TECHNICAL GUIDE

May 2011

1 - Sy s te m De s ig n
1.1 HYDRAULIC DESIGN

1. 1. 1 Pipeline Design
Background
There are two main categories of drainage:

1. Surface (or Storm) water systems which generally discharge untreated

into rivers or water courses. Surface water includes agricultural, roof or paved
areas and highway drainage.
2. Foul water systems that feed into sewage treatment plants. Foul water can
be from either domestic or industrial sources.

‘Sewerage’ is the entire system of pipes, manholes, gullies and channels.

‘Sewage’ is the foul water effluent that flows within a sewerage system.

A ‘Sewer’ is the pipeline, either for foul or for surface water.

Up to the early 20th century, the majority of drainage systems were ‘combined’, that is,
the foul and surface water fed into the same main sewer. More recent installations
opted for separate systems. To further complicate the situation there are partially
separate systems where in times of surface water flooding, provision is made for
cross-linking of the two systems. Combined systems are still sometimes used,
although the government is insisting that they are phased out and replaced by
separate systems.

Even today, for some new installations, mis-connections between surface water and
foul water systems are a problem. A clear need exists for improved training and site
supervision.

Design considerations
In the design of a surface water or foul water sewer, similar criteria must be
considered:-
· average and peak flows and their duration gradient
· the ranking of the sewer and its environs (whether flooding can be tolerated)
· the depth of the sewer
· any topographical or structural feature (such as a valley, building or
embankment)
· surface characteristics (road, field or paved area)
· access to the sewer for maintenance (frequency, size and depth of manholes)

1
Surface water sewers
The volume of water can be estimated by applying one of the traditional methods such
as the Lloyd- Davies or ‘Rational’ method which was modified by TRRL and widely
used in the UK for many years. More recently the Wallingford Procedure was introduced by
the Hydraulics Research Station, now HR Wallingford.

This incorporates sophisticated computer programs that take into account the
catchment geography, predicted rainfall intensity, return period and duration of storms,
nature of the soil, percentage of impermeable area (i.e. roads, flags and roofs) and the
ranking of the area. The procedure includes a simplified method that can be applied
without need to refer to the suite of computer programs.

Foul sewers
Traditionally the volume of flow (generally expressed in litres per second) has been
calculated using the general rule of thumb equations of 4 x dry weather flow for a new
sewer with joints inherently sound or 6 x dry weather flow in the case of a sewer where
infiltration might be expected.

More recently, domestic flow according to Sewers for Adoption (Water Services
Association) has been based on 4000 litres/unit dwelling/day. Foul sewage from
industrial sources should be assessed taking account of the type of use of the
property; this should be discussed with the local authority’s planning department to
ascertain projected usage and capacity.

Additional discharges arising from infiltration and mis-connections to pipelines or

manholes must always be considered realistically.

There has been extensive research on the comparative roughness - Ks factor - of

pipes of different materials. The findings of HR Wallingford suggest that regardless of
material a Ks value of 1.5mm should be used for all foul sewers and 0.6mm for surface
water sewers. These recommendations have been incorporated within Sewers for
Adoption as a practical and conservative approach for hydraulic design.

Concrete pipes to BS EN 1916 and BS 5911-1 readily satisfy these requirements

whether for surface water or foul sewage. For self-cleansing properties, the foul sewer
must flow at a minimum of 0.75 m/sec at one third of the design flow, the main
governing factors being the pipe diameter, the gradient and the volume of effluent. (The
larger the pipe and the flatter the gradient, the greater amount of effluent will be
required to achieve self-cleansing velocity).

If there is only a small flow, it is unwise to select too large a pipe “to allow for possible
development” as this may lead to settling out of solids, long retention periods,
blockages and build-up of septicity. A limited period of surcharge and backing up of a
sewer is generally preferable to a consistently low velocity and its attendant problems.

