EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 1

AIM: DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS BY FLEXURE METHOD:

THEORY: Hooke's law states that within elastic limit, the stress generated within the body is
proportional to the strain. If a light bar of breadth b and depth d is placed horizontally on two
knife edges surface by a distance l and a load of mass m, applied a t the midpoint of the bar,
produces a depression S of the bar, then Young's modulus Y of the material of the bar is
given by

gl 3 m
Y =( )
4bd 3 

Where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Drawing a graph : draw a graph with load m in gm Along x axis and corresponding depression 
in cm along y axis. The nature of this graph known as load depression graph, will be straight
line passed through the origin. This verifies the Hooke's Law. Draw the two load depression
graph for two values of l . Calculate [m/ ] from the graph, and determine Y from the mean
value of m/ ]Fig

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1) a beam AB, 2) two stands with two knife edges N1 and N2, 3) frame F, 4) microscope, 5)
weights (each 500gm).6) Slide callipers

PROCEDURE:

1. Determine the vernier constant of the slide calipers and traveling microscope.
2. Measure depths and breadths of the beam at several points along the length of the beam

using slide calipers.

3. Arrange the beam AB over two knife edges K1 and K2 and measure the separation

between K1 and K2 and record it as L.

4. Bring the frame C to the middle of the beam. A cross mark is made on the frame which

should be in the middle of the beam.

5. Focus the travelling microscope on the cross- mark.

6. Suspend the hanger from the hook and take the reading of travelling microscope.

7. Put weights (each 500 gm) over the hanger one by one and take reading from the

travelling microscope carefully. Take both the readings for loading and unloading of

the weights.

OBSERVATION:

Table:1

Determination of the vernier constant of travelling microscope:

……divisions (say,m) of the vernier scale=……… divisions (say, n) of the main scale.

Value of 1 smallest Value of 1 smallest vernier Vernier constant

main scale division (l1) scale division (l2 = n/m l1) V.C.= (l1 – l2)
cm cm cm
 Table:2

Determination of the vernier constant of Slide Callierpers:

……divisions (say,m) of the vernier scale=……… divisions (say, n) of the main scale.

Value of 1 smallest Value of 1 smallest vernier Vernier constant

main scale division (l1) scale division (l2 = n/m l1) V.C.= (l1 – l2)
cm cm cm

Table:3

Data for determining the thickness 'd' of the beam:

Sl. No. Main scale Vernier scale Thickness 'd' in Mean 'd' in
reading in reading in
cm cm
cm cm

Table:4

Data for determining the breadth 'b' of the beam:

Sl. No. Main scale Vernier scale Breadth 'b' in Mean 'b' in
reading in reading in
cm cm
cm cm
 Table:5

Determination of the vernier constant of Travelling microscope:

……divisions (say,m) of the vernier scale=……… divisions (say, n) of the main scale.

Value of 1 smallest Value of 1 smallest vernier Vernier constant

main scale division (l1) scale division (l2 = n/m l1) V.C.= (l1 – l2)
cm cm cm

Table:6

Measurement for the depression for loading and unloading for a length;

Length between the two knife edge L: cm

No of Load Travelling Microscope reading in cm Mean Depression

obs. in cm for weight
gm δ in cm
Loading reading Unloading reading
cm cm
m.s.r v.s.r Total (a) m.s.r v.s.r Total(b) (a+b)/2

500
1000
1500
2000
2500

CALCULATION:

gl 3 m
Y =( )
4bd 3 

RESULTS:

The Young’s modulus Y of the material of the beam determined from the graph = dynes/cm2

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
δY/Y= 3 δL/L + δb/b +3 δd/d + δl/l

DISCUSSION:

1) In the expression for Y both the length L between the Knife edges and the depth d of the
bar occur in powers of three. But as d is much smaller than l, much care should be taken to
measure d to minimize the proportion error.
2) Care should be taken to make the beam horizontal and load the bar at its midpoint.

Question for viva :

1. Define the stress & strain.
Ans:-A force or a system of forces acting upon a body produces a relative displacement of
its various parts and causes a change in length,volume or shape of the body.the change in
length ,volume or shape relative to the original quantity is called a strain.the restoring force
generated per unit area of the body is called stress.

2. State Hooke’s law ?

Ans:-Within elastic limit, the stress generated within the body is proportional to the strain.

3. How are longitudinal stress or strain produced in your experiment ?

Ans:-The upper surface of the bent bar will be concave which will be shorter while the lower face of
the bent bar will be convex and hence this face will be longer than the normal length. This increase
and decrease of the length of bar is due to forces acting along the length of the bar and due to these
forces longitudinal stress will be developed.

4. How do you ensure that in your experiment the elastic limit is not exceeded?
Ans:-The consistency in readings of depressions both for increasing or decreasing load
indicates that in the experiment the elastic limit is not exceeded.

5. What would happen if b and d are interchanged in formula.?

Ans:-Depression for the load will be less also the beam will rest in unstable equilibrium.

6. Which dimension should be measured very carefully?

Ans:-The depth of the bar should be measured very carefully, because of its very small
magnitude .

7. What is neutral surface of the bent beam?

Ans: In between the upper concave surface and lower convex surface there is a layer of the
bar which retains its original length. This layer of the bar is called neutral surface.
8. Define the terms: a) Young’s modulus, b) Beam, c) cantilever

Ans: a) Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal
strain.

b) when the length of a rod of uniform cross-section is very large compared to its breadth
such that the shearing stress over any section of the rod can be neglected, the rod is called
a beam.

c) A beam fixed at one end loaded at the free end is termed a cantilever.

9.Does the weight of the beam is any effect?

Ans: The weight of the beam leads to an ‘effective load’ different from m. However, since the
depression due to load is calculated by subtracting the zero- load reading, the weight of the bar
does not affect the result.

10. What is the SI unit of Young’s modulus?

Ans: N/m2

11. Will the value of Young’s modulus obtained by you change, if the length, depth or breadth of the
bar is altered?

Ans: No.
 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 2

AIM:

DETERMINATION OF COEFFICENT OF VISCOSITY OF THE GIVEN LIQUID by POISEUILLE’S

METHOD:

THEORY:

When the pressure difference P (=hρg) under which the liquid flows through a capillary tube, is
not very large, i.e the motion of the liquid in it is in streamlines, the volume (V) of the liquid
that flows out in one second through a capillary tube of radius r (radius of the bore of the tube)
and length L is given by,

 Pr 4
v = ......... (1)
8L

Where  is the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid.

 Pr 4
= ........ ( 2 )
8 LV

If P is expressed in N/m2, L and r in meters and V in m3/s then η will be in Newton-sec/m2,

called Poiseuille (PI)

APPARATUS:

(1) Capillary tube (2) Connecting rubber tube (3) Pressure head (4) Measuring cylinder etc.

PROCEDURE:

1) Determine the radius of the capillary tube by a travelling microscope. Focus the microscope
keeping the capillary tube horizontally such that eye-piece is parallel to the capillary tube.
To measure diameter of the holes use horizontal and vertical scale of the microscope. (Take
at least 3 sets of reading.)
2) Place the constant pressure head at same height in the vertical stand, such that liquid flow
is stream line.
3) Note the difference L in readings of the liquid levels in two arms of manometer.
4) Collect the liquid in a measuring cylinder (for 20 sec. In 3 times )
5) Repeat step 2 for five different values of h.
6) Note the temperature of the liquid.
7) Draw a graph of height (h in cm) along X axis and V (cm3 /sec) along Y axis.

OBSERVATION:

The diameter of the capillary tube is

Table: 1

Data for h vs. V graph.

No. of obs. Left arm Right arm h= (h1 - h2) Volume of the V = v/t
reading reading cm liquid collected c.c/cm
(h1 ) cm (h2) cm (v) for t sec.

Table: 2

Determination of coefficient of viscosity  at T0 C

h from Correspondin Given P = hg L r4  =

graph g density of Pr4/8LV
liquid at T0 Dynes/ cm cm4 dynes.sec/cm2
Cm V from graph C, gm/cm3 cm2

Cm3 /sec

CALCULATION:

 Pr 4
= ........ ( 2 )
8 LV

RESULTS: η will be in Newton-sec/m2, called Poiseuille (PI)

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR;
δη/η = δh/h+ δL/L +4 δr/r+δV/V

DISCUSSION:

1) If possible ensure that the bore of the capillary tube is uniform by inserting a short column of
mercury in the tube and measuring its length at various positions.

2) As the capillary tube is horizontal, the liquid issuing out from the free end may run a little
back along the under surface of the tube. This may be prevented by keeping the tube slightly
inclined to the horizontal or applying a layer of Vaseline on the under-surface of the tube near
the free end.

3) The pressure difference across the ends of the capillary tube is kept at a low value in order
that the liquid flows through the tube in stream lines. The straight line nature of the (h-V) graph
also indicates that the motion is stream line.

