’ ὑμᾶς οὗτος ἐγκεκλῃμένους, …
ἐρρύσατ’ ἐλθὼν μοῦνος …;
οὐδέν internal Acc. with μνημονεύεις

ἡνίκα … μοῦνος noun clause, Object of μνημονεύεις
ἕρκος, -ους, τό fence, (line of ) defence
(ἐ)ρύεσθαι (Mid.) to rescue
330
LESSON 40
Dative Case 1
40.1. Introduction
The Dative Case covers two basic functions: denoting the persons
whose interests are affected by an action or situation, and indicating
accompaniment in the broadest sense. Lesson 40 treats the Dative of
Interest and the Dative of Accompaniment in general. Lesson 41 will
treat two further and particular categories of accompaniment: location
in place or time, and means or instrument. The functions of the Dative
Case are predominantly adverbial. However, nouns and adjectives, which
are related to verbs, may also take a Dative construction. For example, the
verb εὐνοεῖν and the adjective εὔνους used with εἶναι both mean ‘to be
well disposed (to)’ and take a Dative.
40.2. Dative of Interest
40.2.1. Interest in General

A wide range of verbs and related nouns or adjectives take a Dative
denoting the persons to or for whom an action is done.
πενθεῖν μέν, εἴ τι δεσπόταισι τυγχάνει,
συγγνωστόν· (E.Alc. 138–139.)
<It is> pardonable to lament, if something happens
to one’s masters.
Dative of Interest modifying verb τυγχάνει.
(Grammatically: ‘To lament [Subject] <is> pardonable [Complement]’.)
331
σύνηθες αἰεὶ ταῦτα βαστάζειν ἐμοί. (E.Alc. 40.)

<It is> customary for me to carry this constantly.
Dative of Interest modifying adjective σύνηθες.
(Grammatically: ‘To carry this constantly [Subject] <is> customary
[Complement] for me’.)
40.2.2. Indirect Object

Verbs of saying, giving, etc. commonly take a direct Object in the
Accusative and an indirect Object in the Dative.
… δίκας δὲ δώσεις σοῖσι κηδεσταῖς ἔτι. (E.Alc. 731.)
… and you will yet give recompense to your wife’s-relatives.
40.2.3. Possessive
The Possessive Dative is used with verbs meaning ‘to be’ or ‘to become’,
where the Subject (concrete or abstract) is or becomes the possession of
the person designated by the Dative. A paraphrase with the verbs meaning
‘to have’ or ‘to get’ is often used, and the Subject in Greek then becomes
the Object in English.
σοὶ δ’ ἔστι μὲν νοῦς λεπτός· (E.Med. 529.)
And you do have a subtle mind.
Lit. ‘And there exists for you a subtle mind’.
40.2.4. Agent
In classical Greek, the Agent of a Passive verb is usually expressed by
ὑπό with Genitive. However, a Dative of Interest is frequently used with
Passive verbs in the Perfect Aspect (and rarely with other Tenses). The
Dative of Agent is also the normal construction with verbal adjectives
ending in -τος and -τέος (Lessons 7.3 and 8.2).
τὰ δὲ χρήματα ἦν ταῦτα μεγάλα, ὡς δεδήλωταί μοι ἐν τῷ πρώτῳ
τῶν λόγων. (Hdt. 5.36.4.)
And this treasure was great, as has been made clear by me in the first of the
books.
332
LESSON 40. DATIVE CASE 1
40.2.5. Similarity
A Dative of Interest is used with adjectives and adverbs expressing
similarity, including ὁ αὐτός meaning ‘the same (as)’.
ἄνακτ’ ἄνακτι ταὔθ’ ὁρῶντ’ ἐπίσταμαι
μάλιστα Φοίβῳ Τειρεσίαν, … (S.OT 284–285.)
I know that lord Tiresias generally sees the same
things as lord Phoebus, …
40.2.6. Person Judging (or Reference)

The Dative denotes the person, from whose point of view something is
valid. The Dative term may be a Participle only. The usage is common
with topographical directions.
πρὸς τὰς μεγίστας δ’ οὖν καὶ ἐλαχίστας ναῦς τὸ μέσον
σκοποῦντι οὐ πολλοὶ φαίνονται ἐλθόντες, … (Th. 1.10.5.)
But at any rate for someone examining the midpoint [OR: average] in
relation to the largest and the smallest ships, it is clear that not many <men>
went, …
40.2.7. Purpose
The Dative, especially of abstract nouns, may be used to express the
Purpose for which an action is performed.
… χρὴ … θαρσοῦντας ἰέναι … ἐς τὸν πόλεμον … τῆς ἄλλης
Ἑλλάδος ἁπάσης ξυναγωνιουμένης τὰ μὲν φόβῳ τὰ δὲ ὠφελίᾳ.
(Th. 1.123.1.)
… <we> should … with high courage go … into the war … since all the
rest of Greece will join in the struggle partly because of fear and partly for
advantage.
(In the context ὠφελίᾳ denotes the Purpose of obtaining help or
advantage, not the Purpose of helping someone else.)
According to Smyth (1956, §1473), ‘For the dative of purpose (to what
end?), common in Latin with a second dative (dono dare), Greek uses
a predicate noun: ἡ χώρα δῶρον ἐδόθη the country was given to him as a
333
gift’ (X.HG 3.1.6.). In this Greek example, the ‘predicate noun’ (δῶρον) is
used in the Nominative Case with a Passive verb. But a double Dative may
also be used with a Greek Passive verb. In Latin grammars, the ‘second
dative’ is designated ‘predicative dative’.
δόσει δέδοταί μοι ἐπὶ τῷ μισθῷ. (Tobit 2.14 Septuagint.)
It has been given to me as a gift in addition to my pay.
40.2.8. Ethic
The Dative of the personal pronouns (sg. or pl.) is used to express the
interest of the first person or to catch the attention of the second person.
(The idiom seldom occurs with the third person.) A paraphrase such as
‘please’ (1st pers.) or ‘I tell you’ (2nd pers.) is often appropriate. Typically,
the pronoun appears near the beginning of a Main clause and, therefore,
tends to ‘modify’ the whole clause. However, it could sometimes be
regarded as modifying the verb of a Main clause, especially an Imperative.
… ἀλλ’ ἐμμείνατέ μοι οἷς ἐδεήθην ὑμῶν … (Pl.Ap. 30 C.)
… but please abide by what I asked of you …
οἶς = ἐκείνοις ἅ.
40.3. Dative of Accompaniment

(or Sociative Dative)
The Dative of Accompaniment in the narrower sense expresses simple
accompaniment, attendant circumstances and (with an abstract noun)
Manner.
40.3.1. Simple Accompaniment

The Dative may simply express the accompaniment of persons, without
any particular nuance.
ἔρρων νυν, αὐτὸς χἡ ξυνοικήσασά σοι,
ἄπαιδε παιδὸς ὄντος, ὥσπερ ἄξιοι,
γηράσκετ(ε)· (E.Alc. 734–736.)
Begone then, you yourself and she who came to live with you,
and grow old childless, as you deserve, although you have
a child.
334
40.3.2. Attendant Circumstances

Parallel to the expression of personal accompaniment, the Dative may be
used to denote attendant circumstances with things both concrete and
abstract.
… ἐνταῦθα ἤδη πολλῷ ἔτι πλέονι βοῇ τεθαρσηκότες οἱ ψιλοὶ
ἐπέκειντο· (Th. 4.35.2.)
… then straight away with even much more shouting having taken heart
the light-armed troops pressed hard upon <them>.
40.3.3. Dative of αὐτός with Noun

The Dative of αὐτός in agreement with a noun emphasises the inclusion
of the Dative phrase in the action of its clause. The Dative phrase may be
related to the Subject or the Object of the clause. The Dative of αὐτός
usually agrees with a plural noun, and always precedes it in early and
classical Greek.
ἆρ’ ἂν δυναίμην τὰς Κιθαιρῶνος πτυχὰς
αὐταῖσι βάκχαις τοῖς ἐμοῖς ὤμοις φέρειν; (E.Ba. 945–946.)
Would I be able to carry the mountain-valleys
of Cithaeron on my shoulders, Bacchants and all?
Dative phrase related to Object, ‘the mountain-valleys’.
40.3.4. Military Accompaniment

The Dative of Military Accompaniment is merely a particular application
of the simple Dative of Accompaniment. It denotes military forces and
equipment.
… ἐμὲ δὲ τὸν πανάθλιον
ἕκοντα πλεύσανθ’ ἑπτὰ ναυσὶ ναυβάτην
ἄτιμον ἔβαλον … (S.Ph. 1026–1028.)
… but me, completely wretched fellow,
a seaman having set sail willingly with seven ships,
they cast <out> dishonoured …
335
40.3.5. Manner
The Dative may denote in what Manner an action is performed. The Dative
is typically an abstract noun, which is frequently qualified by an adjective.
οὐ χρὴ σκυθρωπὸν τοῖς ξένοις τὸν πρόσπολον
εἶναι, δέχεσθαι δ’ εὐπροσηγόρῳ φρενί. (E.Alc. 774–775.)
A servant should not be sullen towards guests,
but should receive them with courteous attitude.
The definite articles (τοῖς, τόν) are used generically.
References
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1450–1502, 1521–1527, 1529, 1544–1545.
EXERCISE 40
general function (Interest or Accompaniment) and, where applicable,
the particular function (e.g. Possessive or Manner) of the Dative phrases in
bold type, and state which verb the phrase modifies or how it is otherwise
related to its clause.
1. … συγκαλέσας πάντας τοὺς ξυμμάχους ἀπεδίδου Πλαταιεῦσι
γῆν καὶ πόλιν τὴν σφετέραν …
ἀποδιδόναι to give back; here the Imperf. Aspect

implies ‘proceeded to give back’
Πλαταιεῖς, -έων, οἱ Plataeans
2. ἰδίᾳ δ’ ἐκεῖ Λακεδαιμονίοις ξυγγίγνεται.

3. σὺ δ’ ἄνδρ’ ἑταῖρον δεσπότου παρόνθ’ ὁρῶν
στυγνῷ προσώπῳ καὶ συνωφρυωμένῳ
δέχῃ …
στυγνός, -ή, -όν sullen

συνωφρυωμένος, -η, -ον frowning, scowling (Perf. Pass. Partc.)
336
4. καὶ τῇ μὲν πόλει ἀπὸ τοῦ Γέλα ποταμοῦ τοὔνομα ἐγένετο …
Γέλας, (Gen.) Γέλα, ἡ (name of the ποταμός)
5. … ὑμεῖς καὶ ἔφυτε ἐν τῇ αὐτῇ ἡμῖν καὶ ἐτράφητε …
τῇ αὐτῇ Understand χώρᾳ.
6. Ἐπίδαμνός ἐστι πόλις ἐν δεξιᾷ ἐσπλέοντι τὸν Ἰόνιον κόλπον·
κόλπος, -ου, ὁ gulf
7. καί μοι κάλει τούτων τοὺς μάρτυρας.