Design methods
The various design methods used in the UK have been Crimp and Bruges, Manning,
Hazen-Williams, Colebrook-White, Kutter, Chezy, Bazin and Darcy. In recent years the
Colebook-White equation for transitional flow has been adopted by HRL as the basis
for their design tables and has gradually become accepted nationally.

2
The general formula for flow in a circular pipe is:

1 = -2 l og 1 0 Ks + 2 .5 1
√λ 3.7D Re√λ

Where:
λ = Darcy friction coefficient, 64/Re
Ks = a linear measure of effective roughness (m)
Re = Reynolds number, V D where V = mean fluid velocity (m/s)
ℵ D = hydraulic diameter of pipe (m)
-6 2
ℵ = Kinematic viscosity (1.31 x 10 m /sec)
= / (m/s) where
2
= dynamic viscosity (Ns/m or kg/ms)
3
= density of the fluid (kg/m )

In engineering terms, the expression for transitional pipe flow may be written:

V = -2√ (2gDi) log10 Ks + 2.51ℵ

3.7D D√(2gDi)

Where:
2
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec )
i = hydraulic gradient; invert and water surface slope in uniform flow in open channel.

The depth of flow in the sewer will affect the hydraulic efficiency and Chart A1
gives the proportional velocity and discharge in part-full circular sections.

For the full range of Ks values see:

· Tables for the hydraulic design of pipes, sewers and channels. Hydraulics
Research Station Seventh Edition 1998.
· Charts for the hydraulic design of channels and pipes. Hydraulics Research
Station Sixth Edition 1990.

3
Chart A1. Relative Velocity and Discharge in a Circular Pipe for any
Depth of Flow.

For design purposes Water UK recommends Ks values of 0.6mm for surface (storm)
water and 1.5mm for foul sewers irrespective of pipe material. The charts (Figs B2 &
B3) relate to those values. Research has shown that whilst for mature foul sewers the
Ks value may well exceed 1.5mm over short periods of their service this figure is
acceptable as the build-up of slime will reach a maximum and then be reduced by
normal flow patterns of the sewer.

For further detailed information on system design see also:

‘BS EN 752 (2008) Drain and sewer systems outside buildings. Part 4: Hydraulic
design and environmental considerations.
Sewers for Adoption 6th edition.

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1.1.2 Hydraulic Flow Charts
Chart A2
Ks = 0.6 mm (Storm water sewers)
Hydraulic Flow based on Colebrook-White
Pipes flowing FULL.
Roughness Factor, Ks = 0.6 mm.
Water Temperature 15 ºC

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Chart A3
Ks = 1.5mm (Foul sewers)
Hydraulic Flow based on Colebrook-White
Pipes flowing FULL.
Roughness Factor, Ks = 1.5mm
Water Temperature 15º C

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 1.1.3 Worked examples
1) Design of storm water sewer
Total length of pipeline = 2300m Total
fall to outlet = 15m
Design discharge = 0.3m3/s

To determine size of pipe:-

(a) Flowing full
(b) Flowing quarter full for same discharge

Hydraulic Gradient = ∆ /∆ = 15m / 2300m = 0.0065 = 1:153

Ks for storm water sewer = 0.6mm

(a) PIPE FLOWING FULL:

Example
1(b):
3
2.14m /s

Example
1(a):
3
0.3m /s

1:153

Pipe size required > DN 450

Next available pipe size = DN525

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 (b) PIPE FLOWING QUARTER FULL:

The proportional discharge for pipe running a quarter full = 0.14

Therefore the equivalent full pipe flow is:

0.3(m3/s) / 0.14 = 2.14 m3/s

From Chart on page 8 pipe size required > DN975

Next available pipe size = DN 1050

2) Design of foul sewer

Housing Scheme =180 houses
Total length of pipeline =1650 m
Total fall = 3.6m
Sewers for Adoption - 4 m3/ dwelling / day

Assume half flow over 6 hours and 6 x average flow as design maximum.

