Module 1 • 1.

1 Definition, nature and scope of

Political Science

Introduction • 1.2 Approaches to the Study of Political

Theory: Traditional/Normative
• 1.3 Approaches to the Study of Political
to Political Theory: Behaviouralism and Post-
Behaviouralism
Science
Defining Politics
• Politics is the activity through which people make, preserve and
amend the general rules under which they live. Politics is thus
inextricably linked to the phenomena of conflict and cooperation.

• Politics as an art of government

• Politics as public affairs

• Politics as compromise and consensus

• Politics as power
David Easton's Systems Theory
 • When an organization is designed to regulate
the whole community, it takes the character
of polity.
• Aristotle described man by nature a ‘political
animal’
NATURE AND
• The terms ‘polity’, ‘politics’ and political are
SIGNIFICANCE derived from the Greek word ‘polis’ which
stood for ancient Greek city-state.
OF POLITICAL
• Today we draw a distinction between public
THEORY and private spheres of human life and confine
the usage of the term ‘politics’ to the
institutions and activities falling the public
domain.
 • The political theory refers to a systematic
knowledge of political phenomena.
• Political Theory is concerned with three types
of statements:
What is Political • Empirical statement: sense experience
theory? • Logical statement: reasoning
• Evaluative statement: value judgement
Political Philosophy Positivism Logical Positivism

A branch of learning which is

Relies on scientific method as
primarily concerned with moral Founded by German
the only source of true
and substantive dimensions of Sociologist Max Weber
knowledge
politics.

Pursuit of good life, good and It rejects superstition, religion

Reliable and valid knowledge
evil,Virtue and vice, Means and and metaphysics as pre-
only by empirical method
ends, Right and wrong scientific forms of thought.

Issues of norms and values,

All knowledge is based on Values are beyond the scope of
Vision of an ideal state and
sense experience scientific knowledge
society
 Analyse the statement

"India is a patriarchal society."

 Scope of Political
Theory

Focus of Study Method of study

Political Normative
Political Concepts Descriptive
Institutions and Philosophical
and Ideas Scientific Method
Behaviour Method
 FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL THEORY

Description
(Political science- Reconstruction
Criticism (Political
practical (Political
Philosophy)
experience- Philosophy)
reliable)
 • Political Science relies on empirical and
logical statements
• Correct observation and correct reasoning
by different people would lead to
similar conclusion.
• Capable of verification
Politics: Is it a
• Evaluative statements are based on
science? individual or group preferences which differ
from individual to individual or group
to group.
• There is no reliable method of determining
what is wrong or right, good or bad.
 Nature of Political
Science

Generalisation
Observation-sense Prediction and
observation of Explanation
experience prescription
regularities
 TRADITIONAL APPROACHES

Philosophical Approach Historical Approach Legal Approach Institutional Approach

• Evolving standard • Historical Account • Inadequate • Neglected the

of right and wrong of political thought of in understanding individual
• Subject of current the past the complex political • Neglected the study
and continuous • All great forces which of International
debate politicalTheories are operate outside the Politics
valid at all times legal • Neglected violence
formal framework.
• Neglected the role
of informal groups
 NORMATIVE APPROACH

• Normative approach poses questions based on ‘norms’ or ‘standards’ in the

study of social sciences with an aim to appraise values.
• Unlike the empirical approach that is concerned about ‘what happened and
why’ the normative approach emphasises ‘what should have happened.'
 NORMATIVE APPROACH

• What should be the end of political institutions?

• What should inform the relationship between the individual and other social
organisations?
• What arrangements in society can become model or ideal and what rules and
principles should govern it?
 SHORTCOMINGS OF NORMATIVE
APPROACH

• At times normative approach vindicates the socio-political or religious bias of its

adherent.
• For instance the prominent political philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle
justified the institution of slavery on account of disparities between the intrinsic
capabilities and natures of a slave and a freeman. Similar prejudices also prevailed in
the matter of suppression of the position of woman.Their assumptions were
obviously not based on empirical studies but emanated from the value system of
those times.The advancements in the fields of social and biological sciences have
now established that the assumptions of Plato and Aristotle were unfounded.
• Another criticism that is usually directed towards normative approach is that it
fails to provide a reasonable criterion to determine what is wrong or what is right.
• Normative political theory leans heavily towards political philosophy, because it
derives its knowledge of the good life from it and also uses it as a framework
in its endeavour to create absolute norms

• The exponents of empirical theory criticise normativism for

• a) Relativity of values
• b) Cultural basis of ethics and norms
• c) Ideological content in the enterprise and
• d) Abstract and utopian nature of the project
Genesis of Behavioural Approach
• Behaviouralism has been one of the most important developments in
Political Science during the Twentieth Century. The study of political
behaviour in the USA started when Graham Wallas and A.F. Bentley
advocated the study of actual phenomenon of politics in 1908.

• Graham Wallas held that politics without the study of psychology of

individuals was meaningless.