8. ὅν ποτ’ ἐγὼ νύμφαν τ’ ἐσίδοιμ’
αὐτοῖς μελάθροις διακναιομένους …
ὅν coordinating relative pronoun

διακναίειν to wear away; to destroy
9. καὶ οἱ μὲν Ἀθηναῖοι … ἀτελεῖ τῇ νίκῃ ἀπὸ τῆς Μιλήτου

ἀνέστησαν …
10. αἱ μὲν δὴ νῆες ἀφικνοῦνται ἐς τὴν Κέρκυραν, οἱ δὲ Κορίνθιοι,
ἐπειδὴ αὐτοῖς παρεσκεύαστο, ἔπλεον ἐπὶ τὴν Κέρκυραν ναυσὶ
πεντήκοντα καὶ ἑκατόν.
μὲν δή … δέ … μὲν δή clause sums up preceding

narrative, δέ clause carries narrative
forward (Denniston, 1954, p. 258).
ἀφικνοῦνται Hist. Pres.
παρεσκεύαστο impersonal Pass.
337
LESSON 41
Dative Case 2
41.1. Locative
Locative uses of the Dative Case express the meaning ‘in’ or ‘at’ a particular
place or time.
41.1.1. Place
In classical Attic prose, the Dative denoting location usually requires the
preposition ἐν. However, sometimes in prose and frequently in verse
a plain Dative is used.
τὸ μὲν γυναῖκα πρῶτον ἄρσενος δίχα
ἧσθαι δόμοις ἐρῆμον ἐκπαγλον κακόν … (A.Ag. 861–862.)
In the first place <it is> a terrible problem that a wife
should sit in the house, deserted, apart from her husband …
Dative of Place with a common noun in verse; proper nouns also occur
in verse.
ταῦτα δὲ ποιεῖν ἐτόλμων … Λακεδαιμόνιοι μὲν ζηλοῦντες τὴν
πόλιν τῆς Μαραθῶνι μάχης, … (Isoc. 4.91.)
And they dared to do these things … the Spartans admiring our city for its
battle at Marathon, …
Dative of Place with a place name in prose.
Some scholars (including Smyth, 1956, §1534) have claimed that
a Locative Dative without preposition is restricted to proper names of
places in prose. Even if this commonly occurs in the classical period,
the claim seems not to be universally valid.
339
ἔπειτα δὲ θάπτουσι κατακαύσαντες ἢ ἄλλως γῇ κρύψαντες,

χῶμα δὲ χέαντες ἀγῶνα τιθεῖσι παντοῖον, … (Hdt. 5.8.)
And then they celebrate funeral rites by cremating or otherwise by burying
in the earth, and after heaping up a mound they conduct every kind
of contest, …
Dative of Place with a common noun in prose.
41.1.2. Time
The Dative denotes the time when something happens. This use of the
Dative may be regarded as indicating the ‘point of time’, provided that
allowance is made for the ‘point’ to be as long as an hour, day, month
or year.
τῷ δὲ πέμπτῳ καὶ δεκάτῳ ἔτει, … μετὰ τὴν ἐν Ποτειδαίᾳ
μάχην μηνὶ ἕκτῳ καὶ ἅμα ἦρι ἀρχομένῳ Θηβαίων ἄνδρες ὀλίγῳ
πλείους τριακοσίων … ἐσῆλθον περὶ πρῶτον ὕπνον ξὺν ὅπλοις ἐς
Πλάταιαν τῆς Βοιωτίας οὖσαν Ἀθηναίων ξυμμαχίδα. (Th. 2.2.1.)
But in the fifteenth year … in the sixth month after the battle at Potidaea
and just when spring was beginning, men of the Thebans, a little more than
three hundred … about the first watch entered with weapons into Plataea in
Boeotia, when it was in alliance with the Athenians.
Note the three slightly different Temporal expressions:
1. ‘in the fifteenth year’
2. ‘in the sixth month after’ another event
3. ‘simultaneously with spring’ plus Participle.
ὢ μελέα ψυχά,
ὃς μηδ’ οἰνοχύτου πώματος ἥσθη δεκέτει χρόνωι, …
(S.Ph. 714–715.)
Oh, the miserable life <of one>,
who did not even enjoy a cup of poured wine in a ten-year period, …
(R.G. Ussher, 1990)
340
In English idiom, the Temporal phrase after a negative may be translated

‘for a ten-year period’. But Accusative of Extent of Time in Greek ‘would
rather suggest that Ph. had not had ten years continuous enjoyment of
wine’ (Jebb). The present expression is also to be distinguished from the
Genitive of Limits of Time—the emphasis is not on the limits, but on
the fact that Philoctetes did not enjoy a drink at any point in the period.
… καὶ χρόνῳ ξυνέβησαν καθ’ ὁμολογίαν. (Th. 1.98.3.)
… and after a while they came to terms.
As in English idiom, so in Greek ‘I will do this in a while’ means ‘I will do
this after a while/time’.
… Ἀθηναῖοι δὲ ναῦς τε τῶν πολεμίων τῷ χρόνῳ παραλαβόντες
… καὶ χρήματα τοῖς πᾶσι τάξαντες φέρειν. (Th. 1.19.)
… but the Athenians <controlled their allies> by taking ships from the city-
states in the course of time … and by requiring them all to pay money.
This expression is similar to the previous one, but uses the definite article.
41.1.3. Respect
The Dative may indicate in what respect something is the case. This
usage is equivalent to the Accusative of Respect. And some nouns may
be used idiomatically in either construction—for example, both γένος
and γένει may mean ‘with regard to birth/family/race’. The construction
occurs with verbs, adjectives, adverbs and nouns.
ἦ τἄρα πάντων διαπρέπεις ἀψυχίᾳ, … (E.Alc. 642.)
Surely then, you are preeminent among all in faintheartedness, …
The Dative term modifies the verb διαπρέπεις.
οἱ γὰρ κακοὶ γνώμαισι τἀγαθὸν χεροῖν
ἔχοντες οὐκ ἴσασι, πρίν τις ἐκβάλῃ. (S.Aj. 964–965.)
For those who are incompetent in judgments do not know that they have
the good in their hands, until someone throws it away.
The Dative term modifies the adjective κακοί.
341
ἐγὼ μὲν ἧκον φοβούμενος τὸν νόμον καὶ ἐπεδικαζόμην γένει ὢν

ἐγγυτάτω … (D. 43.55.)
I had come revering the law and I was pursuing the case since I was nearest
in family-relationship …
The Dative term modifies the adverb ἐγγυτάτω.
ὁ δὲ δὴ γένει πολίτης Ἀθηνόδωρος οὐδὲ βουλεύσεσθαι ‹ἔμελλεν›·
(D. 23.12.)
And Athenodorus indeed, a citizen by birth, <was likely> not even to
contemplate <doing so>.
The Dative term modifies the noun πολίτης.
The Dative of Respect is usually treated as a subcategory of the Instrumental
Dative. But the classification is made without positive justification and
with the qualification that the Instrumental is used in a transferred or
weakened sense.
The Dative of Respect might rather be regarded as a Locative usage,
denoting the sphere of action, behaviour or existence. In many instances,
the sphere is denoted by an abstract noun. Moreover, already in the
classical period ἐν may be used with a Dative of Respect. And this usage
becomes more noticeable in the Hellenistic period. ἐν supports a Locative
function.
Messenger: ἆρ’ οἶσθα δῆτα πρὸς δίκης οὐδὲν τρέμων;
Oedipus: πῶς δ’ οὐχί, παῖς γ’ εἰ τῶνδε γεννητῶν ἔφυν;
Messenger: ὁθούνεκ’ ἦν σοι Πόλυβος οὐδὲν ἐν γένει.
(S.OT 1014–1016.)
Messenger: Do you know, then, that you are not rightly fearing anything?
Oedipus: But how not, at least if I was born a child of these parents?
Messenger: Because Polybus was nothing to you with regard to family.
342
41.2. Means or Instrument
41.2.1. In General
The Dative Case is widely used to indicate the means or instrument
by which an action is performed. The construction occurs both with
verbs used transitively and with verbs used intransitively. Many verbs
may be used in either way. Either persons or things may implement an
action. The construction with a verb used actively is more obvious. But
Passive examples occur, where the Dative denotes personal Means and not
the responsible Agent. And when χρῆσθαι (‘to use’) has a Dative of the
person, the verb may take a second, predicate Dative. The meaning then
tends to shift, for example, from ‘use someone as a friend’ to ‘treat or
regard someone as a friend’.
41.2.1.1. With Verbs used Transitively

λέγω σ’ ἐγὼ δόλῳ Φιλοκτήτην λαβεῖν. (S.Ph. 101.)
I am saying that you (are to) take Philoctetes by trickery.
The Infinitive λαβεῖν has a direct Object (Φιλοκτήτην) and a Dative
of Means (δόλῳ).
41.2.1.2. With Verbs used Instransitively

… καὶ ταῖς ὁδοῖς, ὁποῖαι ἂν ὦσι, τοιαύταις ἀνάγκη χρῆσθαι.
(X.Cyr. 1.6.36.)
… and <it is> necessary to use such roads as there are.
χρῆσθαι is properly Intr.; lit. ‘to make use by means of such roads’.
41.2.1.3. Personal Means

ἐμοί τε λύει τοῖσι μέλλουσιν τέκνοις
τὰ ζῶντ’ ὀνῆσαι. (E.Med. 566–567.)
And it is expedient for me by means of the future children
to benefit those who are living.
τοῖσι μέλλουσιν τέκνοις is a ‘personal’ Dative of Means modifying the
Active Infinitive ὀνῆσαι.
καὶ μὴν πέλας γε προσπόλοις φυλάσσεται. (S.Aj. 539.)
343
Yes indeed, he is being guarded nearby by means of attendants.

Tecmessa (the responsible Agent) replies to Ajax’s request that he may see
his young son. προσπόλοις is personal Dative of Means modifying the
Passive verb φυλάσσεται.
41.2.1.4. Personal Means with Predicative Dative

ὡς τοῖς γε σέμνοις καὶ συνωφρυωμένοις
ἅπασίν ἐστιν, ὥς γ’ ἐμοὶ χρῆσθαι κρίτῃ,
οὐ βίος ἀληθῶς ὁ βίος, ἀλλὰ συμφορά. (E.Alc. 800–802.)
For to these solemn and frowning people at least,
all of them, at least to use me as judge, life
is not truly life, but calamity.
χρῆσθαι here is used with a second, predicative Dative, in the sense
‘to use/treat/regard as’. (ὡς + Infin. expresses a parenthetical qualification.)
41.2.2. Cause
The Dative may denote the factor, because of which something happens.
The usage is very similar to the Causal Genitive, especially since this
Dative is likewise often used with verbs of emotion.
ἦ που στενάζει τοισίδ’ Ἄδμητος κακοῖς,
ἐσθλῆς γυναικὸς εἰ στερηθῆναί σφε χρή; (E.Alc. 199–200.)
Is Admetus perhaps groaning over these troubles,
that he should be deprived of his good wife?
(For εἰ meaning ‘that’ with expressions of emotion, see Lessons 34.2.4
and 34.2.6.)
41.2.3. Degree of Difference

The Dative denotes the degree of difference with Comparative and
(less often) Superlative adjectives and adverbs, and also with other
expressions implying comparison.
ἢν δὲ ᾖ οὕτερος ὑποδεέστερος ὀλίγῳ, τὰς παρείας φιλέονται· ἢν
δὲ πολλῷ ᾖ οὕτερος ἀγεννέστερος, προσπίπτων προσκυνέει τὸν
ἕτερον. (Hdt. 1.134.1.)
344
But if the one is inferior <only> by a little, they kiss the cheeks; and if the
one is much more ignoble, he falls before the other and does obeisance to him.
ὀλίγῳ modifies the Comparative adjective ὑποδεέστερος.
πολλῷ modifies the Comparative adjective ἀγεννέστερος.
ἥκιστα δὲ τοὺς ἑωυτῶν ἐκαστάτω οἰκημένους ἐν τιμῇ ἄγονται,
νομίζοντες ἑωυτοὺς εἶναι ἀνθρώπων μακρῷ τὰ πάντα ἀρίστους
… (Hdt. 1.134.2.)
And they hold in least honour those who live furthest from themselves, thinking
themselves to be by far the best of men in all respects …
μακρῷ modifies the Superlative adjective ἀρίστους.
ἐνιαυτῷ δὲ πρότερον τῆς ἁλώσεως ἐνέδειξεν ὡς προδότην τὸν
Φιλιστίδην καὶ τοὺς μετ’ αὐτοῦ, αἰσθόμενος ἃ πράττουσιν.
(D. 9.60.)
But a year before the capture he informed against Philistides as a traitor,
as well as his associates, after realising what they were doing.
In this construction, ἐνιαυτῷ is not a Dative of Time but a Dative of
Degree of Difference modifying the Comparative adverb πρότερον and
meaning ‘earlier by a year than the capture’. Other Temporal terms may
also be used as Dative of Degree of Difference.
γῆ δὴ πολεμίη τῇδε τοι κατίσταται· εἰ θέλει τοι μηδὲν ἀντίξοον
καταστῆναι, τοσούτῳ τοι γίνεται πολεμιωτέρη ὅσῳ ἂν προβαίνῃς
ἑκαστέρω, τὸ πρόσω αἰεὶ κλεπτόμενος· (Hdt. 7.49.4.)
And the land becomes hostile to you in this way: if nothing is likely to become
adverse for you, <the land> becomes so much the more hostile to you, the
further you progress, being constantly deceived as to what lies ahead.
τοσούτῳ (demonstrative pronoun), modifying the Comparative adjective
πολεμιωτέρη, corresponds to ὅσῳ (relative pronoun, lit. ‘by how much’),
modifying the Comparative adverb ἑκαστέρω. (Cf. Lesson 43.6.2.)
τοσούτῳ δὲ μᾶλλον προτετίμηται τὸ κάλλος παρ’ ἐκείνοις
ἢ παρ’ ἡμῖν, ὥστε καὶ ταῖς γυναιξὶ ταῖς αὑτῶν ὑπὸ τούτου
κρατουμέναις συγγνώμην ἔχουσι … (Isoc. 10.60.)
345
And so much the more has beauty been preferred among them [= gods] than
among us, that they pardon even their own wives when they are overcome
by it …
τοσούτῳ (demonstrative pronoun), modifying the Comparative adverb
μᾶλλον, corresponds to ὥστε (relative adverb), introducing the Result
clause. (Cf. Lesson 43.6.1.)
References
EXERCISE 41
general and particular function of the Dative phrases in bold type—
for example, Locative, Time, modifying which verb; Means, Degree of
Difference, modifying which Comparative adjective or adverb.
1. … καὶ ἐμβοήσαντες ἁθρόοι ὥρμησαν ἐπ’ αὐτοὺς καὶ ἔβαλλον
λίθοις τε καὶ τοξεύμασι καὶ ἀκοντίοις, ὡς ἕκαστός τι
πρόχειρον εἶχεν.
The three Dative terms comprise a single phrase with a single
function.
2. Ἀθηναῖοι δὲ δευτέρᾳ καὶ ἑξηκοστῇ ἡμέρᾳ μετὰ τὴν μάχην
ἐστράτευσαν ἐς Βοιωτοὺς …
ἐς (+ Acc. of persons) into <the territory of>
3. … καὶ ὅταν τὴν ἐπιστήμην ἐς τὸ ἴσον καταστήσωμεν, τῇ γε