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Assume pipe line runs 3/4 full and self-cleansing velocity = 0.75 m/sec.

From Chart on page 9

Discharge Factor = 0.92
Pipe flowing full discharge = 0.1 / 0.92 = 0.11 m3/ sec
Velocity Factor = 1.13
Pipe flowing full velocity = 0.75 / 1.13 = 0.66 m/sec.

Ks for foul sewer = 1 .5mm

0.66m/s

Example 2:
3
0.11m /s

Pipe size required > DN 450

Next available pipe size = DN525

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1.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
1.2.1 Design Principles
The forces acting on a cross section of pipeline arise from three
main sources:
A) Weight of overlying fill, including any local surcharge.
B) Soil pressures transmitted to the pipe from surface loads, i.e. traffic and other
transient loads.
C) Supporting reaction below the pipe.

The weight of water within the pipe is only significant for larger diameter pipes.

A: Weight of overlying fill

There are four main conditions in which pipes are installed:

a) “Narrow” trench.
b) “Wide” trench, or on the surface of ground over which an embankment is then
built (positive projection condition).
c) Narrow trench over which an embankment is then built (negative projection
condition).
d) Tunnel, heading or by jacking.

The load W c imposed by the backfill on a pipe in a “narrow” trench can be found
from Marston’s formula from which the Tables have been compiled in Section 1.2.7.

These Tables are only applicable to rigid pipes laid in “Narrow” trench
conditions.

B: Traffic and other transient loads

Measurements have shown that on large civil engineering works pipes may well be
subjected to their highest loads during construction. Here, three categories of traffic
loading are considered and rigid pipes should normally be designed to withstand the
most onerous likely to occur.

If during construction it is clear that excessive site traffic loading will occur, the
design should be checked accordingly or special crossing places must be
designated.

a) Main road loading is intended to apply to all main traffic routes and to roads
liable to be used for the temporary diversion of heavy traffic.

As a guide it may be assumed that such roads carry at least 200 commercial
vehicles per day in each direction. HA and HB loading are assumed to use such
roads (see BS 5400).

b) Light road loading applies to all other roads where heavy traffic is unlikely to
pass.
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 c) Field loading applies to fields, gardens and lightly trafficked access tracks.
This loading is also considered to be adequate to cater for occasional heaps or
stacks of materials on the ground surface. Massive heaps or stacks likely to
produce a more severe loading should be treated as a special design.

In assessing the loading category, regard should be paid to the possible future
upgrading of a road. Pipes under verges should normally be treated as though under the
road, with the possible exception of motorways and trunk roads and should take account
of any planned road improvement. For non-public roads such as estate roads or
roads within works, an assessment should be made of the heaviest vehicle likely to use
the road, and one of the above three loading conditions selected as appropriate.

C: Supporting reaction below the pipe

British Standards for concrete pipes give maximum crushing loads for each diameter and
strength class of pipe. Loads are applied in a 3 edged loading test described in BS EN
1916 and BS 5911-1. The pipe must not collapse under the maximum load specified.

Proof test loads are also specified. Reinforced pipes must not crack by more than a
specified amount under the proof load. The only proof load test for unreinforced
pipes is the maximum load.

Pipes of a small diameter (up to DN 300) may fail as a beam. BS EN 1916 and BS
5911-1 include suitable values of bending moment resistance.

Pipe bedding
This term is used to describe the complete arc of material within the trench, or in the
case of Class “C” or Class “D” beddings, a special preparation of the trench bottom.
For further information, see Section 1.2.4 “Pipe Bedding”.

Bedding factor
In the standard test on pipes the vertical loading and supporting reactions are line loads
and any trench situation in the field is unlikely to produce such an onerous loading
condition. The strength of the pipe determined in the crushing test can therefore be
multiplied by a bedding factor which represents the amount by which the stresses in the
pipe are reduced because of the spreading properties of the bedding for load and
reaction.