4) The accuracy of the result in the experiment can be improved by collecting a large quantity
of the liquid over a large period of time.

5) The temperature of the liquid should be measured accurately as the viscosity changes
markedly with temperature. It is advisable to measure the temperature before and after the
experiment and take the average value.

Question for VIVA:

1. What do you mean by the term ‘Viscosity’ and ‘coefficient of Viscosity’?

Ans: Whenever there is a relative motion between two layers of a liquid a tangential opposition
force is set up between the layers to destroy this relative motion. This property of the liquid is
called viscosity and it is analogous to friction.

This tangential force per unit area on either of the two liquid surfaces, when there is unit
velocity gradient between them, is known as the coefficient of viscosity.

2. What do you mean by streamline motion and turbulent motion?

Ans: When the pressure difference, under which the liquid flows in a capillary tube is small, the
particles of the liquid move in order continuous paths and this kind of motion of liquid is known
as streamline motion. When the pressure difference is made large, the particles flow in zigzag
paths and this motion is called turbulent motion.

3. How does coefficient of viscosity change with temperature?

Ans: In the case of liquids viscosity diminishes with temperature, while in the case of gases it
increases with temperature.

4.Discuss the nature of flow of liquid in capillary tube?

Ans: When streamline motion occurs, the layer of liquid in contact with the wall of the capillary
tube is at rest while the velocity of the other layers increases as we go towards the axis of the
tube at which the velocity is maximum.

5. Which quantity would you measure with greater care?

Ans: As the radius of capillary tube occurs in the fourth power, it should be measured with
great accuracy and proper care should be taken to select a tube of uniform bore.

6. What is the harm if the capillary tube is not horizontal ?

Ans: If the tube is horizontal, then the height h of the liquid level in the tank to the axis of the
capillary tube. When the capillary tube is inclined, the height h of the liquid is to be measured
from the liquid level in the tank to free end of the capillary tube.

7.What is the unit of the coefficient of viscosity?

Ans: Newton-sec/m2 in SI units.

8. Do you know any other method of finding η?

Ans: This method is suitable only for liquids of low viscosity. Rotating viscometer or stoke’s law
can be used to find η of highly viscous liquids.

9. What do you mean by ‘critical height’ and ‘critical velocity’?

Ans: when the value of h exceeds certain value hc , the motion of the liquid become turbulent.
This ‘h’ is called critical height.

There is a particular velocity of flow below which the motion is streamline and beyond which
motion is turbulent. This particular velocity is called is called critical velocity.

10. What type of measuring cylinder is suitable for measuring V?

Ans: A measuring cylinder having finer graduations,

11. Can you performed the experiment with a tube of wider bore?

Ans: No. In that case a small pressure difference will cause the motion to be turbulent.
 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 3

AIM:

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF CUEVATURE OF A LENS BY NEWTON'S RING METHOD:

THEORY:

When a beam of a monochromatic light from an extended source is incident normally on a

combination of a plano-convex lens L and a glass plate p, a part of each incident ray is reflected
from the lower surface of the lens, and a part of it after refraction through the air film between
the lens and the plate surface. These two reflected rays are coherent. Hence the reflected rays
will interfere and produce a system of alternative dark and bright rings with the point of
contact between the lens and plate as center. These rings are known as Newton's rings.

If Dm is the diameter of the mth bright ring, counted from the center, we have

D 2m 
= ( 2 m + 1)( )......... (1)
4R 2

Where R is the radius of curvature of the lower surface of the lens L, and  is the wave length
of the light. For the (m+n)th ring from the center, we obtain

(D m +n ) 2 
= ( 2 m + 2 n + 1)( )........ ( 2 )
4R 2

where Dm+n is the diameter of the (m+n)th ring.

From (1) and (2) we get

(D )2 − D 2m
R = { m +n }........... ( 3 )
4 n

From eqn.(3) is used as the working formula for calculating R in cm.

APPARATUS:

1) Sodium vapour lamp, 2) Travelling microscope.3) Magnifying glass, 4)Torch

PROCEDURE:

1) Focus the microscope on the center of the central dark ring by sliding the microscope. Adjust
the microscope tube slowly until the rings are focused as distinctly as possible.
2) Move the microscope to the left counting the number of bright rings passed. Set the
microscope on the extreme distinct bright ring so that the cross-wire perpendicular to the
direction of the microscope movement passes through the bright ring and is tangential to it.
Take the reading of the microscope from the horizontal scale and vernier, and note the ring
number. Displace the microscope to the right, pass off several intermediate rings, and note for
the next bright ring, the ring number and readings of horizontal scale and vernier. In this way,
take reading for a number of bright rings. Be sure that the last bright ring will not include any of
the few deformed rings which from round the center. Next shift the microscope to the right and
take readings for the same rings as before.

From the reading taken, determine the diameters of the rings by taking the difference between
the two microscope readings corresponding to its two positions on each rings.

3) Repeat the measurements by sliding the microscope from the right to the left and then from
the left to the right, and determine the diameters of the same rings as before.

Find the mean diameters of the ring.

4) Plot the square of the ring diameter (Dm)2 against the ring number m. The plot would be
straight line. Find from the plot Dm2 and Dm+n2 for the mth and (m+n)th bright rings. The value of
n should be as large as possible. Calculate R from the eqn (3).

OBSERVATION:

Table:1

Least count of circular scale:

Pitch of the screw (p) No of the circular scale Least count (p/n)
division (n)
Cm cm
 Table :2

Measurement of the diameters of the rings:

Ring no. Microscope readings (cm) on the ring Diameter Dm2

cm
cm2
Left side of the ring (R1) Right side of the ring(R2) Dm =
(R1 -R2)

M.S.R C.S.R Total M.S.R C.S.R Total

(cm) (cm)

Draw the graph Ring number Vs. Dm2

Table: 3

Calculation of the radius of curvature R from graph :

Dm2 D2m+n n 
(D )2 − D 2m
2 2 R = { m +n
cm cm cm 4 n

cm

CALCULATION:

(D m +n ) 2 − D 2 m
R ={ }........... ( 3 )
4 n

RESULTS: The radius of curvature of plano- convex lens is …. cm

DISCUSSION:

1) The Newton's ring experiment can be also used to find the wavelength of a monochromatic
light. In this case, the radius of curvature of the convex surface of the given lens is determined
otherwise. By employing sodium light whose mean wavelength is 5893 A0, R can be determined
from eqn. (3) as in present experiment. The same eqn. can be used to find the wavelength ‘’ of
any other given monochromatic light.

2) Since the first few rings near the center and deformed, they must be avoided while taking
readings for the rings.

50

Fig: Newton’s Rings Ray diagram

 Question for VIVA:

1. Why are the interference fringes circular in the case?

Ans:--Here the film is of varying thickness and a locus of constant illumination over the face
of the film is a locus of constant path difference which is a circular with the point of contact
of the lens and plate as centre .hence the fringes are circular.

2. Why is the extended source is used in this experiment?

Ans:--An extended source is used so that the whole surface of the lens is illuminated this is
necessary for the interference fringes to become circular rings.

3. Why is the central spot dark?

Ans : Although the path difference between the reflected ray from the centre is zero .There is a
phase change of 1800 due to the reflection from the denser medium from the glass plate .because of
this phase change the centre spot becomes dark .

4. What would happen if white light is used instead of sodium light?

Ans: A smaller number of coloured rings will be seen .

5. Where are the fringes formed?

Ans: The rings are formed on the air film between the lens and glass plate.

6. Which factors does the diameter of the rings depend ?

Ans: It depends on the radius of curvature ,wavelength of light ,order no of ringand

refractive index of the medium .

7. What would happen if the glass plate is replaced by a plane mirror?

Ans:--The rings will disappear and a uniform illumination will be observed due to strong
reflection.

8. What do you mean by the term interference of light?

Ans: When waves from two sources, which are derived from the same source, proceed in

the same direction, they on superposition produce alternately bright and dark bands.

This phenomenon is known as interference of light.

9. Under what condition interference would occur?

Ans: The essential condition for interference is that the interfering waves must have
 constant phase relationship between them for all times and this can be obtained only

when the two sources are coherent.

10. How interference occurs in Newton’s ring?

Ans: Here the two wave derived by reflection from the front and back surfaces of the air-

Film are derived from the same wave-front and hence coherent. Thus the two reflected

waves will produced interference.

11. What happens when an illuminated slit is employed instead of an extended source?

Ans: Only a portion of ring will be seen.

12. Is it possible to see the central ring bright?

Ans: Yes; when the ring are seen with transmitted light, the central ring will be bright. The

central will be reflected light can be made bright by introducing a suitable liquid between the

lens and the plat, such that the liquid is denser than the material of the lens but rarer than

the material of the plate.

13. What class of interference do you get here?

Ans: Division of amplitude class.