εὐψυχίᾳ δήπου περιεσόμεθα.
ἐπιστήμη, -ης, ἡ skill

περιεῖναι to be superior
4. ὅσῳ δὲ πλείους ἄνθρωποι ἐν τῇ πόλει εἰσίν …, τοσούτῳ ἂν

θᾶττον λιμῷ αὐτοὺς ἡγοῦμαι ἁλῶναι.
346
5. … ἐνίκων μαχόμενοι ἅπασαν τὴν δύναμιν τὴν ἐκείνων τοῖς

ἤδη ἀπειρηκόσι καὶ τοῖς οὔπω δυναμένοις …
τοῖς … τοῖς … + Partc. masc., referring to persons

ἀπειπεῖν (Aor.) to become tired out/exhausted
6. βέβακε δ’ ὅρκων χάρις, οὐδ’ ἔτ’ αἰδὼς

Ἑλλάδι τᾷ μεγάλᾳ μένει, …
χάρις, -ιτος, ἡ charm
7. οἴκτιρε δ’, ὦ μῆτέρ, με, μηδὲ ταῖς ἐμαῖς

ἁμαρτίαισι παῖδα σὸν κατακτάνῃς.
8. … αὐτῷ δεηθέντι εἶπον χρῆσθαι ταῖς ναυσὶ ταύταις, ἢν
βούληται, περὶ τὴν Πελοπόννησον.
αὐτῷ masc.
δεῖσθαι (Mid. and Pass.) to request
εἶπον 3rd pers. pl.
347
LESSON 42
Prepositions
42.1. Adverbs
In the earliest surviving Greek literature, many words, which are regularly
used as prepositions in the classical period, are still being used as adverbs.
ἐπεὶ πρό οἱ εἴπομεν ἡμεῖς … (Hom.Od. 1.37.)
For we told him beforehand …
42.2. Compound Verbs

When placed immediately before verbs, these adverbs form compound
verbs.
αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιμον ἦμαρ. (Hom.Od. 1.9.)
And he took away the day of return for them.
ἀφείλετο = ἀφ’ εἵλετο.
42.3. Prepositions
When placed immediately before, in the middle of, or after a noun phrase,
these adverbs begin to look like prepositions governing a Case.
… πλάζει δ’ ἀπὸ πατρίδος αἴης. (Hom.Od. 1.75.)
… but he turns <him> away from his native land.
ἀλλά μοι ἀμφ’ Ὀδυσῆϊ δαΐφρονι δαίεται ἦτορ,
δυσμόρῳ, ὃς δὴ δηθὰ φίλων ἄπο πήματα πάσχει
νήσῳ ἐν ἀμφιρύτῃ … (Hom.Od. 1.48–50.)
But for me my heart is torn concerning wise Odysseus,
ill-fated man, who indeed has long been suffering miseries away from his
dear ones
on an island surrounded by sea …
349
42.4. Case Functions

The functions of the Accusative, Genitive and Dative Cases were
established before prepositions began to be used with them. In the Lessons
and Exercises concerned with those Cases, all the functions of the Cases
were expressed without the use of prepositions. In classical Greek, it is
often possible to detect the original Case function of a prepositional
phrase apart from the preposition itself.
εἴθ’ ὤφελ’ Ἀργοῦς μὴ διαπτάσθαι σκάφος
Κόλχων ἐς αἶαν κυανέας Συμπληγάδας, … (E.Med. 1–2.)
If only the ship Argo had not flown through
the dark Clashing Rocks to the land of the Colchians, …
In the context, αἶαν is clearly an Accusative of Goal, even apart from the
use of the preposition ἐς.
However, the original Case function is not always so clear. For example,
there are several passages in the tragedy of Sophocles, Oedipus the King,
where the phrase πρὸς θεῶν is used in an urgent entreaty with second
person Imperative or Subjunctive.
πρὸς θεῶν δίδασκέ με. (S.OT 1009.)
By the gods, instruct me.
A possible rationale for the prepositional phrase is that it is an elliptical
request formula. The request is explicit in the following couplet from
Theognis.
χρὴ τολμᾶν χαλεποῖσιν ἐν ἄλγεσι κείμενον ἄνδρα,
πρός τε θεῶν αἰτεῖν ἔκλυσιν ἀθανάτων. (Thgn. 555–556.)
A man when involved in difficult sufferings should endure,
and ask from the immortal gods release.
Here any response to the request (αἰτεῖν) must start at (πρός) the gods,
but must proceed from the gods (θεῶν). The Genitive of Separation
would be the appropriate category. Compare δεῖσθαι, προσδεῖσθαι,
λίσσεσθαι and χρῄζειν, ‘to beg, to entreat, to request (from)’, with
Genitive of person but no preposition.
350
LESSON 42. PREPOSITIONS
The Accusative of Goal without a preposition is limited to phrases

denoting Place. However, the Accusative of Goal with a preposition may
also express Time.
καὶ τελευτῶντος τοῦ χειμῶνος πρὸς ἐὰρ ἤδη κλίμακας ἔχοντες
οἱ Ἀργεῖοι ἦλθον ἐπὶ τὴν Ἐπίδαυρον, … (Th. 5.56.5.)
And as the winter was ending, now towards spring, the Argives came with
scaling-ladders against Epidaurus, …
42.5. Possessive Genitive with Preposition

In an abbreviated construction, a Possessive Genitive may be used with
certain prepositions, especially ἐν and εἰς (ἐς) and sometimes ἐκ (ἐξ).
τοῦθ’ ὑμὶν Αἴας τοὔπος ὕστατον θροεῖ.
τὰ δ’ ἀλλ’ ἐν Ἅιδου τοῖς κάτω μυθήσομαι. (S.Aj. 864–865.)
Ajax addresses this last word to you,
and for the rest I shall speak in <the realm> of Hades to those below.
… εἰς ἑνὸς τῶν διακόνων ἐξέπεμψεν αὐτούς. (X.HG 5.4.6.)
… he sent them off to <the house> of one of the servants.
ἐκ δ’ ἄρα Πεισάνδροιο Πολυκτορίδαο ἄνακτος
ἴσθμιον ἤνεικεν θεράπων, περικαλλὲς ἄγαλμα.
(Hom.Od. 18.299–300.)
And then out of <the house> of lord Pisander son of Polyktor
his assistant brought a necklace, a very beautiful adornment.
42.6. Compound Verb with Preposition

In classical prose, an adverbial prefix of a verb is often repeated as
a preposition with the appropriate Case. However, this usage also occurs in
verse. (But in the classical period poets more often than prose writers rely
on the established Case functions without a preposition.) The repetition
is normally ignored in English translation.
351
… ἐλέχθη ὑπ’ αὐτῶν ὡς οἱ Πελοποννήσιοι φάρμακα ἐσβεβλήκοιεν

ἐς τὰ φρέατα· (Th. 2.48.2.)
… it was said by them that the Peloponnesians had thrown poison into their
cisterns.
Repetition in prose.
… μηδέ ποτ’ εἴπηθ’
ὡς Ζεὺς ὑμᾶς εἰς ἀπρόοπτον
πῆμ’ εἰσέβαλεν … (A.Pr. 1073–1075.)
… and do not ever say
that Zeus threw you into
unforeseen misery …
Repetition in verse.
… τὸν ἐσρέοντα διὰ Συμπληγάδων
βοῦς ὑλοφορβοὺς πόντον εἰσεβάλλομεν, … (E.IT 260–261.)
… we had been driving our cattle that feed in woodland
into the sea that flows in through the Clashing Rocks, …
No repetition in verse.
42.7. Metaphorical Use of Prepositions

The examples in §42.3 and the first example in §42.4 above use
prepositions with the appropriate Cases in a literal sense: ἀπό with
Genitive of Separation, ἐν with Dative of Place, ἐς with Accusative of
Goal. In the example from Theognis (§42.4), πρός is used with a Genitive
of Separation in a metaphorical sense—no literal, physical movement
is involved. This metaphorical usage is quite common, especially when
a preposition is used with an abstract noun.
ἐτράποντο πρὸς λῃστείαν (Th. 1.5.1.)
they turned to piracy
ὑπέστρεφον ἐπὶ ζήτησιν τῶν Περσέων (Hdt. 4.140.1.)
they turned back to search for the Persians
352
ἐκ τούτου ἐπειρᾶτο Μιθραδάτης διδάσκειν (X.An. 3.3.4.)

after this Mithradates tried to explain
παρεσκεύασαν τοὺς ἐν τέλει (Th. 3.36.5.)
they prevailed upon those in authority
ἐγὼ ταῦτα τοῦτον ἐποίησα σὺν δίκῃ (Hdt. 1.115.2.)
I did this to this <man> with justice
42.8. Accent and Position of Prepositions

Two-syllable prepositions with oxytone accent (except ἀμφί, ἀντί, διά)
become paroxytone when they follow their Case. Note φίλων ἄπο in
§42.3 above (second example). In classical prose, περί is the only ‘proper’
preposition (§42.11 below) which is placed after its Case. ἕνεκα is
regularly placed after its Case, and ἄνευ sometimes.
42.9. Adverbial Accusative as Preposition

Some nouns are used adverbially in the Accusative and are qualified by
a simple Possessive Genitive. These Accusative nouns virtually have the
function of prepositions.
τρόπον αἰγυπιῶν (A.Ag. 49.)
in the manner of vultures
δίκην τοξότου (Pl.Leg. 705 E.)
in the manner of a bowman
τόλμας χάριν (S.Ant. 371.),
because of his rashness
τρέφ’ ἀξίως νιν σοῦ τε τήν τ’ ἐμὴν χάριν. (E.Ph. 762.)
Look after her properly for the sake of yourself and for my sake.
In this and other instances there is a mixture of Genitive Case and
Possessive adjective with χάριν.
353
42.10. Pregnant Construction

In a so-called pregnant construction, verbs of rest are sometimes used
with εἰς (ἐς) + Accusative when they imply previous motion.
… ἐκ τῆς Μέμφιδος ἐξήλασε τοὺς Ἕλληνας καὶ τέλος ἐς
Προσωπίτιδα τὴν νῆσον κατέκλῃσεν· (Th. 1.109.4.)
… he drove the Greeks out of Memphis and finally shut <them> up in the
island of Prosopitis.
Conversely, verbs of motion are sometimes used with ἐν + Dative when
they imply subsequent rest.
καίτοι πόθεν κλέος γ’ ἂν εὐκλεέστερον
κατέσχον ἢ τὸν αὐτάδελφον ἐν τάφῳ
τιθεῖσα; (S.Ant. 502–504.)
And yet from where would I have obtained more glorious
glory than by putting my own brother into
a grave?
42.11. ‘Proper’ and ‘Improper’ Prepositions