The value of a bedding factor for a particular method of construction is not a precise
figure but is affected by the quality of workmanship. The values given whilst being
conservative assume a reasonable standard of workmanship and supervision. If the
designer needs a somewhat higher bedding factor than stated a high standard of
workmanship and supervision must be specified and guaranteed; alternatively a
higher strength pipe may be considered where available. If a higher strength pipe is
available adequate time must be allowed for the manufacturer to supply.

Factor of safety
For structural design to BS EN 1295 unreinforced pipes should be designed with a
factor of safety (Fse) of 1.25 (generally DN225–DN600 units are unreinforced but
some manufacturers may have a different range of such pipes). The factor of safety
increases to 1.5 for reinforced pipes. Confirmation should be obtained from the
manufacturer or a conservative approach would be to use a 1.5 factor of safety.

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1.2.2 Design Assumptions
Surface Conditions
The Tables in Section 1.2.7 are applicable only to a single pipeline laid in its own
trench, and have been set out to give the loads on pipes under three surface
conditions, Main Roads, Light Roads and Fields.

Backfill loads
The Tables are calculated using an equivalent soil density of 19.6 kN/m3
(approximately 2 tonnes/m3).

Traffic loads
The loads referred to in the design principles have values as follows:-

a) Main roads
Static wheel load of 86.5kN and an impact factor of 1.3, giving a Total Static wheel
load of 112.5kN; contact pressure 1100kN/m2.

b) Light roads
Static wheel load of 70kN and an impact factor of 1.5, giving a Total Static wheel load
of 105kN; contact pressure 700 kN/m2.

c) Fields
Static wheel load of 30kN and an impact factor of 2.0, giving a Total Static wheel load
of 60 kN; contact pressure 400kN/m2.

Superimposed loads
These are not included in the Tables. If however such loads are encountered and are
of sufficient magnitude, an allowance should be made.

Water Loads
These are included in the Tables. If the pipe is laid below the ground water table, an
allowance for this load is not needed. However, as these loads are small by
comparison with other loads on the pipe, it has been considered appropriate to
include them only for pipes of DN 600 and over.

Frictional factor K
A value of 0.13 has been used for narrow trench conditions.

Minimum cover over pipe

a) lt is advisable that pipes laid under roads should have cover over the pipe of not
less than 1 .2m. This cover should be maintained for main roads, light roads
(which may on occasion carry main road traffic) and for pipes laid under grass
verges adjacent to a road (Tables A3 and A4). Where pipes have to be laid with
less than 1 .2m cover special consideration is needed to reduce the risk of
damage. Loads in columns headed 0.9 and I.0 in Tables A3 and A4 should be
used only as a guide.

b) For pipes laid in fields a minimum cover of 0.6m should be provided. At

shallower depths there is a risk of damage from agricultural operations.

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1.2.3 Design Method
The established method for calculation of loads on buried rigid pipes is summarised in
BS EN 1295 National Annex A, the principles of which are explained below. For
further information, BS9295 has been published as a guide and background to BS EN
1295.

In general pipelines are laid in trenches and the pipes used are designed to carry the
backfill, traffic loads and, when the diameter is 600mm or more, some part of the water
load under working conditions.

In order to improve the load carrying capacity of the pipe it is laid on one of several
classes of bedding (see Table A2). Each type of bedding is allocated a “bedding factor”
(Fm) which may be regarded as a multiplier applied to the test load of the pipe.

The trench is excavated in the natural soil, the pipe is laid on the selected bedding and
the trench backfilled. Load on the pipe due to the backfill develops as the fill material
settles. The load on the pipe due to the backfill is therefore the weight of the backfill
taken over the full trench width but reduced by the shear force from the trench walls
acting upwards (see Fig.A1). This state is called the narrow trench condition. The
backfill load is calculated by using the Marston formula:

Wc = Cd w Bd2

Where:
W c = Backfill load (KN/m)
Cd = Load coefficient, dependent on soil type and ratio of cover depth to trench width
w = Soil density (kN/m3)
Bd = Width of trench (m)

Provided that the trench width does not exceed the values given in the tables, the
loads given are conservative and may be used with confidence.