14. Are the fringes here localized or non-localised?

Ans: Localised. The fringes are formed in the space between the glass plate and the lens.

15. What type of fringes do you get here?

Ans: fringes of equal width.

16. Are the rings equispaced?

Ans: No, the rings get closer with the increase of the diameter.

17. Can you measure wavelength of light by this experiment?

Ans: Yes. If the radius of curvature is known the measuring the diameter of the ring λ can be
determined.
18.Can the radius of curvature be measured by spherometer?

Ans: The radius of curvature of the lens used here is very large so the elevation of the central
screw of the spherometer will be small causing large error in measurement.

19. Is the light energy destroyed in the dark regions?

Ans: No. there is only a redistribution of energy.

 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 4

AIM:

DETERMINATION OF WAVE LENGTH OF A MONOCHRROMATIC SOURCE OF LIGHT BY

FRESNEL'S BIPRISM

THEORY:

The Fresnel’s biprism is a prism which has one of its angles slightly less than two right angles
and two equal small base angles. It acts like two very thin prisms placed base to base. When
rays from a slit S, illuminated by a monochromatic light, such as sodium light are made to be
incident on the plane face of the biprism, the emergent rays from the two halves of the biprism
appear to diverge from two coherent virtual sources, S1 and S2. If a screen is placed with its
plane perpendicular to the plane containing the slit and the common base of the biprism, the
emergent beam of the light overlap on the screen producing alternate dark and bright fringes.If
d is the distance between two virtual sources S1 and S2, D is the distance between the slit and
screen, and  is the wavelength of a monochromatic radiation, then fringe width is ‘’, i.e. the
distance between two consecutive dark or bright fringe is

D
=( )   .......... (1)
d

To determine d, a convex lens having such a focal length is interposed between the biprism and
eyepiece. The lens is adjusted so that for two positions the real images of the two virtual
sources S1 and S2 are focused on the focal plane of the eye-piece. If d1 and d2 are the distances
between the real images of S1 and S2 for two positions of lens, then

d = [d1 d2 ]1/2 ………….(2)

 Fig 1: Ray diagram of experiment

Fig 2: Experimental set - up

APPARATUS:

(1) Fresnel biprism (2) a source of monochromatic light (3)a source of Sodium light (4) a slit (5) a
micrometer eyepiece (6) a convex lens of suitable focal length and (7) an optical bench with
four stands. (8) Magnifying glass, (9) Torch.
PROCEDURE:

1) The stand carrying the slit is fixed at the zero mark on the scale.
2) The height of the biprism is adjusted so that centre of it and that of the slit are at the same
height. The biprism is placed near the slit.
3) The least count of the micrometer screw of the eyepiece is determined.
4) The eyepiece is fixed at a distance of about 4.5 times the focal length of the lens from the
slit.
5) Now on moving the lens stand along the optical bench magnified real images of the virtual
sources S1 and S2 will be seen in the field of the eyepiece.
6) Measure the distance d1 between two images by shifting the eyepiece perpendicular to the
bench and setting the cross-wire on the left or right of the image. Make this measurement
four times once shifting the eyepiece left to right, next from right to left respectively. The
mean of these four values gives d1.
7) Next move the lens towards the eyepiece keeping the latter fixed till the sharp virtual
images of the slit is seen in the field of view. Determine the distance between the two
images d2 in manner similar to d1. From d1 and d2, d is calculated using eqn. 2.
8) The lens is removed and eyepiece is moved to a suitable distance from the biprism so that
distinct fringes appear in the field of view. The position of the biprism and eyepiece on the
bench are noted. The distance between biprism and lens gives D.
9) The micrometer screw is turned to shift the crosswire to a bright fringe (marked as 1 st bright
fringe) on left side. The readings of linear and circular scales are noted.
10) The cross wire is now set on 3rd or 4th bright fringe and scale readings are noted. The
difference between these two reading gives the width for 2 and 3 fringes.
11) Again starting from the 1st bright band of the right side turning the micrometer screw in
opposite direction the width for 3 or more fringes are measured. From these values an
average is made to find .
12) The value of  is then calculated using eqn.(1)

OBSERVATION:

Table: 1

Least count of the micrometer screw of the eyepiece:

Pitch of the screw No. of division (n) on the Least count (p/n) mm
circular scale
P mm
 Table: 2

Measurement of fringe width:

a) Position of the slit on the bench = cm

b) Position of the biprism on the bench = cm

c) Position of the eyepiece on the bench = cm

d) Distance between slit and eyepiece (D)= cm

Eye-piece set Reading of the micrometer screw Fringe width Mean

at the fringe mm  = R/3 fringe
mm width 
cm
Linear scale Circular scale Total
reading reading mm

Table: 3

Determination d:

Position Reading of the micrometer screw Distance d =√d1d2

of the mm between
lens on images
the bench mm
cm

Linear Cicular Total Linear Circular Total cm

scale scale mm scale scale mm
reading reading reading reading
d1=
d2=
 Table: 4

Determination of wave length :

Fringe width Distance d Distance D d

=
D A0
(cm) (cm) (cm)

CALCULATION:

d
=
D

RESULTS: The wavelength of sodium light = A0

DISCUSSION:

1. The fringe width  can be made smaller by increasing the distance between the slit and biprism.
Again  can be increased by increasing the distance between the slit and the eyepiece. Hence these
distance should be judiciously adjusted to make fringes neither too wide nor too narrow.

2. The convex lens employed to focus the real images of the virtual sources at the focal plane of the eye-
piece should be of such focal length (f) so that D> 4f.

3.The displacement of the lens to get the real images of the virtual sources at its two positions should
not be very large, otherwise proportional error in measuring d would be greater.

4. The instrument should be properly aligned so that there may not be any relative shift between the
fringe and cross-wires, as the eyepiece is moved along the bench.

5.The intensity of illumination of the slit should be increases by employeding a judicious position of the
source.

Question for Viva

1. What do you mean by the term interference of light ?

Ans: Interference of light is a phenomenon in which equispaced bright and dark bands are
produced by the superposition of waves from two sources having constant phase relationship
between them.
2. What are the condition of interference? How are these conditions fulfilled in the case of
biprism?

Ans: The first condition of interference between two sets of waves is there must be a constant
phase relationship between them at their origin. Hence the waves must come from two
coherent sources which derive from the same source. The second condition is that for
brightness or darkness at a point the path difference of the point from two coherent sources
must be respectively even or odd multiple of λ/2.

In case of biprism the virtual sources A and B are produced from the same source S by refraction
through the two halves of biprism. Hence the waves which appear to diverge from A and B are in a
position to produce interference.

3. Are the biprism fringes localized or non-localised?

Ans: The bi-prism fringes are non-localised fringes. That is they can be obtained by holding the screen
anywhere in the region where the waves from A and B superposed.

4. What the nature of fringes in space?

Ans: These fringes in space are hyperboloids of revolution with the source A and B foci. As the screen is
held parallel to the line joining the two sources A and B we get straight fringes on the screen.

5. What will happen when the slit is illuminated by the white light?

Ans: All the fringes will be coloured excepting the central fringe which is white. The distance Xn of n-th
fringe from the central one is given by, Xn = (D/d) nλ. For central fringe , n=0 for all wavelengths and
hence Xn = 0 for all wavelengths due to which the central band is white. For all other fringes, red ( whose
λ is grater) will be in the outermost position while violet ( whose λ is smaller) will be in the innermost
position giving a coloured appearance of the fringes.

6. In biprism experiment, would you require a narrow or extended source?

Ans: Narrow source will produce distinct fringes while extended source will not produce any fringe.

7.Why is the plane face of biprism directed towards the slit?

Ans: In that case almost equal increments of deviation occur by refraction at the two faces of the prism.
As a result fringes will be narrow.

8. What will happen if the acute angles of biprism are increased?

Ans: In that case α would increase [d=2a(μ -1) α] causing an increase of d and hence adecrease of frnge
width (β).
9. How do biprism differ from Newton’s ring?

Ans: (i) Interference fringes produced by biprism are based on the division of wavefront while those
produced in Newton’s ring are based on the division of amplitude.

(ii) A narrow source is necessary for biprism experiment while an extended source is necessary for
Newton’s ring experiment. Newton’s ring are fringes of equal thickness. Newton’s rings are localized
where as biprism fringes are non-localised.

10. What happen when the slit is made horizontal but the edge of the prism is kept(i)vertical (ii)
horizontal?

Ans: (i) When the slit is horizontal, the source extends along the breadth and consequently fringes will
shift laterally by which fringes will disappear.

(ii) When both the slit and the edge of the prism are horizontal, the fringes will be obtained but they will
extend along the vertical line and the distance β between consecutive fringes cannot be measured by
eye-piece moving perpendicular to the bench.