The label ‘proper’ has been applied to prepositions that are used to
form compound verbs, and the label ‘improper’ to prepositions that
are not so used. The classification is not very useful. It applies the term
‘proper’ to the very words which are used in two different ways, either as
prepositions or as adverbial prefixes to verbs. It applies the term ‘improper’
to the very words which are used only as prepositions. It does not apply
the term ‘improper’ to the adverbial Accusative nouns which have the
function of prepositions. Nor does it take account of other prepositions
which may also originally have been Case forms, such as ἐντός (Ablative)
or περί (Locative). See Smyth (1956), §§1647, 1699 and (for a list)
1700–1702.
354
42.12. Hellenistic and Later Developments

Prepositions are more often used (with the appropriate Cases) than in the
classical period.
But the distinction between εἰς + Accusative and ἐν + Dative becomes
further blurred.
Fewer prepositions are being used. And their range of meaning is being
restricted. By way of compensation, εἰς, ἐν and ἐκ are used more
extensively.
The Dative Case is less often used with prepositions. ἀνά, μετά, περί
and ὑπό are no longer used with the Dative at all (except ὑπό rarely in
Polybius).
There is an increasing tendency for each preposition to be used with one
Case only.
The Accusative becomes more generally used as the preferred Case with
prepositions. In modern Greek, it is the only Case used with prepositions.
And only seven prepositions remain in modern Greek.
References
Leaf & Bayfield (Eds) (1895), The Iliad of Homer (Vol. 1), §§33–35.
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1302, 1636–1702.
EXERCISE 42A
2. For each prepositional phrase in bold type, name the grammatical
Case and indicate the particular Case function (apart from the
preposition). For the Case functions, see Lessons 37, 38, 39, 40 and
41, and for prepositional expressions of Purpose see Lesson 27.1.
Passages for Exercise 42A are selected from Herodotus, Thucydides
and Xenophon.
355
Example
οἱ δ’ ἐν τῇ πόλει ὄντες Ἐπιδάμνιοι ἐπειδὴ ἐπιέζοντο, πέμπουσιν
ἐς τὴν Κέρκυραν πρέσβεις … (Th. 1.24.6.)
And the Epidamnians who were in the city, since they were being hard
pressed, sent [Hist. Pres.] ambassadors to Corcyra …
ἐν τῇ πόλει: Dative, Locative, Place.
ἐς τὴν Κέρκυραν: Accusative, Adverbial, Goal.
1. εἰ οὖν οὗτοι μὴ δώσουσι τὴν ἐσχάτην δίκην, τίς ποτε πρὸς τὴν
πόλιν θαρρῶν πορεύσεται;
2. τὴν δὲ γῆν δημοσιώσαντες ἀπεμίσθωσαν ἐπὶ δέκα ἔτη …
δημοσιοῦν to confiscate
3. καὶ ἐπειδὴ ἀπέθανεν, ἐπὶ πλέον ἔτι ἐγνώσθη ἡ πρόνοια αὐτοῦ

ἡ ἐς τὸν πόλεμον.
4. ὡς δὲ ὁ κῆρύξ τε ἀπήγγειλεν οὐδὲν εἰρηνεῖον παρὰ τῶν
Κορινθίων καὶ αἱ νῆες αὐτοῖς ἐπεπλήρωντο … ἐναυμάχησαν.
5. ἔτυχε γὰρ ταύτῃ τοῖς Μενδαίοις καὶ ἐπικούροις ἐντὸς τοῦ
τείχους τὰ ὅπλα κείμενα.
ταύτῃ here (Dat. as adv.)

Μενδαῖοι, -ων, οἱ Mendaeans, people of Mende
ἐπίκουρος, -α, -ον auxiliary (esp. of soldiers)
6. ἀφικόμεθα μὲν ἐπὶ τῆς πρότερον οὔσης ξυμμαχίας

ἀνανεώσει …
7. βουλόμενοι ἐν τάχει τὴν ναυμαχίαν ποιῆσαι … ξυνεκάλεσαν
τοὺς στρατιώτας …
8. τυραννίδες ἐν ταῖς πόλεσι καθίσταντο τῶν προσόδων
μειζόνων γιγνομένων …
πρόσοδος, -ου, ἡ revenue
356
9. ξύμμαχοί τε γὰρ οὐδενός πω ἐν τῷ πρὸ τοῦ χρόνῳ ἑκούσιοι

γενόμενοι, νῦν ἄλλων τοῦτο δεησόμενοι ἥκομεν …
τε anticipates a following καί and need

not be translated.
τοῦ this
EXERCISE 42B
2. For each prepositional phrase in bold type, name the grammatical
Case and indicate the particular Case function (apart from the
preposition). For the Case functions, see Lessons 37, 38, 39, 40
and 41. For prepositional expressions of Purpose see Lesson 27.1.
Passages for Exercise 42B are selected from Herodotus, Thucydides
and Xenophon.
Example
οἱ δ’ ἐν τῇ πόλει ὄντες Ἐπιδάμνιοι ἐπειδὴ ἐπιέζοντο, πέμπουσιν
ἐς τὴν Κέρκυραν πρέσβεις … (Th. 1.24.6.)
And the Epidamnians who were in the city, since they were being hard
pressed, sent [Hist. Pres.] ambassadors to Corcyra …
ἐν τῇ πόλει: Dative, Locative, Place.
ἐς τὴν Κέρκυραν: Accusative, Adverbial, Goal.
1. ταῦτα ὦν ὑμῖν ἀναβάλλομαι κυρώσειν ἐς τέταρτον μῆνα ἀπὸ
τοῦδε.
ὦν (Ionic) οὖν (Attic)

ἀναβάλλεσθαι (Mid.) to delay (+ Intentive Infin.)
κυροῦν to confirm
2. καὶ οἱ μὲν αὐτῶν ἐνταῦθα ᾤκησαν, οἱ δὲ ἐσπάρησαν κατὰ τὴν

ἄλλην Ἑλλάδα.
357
3. ἔστι δὲ λίθινος ἕτερος τοσοῦτος καὶ ἐν Σάϊ, κείμενος κατὰ

τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον τῷ ἐν Μέμφι.
λίθινος, (-α, -ον) tone (statue) (masc. adj. as noun)

καί also
Σάϊς (place name)
τῷ ‹ … λιθίνῳ› Dat. with αὐτόν
4. βασιλέϊ τῷ μεγάλῳ ἐς τροφὴν αὐτοῦ τε καὶ τῆς στρατιῆς

διαραίρηται πάρεξ τοῦ φόρου γῆ πᾶσα ὅσης ἄρχει·
δια-αἱρεῖν to divide up (here Pres. Perf. Pass.)

πάρεξ apart from (+ Gen.)
5. ἐντὸς γὰρ εἴκοσι ἡμερῶν ἤγαγε τοὺς ἄνδρας, ὥσπερ ὑπέστη.
ὑφιστάναι to promise (Mid./Pass. and Intr. Tenses)
6. πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Τρωικῶν οὐδὲν φαίνεται πρότερον κοινῇ

ἐργασαμένη ἡ Ἑλλάς·
φαίνεσθαι (Mid.) to be clear/obvious (in doing/being)

(+ Partc.); often paraphrased as
‘It is clear that I (etc.) do/am …’
7. σῖτόν τε ἐσήγαγον καὶ φρουροὺς ἐγκατέλιπον, τῶν τε ἀνθρώπων

τοὺς ἀχρειοτάτους ξὺν γυναιξὶ καὶ παισὶν ἐξεκόμισαν.
ἀχρεῖος, (-α,) -ον unfit
8. οἶδα δὲ τοὺς τοιούτους, καὶ ὅσοι ἔν τινος λαμπρότητι

προέσχον, ἐν μὲν τῷ καθ’ αὑτοὺς βίῳ λυπηροὺς ὄντας …
τινος (neut.) in any <field>, etc.

λαμπρότης, -ητος, ἡ distinction
προέχειν to excel
λυπηρός, -ή, -όν annoying
358
LESSON 43
Correlative Clauses
43.1. Introduction
Clauses, which are introduced by a relative adjective or adverb, may
have as their antecedent the corresponding demonstrative adjective or
adverb. The antecedent may appear in the Main clause of a sentence, or
in a Subordinate clause or an Infinitive or Participial phrase. The relative
term, but not necessarily the demonstrative, always occurs at the beginning
of its clause.
43.2. Adjectival Clauses

Most simply, an ordinary demonstrative adjective (ἐκεῖνος, οὗτος or
less often ὅδε) is antecedent to the definite or indefinite relative adjective
(ὅς or ὅστις) introducing the relative clause. Both demonstrative and
relative adjectives may be used as adjectives qualifying a noun or as
pronouns without a noun. All adjectival relative clauses may precede,
follow or interrupt the demonstrative clause or phrase. Since relative
adjectives agree with their antecedent in Number and Gender but take
their Case from the syntax of their own clause, they are not necessarily in
the same Case as the corresponding demonstrative term.
In addition there are the special demonstrative adjectives and their
corresponding relative adjectives.
Category Demonstrative adjective Relative adjective
size, number τόσος, τοσοῦτος, τοσόσδε ὅσος, ὁπόσος

quality τοῖος, τοιοῦτος, τοιόσδε οἷος, ὁποῖος
age, size, status τηλίκος, τηλικοῦτος, ἡλίκος, ὁπηλίκος
τηλικόσδε
359
A special demonstrative term may sometimes correspond to an ordinary

relative term. And a demonstrative clause may sometimes correspond to
an Infinitive construction instead of a clause with a finite verb.
καίτοι γε ὀφειλόμενόν πού ἐστιν τοῦτο ὃ παρακατέθετο.
(Pl.R. 332 A.)
And yet this which he entrusted is surely owed.
τοῦτο (Nom. demonstrative) corresponds to ὅ (Acc. relative).
(Cf. Lesson 25.)
ἀλλὰ μὴν ὡμολογοῦμεν, ᾧ γε ὅμοιος ἑκάτερος εἴη, τοιοῦτον καὶ
ἑκάτερον εἶναι. (Pl.R. 350 C.)
But in fact we agreed that, to what each is like, such also each is.
τοιοῦτον (Acc. demonstrative of quality) in reported discourse (Acc. and
Infin.) corresponds to ᾧ (Dat. ordinary relative).
οὐκοῦν τοιάνδε τινὰ φαίνεται ἔχουσα τὴν δύναμιν, οἵαν, ᾧ ἂν
ἐγγένηται, … πρῶτον μὲν ἀδύνατον αὐτὸ ποιεῖν πράττειν μεθ’
αὑτοῦ διὰ τὸ στασιάζειν καὶ διαφέρεσθαι, ἔτι δ’ ἐχθρὸν εἶναι
ἑαυτῷ τε καὶ τῷ ἐναντίῳ παντὶ καὶ τῷ δικαίῳ; (Pl.R. 351 E–352 A.)
Therefore, does it [= injustice] not clearly have its power of some such sort, as,
in whatever it occurs … in the first place it [= injustice] makes it impossible
for it [= that in which injustice occurs] to deal with itself on account of being
at odds and quarrelling, and further it is hostile to itself and to every opponent
including the just?
τοιάνδε (Acc. demonstrative) corresponds to οἵαν (Acc. relative with
Result Infin. construction). (Cf. Lessons 22 and 28.5.)
43.3. Adverbial Clauses

Parallel to correlative adjectival clauses, some types of adverbial clause
may have a demonstrative adverb as antecedent to a relative adverb
introducing the relative clause. These relative adverbs may also be viewed
as subordinating conjunctions. The relevant types are adverbial clauses
of Time (Temporal), Place (Local), Manner (including Comparison)
and Result.
360
LESSON 43. CORRELATIVE CLAUSES
43.3.1. Clauses of Time

ὥστε δημιουργὸς ἢ σοφὸς ἢ ἄρχων οὐδεὶς ἁμαρτάνει τότε ὅταν
ἄρχων ᾖ…; (Pl.R. 340 E.)
And so no craftsman or scientist or ruler makes a mistake then when he is
ruling …?
τότε (demonstrative) corresponds to ὅταν (relative).
(Cf. Lessons 30 and 31.)
43.3.2. Clauses of Place