The trench widths given will provide adequate working space around the pipe for
laying and jointing and also sufficient room to place and consolidate the bedding
specified.

As indicated, the friction acting against the backfill is provided by the trench walls
and is roughly constant at a particular depth. If however the trench width is
increased radically, Bd2 in the Marston formula is also increased and a reappraisal of the
load on the pipe must be considered.

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Fig A1. Narrow Trench Fig A2. Wide Trench

For any depth there is a trench width where friction planes from the trench walls
become remote from the pipe and no longer contribute to the reduction of the fill
load. In fact the settlement of the side prisms of backfill tend to increase the load (see
Fig.A2). This state is called the wide trench condition. It is a positive projection condition.
The backfill loading on the pipe does not take any relief from undisturbed ground.

In preparing the tables, due consideration has been given as to whether at any
trench width and depth, the narrow or wide trench condition and load is applicable, and
the standard practice of using the lesser of these values has been adopted. The tables
give the total loads for pipes of all diameters specified in BS 5911-1. This load includes
loading from backfill and traffic for depths of cover over the top of the pipe as follows:

Main Roads and Light Roads - 1 .2m to 8.0m

Fields - 0.6m to 8.0m

For DN 600 and above the water load shown is also included.

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Table A1. Minimum crushing loads (Fn) for strength class 120 units
with a circular bore for use in a trench – BS 5911-1: 2010.
Nominal Size Minimum crushing size, Fn
DN kN/m
225 27
300 36
375* 45
400 48
450* 54
500 60
525* 63
600 72
675* 81
700 84
750* 90
800 96
825* 99
900* 108
1000 120
1050* 126
1200 144
1350* 162
1400 168
1500* 180
1600 192
1800 216
2000 240
2100* 252
2200 264
2400* 288
NOTE 1 Classic sizes, denoted by an asterisk, will be phased out if called for by further
European harmonisation.
NOTE 2 Sizes DN 225 to DN 600 inclusive are normally only manufactured unreinforced in the
United Kingdom.
NOTE 3 Sizes DN 1000 and above are normally only manufactured reinforced in the United
Kingdom.
NOTE 4 Table NA.5 of BS EN 1295-1: 1998 recommends that the minimum value of safety
factor for the structural design of reinforced pipelines should be increased from the normal 1.25 to
1.5 if, as is the cast of BS EN 1916: 2002, the proof load is 67% of the minimum crushing load.

1.2.4 Pipe Bedding

The load bearing capacity of an installed pipeline relates directly to the construction
of the bedding which is intended to level out any irregularities in the formation, and
provide uniform support around and along the length of the pipe barrel.

Pipe settlement will be kept to a minimum by the proper selection and compaction of the
bedding material. The bedding should be compacted to a density not less than that of
the natural soil in the sides and bottom of the trench. The bedding directly beneath or
above the pipeline must not be over compacted otherwise line loading of the pipes will
result.

On steep gradients, or where dewatering has taken place, it is important to restrict

ground water movement within the completed trench. Selection of bedding or clay
dams across the full width of the trench will assist in this.

15
Under no circumstances should blocks or bricks be placed beneath pipes. Any pegs
used for setting out or leveling must be removed.

Bedding materials
Any stable soil will act adequately as a bedding material provided that it is placed
and compacted around the pipeline. From a practical point of view granular material is
compacted more readily and has become widely accepted.

The bedding material should be of similar particle size to that in the trench sides.
Where the ground is clay or silt, bedding material must consist of all-in gravels to
prevent the trench from becoming a drainage channel and carrying away fines from
the trench walls and bedding and causing settlement of the pipes.