11. What is the difference between interference and diffraction?

Ans: Interference is a phenomenon arising out of the superposition of two waves coming from two
coherent sources while diffraction is a phenomenon arising out of the superposition of secondary waves
coming from the different parts of the same wave-front. As the secondary waves come from the same
wave-front their coherency condition is satisfied. Hence diffraction may be termed as a special kind of
interference.

12. what is the order of the prism angle?

Ans: about 30’.

13.What would happen if you use white light?

Ans: The central fringes will be white but all other fringes will be coloured. In higher orders there will be
overlapping.

14. What are the coherent sources? How are they realized in biprism experiment?

Ans: When two coherent sources emit wave having constant phase relationship at the origion, the
sources are said to be coherent.

Light coming from single source suffers refraction through two halves of the biprism and produces two
virtual coherent sources.

15. What type of eye-piece is suitable here?

Ans : Ramsden’s eye-piece.

16. What do you mean by the wavelength of light?

Ans: It is the distance between two consecutive points on the wave, having same phase.

17. Is the light energy destroyed in interference?

Ans: No, there is only redistribution of energy.

18. What would happen if the biprism angle is made large?

Ans: The distance between the virtual sources increases and the fringe width become very small.

19. Is there realy two prisms in biprism?

Ans: No, practically it is constructed from a single glass plate.

20. What do you mean by localized and non-localised fringes?

Ans: Fringes located within certain region of space are called localized fringes (such as Newton’s ring).
Finges which can be obtained by placing the screen anywhere in space are called non-localised fringes
(such as bi-prism).

21. Can you use convex lens of any focal length in this experiment? Can you use concave lens?

Ans: No. A convex lens of short focal length is required because we must make D>4f. Otherwise real
images cannot be obtained for two different positions of the lens.

No, because a concave lens cannot produce real images.

22.Do you know any other method of finding λ?

Ans: Lloyd’s mirror, Newton’s ring etc.

23. What is the SI unit of wavelength?

Ans: Manometer(nm), 1nm=10-9m.

 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 5

AIM:

TO DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF A GIVEN LASER SOURCE USING DIFFRACTION

METHOD:

THEORY:

If beam of light of wave length λ is coming out from diffraction grating, placed vertically on a
spectrometer, then the diffracted rays from the grating will form at the focal plane, a number
of primary maxima of different order numbers (m) on both sides of the central maximum of
zero order. If θ be the angle of diffraction of nth order primary maximum then sin θ = mn λ
where n is the number rulings per cm of the grating surface.

The Laser Diode Module and Laser Detector are mounted in place of collimator and telescope
of a spectrometer respectively. The grating is mounted on prism base of the spectrometer. The
emitted laser beam is diffracted by grating. The diffraction pattern can be seen on the screen
by keeping it at the place of detector. You may notice the decrease in the irradiant as you
move away from the zeroth order towards the higher orders, i.e. the first order is brighter than
the second and so on.

The wave length of the laser light is obtained from the relation

d sin  m
= ........ (1)
m

Where [d =1/n]

'm' is the order of maxima.

'd' is the pitch of the grating.

n= no of lines per inch.

 Fig: Experimental set - up

APPARATUS:

(1) Laser source, 2) Torch, 3) Magnifying glass, 4) Grating, 5) Spectrometer apparatus.

PROCEDURE:

1) Set spectrometer to normal condition.

2) Insert laser diode module into the mount which is kept in place of collimator of the
spectrometer and tighten it by the screw given on top of the mount.
3) Insert laser detector into the mount which is kept in place of telescope of the spectrometer
and tight by turning screw given on top of the mount.
4) Connect laser detector adapter into 230 VAC , LED indicator should glow.
5) Place 2000 lines per inch grating in its holder on the prism base of the spectrometer.
6) Insert LDM pin into its socket on power supply marked ' LDM', turn 'O/P adj'. Knob to
complete clock direction. Plug 230 VAC to the LDM power supply and switch on 'On/Off''
switch. LDM should give laser beam.
7) Turn 'O/PAdj' knob to anticlock direction, O/P power of LDM should decrease.
Keep at the desired level of power.

8) Set digital multimeter (DMM) in 2000 mV DC range, connect DMM test leads to
Co-Co clips of the laser detector , red lead to red Co-Co clip and black lead to black

Co- Co clip.

9) Align central (Zeroth ) maxima of the diffraction pattern on window of the laser
Detector and adjust laser diode power to a suitable power level. Take readings of vernier 1
and vernier2 at maxima for central maxima, than set detector to first maxima. Note DMM
reading and spectrometer readings using vernier1 and vernier 2. Subtended angle 'm ' can
be taken directly.
10) Follow similar procedure to take readings for 2nd and 3rd orders. Tabulate readings in table
1.
11) Substitute 'm' and ‘d’ in the eqn. (1), the average '' is wavelength of the given laser
source.

OBSERVATION:

Determination of vernier constant of spectrometer apparatus

……….divisions (say m ) of the vernier scale = ………. Divisions (say n) of the
main scale.

Value of 1 smallest main scale Value of 1 vernier scale Vernier constant

division (l1) min division l2 = (n/m)l1 min
V.C.= (l1 - l2 ) sec

Data for wavelength measurement

TABLE: 1

Sl. Order Spectrometer reading (degree-min-sec) Angle =

No. no subtended dsin/m
Left side reading of Right side reading of that Θm A0
one vernier vernier
m.s.r c.s.r Total m.s.r c.s.r Total

CALCULATION:

 = dsin/m A0

RESULT: The average wave length of laser source ……… A0

DISCUSSION:

1) The source should be placed before the grating in such a way that the number of visible
orders on both sides of the central band will be the same and they are equal brightness.

2) To increase the brightness of the spectral lines and to have higher order bands visible, it
is sometimes necessary to form an image of the source on the slit.

3) The rays must be made incident on the grating surface normally othedrwise the formula
employed will not be true.

4) The gratin should be placed on the prism table that the maximum area of the ruled
surface may be exposed to the incident light and the middle vertical line of the ruled
portion may be passed through the central of the prism table.

5) While taking reading for different orders the pointer should be moved in one direction
only.

6) For better result higher order spectra should be used.

Question for Viva:

1. What is the full form of LASER?

Ans: LASER means light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

2. What is diffraction grating?

Ans: If a number of similar and similar oriented slits are arranged on a plane separated by
equal opaque spaces then they constitute a plane transmission grating, It can be
constructed by drawing parallel and equidistant rulings on a glass plate by a diamond
pointer.

3.What is replica grating?

Ans: Replica gratings are constructed from the original grating by pouring a thin layer of
colloidal solution on it. When the solution has evaporated a film is formed on the grating
surface. This film, when stripped off from the grating and mounted between glass plates
form replica grating.

4. What do you mean by grating element and corresponding points?

Ans: If a be the width of a silt and b be the width of an opaque space of a grating then (a+b)
is called the grating element or grating constant. The two points in the consecutive slits
which are separated by a distance (a+b) are called corresponding points.

5.What will happen if the total width of the grating is increased without changing the
number of ruling per cm?

Ans: Sharpness of the principal maximum will increase as result the resolving power of
grating will increase, while the dispersion will remain the same.

6.What will happen if the number of rulings per unit length (m) is increased or decreased?

Ans: If the number of rulings per unit length (m) is increased, we shall get a few order
numbers of band separated by a large angle. But if m is decreased, we get several order
numbers separated by a small angle.

7. What will you do if the n umber of principal maxima on the two sides of the central
maximum are unequal?

Ans: The source illuminating the slit has not been properly placed. The position of the
source is to be adjusted until the number of bands on the two sides of the central band
are equal and equally bright.

8. What change will be observed in the spectra of sodium as you pass to the higher order?

Ans: Two lines of wavelength λ and (λ+δλ) will be found to be more and more resolved as
we go to the higher orders.

9. What will be happen if the ruled surface of the grating is directed towards the source?

Ans: The incident rays will be first diffracted at the ruled surface and then they will be again
refracted by the glass surface. Thus the angle θ is not due to diffraction alone, it will be due
to diffraction and refraction.

10. What will happen if the slit is illuminated by electric lamp?

Ans: In this case the central band will be white in the other bands we get spectra in which
red will be in the outermost position while violet will be in the innermost position.

11. How does a grating spectrum differ from a prismatic spectra?

Ans: Grating spectrum is purer than prismatic spectrum. This spectrum is normal spectrum
in which angle of diffraction θ will be approximately proportional to λ when θ is not very
large. But in the prism spectrum the violet end is more drawn out that the red end: it is not
a normal spectrum.

12. What is the the SI unit of wavelength?

Ans: nanometer (nm). 1 nm = 10-9m.

13. Do you know any type of grating other than the transmission grating?

Ans: Yes; there are reflection gratings in which there is no absorption of light which occurs
in transmission grating. Hence reflection gratings are more suitable to study extreme ultra-
violet light. In concave grating experiment, lenses are not required for focusing the spectra.