οὗ δ’ ἐγὼ μὲν ἀθῷος ἅπασι, … ἐνταῦθα ἀπήντηκας; (D. 18.125.)
But where I <am> immune in all respects, … here you have confronted me?
ἐνταῦθα (demonstrative) corresponds to οὗ (relative). (Cf. Lesson 33.1.)
43.3.3. Clauses of Manner

ταῦτ’ οὖν σκοποῦντες καὶ τἄλλα μνησθέντες, ᾗ δίκαιόν ἐστι,
ταύτῃ ψηφίσασθε. (D. 28.23.)
Therefore, considering this and recalling the other <points>, in what way
it is just, in this way vote.
ταύτῃ (demonstrative) corresponds to ᾗ (relative). (Cf. Lesson 33.2.)
43.3.4. Clauses of Comparison

πρὸ πολλοῦ δ’ ἂν ἐποιησάμην οὕτως αὐτὸν νομίζειν εἶναί με
δεινόν, ὥσπερ ἐν ὑμῖν εἴρηκεν. (Isoc. 15.15.)
And I would have regarded it as important, that he should think that I am so
clever, as indeed he has said in your presence.
οὕτως (demonstrative) corresponds to ὥσπερ (relative). (Cf. Lesson 28.)
361
43.3.5. Clauses or Phrases of Result

οἴῃ γὰρ ἄν με, εἶπον, οὕτω μανῆναι ὥστε ξυρεῖν ἐπιχειρεῖν
λέοντα καὶ συκοφαντεῖν Θρασύμαχον; (Pl.R. 341 C.)
‘Do you really think that I’, I said, ‘would become so mad as to try to beard
the lion and outwit Thrasymachus?’
οὕτω (demonstrative) in reported thought (Acc. and Infin.) corresponds
to ὥστε (relative) introducing the relative phrase (also Acc. and Infin.).
(Cf. Lesson 22.)
43.4. Interrogative Antecedent

Correlative sentences, which are questions rather than statements, may
have an interrogative pronoun instead of a demonstrative pronoun as
antecedent.
τίς ἔσθ’ ὁ χῶρος δῆτ’ ἐν ᾧ βεβήκαμεν; (S.OC 52.)
What is the place, then, into which we have come?
43.5. Mixed Adjectival and Adverbial

Construction
In §§43.2–3 above, examples have been restricted to sentences either with
demonstrative and relative adjectives or with demonstrative and relative
adverbs. However, Result constructions may also have a demonstrative
adjective as antecedent to the relative adverb ὥστε introducing a Result
clause or phrase.
ἀλλ’ ἐκεῖνος μὲν τοσαύτην πρόνοιαν ἔσχεν ὑπὲρ τοῦ μηδὲ
φεύγων μηδὲν ἐξαμαρτεῖν εἰς τὴν πόλιν, ὥστ’ εἰς Ἄργος ἐλθὼν
ἡσυχίαν εἶχεν … (Isoc. 16.9.)
But that man took so much care over doing no wrong against his city even
when he was in exile, that he went to Argos and kept quiet …
(Cf. Lesson 22.1.)
362
43.6. Pronominal Idioms
43.6.1. Result
A particular Result construction has the form: εἰς τοσοῦτο(ν)/τοῦτο
(pronoun) + Partitive Genitive + verb of ‘coming’ (or similar) + ὥστε
with Result clause or phrase. (The construction also occurs without the
Gen. term.)
… οἱ δ’ εἰς τοσοῦτον ὕβρεως ἦλθον, ὥστ’ ἔπεισαν ὑμᾶς ἐλαύνειν
αὐτὸν ἐξ ἁπάσης τῆς Ἑλλάδος … (Isoc. 16.9.)
… but they came to so great <a level> of insolence, that they persuaded
you to drive him out of all Greece …
(Cf. Lesson 22.3, first example.)
43.6.2. Dative of Degree of Difference

The Dative of Degree of Difference is a pronominal idiom, and is often
but not always used in a correlative construction.
ὥσθ’ ὅσῳ ἄν τις ἐρρωμενεστέρως ἐπιθυμῇ πείθειν τοὺς
ἀκούοντας, τοσούτῳ μᾶλλον ἀσκήσει καλὸς κἀγαθὸς εἶναι καὶ
παρὰ τοῖς πολίταις εὐδοκιμεῖν. (Isoc. 15.278.)
And so the more strongly any one desires to persuade his hearers, (so much)
the more he will endeavour to be fine and good and to be in high regard
among the citizens.
τοσούτῳ (demonstrative pronoun) modifying the Comparative adverb
μᾶλλον in the leading clause corresponds to ὅσῳ (relative pronoun)
modifying the Comparative adverb ἐρρωμενεστέρως in the relative
clause. (Cf. Lesson 41.2.3.)
43.7. Note
Since correlative clauses do not receive adequate attention in standard
Greek grammars, no references are given for this Lesson.
363
EXERCISE 43
1. τοῦτο μέν, ἔφην, οὐκ ἀγνοῶ ὃ βούλῃ λέγειν …
2. ἂν γὰρ ἐμμένῃ τῇ φιλοσοφίᾳ καὶ τοσοῦτον ἐπιδιδῷς ὅσον περ
νῦν, ταχέως γενήσῃ τοιοῦτος οἷόν σε προσήκει.
3. … οὗ δ’ ὁ νόμος προσέταττεν, ἐνταῦθα τοῖς σώμασιν αὐτοὶ
λῃτουργεῖν ἠξίουν.
λῃτουργεῖν to perform public service, to serve

(later λειτουργεῖν)
4. σίτῳ μὲν γὰρ τοσούτῳ ἐχρῆτο, ὅσον ἡδέως ἤσθιε·

5. πρὸς θεῶν τίς οὕτως εὐήθης ἐστὶν ὑμῶν ὅστις ἀγνοεῖ τὸν
ἐκεῖθεν πόλεμον δεῦρ’ ἥξοντα, ἂν ἀμελήσωμεν;
εὐήθης, -ες naïve
6. ὅσῳ δ’ ἂν εἴπῃς δεινότερα βακχῶν πέρι,

τοσῷδε μᾶλλον τὸν ὑποθέντα τὰς τέχνας
γυναιξὶ τόνδε τῇ δίκῃ προσθήσομεν.
δίκη, -ης, ἡ punishment
7. ἐκεῖνος δ’ εἰς τοσοῦτον μεγαλοφροσύνης ἦλθεν, ὥστε τὸν ἄλλον

χρόνον ἰδιώτης ὤν, ἐπειδὴ φεύγειν ἠναγκάσθη, τυραννεῖν ᾠήθη
δεῖν.
8. And they were annoyed then, when we thought it right that we
should legally have control over certain people.
to be annoyed ἀγανακτεῖν
legally νομίμως
to have control over ἐπάρχειν (+ Gen.)
364
9. Thus it seems to me at least that, in what way [it is] easiest, in this
way also it is best to do this.
thus οὕτως
easiest ῥᾷστος, -η, -ον
365
LESSON 44
Exclamations
44.1. Exclamatory Cries

In the English language, a number of terms are used in isolation to express
various emotions. These terms often seem to have no etymology, but are
merely grunts, cries, screams and so on: ‘wow!’, ‘whew!’, ‘aha!’, ‘ugh!’,
etc. Similarly, in Greek there are numerous terms expressing a range of
emotions. Most simply, the terms stand alone and are marked off by a full
stop or colon in modern editions of Ancient Greek writings. Alternatively,
such terms may interrupt a Greek sentence at the beginning, middle or
end, and may be separated only by commas. It may be difficult to find
suitable English equivalents for some of these terms. And sometimes
transliteration is a better solution than translation.
The English exclamation mark (!) is not normally used in Greek
punctuation. (Occasionally, some modern editors have used it.)
In Greek verse texts, some exclamatory cries are ‘outside the metre’
(extra metrum), and may or may not have a line number.
ὀτοτοτοτοῖ.
βαρεῖά γ’ ἅδε συμφορά.
οἲ μάλα καὶ τόδ’ ἀλγῶ. (A.Pers. 1043–1045.)
Ototototoi!
This calamity <is> burdensome indeed.
Alas, I am greatly pained at this too.
ὀτοτοτοτοῖ (a cry of pain or grief ) stands alone.
ὅδ’ ἐγών, οἰοῖ, αἰακτὸς
μέλεος γέννᾳ γᾷ τε πατρῴᾳ
κακὸν ἄρ’ ἐγενόμαν. (A.Pers. 931–933.)
367
Here I, alas, a lamentable,

wretched <figure>, became a disaster, then,
for my race and my fatherland!
οἰοῖ (a cry of pain, grief, pity or astonishment) interrupts the sentence.
44.2. A Cry with First Person Singular Pronoun

Reflecting the emotional involvement of an individual speaker, the first
person singular pronoun may be combined with a cry. Most often the
pronoun is a Dative of Interest (μοι), which may be repeated. Sometimes
the Nominative (ἐγώ) is added to the Dative.
ἰώ μοί μοι·
τί φῶ; (E.Hipp. 1384–1385.)
Ah me, ah me!
What am I to say?
ἰώ (a cry of grief, suffering or appeal) is used with μοι repeated.
ὤμοι ἐγώ, τί πάθω, τέκνον ἐμόν; (S.OC 216.)
Ah me, ah me! What is to become of me, my child?
ὤ (a cry of surprise, joy or pain) with μοι (Dat.) and ἐγώ (Nom.).
44.3. An Exclamation with a Causal Genitive

The reason for an exclamation may be expressed by a Causal Genitive
phrase. Such Genitive phrases may be added either to a mere cry, or to an
exclamatory Nominative phrase. (Cf. Lesson 36.6.)
ὀτοτοῖ, βασιλεῦ, στρατιᾶς ἀγαθῆς
καὶ περσονόμου τιμῆς μεγάλης,
κόσμου τ’ ἀνδρῶν,
οὓς νῦν δαίμων ἐπέκειρεν. (A.Pers. 918–921.)
Ototoi, <O> king, for the noble army
and for the great honour of Persian rule,
and for the splendour of the men,
whom now a deity <has> cut down!
The series of Genitive phrases gives the reason for the Chorus’s cry, ὀτοτοῖ.
368
LESSON 44. EXCLAMATIONS
ἰώ,
δύστανος ἐγὼ μελέα τε πόνων,
ἰώ μοί μοι, πῶς ἂν ὀλοίμαν; (E.Med. 96–97.)
Ah,
unfortunate <am> I and wretched because of my troubles,
ah me, ah me, may I perish!
The Genitive πόνων gives the reason for Medea’s exclamation that she is
unfortunate and wretched. (The term ‘<am>’ would be better omitted if
English idiom allowed, since the phrase is an exclamatory Nom. rather
than a statement.)
44.4. Exclamatory Infinitive Phrases

In English, an exclamation may be expressed in an Infinitive phrase.
Oh, to be in England
Now that April’s there … (R. Browning, Home Thoughts from Abroad,
lines 1–2.)
Exclamatory Infinitive phrases also occur in classical Greek, mainly in
drama. The Infinitive may have an explicit Accusative Subject; otherwise,
such a Subject is implied in the context. And the Infinitive may have its
own neuter Accusative definite article.
ὦ πλεῖστον ἔχθος ὄνομα Σαλαμῖνος κλύειν· (A.Pers. 284.)
Oh, <even> to hear the name of Salamis, greatest object of hate!
Infinitive phrase without definite article and without Accusative Subject.
The Messenger, who speaks the line, could easily be supplied as Accusative
Subject of the Infinitive: ‘Oh, that <I> should even hear …!’
τὸ δὲ προσδοκῆσαί σ’ – οὐκ ἀνόητον καὶ κενόν; –
ὡς δοῦλος ὢν καὶ θνητὸς Ἀλκμήνης ἔσῃ. (Ar.Ra. 530–531.)
And that you should expect – <is it> not senseless and empty-headed? –
that, although you are a slave and a mortal, you will be Alcmena’s <son>!
Infinitive phrase with definite article and with explicit Accusative Subject
(σ(ε)). (For the sake of clarity, W. B. Stanford’s punctuation has been
followed.)
369
44.5. Exclamatory Sentences Introduced

by οἷος, ὅσος or ὡς
Exclamations may be expressed in a phrase or a full sentence which is
introduced by the relative adjectives οἷος and ὅσος or by the relative
adverb ὡς. οἷος and ὅσος may be used alone as pronouns, or may
qualify a noun. ὡς may modify the verb in its sentence, or an adjective or
another adverb.
44.5.1. οἷος
οἴμοι μάλ’ αὖθις, οἷα μ’ ἐκκαλῇ, πάτερ,
φονέα γενέσθαι καὶ παλαμναῖον σέθεν. (S.Tr. 1206–1207.)
Alas yet again, to what you do summon me, father,
to become your murderer and blood-guilty!
οἷα is used as a pronoun.
οἴμοι, τέκνον, πρὸς οἷα δουλείας ζυγὰ
χωροῦμεν, οἷοι νῷν ἐφεστᾶσι σκοποί. (S.Aj. 944–945.)
Alas, <my> son, to what a yoke of slavery
we are going! What guardians stand over us both!
οἷα qualifies ζυγά, οἷοι qualifies σκοποί.
ἀλλ’ οἷον τὸν Τηλεφίδην κατενήρατο χαλκῷ,
ἥρω’ Εὐρύπυλον· (Hom.Od. 11.519–520.)
But what <a man was> that son of Telephus <whom> he killed with his
bronze spear,
the hero Eurypylus!
οἷον is used predicatively in reference to τὸν Τηλεφίδην.
44.5.2. ὅσος
ὦ τάλας, ὅσον κακὸν ἔχει δόμος· (E.Hipp. 852.)
O wretched <man>, how great a trouble the house contains!
ὅσον qualifies κακόν.
370
ὦ πλοῦτε καὶ τυραννὶ καὶ τέχνη τέχνης