Granular bedding material

The ideal is crushed rock or gravel but similar locally available material having an
angular or an irregular shape may be used. Rounded single sized material is not
recommended as it may not provide a stable bed especially for heavy larger
diameter pipes.

Water Research Centre (WRc) Information and Guidance Note (IGN) 4-08-01
provides guidance on the particle size of material relating to pipe diameter.

Sands containing an excess of fine particles are more difficult to place and compact
and will require a greater degree of supervision on site to achieve a stable
embedment for the pipeline.

Selected bedding and fill material

This should consist of uniform readily compatible material, free from tree roots,
vegetable matter, building rubbish and frozen soil. When used as fill, the material
should not contain large clay lumps or cobbles. When used as bedding, all clay
lumps should be excluded.

“As dug” material may be used provided that it is readily compatible and provides
stable embedment.

Classes of bedding and bedding factors

The strength of an installed pipeline depends on a combination of the strength of the
pipe and the class of bedding.
The selection of the bedding class is influenced by many factors, which include the
nature of the ground, the loads acting on the pipeline in the trench, availability of a
particular strength class of pipe, and the local cost and availability of the bedding
material.

Taking into account the cost of labour, it is generally more economical to lay the
pipes on a bedding of non-cohesive materials, or alternatively scarify the trench bottom
rather than hand trim the formation.

Normally loading calculations are made considering the pipeline in complete lengths,
between manholes. The calculated strength class for a pipe to satisfy the most
severe loading condition between each pair of manholes is then used throughout the
16
length. However there are occasions when it may be necessary to use a higher
bedding class for a short distance where locally the load is increased, for instance at a
road crossing or in an embankment.

The normally accepted classes of pipe bedding are shown in Table A2 and in Fig. A3.

Table A2. Types of Bedding

Bedding Class Bedding factor Description Suitability
Class D 1.1 Hand trimmed flat Fine grained soils,
bottom/ formation relatively dry
conditions
Class N 1.1 Flat bed of granular all- Rock, mixed soils
in or selected material
Class C 1.5 Shaped formation (or Uniform soils
scarify) relatively dry
Class F 1.5 Shaped bedding of General
granular material
Class B 1.9 180º non cohesive General
bedding material
Class S 2.2 Complete surround of General
non cohesive bedding
material
Class A Plain 2.6 Plain concrete cradle Seldom necessary
Class A reinforced 3.4 Reinforced concrete Higher strength
cradle pipe with granular
bedding is more
practicable and
economic option
Geotexiles
Where appropriate, goetextiles may be used to contain bedding materials e.g. in running sand.

17
Fig. A3 Types of bedding

17
NOTES:
1. Generally thickness of bedding (Y), minimum of 100mm under barrels and
50mm under sockets. In rock 200mm under barrels and 150mm under
sockets. Minimal compaction directly beneath pipe.
2. Sidefills, whether of bedding material or of selected material, must be well
compacted.
3. Backfill or bedding material to be highly compacted above sidefills to 300mm
above the crown but lightly compacted directly over the pipe.
4. Normal backfill to be compacted as appropriate.
5. With reasonable workmanship and supervision these bedding factors are
conservative.

1.2.5 Design Calculations

The calculated load “W e”, which is the total load a concrete pipe in a trench is
required to sustain, is used in the design formula as follows:

Fn = We x Fse
Fm

where Fn = required BS 5911-1 test strength (kN/m)

We = load from Tables B3 or B4 (kN)
Fse = factor of safety
Fm = bedding factor chosen

Test strength of pipe (Fn)

The test strength of a concrete pipe may be referred to as F c or F n

In the UK, all standard pipes to BS EN 1916 and BS 5911-1 are Class 120. To
calculate the test strength apply 120 x pipe nominal diameter in metres e.g. for
DN450 pipe, Fn=120 x 0.45=54kN/m (see Table A1).