14. What do you mean by ‘dispersive power’ and ‘resolving power’ of a grating?

Ans: The ‘ dispersive power of a grating is defined by dθ/dλ ( where dθ is the angular
separation between two spectral lines λ and λ + d λ). The ‘resolving power’ is defined as
λ/dλ where dλ is the minimum wavelength difference that can be just resolved at the
wavelength λ.

15. Can you study X-ray diffraction with this grating?

Ans: No. For pronounced diffraction effect the slit width must be comparable with the
wavelength of the light used. To study x-ray diffraction we use crystal grating.

16. Is it safe to look into the laser light directly?

Ans: No, because of high power it can damage the retina of the eye.

17. What are the distinguished features of laser source?

Ans: High degree of directionality, monochromaticity, coherency and high power density.

18. What do you mean by temporal and spatial coherence?

Ans: Coherence is related to the definite phase relationship at different points of time and
space. Temporal coherence of any wavefield implies the possibility of predicting phase at a
space point at different instant of time. Spatial coherence is concerned with phase
correlation between two points in space at the same instant of time. Temporal coherence
is related to the line width whereas spatial coherence is related to the lateral dimension of
source.
 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 6

AIM:

TO DETERMINE THE DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A PRISM.

THEORY:

If A be the angle of the prism and m be the minimum deviation of a ray of monochromatic light
refracted through the prism in a prism in a principal section, then the refractive index of the
material of prism  for light of the given wavelength, is expressed by

m
S in ( A + )
 = 2 ......... (1)
A
S in
2

If 1 and 2 are the refractive indices of the material of the prism for lights of two given
colours and  is the refractive index of the material for the mean colour between the two given
colours, then the dispersive power of the material of the prism  between the wavelength
region considered is given by,

(1 −  2 ) 
= = ........ ( 2 )
(  − 1)  −1

Eqn. (1) and (2) are used as the working formulas for the determination of the dispersive power
of the material of the prism.

APPARATUS AND ACCESSORIES:

1) Spectrometer 2) Prism 3) Hg vapour lamp, 4) Spirit level

 Fig: Light ray passing through a prism

Fig: Dispersion & Deviation

PROCEDURE:
1) Adjust the spectrometer first.
2) Determine the vernier constant of the circular scale and express it in minute and second.
3) Place the prism on the prism table with one of its refracting faces perpendicular to the line
joining two of the leveling screws of the table with its vertex at the center of table. Level it
optically. Adjust the prism so that its vertex is directed towards the collimator and the axis
of the collimator cuts the base of the prism nearly vertically. The parallel beam of light from
the collimator will now fall simultaneously on both the refracting faces of the prism.
4) See the image formed by reflection from one surface of the prism with unaided eye and
then set the telescope to receive the reflected beam. Bring the junction of the cross wire
into coincidence with the center of the image by moving the telescope slowly by its tangent
screw. Note the readings of both the vernier and repeat this for three independent settings
of the telescope.
5) Repeat the operation for the image by reflection from the other face of the prism.
6) Find the angle between the two positions of the telescope. This given the angle of the
prism.
7) To determine the angle of minimum deviation place the prism on the prism table with one
of its faces directed toward the collimator and the center of the prism coinciding with that
of the table. Set the prism at the position of minimum deviation for sodium light.
8) Replace the sodium light by mercury light or by helium light. Place the capillary portion of
the discharge tube just opposite to the collimator slit so that the spectral lines are as bright
as possible. Adjust the prism at the position of minimum deviation for red line of the
spectra. Set the junction of the cross-wires at the center of the line and note the readings of
both the vernier. Take three independent sets of readings.
9) Repeat the operation (8) for yellow and green - blue line of mercury. Note that yellow is the
mean colour between mercury red and green- blue.
10) Remove the prism without disturbing the table. Move the telescope in a straight line with
the collimator to receive the direct light. The difference of this direct reading from
corresponding to the minimum deviation for a particular line gives the minimum deviation
of that light.
OBSERVATION:
Table: 1

Vernier constant of the microscope:

……….divisions (say m ) of the vernier scale = ………. Divisions (say n) of the

main scale.

Value of 1 smallest main scale Value of 1 vernier scale Vernier constant

division (l1) min division l2 = (n/m)l1 min
V.C.= (l1 - l2 ) sec

Table: 2

Reading of the telescope at minimum deviation

No of obs. Colour of line Main scale Vernier Total reading Mean reading
reading (M) reading (V) T= (M+V)
Degree-min-sec
Degree-min Degree-min-
sec

Hg red D1

Hg yellow D3

Hg green D5
 Table: 3

Direct reading for the telescope:

No of obs. Main scale Vernier Total reading Mean reading

reading (M) reading (V) T= (M+V)
Degree-min-
Degree-min Degree-min- sec
sec

D7

Table: 4

Determination of the angle of minimum deviation:

Colour of line Angle of minimum deviation m

Degree-min-sec

Hg- red D1 - D7 = (e1)

Hg- yellow D3 - D7 = (e3)

Hg- green-blue. D5 - D7 = (e5 )

 Table: 5

Determination of refractive indices:

Angle of Colour of the Angle of Refractive indices

the prism line minimum
m
(A) deviation (m ) S in ( A + )
 = 2 ......... (1)
A
S in
2

Hg- red 1

Hg-yellow 

Hg-green-blue 2

Table:6

Determination of the dispersive power of the material of the prism:

Refractive index for Refractive index for Refractive index for Dispersive power 
Hg red  1 Hg green- blue  2 mean colour 

 −1

CALCULTION:

m
S in ( A + )
 = 2 ......... (1)
A
S in
2

(1 −  2 ) 
= = ........ ( 2 )
(  − 1)  −1
RESULT: The dispersive power of prism

PERCENTAGE ERROR;

δ ω/ω = 3δ(δm/m)

DISCUSSION:

1) The slit should be made narrow and illuminated by the brightest part of the light source.

2) To set the prism in the position of minimum deviation for a line, the table should be made
free from the scale so that the rotation of the table may not change the direct reading.

3) Sometimes the zero of the vernier crosses the zero of the scale during the rotation (θ) of the
telescope or prism table. To get the correct value of the angle of rotation θ we are to find out
(3600 – diff. of two readings).

4) The vertical line of the cross-wire should be made coincident with the same edge of each line
while taking the reading.

5) Focussing should be such that there shall not be any parallax between the cross-wires and
silt image.

Question for viva.

1. What do you mean by the terms (i) Normal dispersion,(ii) irrational dispersion, (iii) anomalous
dispersion and (iv) normal spectrum.

Ans: i) Normal dispersion is that in which refractive index (μ) increases with the decrease of wavelength
(λ) and the dispersion d μ/d λ of the material of the prism becomes grater at shorter wavelengths.
Normal dispersion will be obtained for those wavelengths of incident light which are far away from the
absorption bands of the material of the prism.

2. How does the deviation of ray vary with its angle of incidence?

Ans: The deviation becomes minimum at a particular angle of incidence, but it always increase when the
angle of incidence is either greater or smaller than that at which the deviation becomes minimum.

3.How does the deviation change with the colour of incident light?

Ans: Deviation is greater for violet than that for red light. [Remember for the prism D= (μ-1) A].

4. What is the condition for obtaining minimum deviation?

Ans: The deviation of ray would be minimum when its angles of incidence and emergence are equal.

5. What is a monochromatic light? Do you consider the sodium light strictly monochromatic?

Ans: Light of a particular wavelength is called monochromatic light. Sodium light is not monochromatic;
for it contains light of two wavelengths of values 5890A0 and 5896 A0 .

6. Can you expect an emergent ray for any incident ray on the prism?

Ans: no, for a prism of definite angle, there is a certain range of the angles of incidence within which
emergent rays are possible.

7. How does the deviation of ray vary with the change of the angle of the prism?

Ans: Deviation increases with the increase of the angle of the prism. [D= (μ-1) A].

8. Why do you take sodium light and not white light to find the refractive index of a prism?

Ans: Sodium light gives a single image of the slit and single value of minimum deviation while white light
gives a spectrum and the value of minimum deviation is different for light of different colors.

9. What is the necessity of leveling the spectrometer?

Ans: Otherwise the position of the image will be different for different positions of the telescope.

10. Why are concentric circles and straight lines marked on the prism table?

Ans: Straight lines are required for optical leveling of the prism table so that the faces of the prism may
be vertical. Circles are required to make the center of the prism coincident with that of the prism table.

11. Why are the telescope and the collimator adjusted for parallel rays?

Ans: When the incident rays are either divergent or convergent, the distance of the image formed by the
prism will be different positions of the prism. Hence the image will remain focused for one position of
the prism but will go out of focus for another position of the prism. If the incident rays are parallel, then
both the object and the image of the prism will be at infinity and the telescope once focused for the
image will remain so for every position of the prism.