ὑπερφέρουσα τῷ πολυζήλῳ βίῳ,
ὅσος παρ’ ὑμῖν ὁ φθόνος φυλάσσεται … (S.OT 380–382.)
O wealth and royal power and skill surpassing
skill in the greatly-envied life,
how great <is> the jealousy <that> is fostered among you …!
ὅσος is used predicatively in reference to ὁ φθόνος.
44.5.3. ὡς
ὦ δῶμ’, ὃ πρίν ποτ’ εὐτύχεις ἀν’ Ἑλλάδα, …
ὥς σε στενάζω, δοῦλος ὢν μέν, ἀλλ’ ὅμως […](E.Ba. 1024, 1027.)
O house, which once in the past were fortunate throughout Greece …
how I, slave though I am, nevertheless lament for you …
ὡς modifies the verb στενάζω.
ὡς θρασὺς ὁ βάκχος κοὐκ ἀγύμναστος λόγων. (E.Ba. 491.)
How bold the bacchanal and not unpractised in arguments!
ὡς modifies the adjective θρασύς.
ὦ δυσπόνητε δαῖμον, ὡς ἄγαν βαρὺς
ποδοῖν ἐνήλου παντὶ Περσικῷ γένει. (A.Pers. 515–516.)
O troublesome deity, how excessively heavily
you leapt with both feet upon all the Persian race!
ὡς modifies the adverb ἄγαν (which modifies the adj. βαρύς).
44.6. Interrogative Adjective or Adverb

It is sometimes suggested that an interrogative adjective or adverb may
introduce an exclamation. However, it seems better to regard such
sentences as being rhetorical questions, at least until the end of the classical
period. In the Hellenistic period, exclamations may be introduced by an
interrogative term. The following examples from early verse, late classical
prose and early Hellenistic verse illustrate the usage.
371
Ἀτρεΐδη, ποῖόν σε ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων;

πῶς δὴ φῂς πολέμοιο μεθιέμεν; (Hom.Il. 4.350–351.)
Son of Atreus, what word escaped from you <through> the barrier of your teeth?
How indeed do you say that <we> are holding back from war?
Although line 350 has sometimes been treated as an exclamation, it is
better understood as a rhetorical question in keeping with line 351. ποῖον
… ἔπος (350) corresponds in meaning to πῶς … φῄς (351).
πῶς μὲν γὰρ δυσδιάβατον τὸ πεδίον, εἰ μὴ νικήσομεν τοὺς
ἱππέας; πῶς δὲ ἃ διεληλύθαμεν ὄρη, ἢν πελτασταὶ τοσοίδε
ἐφέπωνται; ἢν δὲ δὴ καὶ σωθῶμεν ἐπὶ θάλατταν, πόσον τι νάπος
ὁ Πόντος; (X.An. 6.5.19–20.)
For how hard to cross <will> the plain <be>, if we do not defeat the cavalry?
And how <hard> the mountains which we have passed through, if so many
light-armed troops pursue? And if indeed we get safely to the sea, about how
big a ravine <is> the Euxine?
Xenophon, in a speech, is exhorting his troops to battle and arguing
that the ravine in front of them is no more difficult or dangerous than
the terrain or sea over which they have already passed or will have to
pass. The questions, on the borderline between literal and rhetorical,
would not make sense as exclamations. Xenophon does not want to say:
‘How difficult it will be!’
ὦ πῶς πονηρόν ἐστιν ἀνθρώπου φύσις
τὸ σύνολον· (Philemo Comicus, fr. 2; 4th–3rd century BCE.)
Oh, how evil a thing is the nature of man
in general!
Here, the interrogative form πῶς modifies the adjective πονηρόν and
is definitely exclamatory, as ὦ (or ὢ: manuscripts vary) helps to confirm.
44.7. Reported Exclamations

Smyth (1956, §§2685–2687) classifies some sentences as ‘indirect’ or
‘dependent’ exclamations, while acknowledging that it ‘is often difficult to
distinguish between indirect exclamations and indirect questions’ (§2685).
In practice, with one possible exception, all the examples in his §2686 can
372
be classified as reported questions. And none of the examples in §2687

is a reported exclamation. Instead, there are adjectival clauses (Hom.Il.
21.399; Pl.Phd. 117 C–D), a direct exclamation (Ar.Nu. 1206–1211), an
ambivalent adjectival clause or reported question (Pl.R. 329 B), a Causal
clause (Pl.Phd. 58 E) and an adverbial clause of place (Ar.V. 1450–1452,
metaphorical).
The one possible exception is Pl.Tht. 142 B. At this early stage, only
Euclides and Terpsion have been involved in the dialogue. Terpsion
exclaims:
οἷον ἄνδρα λέγεις ἐν κινδύνῳ εἶναι.
What a man you say is in danger!
The grammatical construction is Accusative and Infinitive of reported
speech. And yet, this is not a reported exclamation. For Euclides has not
said ‘What a man!’, he has only said, in different words, that Theaetetus
‘is in danger’, specifically, that he is severely wounded and has dysentery.
Terpsion himself, who is not the Subject of λέγεις, is responsible for the
exclamatory component of the sentence. The sentence is an abbreviation
of the expression ‘What a man <he is, who> you say is in danger!’ Euclides
immediately confirms this general value judgment with the specific phrase
καλόν τε καὶ ἀγαθόν.
A comment from the Chorus-leader in the Trachineae follows a similar
pattern.
ὦ τλῆμον Ἑλλάς, πένθος οἷον εἰσορῶ
ἕξουσαν ἀνδρὸς τοῦδέ γ’ εἰ σφαλήσεται. (S.Tr. 1112–1113.)
O poor Greece, what grief I see
that it will have if it is (going to be) cheated of this man!
The Vocative phrase is exclamatory, not a genuine address. The following
grammatical construction is Accusative Participle of reported mental
perception: ἕξουσαν (Acc. fem. sg.) refers to Ἑλλάς, implicitly third
person as σφαλήσεται shows.
If the reading ἀλλ’ οἷον (rather than ἀλλοῖον) is accepted, then Hom.Il.
5.638–639 would already provide another example.
373
ἀλλ’ οἷόν τινά φασι βίην Ἡρακληείην

εἶναι …
But what a <man> they say that the strength of Heracles
was …!
(The phrase ‘strength of Heracles’ for ‘strong Heracles’ is a standard idiom;
cf. Hom.Il. 2.658; 11.690.)
Each of these three examples occurs in a passage of direct speech. The speaker
is responsible for the exclamatory component of each sentence, whether she
is reporting her own observation (S.Tr.), or he is reporting an interlocutor’s
implied comment (Pl.Tht.) or the statements of people in general (Hom.Il.).
It is not so much that the sentences themselves are reported (or indirect or
dependent) exclamations. Rather, the exclamations occur in a subordinate
phrase of the sentences: Accusative and Infinitive or Participle.
References
Goodwin (1889), Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb, §§787, 805
(Infinitive).
Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§2015, 2036, 2575.4, 2681–2687.
EXERCISE 44
1. οἲ ’γὼ τάλαινα διαπεπραγμένου στρατοῦ·
ὦ νυκτὸς ὄψις ἐμφανῆ ἐνυπνίων,
ὡς κάρτα μοι σαφῶς ἐδήλωσας κακά.
διαπράσσειν to bring to an end, to destroy (here Pass.)
2. τὸ οὖν τοιούτων μὲν πέρι πολλὴν σπευδὴν ποιήσασθαι, Ἔρωτα

δὲ μηδένα πω ἀνθρώπων τετολμηκέναι εἰς ταυτηνὶ τὴν ἡμέραν
ἀξίως ὑμνῆσαι·
οὖν well then

τοιούτων (neut.) … πέρι See Lesson 42.8.
374
3. ὦ δυστάλαινα, τοιάδ’ ἄνδρα χρήσιμον

φωνεῖν, ἃ πρόσθεν οὗτος οὐκ ἔτλη ποτ’ ἄν.
ὦ δυστάλαινα The speaker addresses herself.
4. εἰ δέ γε δοῦλος ἢ ὑποβολιμαῖος τὰ μὴ προσήκοντ’ ἀπώλλυε

καὶ ἐλυμαίνετο, Ἡράκλεις ὅσῳ μᾶλλον δεινὸν καὶ ὀργῆς
ἄξιον πάντες ἂν ἔφησαν εἶναι.
ὑποβολιμαῖος, -α, -ον substituted, suppositious (esp. child)

λυμαίνεσθαι (Mid.) to misuse
Ἡράκλεις exclamatory Voc.
5. ὦ φίλτατ’, ὦ Τρυγαῖ’, ὅσ’ ἡμᾶς τἀγαθὰ

δέδρακας εἰρήνην ποιήσας·
6. ὢ ὤ,
οἷά μ’ ἐκέλευσεν ἀναπυθέσθαι σου.
ἐκέλευσεν The Subject is Peace personified (fem.).
7. φεῦ, τῶν Ἀθηνῶν ὡς στένω μεμνημένος.

8. O men, how pleasant [it is] to see your faces!
9. And how many cities he captured without crossing the ford of the
river Halys
nor rushing off from his hearth…!
ford πόρος, -ου, ὁ

Halys Ἅλυς, -υος, ὁ
to rush off σύεσθαι (Pass.), συθῆναι (Aor.)
375
Bibliography
Standard References
Goodwin, W. W. (1889). Syntax of the moods and tenses of the Greek verb (Rev. ed.).
London: Macmillan.
Liddell, H. G. & Scott, R. (1996). A Greek–English lexicon (9th ed.). (H. S. Jones
& R. McKenzie, Eds.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Montanari, F. (2015). The Brill dictionary of Ancient Greek. Leiden & Boston:
Brill.
Smyth, H. W. (1956). Greek grammar (Rev. ed.) (G. M. Messing, Ed.).

Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Other References
Allen, W. S. (1987). Vox Graeca: A guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek
(3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Denniston, J. D. (1954). The Greek particles (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon.
Gildersleeve, B. L. (1900–1911). Syntax of classical Greek from Homer to

Demosthenes (Vols 1–2). New York: American Book Company.
Hesiod. (1966). Theogony. (M. L. West, Ed.). Oxford: Clarendon.
Humbert, J. (1954). Syntaxe Grecque. (2nd ed.). Paris: Klincksiek.
Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology. (1911). On the terminology of

grammar: Being the report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Terminology.
London: J. Murray.
Kühner, R. (1890–1904). Ausführliche Grammatik der Griechischen Sprache

(Vols 1–2). (B. Gerth, Ed.). Hanover: Hahnsche Buchhandlung.
Leaf, W. & Bayfield, M. A. (Eds). (1895). The Iliad of Homer (Vol. 1, §§33–35).
London: Macmillan.
377
Masterman, K. C. (1962). On grammatical terminology and aspect in particular.

Greece and Rome, 9, 72–86.
Moorhouse, A. C. (1982). The syntax of Sophocles (Mnemosyne Supplement 75).