For a reinforced concrete pipe Fc is the load which the pipe will sustain without
developing a crack exceeding 0.30mm in width over a length of 300mm and Wt is
the load which the pipe will sustain without collapse, irrespective of crack width.
However, to further simplify the procedure it is more straightforward to use the
maximum test load Fn and applying the factor of safety of Fse.

19
Load Tables
Table A3 - Total Design Loads - Main Roads. “H” = 0.9 metres to 8.0
metres

20
Table A4 - Total Design Loads - Light Roads. “H” = 0.9 metres to
8.0 metres

21
Table A5 - Total Design Loads - Fields, etc.. “H” = 0.6 metres to 8.0
metres

22
1.2.6 Worked examples
The symbols used in the examples are those referred to in Design Calculations
(Section 1.2.5).

Example 1
Size of pipe: DN900 (reinforced)
Cover depth: 3.00m
Design load: Main road

From Table, We (design load) = 128kN/m

Fse = 1.5 (reinforced pipe)
Fn (pipe strength) = 120 x 0.9 = 108kN/m
Required bedding factor, Fm = (We x Fse) / Fn = (128 x 1.5) / 108 = 1.78
From Table A2, Bedding Class B (Fm=1.9) and Class S (Fm=2.2) are suitable.

23
Example 2
A 900mm diameter pipeline with Class B bedding is to be laid across fields.

What is the greatest cover depth that these pipes may be laid?

Fse = 1.5 (reinforced pipe)

Fn= (pipe strength) = 120 x 0.9 = 108kN/m
Fm = 1.9 for Class B bedding

Fm = (We x Fse) / Fn => We = (Fm x Fn) / Fse = (1.9 x 108) / 1.5 = 136.8kN/m

From Table, Total load at 4.6m = 134kN/m.

Total load at 4.8m = 138kN/m.
Maximum cover under these conditions is 4.7m (approx.)

24
1.3 MANHOLE DESIGN
1.3.1 Manhole Positions
Manholes are recommended:
· At intervals of up to 90m, or 200m for man entry pipe runs.
· Whenever there is a significant change of direction in a sewer.
· Where another sewer is connecting with the main run of a sewer.
· Where there is a change of size or gradient of pipeline.
· Where there is a change of design loading or bedding design.

1.3.2 Precast Components

The following standard precast concrete components are manufactured in
accordance with BS EN 1917 & BS 5911-3 for assembly into complete manholes;

· Adjusting units and corbel slabs

· Cover slabs
· Shaft sections
· Reducing slabs
· Chamber sections
· Landing slabs
· Base units

Base units can be supplied with circular or semicircular holes (cut-outs or dog
kennels) cut in the chamber walls or with factory made flexible joints to incorporate a
sealing ring to connect pipes to the chamber.

1.3.3 Advantages
The main advantages of manholes using precast concrete components over in-situ
construction are:
1) Units are produced in a controlled factory environment to BS EN 1917 & BS 5911-3
to ensure consistent quality and performance.
2) All CPSA member factories are licensed to manufacture Kitemark standard units
under BS EN ISO 9001 quality management system.
3) They are manufactured in a range of standard sizes and depths.
4) They are simple to assemble requiring relatively unskilled labour on site.
5) Units are capable of being constructed as watertight structures.
6) They can be supplied ready fitted with double steps.
7) The structure is durable with its own inherent strength.

25
Fig. A4 Typical Manhole Layout
Fig. A4a Typical Cast
In-situ Manhole Layout

Figure A4b Typical

Precast Base Manhole
System Layout
1.3.4 Types of Manholes
Manholes should be designed and constructed in accordance with BS EN 752:2008. Table
NA.22 provides recommendations for dimensions for manholes and manhole shafts for UK
applications (with personnel entry) and Sewers for Adoption (6 th Edition) provides details of
manholes suitable for adoption purposes.
Manholes may be constructed with or without a shaft. It is recommended that reducing slabs and
shafts are only used for DN1800 manholes and larger.
Smaller diameter chambers should be constructed up to full height and use a cover slab. There
are also inspection chambers which are constructed over a subsidiary drain or sewer of not more
than DN 225 to permit inspection and access for rodding. Most manholes are sited symmetrically
over the main sewer pipeline. Side-entry manholes which are formed integral to the crown of the
pipe are also manufactured. These can be advantageous in terms of installation time and cost
savings.