12. Why are different procedures adopted to measure the angle of thick and thin prism?

Ans: The angle θ between the rays reflected from the two faces of a prism of angle A is 2A. For thick
prism, A is large and hence θ is also large. Thus for greater accuracy, the telescope is rotated to measure
θ and A becomes equal to θ/2 . For thin prism, A is very small and for greater accuracy, the prism table is
rotated by an angle θ to bring the rays reflected from the two faces of the prism into fixed telescope and
becomes equal to (1800 - θ).

13. To measure the minimum deviation of the ray by a thick prism, the centers of the prism and the
prism table are kept coincident – Why?
Ans: In that case a full pencil of the light coming from the collimator, will be incident on the prism and
the image would be right.

14. When taking readings, the center of the cross-wire is made coincident with edge of the image- why?

Ans: As the images of both the cross-wire and the slit have certain width, the center of the cross-wire
should be made coincident, with one edge of the slit image to have greater accuracy in the recording of
scale reading.

15.What would happen if you use white light?

Ans: Each of the component colors of white light will produced an image of the silt and then confusion
may arise.

16. What will happen when two prisms are combined?

Ans: (a) Two prisms can be combined to have (i) dispersion but no deviation, (ii) deviation but no
dispersion. (b) When two prism are combined with their angles in the same direction, the resultant
deviation and dispersion will be greater than those produced by a single prism. (c) Two identical prism
can be combined with their angles in the opposite direction to annul both dispersion and deviation. The
combination behaves as a plate.

17. What kind of image is produced by the telescope?

Ans: The telescope produces virtual images at infinity. The objective of the telescope produces a real
diminished image while the eye-piece produces a virtual magnifies image.

18.What is the necessity of avoiding parallax between the images of the cross-wire and the slit?

Ans: otherwise coincidence of the image of the cross-wire with that of the slit will change with the
movement of the eye and as a result error in the recording of the readings will be introduced.

19. What type of eyepiece is used in this telescope?

Ans: Ramsden’s eyepiece.

20. What is light?

Ans: It is an electromagnetic wave.

21. What are the main part of a telescope?

Ans: Objective and eye-piece. Each of them consists of a combination of lenses.

22. What is there inside the collimator?

Ans: At one end of the collimator tube there is a convex lens and at the other end there is an adjustable
slit. The convex lens used is actually an achromatic doublet.
 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 7

AIM:

DETERMINATION OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE USING CAREY FOSTER’S BRIDGE:

THEORY:

The Carey Foster Bridge is modification of the Meter Bridge. It is provided with four gaps G 1,
G2, G3, G4, (shown in fig.) which may be closed by the insertion of resistances. Suppose the
gaps be closed with resistances Rt in G1, P inG2, Q in G3, S in G4. The battery and galvanometer
G are connected to the points AC and BD respectively. If the point D is chosen such that no
current through the galvanometer, we have

p [ R t + r + X  + L 1 ]
=
Q [ r + S + (100 − X )  + L 2  ]

Where

 is the resistance per cm of bridge wire.

P & Q are the resistances at the ratio arms r is the resistance of either pair of connecting
leads.

S is the resistance of forth gap,

L1& L2 are the equivalent length of bridge wire corresponding to end resistance.

Rt is the resistance of platinum wire whose resistance is to be determined.

If P=Q= 1 ohm, then

Rt = S + (100-2X)  + (L2 - L1)  ……. (Working formula)……. (1)

Determination of end correction (L1, L2):
PP, and CC are short circuited and two unequal resistances are introduced in the ratio arms.

P=10 ohm, Q = 1 ohm, balanced point is obtained at X1 cm, from left end,

P [( X 1 + L 1 )  ]
= =Y
Q [(100 − X 1 + L 2 )  ]

Now P = 1ohm and Q =10 ohm, balance point is obtained at X2 cm, from left end. When

P [( X 2 + L 1 )  ] 1
= =
Q [(100 − X 2 + L 2 )  ] Y

From this pair of equations determine L2 and L1

(X 1 −Y X 2 ) (Y X 1 − X 2 )
L1 = , L2 = [ ] − 100
Y −1 Y −1
Determination of resistance per unit length:
Remove the short circuits from PP and CC

P = Q = 1 Ohm

The resistance per unit length is given by

(S 1 − S 2 )
=
2( X 3 − X 4 )

This is calculated as follows:

Adjust the fractional resistance box to S1, such that balance point is obtained near the middle of
the bridge wire. If the balance point is obtained at a distance of X 3 from the left end, with
platinum wire at room temperature then using equation (1)

Rt1 = S1 + (100 - 2X3)  + (L2 - L1)  ……………..(2)

Where R1 = room temperature resistance of platinum wire.

Now, change the fractional resistance box to value S2, when balance point is obtained at a
distance X4 cm, from left end then,

Rt2 = S2 + (100 - 2X4)  + (L2 - L1)  ……………(3)

Finally, the unknown resistance of the platinum wire is calculated by taking the mean of R t1 &

Rt2 using equations (2) & (3).

APPARATUS:

a) Carey Foster bridge b) Resistance box c) Platinum resistance thermometer

d)Battery e) Galvanometer f) Fractional resistance box.
OBSERVATION:

Table: 1

Data for determination of end corrections:

P in ohm Q in S in Balance point in Carey foster Mean in cm

bridge
Ohm Ohm
Cm

10 1 0 X 1=

10 1 0

1 10 0 X 2=

1 10 0

Table :2

Data for determination of resistance per unit length keeping platinum thermometer at room temp.

P in Q in ohm S in ohm Balance point in carry foster  ohm /cm

ohm bridge cm

1 1 X3

1 1 X4
 Table 3:

Data for determination of platinum resistance at room temp.

P in ohm Q in ohm S in ohm Balance point in cm Rt ohm

1 1 X3

1 1 X4

CALCULATION: Rt1 = S1 + (100 - 2X3)  + (L2 - L1) 

Rt2 = S2 + (100 - 2X4)  + (L2 - L1) 

RESULT: R= (Rt1+Rt2)/2

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR:

δR/R= δX/X +2δL/L

DICUSSION

i).At the beginning both X and Y should be made zero to see whether the null point in near the middle of
the wire (when R1 = R2). If the null point is found very near to 50 cm, it indicates that R1 is almost equal
to R2.

ii) for greater sensitiveness of the bridge, the value of resistances in the four arms should be equal.

iii) The value of X should be so chosen that the two balanced points before interchange of X and Y and
another after interchange of X and Y should be very near to the two ends of the bridge wire. By this (l2 –
l1) would be greater and more accurate value of ρ would be obtained. The null point is generally chosen
less than 20 cm or greater than 80cm. The error due to non-uniformly of the wire is thus reduced.

iv)Compared with meter bridge, here by introducing extra resistance in two outer gaps the effective
length of the bridge wire has been apparently increased. The increases the accuracy and sensitivity of
the bridge.
V) while measuring unknown resistance R we try to make l’1-l’2 small by choosing null points between
45cm and 55 cm, because here S is chosen from box whereas ‘ρ’ is measured quantity.

QUESTION for VIVA:

1. The presence of end error in the bridge affect your result in any way?

Ans:--Its evident from the theory that ρ is independent of the error .

2. Why do you prefer a longer length between two null points obtained before and after
interchange of resistance s in the two extreme gaps while measuring ρ ?
Ans:-- As ρ is not same at all parts of the wire due to non-uniformity of the wire greater
accuracy in the average value of the resistance per unit length will be obtained if longer
length is covered between two null points .

3. Does the value of ρ same every point of the wire ?

Ans:-Usually not the wire cannot be accurately uniform in diameter. What we measure is
the average resistance per unit length .

4. What are the advantage of Carey foster’s bridge over the meter bridge?
Ans:--Compared with the meter bridge ,here by introducing extra resistance in the two
outer gaps the effective length of the bridge wire has been apparently increased this
increase the accuracy and sensitivity of the bridge.

5. What is the principle of operation of the bridge ?

Ans:--Wheatstone bridge principle.

6. How is the resistance per unit length (ρ) of the wire, related to its specific resistance
(S)?

Ans: The relation between ρ and S is given by ρ(4S/ 𝜋d2 ) where d is the diameter of the
wire. Thus by measuring ρ and d, we can find S and vice versa. The increase in the diameter
(d) of the wire will cause a decrease in the resistance per unit length.

7. Why do you note the null points with direct and reversed currents?

Ans: To eliminate the effect of any thermo-current flowing in the circuit.

8. What is the harm, if ρ is determined by measuring resistance of the bridge wire by a

P.O.box and dividing that resistance by the length of the wire?

Ans: The method is not accurate but only rough method. For accuracy, Carey-Foster’s bridge
method should adopted.
9. Can you compare two nearly equal resistance by this method ? If so what is the
limitation?

Ans: Yes; from the theory we see that (X-Y) = ρ (l2 – l1) and hence knowing ρ and determining
l2 and l1 we can find the small difference between two resistance X and Y. Thus the method is useful
for standardization of a given resistance. The difference between the two resistances must be
below the total resistance of the bridge wire.