Leiden: Brill.
Paley, F. A. (Ed.). (1883). The Epics of Hesiod. London: Whittaker and Bell.
Palmer, L. R. (1980). The Greek language. London: Faber and Faber.
Probert, P. (2003). A new short guide to the accentuation of Ancient Greek. Bristol:
Bristol Classical Press.
Rijksbaron, A. (1994). The syntax and semantics of the verb in classical Greek
(2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Gieben.
Schwyzer, E. (1950). Syntax und Syntaktische Stilistik (Griechische Grammatik,

vol. 2). (A. Debbruner, Ed.). München: Beck.
378
Index of Passages Quoted
in the Lessons
Abbreviations of the titles of the works of Greek authors follow the usage
of H. G. Liddell and R. Scott (1996) A Greek–English lexicon. References
are made to the Lesson and Section number.
Aeschines Pr. 160–161 17.3

3.211.4 Pr. 162–163 17.5
3.1247.3 Pr. 173–177 32.3.2.1
Pr. 211–213 18.4
Aeschylus Pr. 247 17.1
Ag. 49 42.9 Pr. 253 17.1
Ag. 861–862 41.1.1 Pr. 294–295 18.4
Ag. 1056–1057 27.1 Pr. 299–302 17.3
Ch. 195 11.2.1.1 Pr. 302–303 17.1
Eu. 611–613 18.3 Pr. 377–378 17.1
Eu. 674–675 10.4.1 Pr. 485–486 18.4
Pers. 284 44.4 Pr. 500–504 17.5
Pers. 515–516 44.5.3 Pr. 520 10.3.6
Pers. 731 39.4.3.2 Pr. 564–565 18.4
Pers. 742 30.2.2 Pr. 616–617 2.3.3
Pers. 918–921 44.3 Pr. 648–649 6.2
Pers. 931–933 44.1 Pr. 717–718 25.2
Pers. 1043–1045 44.1 Pr. 735–737 17.1
Pr. 3–4 25.2 Pr. 764–765 7.3
Pr. 29–32 25.5 Pr. 825 32.2
Pr. 35 25.4.3 Pr. 997 18.1
Pr. 36 17.5 Pr. 1073–1075 42.6
Pr. 41 17.1 Suppl. 398–399 26.2
Pr. 48 11.2.2.2 Th. 247 5.2
Pr. 115 17.3 Th. 261 10.3.6
Pr. 135 9.4 Th. 550–551 11.1.2
Pr. 153–155 11.2.1.2
379
Andocides Demosthenes
1.25.1.4 1.335.7
1.125.1.2 1.124.3.2
1.1213.3 3.2230.3.1
1.1415.3 4.1529.9
1.1714.2 6.288.4.2
1.1913.3 8.5335.6.1
1.282.3.1 9.1637.1.8
1.4114.2 9.4524.3.5
1.4114.3 9.6041.2.3
1.454.3.2 15.534.2.5
1.512.3.2 18.71 (twice) 17.2
1.555.1.5 18.12543.3.2
1.595.1.3 18.14235.4.1
1.6413.3 18.22022.1
1.1095.1.1 18.29234.2.2
1.1368.4.1 19.9935.5
1.13722.1 19.17916.3
1.14922.7 19.31627.5
3.324.3.2 21.22135.6.4
22.1734.2.4
Antiphon 22.4123.1.1
1.139.3.7 23.1241.1.3
23.7918.3
Aristophanes
24.929.6.9
Ach. 221–222 26.2 28.2343.3.3
Ach. 639–640 19.4.3 33.1118.1
Ec. 300–301 24.2.1 35.2637.1.4
Ec. 1038–1040 23.1.2 37.453.5.3
Eq. 36 11.5 42.2238.10
Eq. 698–699 20.2.2.2 43.5541.1.3
Lys. 1276–1277 24.5 43.6118.1
Nu. 296–297 10.3.5 49.1735.4.1
Nu. 832–833 22.3
Ra. 524–525 10.3.4 Euripides
Ra. 530–531 44.4 Alc. 24–26 38.2
Ra. 748 34.2.2 Alc. 32–33 38.3
Ra. 1006–1007 34.2.6 Alc. 40 40.2.1
V. 37 2.3.1 Alc. 43 39.4.1
Alc. 138–139 40.2.1
380
INDEX OF PASSAGES QUOTED IN THE LESSONS
Alc. 199–200 41.2.2 Med. 96–97 44.3

Alc. 540 19.4.2 Med. 153–154 38.6
Alc. 625–62736.7 Med. 269–270 15.4
Alc. 63636.2 Med. 350–351 15.3
Alc. 642 41.1.3 Med. 352–354 19.2.1
Alc. 696–698 39.4.2.2 Med. 529 40.2.3
Alc. 707 36.7 Med. 566–567 41.2.1.3
Alc. 731 40.2.2 Med. 579 37.2.6
Alc. 734–736 40.3.1 Med. 636 11.1.1
Alc. 774–775 40.3.5 Med. 645–648 38.7
Alc. 800–802 41.2.1.4 Med. 7037.3
Alc. 821 36.7 Med. 1059–1061 37.1.8
Alc. 1072–1074 11.2.1.1 Med. 1169–1170 29.6.3
Andr. 1–636.8 Med. 1271 17.4
Ba. 1 37.2.1 Med. 1306–1307 33.4
Ba. 216–220 25.6 Med. 1409–1412 29.4.1
Ba. 341 2.3.2 Ph. 263–26435.4.2
Ba. 491 44.5.3 Ph. 762 42.9
Ba. 519–532 36.8 Ph. 1174–1176 29.6.7
Ba. 718–721 11.5 Supp. 120 27.3
Ba. 945–946 40.3.3 Tr. 636–637 3.5.3
Ba. 1024...1027 44.5.3 Tr. 1165–1166 25.7
Ba. 1043–1045 31.3.1
Ba. 1058–106212.2 Herodotus
Hel. 267–268 25.7 1.3323.2
Hel. 462 7.3 1.50.39.3.2
Hel. 597–598 37.2.2 1.65.531.3.1
Hipp. 498–499 10.3.4 1.73.323.3
Hipp. 518 35.6.1 1.82.732.3.2.2
Hipp. 852 44.5.2 1.86.229.4.7
Hipp. 1265–1267 29.4.3 1.89.325.2
Hipp. 1384–1385 44.2 1.91.13.4.1
Hipp. 1402 39.4.3.1 1.94.138.8
IA 1467–1469 37.1.5 1.115.242.7
IT 157–166 36.8 1.126.54.4
IT 260–261 42.6 1.129.239.2.3
IT 588–590 27.4 1.134.141.2.3
Med. 1–2 42.4 1.134.241.2.3
Med. 6–8 37.2.6 1.15423.3
Med. 95 2.3.3 1.178.339.3.7
381
3.44.210.4.1 Th. 280–283 23.1.4.

3.72.325.4.1 Th. 533–534 9.3.4
3.122.315.5
3.135.210.4.2 Homer
3.135.335.5 Il. 1.35–4312.1
3.142.524.6 Il. 2.80–81 20.3.1
4.43.135.2 Il. 2.527–529 28.5
4.62.239.3.5 Il. 3.39–40 11.2.2.3
4.68.137.1.8 Il. 4.350–351 44.6
4.68.237.1.8 Il. 4.415–416 20.2.2.2
4.140.142.7 Il. 5.597–600 28.4.3
5.841.1.1 Il. 5.638–639 44.7
5.15.1, 3 15.5 Il. 6.345–347 11.2.2.3
5.36.440.2.4 Il. 8.477–47926.3.5
5.49.234.2.1 Il. 9.165–166 27.4
5.62.339.2.4 Il. 9.385–387 32.2
5.82.322.5 Il. 9.697–699 11.2.2.2
5.101.129.4.5 Il. 11.386–387 20.2.2.2
5.109.224.2.1 Il. 11.670–672 11.2.3
6.49.3.2 Il. 12.24635.7
6.5.237.2.6 Il. 13.491–493 28.4.2
6.65.122.5 Il. 15.288–289 16.2
7.8.α.224.3.1 Il. 16.663–665 3.4.3.1
7.23.433.1.2.1 Il. 17.70–71 20.3.2
7.49.441.2.3 Il. 17.556–558 20.2.1
7.107.131.3.1 Il. 18.107 11.1.3
7.121.237.1.7 Il. 20.403–404 28.4.3
7.147.113.3 Il. 21.311–312 39.3.7
8.22.122.2 Il. 22.86–88 20.2.2.2
8.98.129.6.6 Il. 23.584–585 16.3
8.108.213.3 Od. 1.9 42.2
8.113.339.4.2.1 Od. 1.37 42.1
8.143.311.3 Od. 1.48–50 42.3
8.144.530.3.2 Od. 1.75 42.3
9.46.335.4.2 Od. 1.372–37427.5
9.11710.4.2 Od. 1.384–385 37.1.3
Od. 2.372 16.3
Hesiod Od. 4.391–392 20.2.2.2
Op. 36325.3.2 Od. 7.204–206 20.2.2.1
Sc. 5–6 9.3.4 Od. 8.221 14.4
382
Od. 8.479–481 37.1.3 12.1129.3.4

Od. 11.519–520 44.5.1 12.139–14129.3.2
Od. 13.128–129 23.1.4 15.1543.3.4
Od. 13.291–292 26.3.1 15.7433.2
Od. 13.293–29426.2 15.8332.3.1
Od. 14.274–275 11.2.2.3 15.8831.2.2
Od. 14.331–332 16.3 15.21822.4
Od. 15.34–35 25.4.1 15.27843.6.2
Od. 15.341–342 11.1.2 16.532.3.2.2
Od. 18.272–273 30.2.1 16.943.5
Od. 19.589–590 20.3.3 16.943.6.1
Od. 22.27–28 10.3.2 16.2235.3
17.1439.2.6
Isaeus 17.2235.6.1
2.2818.5 17.2434.3.1
8.3435.4.1 18.1710.4.1
10.111.4 21.1613.2
18.1916.3
Lysias
Isocrates 1.2124.6
2.2328.3 10.1115.2
2.497.3 12.2726.3.3
4.9141.1.1 12.7421.3
4.1292.3.2 12.5839.3.2
4.14132.2 12.8611.4
5.12325.6 13.939.3.4
6.4034.3.1 14.1139.3.6
6.5219.4.3 14.2139.5
6.5634.3.1 14.2439.3.3
6.928.3 19.3216.2
7.5934.3.2 21.1224.2.4
7.8134.2.1 23.437.1.1
8.1934.3.2 24.414.2
8.5325.2 24.1513.2
8.111–11222.1 25.3329.5
8.12934.4 30.539.3.7
9.78.6 30.3234.4
10.6041.2.3 31.1516.2
11.724.3.5 31.3134.4
12.8029.5 32.837.2.3
383
Philemo Comicus R. 415 B 10.4.2

fr. 2 44.6 R. 526 C 18.2
Smp. 172 A 4.3.3
Plato Smp. 172 B 12.4
Ap. 17 C 21.2 Smp. 172 C 4.3.1
Ap. 19 C 6.2 Smp. 173 B–C 22.3
Ap. 20 E 10.2 Smp. 173 E 3.4.1
Ap. 21 A 10.2 Smp. 173 E–174 A 3.4.2
Ap. 27 A 28.4.2 Tht. 142 A 34.4
Ap. 27 C 23.1.1 Tht. 142 B 44.7
Ap. 30 C 40.2.8
Septuagint
Ap. 33 E 22.3
Ap. 34 C 28.4.1 Tobit 2.14 40.2.7
Ap. 35 D 3.5.4
Sophocles
Ap. 38 C 26.3.1
Ap. 39 D 3.5.3 Aj. 265–267 17.2
Ap. 41 A–B 23.4 Aj. 387–391 11.1.4
Cri. 49 D 24.2.2 Aj. 539 41.2.1.3
Cri. 51 B–C 8.7 Aj. 657–658 33.3
Euthphr. 3 B 27.3 Aj. 762–763 36.3
Euthphr. 4 D 34.2.3 Aj. 810 33.1.2.2
Euthphr. 10 A 23.1.1 Aj. 879–887 11.1.4
Grg. 522 E 35.3 Aj. 887–8893.4.1
Hp.Ma. 282 E 16.1 Aj. 944–945 44.5.1
Leg. 705 E 42.9 Aj. 964–965 41.1.3
Phd. 59 E 10.4.2 Ant. 371 42.9
Phd. 67 A 30.2.2 Ant. 453–455 22.1
Phd. 81 D–E 30.4 Ant. 502–504 42.10
Phd. 89 C 24.2.3 Ant. 678 8.8
Phd. 105 E 17.1 Ant. 750–751 4.3.2
Phlb. 27 C 17.1 Ant. 752 4.3.2
Prt. 356 C 23.1.4 Ant. 885–887 10.3.3
R. 332 A 43.2 Ant. 891–894 36.6
R. 340 E 43.3.1 Ant. 927–928 11.1.1
R. 341 C 43.3.5 Ant. 1087–1088 36.7
R. 350 C 43.2 El. 379–381 33.3
R. 351 E–352 A 43.2 El. 404 33.1.1
R. 361 B–C 36.2 El. 446–448 17.1
R. 377 B–C 25.3.1 El. 814–816 17.1
R. 379 B 25.3.2 El. 1259 33.1.2.2
384
El. 1315–1317 22.1 Ph. 882–883 4.3.3