• As behaviour played an important role in political phenomenon,

Bentley highlighted its significant role among groups.
 Graham Wallas

Human Nature in
Politics
Greater emphasis on
informal processes of politics
and less on political
institutions in isolation
The Process of
Government Arthur Bentley
• Although stymied during the Second World War, the Behavioural
Revolution re-entered the political science arena with full force after
the war was over. Political scientists came under the influence of
prominent sociologists like Mosca, Weber, Parsons, Merton, etc. and
realised the urgent need for resolving social problems caused by the
Second World War. This could not be done without examining the
behaviour of concerned individuals.
 DAVID EASTON’S TENETS OF BEHAVIOURALISM

Regularities Verification Techniques

Quantification Values Systematization

Pure Science Integration

David Easton's Eight features of Behaviouralism
• regularities in human behaviour;
• a preference for verification and testing rather than taking things for granted;
• application of correct techniques for acquisition and interpretation of scientific
data;
• emphasis on measurement and quantification for predicting a political result;
• belief in value-free study;
• belief in systematic study of political science, which should be 'theory-oriented'
and 'theory-directed';
• insistence on 'pure-science' approach;
• belief that social and political phenomena cannot be studied in isolation and
therefore an inter-disciplinary approach is crucial.
Perspectives on Behavioural Approach
• According to Heinz Eulau, "Modern behavioural science is eminently concerned
not only with the acts of man, but also with his cognitive, effective and evaluative
process. Behaviour in political field refers not simply to directly or indirectly
observable political action, but also to those perceptual, motivational and
attitudinal components of behaviour which make for man's political
identification, demands and his system of political benefits, values and goals".

• According to Robert Dahl, behavioural approach "Is an attempt to improve our

understanding of points by seeking to explain the empirical aspects of political life
by means of methods, theories and criteria of proof that are acceptable
according to canons and assumptions of modern political science".
• According to the Committee on Political Behaviour of the American
Political Science Association, "Roughly defined, the term
political behaviour comprehends those actions and interactions of
men and groups which are involved in the process of governing…It is
rather an orientation, a point of view which aims at understanding all
the phenomena of government in terms of the observed and
observable behaviour of men… The ultimate goal of the student of
political behaviour is the development of a science of the
political process".
• According to Dwight Waldo, "Behaviouralism was not and is not a clear
and firm creed, an agreed upon set of postulates and rules".

• Some general characteristics of Behaviouralism are as follows:

• it has made the individual the focus of attention in the study of political
phenomena;
• it stresses the special importance of scientific outlook and objectivity in the
study of political science;
• it is considered as a methodological revolution in political science;
• it emphasizes on inter-disciplinary study of political science; the possible effects
of social, cultural and personal factors on political behaviour should be taken
into account;
• it aims to build a scientific theory with the help of observation and
experimentation, which may predict things and be applied universally.
How has Behavioural contributed to the study of Politics?

The behavioural approach is known to have made remarkable

contribution to the study of political science particularly in the area of:
• Case study and analysis,
• Observations and interviews,
• Use of statistical inputs,
• Content analysis,
• Other approaches like structure functionalism and systems approach
Criticisms on Behavioural Approach
1. It is concerned more with techniques than results;
2. It advocates personal or private interests at the cost of universal interests;
3. It has neglected the effects of institutions on society and targeted their efforts mostly on behavioural
aspects of individuals and groups;
4. Politics can never be value-free as claimed by the behaviouralists;
5. There are difficulties associated with the ever-changing behaviour of man and no correct prediction can
be made about future behaviour of individuals and groups;
6. It depends too much on other branches of social science like sociology and anthropology;
7. It places too much emphasis on political behaviour of man but do not apply their research to
current problems;
8. It provides only a limited knowledge about the political behaviour of man, but does not provide real
knowledge to solve urgent problems facing the world.
 How did Post-Behavioralism emerge?
• In 1969, David Easton, address to the American Political Science Association ,
declared the end of behavioural revolution and the beginning of a new era in
the study of politics, popularly called 'Post-Behaviouralism'. As claimed by
Easton, its main thesis is 'relevance' and 'action’.
• There were certain important political events that took place during the late
1950s and early 1960s in the United States of America.
• assassination of President Kennedy, the protests against the Vietnam
War, rising discontents with unemployment and racial discrimination in
public policies, the emergence of radical feminism and so on.
• The behaviouralists could neither predict about this turmoil nor offer any
useful solutions to these burning issues.

• While stating the limitations of behaviouralism and offered seven fundamental

theoretical elements of a new method of political analysis that he called as
‘Post-behaviouralism’.
 Features: Post-Behavioralism
1. Post-behaviouralism should focus on the substance rather than the techniques.

2. Behaviouralism had conceived of the ideology of an ‘empirical conservatism’ tempered by modest implementational
changes – that should be rejected.

3. Behaviouralism may lose touch with the political reality for its superficial methodology, so Post-behaviouralism should work
in times of crisis.

4. Values are indispensable parts of the study of politics. So Political Science can never be evaluatively neutral. In Post-
behaviouralism facts and values should be fused together.

5. The role of the intellectuals must be to protect the human values of the civilization.

6. To know is to bear responsibility for acting and to act is to engage in reshaping society.

7. Intellectuals and their organizations should be involved in active politics; they cannot stand apart from the struggle of the
day. So, the thrust was given on relevance and action.