1) Conventional manholes
These are built on a run of sewer with or without side connections. Where conditions permit, the
soffit level of sewers connecting to a manhole should be the same.

2) Precast base systems

Inlet(s) and outlet positions are configured to site requirements and delivered with all channels
and benching complete. Watertight joints and thicker walls means units do not require a
concrete surround, unless specified. A faster, safer, higher quality, lower installed cost and
reduced carbon footprint alternative to conventional manholes.

For more information on precast manhole base systems, refer to CPSA member product
information:
CPM Group Ltd
http://www.cpm-group.com/drainage/the-perfect-manhole.php
FP McCann Ltd http://www.fpmccann.co.uk/precast-concrete/dn1200-easi-base-polypropylene-lined.aspx
Stanton Bonna Ltd
http://www.stanton-bonna.co.uk/pdfs/Manhole_Systems.pdf

3) Side-entry manholes
Side-entry can be provided for sewers larger than DN 1200. The side-entry shaft is fitted to the main
sewer pipe by the manufacturer before delivery.

4) Backdrop manholes
Where one sewer connects with another at a substantially different level, the manhole is built on the
lower sewer and incorporates a vertical or nearly vertical drop pipe from the higher sewer. The drop
pipe, which may be inside or outside the manhole chamber, has its lower end discharging into the
main sewer, and at its upper end has a rodding eye for cleaning through the higher sewer.

5) Dual and crossing manholes

Where surface water and foul sewers are laid in the same trench, the surface water being normally
above the foul, a normal manhole chamber is built for the foul sewer and the surface water is carried
across the chamber in a separate pipe which may have a sealed inspection cover.
1.3.5 Sizes of Manholes
The diameter of the chamber is determined by the number and the diameter of the sewer pipes coming
into the manhole and the working space required.
The chamber should be a minimum of DN 1050 and is the smallest size that may be fitted with steps,
but are only permitted to be used to a depth of 1 .5m. DN 1200 is the smallest size that can be used
deeper than 1 .5m and to which ladders may be fitted. It should have ample benching at least 225mm
wide on one side of the channels. On the other side, the benching should be wide enough to stand on,
at least 500mm.
For deep manholes, the chamber should be large enough to provide benching or a landing adequate
for two persons to stand upon.
A guide for the minimum chamber diameters required for various sizes of sewer pipes entering the
manhole is given in Table A6. When a manhole is sited on a curve, or where additional pipes enter at
the sides a larger size may be required.

Table A6 Sizes of pipe and manhole chamber diameters

Maximum size of pipe (DN) through Minimum Chamber diameter (DN)
chamber
~ 300 1050
450 1200
~ 750 1500
~ 1050 1800
1200 2100
1500 2400
1800 2700
2100 3000

1.3.6 Pipes Adjacent to Manholes

There may be differential settlement between a structure and the pipeline resulting in angular deflection
of the joint. This creates no problem for the joint itself but when this movement is “excessive” there is a
shear force that can cause structural failure
on the pipe, either shear behind the collar or from beam fracture of the pipe barrel.

To prevent this, the first pipe in the line can be restricted in length. This is known as a “rocker pipe”. The
likelihood of differential settlement should be assessed and rocker pipes used as appropriate.

Guidance on rocker pipes may be found in “Civil Engineering Specification for the Water Industry” and
“Sewers for Adoption”.
Fig. A5 Typical Rocker Pipe

In certain conditions where excessive differential movement is possible, for pipes ≥ DN750, it may be
advisable to use multiple rocker pipes to avoid unacceptable angular deflection or shear force at the joint.