El. 1344 5.2 Ph. 961–962 32.3.2.1
OC 38 39.2.1 Ph. 1026–1028 40.3.4
OC 52 43.4 Ph. 1035–1039 23.1.2
OC 216 44.2 Ph. 1241 29.4.4
OC 377–381 6.5.1 Ph. 1242 29.2.3
OC 656–657 15.3 Ph. 1301 37.1.6
OC 791 17.1 Ph. 1348–1349 36.5
OC 956 10.3.1 Ph. 1469–1471 2.3.2
OC 1486–1487 17.1 Tr. 438–439 25.4.1
OT 198–199 20.2.2.1 Tr. 445–446 7.3
OT 224–22625.4.1 Tr. 706 15.3
OT 284–285 40.2.5 Tr. 903–905 33.3
OT 316–317 33.1.2.2 Tr. 1112–1113 44.7
OT 380–382 44.5.2 Tr. 1206–1207 44.5.1
OT 393–394 39.2.2 Tr. 1227 37.1.7
OT 603–604 37.3
OT 616 24.5 Theognis
OT 838 5.2 555–55642.4
OT 863–865 11.1.3
Thucydides
OT 1009 42.4
OT 1014–1016 41.1.3 1.1.11.2.2
OT 1216–1218 11.2.1.2 1.5.142.7
OT 1255–1257 18.5 1.5.39.3.4
OT 1367 18.5 1.6.59.3.4
OT 1387–1389 29.6.5 1.79.3.4
OT 1442–1443 33.1.1 1.8.34.3.2
OT 1455–1456 15.3 1.10.25.3
Ph. 45 27.1 1.10.540.2.6
Ph. 50–51 27.1 1.11.24.3.1
Ph. 58–59 37.1.7 1.18.138.4
Ph. 83–85 2.3.1 1.1941.1.2
Ph. 101 41.2.1.1 1.20.16.4
Ph. 118 29.6.4 1.22.328.3
Ph. 124 27.5 1.26.229.11.3
Ph. 229 2.3.1 1.26.321.3
Ph. 302–303 33.4 1.27.229.11.2
Ph. 451–452 36.3 1.28.16.2
Ph. 714–715 41.1.2 1.31.29.3.3
Ph. 734 17.1 1.31.4–1.32.112.3
385
1.35.437.2.5 2.84.216.2
1.36.412.3 2.87.53.5.2
1.38.419.4.1 2.88.34.3.1
1.40.226.3.4 2.90.227.5
1.47.338.5 2.90.416.2
1.49.331.3.2 2.93.43.5.3
1.53.229.4.2 2.93.414.7
1.57.424.3.2 2.99.124.3.1
1.64.116.1 3.1.233.1.3.2
1.6636.1 3.9.219.4.2
1.72.18.3 3.22.832.3.2.2
1.82.524.2.1 3.33.235.7
1.86.19.3.3 3.34.133.1.3.1
1.90.534.4 3.36.542.7
1.91.514.3 3.45.48.5
1.98.341.1.2 3.6014.3
1.109.442.10 3.81.39.3.3
1.123.140.2.7 3.96.16.3
1.134.139.3.1 3.112.633.4
1.139.16.3 4.17.26.4
1.142.129.11.1 4.20.36.2
1.142.429.6.2 4.23.114.2
1.143.533.1.2.1 4.27.135.4.1
1.144.13.5.3 4.35.240.3.2
2.2.141.1.2 4.38.312.5
2.5.237.2.2 4.55.335.4.1
2.5.514.6 4.65.323.1.3
2.11.53.5.5 4.66.339.2.5
2.20.114.7 4.70.232.2
2.20.43.4.3.3 4.80.121.3
2.44.125.7 4.85.438.9
2.44.43.5.1 4.110.215.3
2.48.242.6 4.128.216.1
2.55.133.1.3.1 5.128.2
2.59.223.3 5.5.139.2.1
2.62.229.10 5.11.1015.2
2.67.332.2 5.14.339.3.5
2.75.13.5.3 5.21.313.3
2.76.335.4.2 5.29.28.5
2.81.431.4.1 5.34.133.1.3.2
386
5.34.24.3.2 Cyr. 1.2.6 13.2

5.35.431.4.2 Cyr. 1.2.10 18.4
5.37.137.1.4 Cyr. 1.3.8 25.3.1
5.55.114.5 Cyr. 1.4.17 16.1
5.56.542.4 Cyr. 1.4.18 5.2
5.63.425.2 Cyr. 1.4.25 15.4
5.65.36.5.2 Cyr. 1.5.2 10.4.1
5.83.413.3 Cyr. 1.5.5 37.1.2
6.10.532.3.2.1 Cyr. 1.5.13 25.6
6.23.24.3.2 Cyr. 1.6.36 41.2.1.2
6.34.235.7 Cyr. 2.1.16 34.3.1
6.36.125.4.2 Cyr. 2.1.29 24.3.3
6.50.137.1.7 Cyr. 2.2.8 32.3.2.2
7.39.237.2.4 Cyr. 2.3.635.5
7.47.421.4 Cyr. 2.4.6 30.2.1
7.48.421.5 Cyr. 2.4.23 3.5.3
7.56.126.3.5 Cyr. 2.4.23 29.3.1
7.66.330.3.2 Cyr. 3.2.13 18.3
7.67.335.6.2 Cyr. 3.3.18 35.2
7.71.532.3.1 Cyr. 4.2.22 3.4.3.2
7.77.66.3 Cyr. 4.5.41 33.1.2.2
8.18.129.8 Cyr. 5.2.12 18.3
8.68.125.4.3 Cyr. 5.3.25 31.2.1
Cyr. 5.4.21 24.6
Xenophon Cyr. 5.5.24 29.6.1
Ages. 1.26 22.3 Cyr. 6.2.924.3.3
Ages. 1.31 15.2 Cyr. 6.2.9 27.1
Ages. 2.8 24.3.3 Cyr. 7.1.8 17.1
Ages. 3.512.4 Cyr. 7.1.1036.4
Ages. 7.7 24.3.2 Cyr. 8.3.8 33.2
An. 1.9.10 21.3 Eq. 12.1 11.3
An. 2.1.3 13.4 Eq.Mag. 1.3 24.2.2
An. 2.1.4 11.2.2.1 HG 1.6.35 29.2.1
An. 2.2.16 24.3.4 HG 2.3.13 33.2
An. 3.3.4 42.7 HG 3.1.6 40.2.7
An. 3.3.16 29.7.2 HG 4.5.18 3.4.3.4
An. 3.5.5 24.5 HG 4.8.5 29.4.6
An. 6.5.19–20 44.6 HG 6.4.27 35.5
An. 7.2.25 18.1 HG 6.5.37 24.3.3
Ap. 5 34.2.7 HG 7.2.13 29.7.1
387
HG 7.4.10 22.5
HG 7.5.24 35.6.3
Hier. 11.1135.7
Hier. 4.3 27.1
Mem. 1.2.19 13.2
Mem. 1.2.41 16.1
Mem. 2.1.14 27.4
Mem. 4.2.3 29.6.8
Mem. 4.2.10 29.2.2
Oec. 5.11 34.3.1
Oec. 7.38 8.8
Smp. 4.1 15.4
Smp. 4.16 24.2.4
Vect. 4.32 35.6.3
388

Intermediate Ancient Greek Language

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Intermediate Ancient Greek Language

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Intermediate Ancient Greek Language

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

INTERMEDIATE

The full licence terms are available at

Cover design and layout by ANU Press

Abbreviations and Symbols xiii

abs. absolute Intr. Intransitive

Angular brackets enclose words supplied in translation: <…>.

Subjunctive and Optative Moods in Main clauses in Lesson 2. In addition

Accent marks indicate how a pitch accent was probably pronounced

1.2. Forms and Functions

1.2.1. Present Time

This Tense form is properly Present Imperfect. However, there is no

It is generally agreed that, at the earliest stage of its development,

1.2.2. Past Time

‘Stopping’ is by nature a momentary action. ‘Fighting’ a battle or a war

1.2.3. Future Time

Future as a desiderative Mood in origin. Alternatively, the Future could

ἑστήξω I shall have stood, (hence) I shall stand

Those verbs that form a regular Future Perfect Middle/Passive mostly

1.3. Time and Aspect (Summary)

Masterman (1962), On grammatical terminology and aspect in particular,

Palmer (1980), The Greek language, pp. 261, 292–307, 310–311.

Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§355–380, 1850–1858, 1875–1965.

αἰτεῖν (Act. and Mid.) to ask, to request

2. τὰ μὲν γενόμενα ἠκούσατε, ὦ ἄνδρες, καὶ ὑμῖν οἱ μάρτυρες

μέν Anticipates a following δέ and should not

3. μετὰ δὲ τὴν δευτέραν ἐσβολὴν τῶν Πελοποννησίων οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι,

δεύτερος, -α, -ον second

μάχη, -ης, ἡ battle

νικᾶν to beat, to defeat

6. πλεῖστον δή, οἶμαι, ἀληθοῦς ἡδονῆς καὶ οἰκείας ὁ τύραννος

πλεῖστον (neut. Acc.) most (i.e. furthest) (adv.)

7. And yet what was I intending, if I informed against my father, as

and yet καίτοι

ἐχθρούς γε μέντοι μὴ φίλους δράσειέ τι. (E.Med. 95.)

Ιω οὔκουν πόροις ἂν τήνδε δωρειὰν ἐμοί;

Smyth (1956), Greek grammar, §§1795–1811, 1814–1842, 1859–1864, 2212.

2. μέμνησθε δέ, ὦ ἄνδρες, ὅτι καὶ ταῦθ’ ὑμῖν προσομολογεῖται

μέμνησθε Perf. Impv. with Imperf. meaning: remember

3. τὸν θεὸν δ’ ἐς γῆν δέχου

στέφειν (Act. and to wreathe

4. … περὶ δὲ τῆς εἰρήνης πρῶτον διαλεχθῶμεν, καὶ σκεψώμεθα τί

διαλέγεσθαι (Mid.) to discuss (Aor. Pass. in Act. sense)

5. ἀλλ’ εὖ σ’ ὁ Μαίας παῖς ἐκεῖσε καὶ πάλιν

ἀλλ(ά) well (introducing a prayer: Denniston, 1954,

6. … πολὺ ἂν μᾶλλον καταφρονηθεῖμεν καὶ μισηθεῖμεν τῶν ταῖς

7. ποῖ γὰρ τράπωμαι πατρίδος ἐκβεβλημένη;

τρέπεσθαι (Mid.) to turn (Intr.)

8. ἀλλ’, ὦ ξέν’, ἴσθι τοῦτο πρῶτον, οὕνεκα

ἀλλά well (assentient: Denniston, 1954, p. 18)

9. τίς ὁδῷ, τίς ὁδῷ; τίς

μέλαθρον, -ου, τό hall

A ‘Future Perfect’ Infinitive form μεμνήσεσθαι (Mid./Pass.) occurs in

3.4. Infinitive without Article

3.4.1. Infinitive as Subject

τὴν πεπρωμένην μοῖραν ἀδύνατα ἐστὶ ἀποφυγεῖν καὶ θεῷ·

3.4.2. Infinitive as Object

3.4.3. Infinitive Expressing Purpose

3.4.3.1. Infinitive with Verbs

3.4.3.2. Infinitive with Nouns

3.4.3.3. Infinitive with Adjectives