10. Which material is suitable for bridge wire?

Ans: Manganin having low temperature coefficient of resistance.

11. Have you any idea about total resistance of the bridge wire?

Ans: it is usually between 2 Ω and 3Ω.

 EXPERIMENT NUMBER – 8

AIM:

TO DETERMINE THE RIGIDITY MODULUS OF A WIRE BY DYNAMIC METHOD:

THEORY:

Time period of torsional oscillation, ‘T’ of a body of moment of inertia ‘I’ about the axis of
suspension is given by T=2π (I/C) 1/2

Where, C is the moment of torsional couple per unit angle which again is given in terms of
rigidity modulus, ‘η’ as C= ηπr4/2L

Where, ‘r’ is the radius and ‘L’ is the length of the wire. For a cylindrical bob the moment of
inertia is given by I= ½(MR2)

Where ‘M’ and ‘R’ are the mass and radius of the bob. From (1), (2) and (3) the rigidity modulus
is determined by the working formula

η= [ 8 π L / T2 r4 ] ×(1/2 MR2)

η1= [ 8 π L / T2 r4 ] ×(1/2 MR2 +1/2 M1R12 )

APPARATUS:

(1) Moment of inertia apparatus (2) Slide calipers (3) Screw gauge (4) Stop watch.

(5)Scale, (6) Weight

PROCEDRE:

1. Measure the radius of the wire at several places with the help of a screw gauge.
2. Measure the length of the suspension wire from the support till the cylindrical bob.
3. Measure the diameter of the cylindrical bob with the help of a slide calipers.
4. Mass of the cylinder M is 2800 gm.
5. Rotate the cylindrical bob through a small angle about the suspension wire and then
allow it to oscillate. This will initiate a torsional oscillation in the bob. Measure the time
period of this oscillation with the help of a stop watch.
6. Repeat step 5 two other times.
OBSERVATIONS:

Table:1

Determination of the least count of the screw gauge:

Pitch of the screw (p) No. of division on Least count (p/n)

the circular scale (n)
cm cm

Table: 2

Determination of diameter of the suspension wire:

No. of Diameter in cm Mean diameter

obs.
Linear scale reading Circular scale Total (cm) (cm)
reading

Table: 3

Vernier constant of the slide calipers:

…..Divisions (say m) of the vernier scale = ……..Division (say n) of the main scale.

Value of 1 smallest main scale Value of 1 vernier division Venirer constant

division (l1) cm
l2 = (n/m) l1 cm V.C. = (l1 - l2) cm
 Table: 4

Determination of diameter of the cylinder:

No of obs. Diameter in cm Mean diameter

(cm)
M.S.R (cm) V.S.R Total (cm)

Table: 5

Determination of time period of oscillation:

No. Weight in gm No of Time taken for n Time period Mean

of oscillation oscillations, Tn (sec) time
obs. T=Tn/n (sec) period
n
(second)

2800 n=20

2800+200 n=20

2800+200+200 n=20

2800+200+200+200 n=20

CALCULATION: η= [ 8 π L / T2 r4 ] ×(1/2 MR2)

η1= [ 8 π L / T2 r4 ] ×(1/2 MR2 +1/2 M1R12 )

RESULTS: : If r, L, R are expressed in cm; m in gm then ‘n’ will be in dyne/cm2.

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
δη/η =2 δT/T +4 δr/r +2 δR/R + δL/L+2 δR1/R1

DISCUSSION:

1) The pendulum oscillation of the cylinder should be stopped.

2)Care is to be taken to see that the suspension wire may coincide with the axis of the cylinder.

3) The radius r of the suspension wire occurs in 4th power and hence it should be measured
very carefully otherwise a small error in the measurement of r will increase the error in the
determination of η by four times.

4)The period (T) of oscillation should also be measured very carefully for it occurs in the second
power in the expression of n.

Question for Viva:

1. Define rigidity and state its unit?

Ans: It is the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. As stress is the force per unit area while
strain is the displacement gradient (having no unit), the unit of rigidity in SI system is

Newton’s / m2.

2.The formula for rigidity involves length and radius of the wire , how do they influence rigidity?

Ans: They have no influence on rigidity. The change of length and diameter of the wire will
cause a change of twist and not rigidity.

3.Which quantity would you measure very accurately and why?

Ans: The radius of the wire should be measured very accurately for it occurs in 4 th power.

4. How is the rigidity (n) related to young’s modulus?

Ans: Y= 2n(1+σ) where σ is the Poisson’s ratio.

5. What is the effect of increase the temperature of the rigidity of the wire ?

Ans: Rigidity decreases with the increase of temperature.

6. Does the period of oscillation depend on the amplitude of oscillation of the cylinder?

Ans: No: the angle of oscillation may have any value within the limits of elasticity of suspension
wire.
7. How will the period of oscillation of a torsional pendulum be affected when the length and
diameter of the suspension wire is increased?

Ans: Period will increase with the increase of length of the suspension wire but it (period) will
decrease with increase in the diameter of the wire.

8.How will be the period of oscillation be affected if the bob of the pendulum be made heavy?

Ans: If the mass of the bob be made grater, its moment of inertia I will be grater and hence it
will oscillate slowly with grater period.

9. Will the period be affected by the change in the acceleration due to gravity?

Ans : No.

10. Does the value of η depend on length and diameter of the wire?

Ans: No.

11. Why do you call the method a dynamic method?

Ans: Because reading are taken when the system is in motion.

 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 9

AIM: DETERMINATION OF THE RIGIDITY MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL OF A WIRE BY STATICAL

METHOD:

THEORY: Let the lower end of a wire of the length l and radius r be twisted by an angle of 
radian by the application of an external couple of moment mgd. Where mg is the weight of the
mass m placed on each pan and d is the diameter of the fly-wheel. Due to this twist in the wire,
an internal couple of magnitude nr4 /2l will be set up which will balance the external couple.
Hence for equilibrium

n r 4
= mgd
2l

If the twist in the wire be o then o = o /180o =  radian.

n 2 r 4  0
= mgd
Hence 360 l

360 lg d m
n= ( )
 2r 4 0 ……………….(1)

If r, l, d are expressed in cm; m in gm then ‘n’ will be in dyne/cm 2.

APPARATUS:

(1) Apparatus for static method, (2) Slide calipers (3) Screw gauge (4)Weight. 5) Scale.

PROCEDURE:

1) The diameter of the wire is measured by a screw gauge at various places and at each place
readings are taken in two directions at right angles to each other. The mean diameter when
halved gives the radius r of the wire.

2) The diameter of the flywheel is measured by a slide calipers in various directions at the place
where the two strings leave the wheel. The mean of these readings gives d.

3) The length of the wire from the upper fixed point to the position of the pointer is measured
by a scale. The mean of three such measurements gives l.
4) Various equal loads are placed on the two pans and at each time the reading of the pointer
on the circular scale is noted. Readings for both increasing and decreasing loads are noted and
from the mean of these two readings the twist in the wire for each load is determined.

5) A graph is then drawn with loads as abscissa and the corresponding angles of twist in degrees
as ordinate. The graph is a straight line passing through the origin.

From the graph, the twist o for a particular load of mass m is determined. Putting these values
of m, , r,d and l in the relation (1), rigidity modulus ‘n’ is calculated.

OBSERVATION:

Table: 1

Vernier constant of the slide calipers:

…..Divisions (say m) of the vernier scale = ……..Division (say n) of the main scale.

Value of 1 smallest main scale Value of 1 vernier division Vernier constant

division (l1) cm
l2 = (n/m) l1 cm V.C. = (l1 - l2) cm

Table: 2

Determination of diameter (d) of the flywheel:

No of Main scale Vernier scale Total scale Mean Instrumen Corrected

obs. reading (cm) reading (cm) reading (cm) d (cm) tal error if d (cm)
any
 Table: 3

Determination of the least count of the screw gauge:

Pitch of the screw (p) No. of division on Least count (p/n)

the circular scale (n)
cm cm

Table: 4

Data for the radius of the wire:

No. of Linear scale Circular scale Total Instrumen Corrected Radius r

obs. reading reading reading tal error diameter cm
mm
mm mm 2r

cm

Table: 5
Determination of the twist (0) of the wire for various loads:

Load on
No each Length l Reading of the pointer in degree Twist
of pan in in meter degrees(o)
obs. gm.

Left side of the Right side of the Mean

pointer pointer
l1,
l2

l1,
l2

l1,
l2

l1,
l2
Draw the graph: (m- )

CALCULATION:

RESULT: If r, l, d are expressed in cm; m in gm then ‘n’ will be in dyne/cm2.

PERCENTAGE OF ERROR :

δη/η = δl/l + δ d/d+ 4δr/r

DISCUSSION:

a) After adding a certain load to the scale pans, readings of the pointer are to be taken after
waiting a little, so that the system may be steady.

b) As the radius is in the 4th power of the working formula, it should be measured carefully;
otherwise a small error in measurement of r will increase the error in determination of n by 4 th
power times.

c) The radius r of the suspension wire occurs in 4th power and hence it should be measured
very carefully otherwise a small error in the measurement of r will increase the error in the
determination of n by four times.

Question for viva:

1. Define rigidity and state its unit?

Ans: It is the ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. As stress is the force per unit area while
strain is the displacement gradient (having no unit), the unit of rigidity in SI system is

Newton’s / m2.

2.The formula for rigidity involves length and radius of the wire , how do they influence rigidity?

Ans: They have no influence on rigidity. The change of length and diameter of the wire will
cause a change of twist and not rigidity.

3.Which quantity would you measure very accurately and why?

Ans: The radius of the wire should be measured very accurately for it occurs in 4 th power.

4. How is the rigidity (n) related to young’s modulus?

Ans: Y= 2n(1+σ) where σ is the Poisson’s ratio.

5. What is the effect of increase the temperature of the rigidity of the wire ?

Ans: Rigidity decreases with the increase of temperature.

6. How do you apply couple here?

Ans: By adding equal weights on the two scale pans. By this couple, the wire is twisted
producing a shear in it.

7. What is the difference between torsional rigidity and rigidity modulus?

Ans: Rigidity modulus (n) is the ration of the shearing stress to shearing strain. The couple (C)
required to twist a wire of length l and radius r by one radian c = nπr4/2l and this quantity is
called torsional rigidity of the given wire.
 EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 10

AIM/ OBJECTIVE:

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC CHARGE (e/m) OF ELECTRON BY J.J. THOMSON METHOD (BAR

MAGNET METHOD).

THEORY:

The electric filed will deflect the electrons upward i.e. towards Q and the magnetic field
defects the electron downwards that is towards R. The theory is developed considering the
effect due to the two fields first acting separately and then simultaneously.

If ‘E’ is the intensity of electric field and ‘e’ is the charge of the electron, the force F acting on
the electron due to Lorentz force is given by is given by

Fe = eE

If ‘B’ is the magnetic field and ‘v’ is the velocity of electron of charge e, the force on the
electron by magnetic field due to Lorentz force is given by

Fm = e (v x B)

When v and B are perpendicular to each other then

Fm = e v Sin 900B

= evB

Due to the magnetic field the electron will move in a circular path of radius ‘r’. This force ‘Fm’
provides the necessary centripetal force.

Thus, Bev = mv2 /r

e/m = v/rB …………………………. (1)

Now r = lL/  …………………………….. (2)

Where  = total deflection of spot on screen.

l = length of deflecting plate.

L = distance of screen from the edges of plate P, Q.Now both the electric field and
magnetic field are applied simultaneously and so adjusted that the beam of electrons remains
undeflected. Thus at this position the force exerted by the electric field F e and magnetic field
Fm on the electron is the same.

Fe = Fm

eE = Bev

v = E/B ……………………………. (3)

Now E = V/d …………………………….. (4)

Also from eqn. (1) e/m = v/rB

= E/rB2 (using 1 & 3)

= V/ rB2d (using 4)

Finally

e/m = V/ lL B2 d

Unit of (e/m) is c/kg.

WORKING FORMULA:

e/m = V/ lL B2 d

Where B = Be tan  and ‘Be’ is horizontal component of earth's magnetic field at the place
of experiment. Be = 5.7x10-5 tesla, 'd', 'l', 'L' are supplied on CR Tube.

PROCEDURE:

(A) First part:

To calculate the deflection () of the electron spot and balancing distance of bar magnets (R1,
R2, R3 & R4):

1. Mount C.R Tube in armed wooden stand such that the C.R. tube faces towards north and
south while arms of the stand towards east and west.
 2. Connect the C.R. Tube to the power supply and switch ON. Adjust the intensity of the
spot on the screen.
3. Read the initial reading of the spot on the scale attached to the screen without any
voltage, say it is 0.2 cm. Next give a deflection to the spot in the upward direction with
increasing voltage such that the final reading is +0.7 cm and the total deflection 'Y' on
the screen of the spot is (0.7-0.2) = 0.5 cm.
4. Note this applied voltage which deflects the spot on the screen (for deflection 0.7 cm).
This may be called 'V'
5. Now place the bar magnets on each side of the wooden stand arms such that their
opposite poles face each other and their common axis is perpendicular to the axis of C.R.
Tube. The magnets should be kept in such a manner that these may be made to slide
along the scales.
6. Adjust the distance and polarity of the magnets so that the spot traces back to it's initial
position (which was 0.2 cm)
7. Next note the distance of the poles of the magnets nearer to C.R Tube on both the scales.
These may be denoted as R1 and R2.
8. Remove the magnets from the arms of the wooden stands and reverse the polarity of the
voltage 'V' applied to the deflecting plates (P & Q). Now initial deflection will be 0.2 cm .
Thus the total deflection is again 0.5cm. Place the magnets again on the stands and adjust
them to trace the spot back to the initial reading i.e. 0.2 cm
9. Note the distance of the poles of magnets close to the C.R. Tube as in (7). Denote them as
R3 and R4.

(B) Second Part:

To calculate Magnetic field (B) by measuring deflection () on Magnetometer:

1. Remove C.R. Tube and magnets from the stand and place the magnetometer compass box
such that its centre lies on the common axis of the magnets. Adjust the pointer of the
compass box to set OO angle position.
2. Now place the magnets exactly as they were placed in previous arrangement
corresponding to distances R1 and R2 respectively. Read both ends of the pointer; say they
are 1 and 2.
3. After this place the magnets at R3 and R4 and note the deflection of both the ends of the
pointer. Say they are 3 and 4.
Calculate the mean deflection for deflection voltages using the following formula

 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4)/4

The magnetic field is expressed as B = Be tan  where ‘Be’ is horizontal component of

earth's magnetic field at the place of experiment. Repeat the whole procedure as in parts
(A) and (B) for different voltage ‘V’.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) consists of three basic components:

1. Electron Gun:

It is a system consisting of a filament along with a cathode which heated then emits electrons.
There is a control grid that carries negative charge, and sends out a beam of electrons which
are accelerated by the anodes.

2. Deflecting System:

This system deflects the beam of electrons either electrically (P and Q plates) or magnetically
(N and S poles).

3. Fluorescent Screen:

When the electron beam impinges on it, a visible spot is produced.

OBSERVATION:

Table: 1
Measurement of the deflection of the electron spot on the screen:

Sl. No Voltage applied Position of Electron Spot Deflection () Mean deflection
(V) () cm
Initial Final (cm)

1 0 - - -

2 6 -

3 0 - -

4 -6 -

Table: 2
Determination of the magnetic field:

Applied Position of the Angle of deflection of Mean Magnetic field

voltage magnetic poles to the pointer deflection (B=Be tan)
(volt) bring back the spot in  tesla
the initial position
(cm)
6 R1 = R2 = 1= 2 - -

-6 R3 = R4 = 3= 4

CALCULATION:

RESULTS:

The mean Sp charge of electron is = ……… c/Kg

DISCUSSION:

Write down few important points regarding the experiment.

VIVA- QUESTIONS:

1. What is specific charge of an electron/

Ans: Charge per unit mass i.e. e/m is called specific charge of an electron.

2.What are the values of e,m and e/m in S.I units:

Ans: e=1.602×10-19 coulomb, m= 9.109×10-31 kg, e/m = 1.758 ×1011 coulomb/kg.

3. Do you know the other method of finding e/m?

Ans: Dunnington’s method, magnetron method, magic eye electron ray tube, comparatively
study of spectra of hydrogen and ionised helium, Zeeman effect, etc.

4. Why do you place the CRT along the magnetic meridian?

Ans: as the electrons move along the direction of the earth’s magnetic field (B0) the force on it
due to B0 i.e, eV×B0 =0. So the earth’s magnetic field causes no deflection.

5. Can you use earth is magnetic field to deflect the beam?

Ans: Yes. In this case the CRT is to be set in the east-west position and the electric field is to be
adjusted to reduce the magnetic deflection to zero. Of course, the deflection will be very small
in this case.

6. What is the nature of path of electron in the electrostatic field alone?

Ans: it is parabolic within Y – plates. Thereafter, the electron travels tangentially along a
straight path in the field free region.

7.What is the nature of the orbit of an electron in a magnetic field alone?

Ans: If the electron enters the magnetic field normally, its path will be circular. If its initial
velocity has a component along B, then the electron travels in a helical path.
8. What do you mean by cathode rays?

Ans: It is a stream of electrons emitted from the cathode when an electric discharge takes place
in a tube containing a gas very low pressure.

9) What is Lorentz force?

10) Which method do we apply here?