THE NERVOUS SYSTEM These changes are called stimuli, and the gathered

information is called sensory input. (2) It processes and

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
interprets the sensory input and decides what should be
 Sensory input – gathering information done at each moment—a process called integration. (3)
- To monitor changes occurring inside and It then causes a response, or effect, by activating
outside the body muscles or glands (effectors) via motor output.
- Changes = stimuli
 Motor (efferent) division
 Integration
- Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
- To process and interpret sensory input and
the central nervous system
decide if action is needed
- Two subdivisions
 Motor output
 Somatic nervous system =
- A response to integrated stimuli
voluntary nervous system
- The response activates muscles or glands
 Skeletal muscle reflexes
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS such as stretch reflex are
SYSTEM initiated involuntarily by
same fibers
 Central nervous system (CNS)  Autonomic nervous system =
- Brain and Spinal cord involuntary nervous system
- Acts as integrating and command center –  Sympathetic and
interpret incoming sensory information and parasympathetic divisions
issue instructions based on past experiences
and current conditions ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
- Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
- Link all parts of the body by carrying
impulses to the CNS and back

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL

NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Sensory (afferent) division

- Nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system

It uses its millions of sensory receptors to monitor

changes occurring both inside and outside the body.
NERVOUS TISSUE: SUPPORT CELLS (NEUROGLIA) -GLIA  Ependymal cells
- Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
 Astrocytes
- Circulate cerebrospinal fluid with cilia
- Abundant, star-shaped cells
- Brace neurons
- Form barrier between capillaries and
neurons and make exchanges between the
two
- Control the chemical environment of the
brain by capturing ions and
neurotransmitters
 Microglia
- Spider-like phagocytes
- Dispose of debris – dead cells and bacteria

 Oligodendrocytes
- Wrap their flat extensions tightly around
the nerve fibers
- Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers
in the central nervous system

 Satellite cells
- Protect neuron cell bodies
 Schwann cells
 - Form myelin sheath in the peripheral  Axons end in axonal terminals
nervous system  Axonal terminals contain vesicles with

Neuroglia are not able to transmit nerve impulses but

do not lose their ability to divide, unlike neurons

NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS

 Neurons = nerve cells

- Cells specialized to transmit messages
- Major regions of neurons
 Cell body – nucleus and metabolic
center of the cell
 Processes – fibers that extend from
the cell body neurotransmitters
NEURON ANATOMY  Axonal terminals are separated from the next
neuron by a gap
 Cell body - Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent
- Nissl substance – specialized rough neurons
endoplasmic reticulum - Synapse – junction between nerves
- Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton
that maintains cell shape NERVE FIBER COVERINGS
- Nucleus  Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-
- Large Nucleolus roll like fashion
 Extensions outside the cell body  Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along
the axon

NEURON CELL BODY LOCATION

 Most are found in the central nervous system in

clusters called nuclei
- Bundles of nerve fibers in CNS = tracts
 Gray matter – cell bodies and
unmyelinated fiber
 White matter – myelinated fibers
- Bundles of nerve fibers in PNS = nerves
 Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the
central nervous system

- Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the

cell body
- Axons – conduct impulses away from the
cell body

AXONS AND NERVE IMPULSES

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS - Axon conducts nerve impulses both to
and from the cell body
 Sensory (afferent) neurons
- Cell bodies in a ganglion outside the CNS FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NEURONS
- Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
to CNS
 Cutaneous (skin) sense organs
 Proprioceptors – detect stretch or
tension in muscles, tendons, joints
 Motor (efferent) neurons
- Cell bodies found in the CNS
- Carry impulses from the central nervous
system
 Interneurons (association neurons)
- Found in neural pathways in the central
nervous system
 Two main functions
 Cell bodies in the CNS
- Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
- Connect sensory and motor neurons
- Conductivity – ability to transmit an
NEURON CLASSIFICATION impulse
 The plasma membrane at rest is polarized
- Fewer positive ions (usually K+) are
inside the cell than outside the cell
(usually Na+)

STARTING A NERVE IMPULSE

 Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the

neuron’s membrane
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS  A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+)
to flow inside the membrane
 Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the  The exchange of ions initiates an action
cell body potential (nerve impulse) in the neuron

THE ACTION POTENTIAL

 If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it

is propagated over the entire axon – all-or-none
response
 Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after
sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the
membrane
 The sodium-potassium pump restores the
 Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite original configuration
- Rare in adults – in eye and ear only - This action requires ATP
 Until repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot
conduct another impulse

NERVE IMPULSE PROPAGATION

  Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin THE REFLEX ARC
sheath
 Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary
- Nerve impulse literally jumps from node
responses to stimuli
to node because it cannot cross myelin
 Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron,
insulation
to an interneuron, to an effector
CONTINUATION OF THE NERVE IMPULSE BETWEEN
SIMPLE REFLEX ARC
NEURONS
TYPES OF REFLEXES AND REGULATION
 Impulses are unable to cross the synapse to
another nerve  Autonomic reflexes
- Neurotransmitter is released from a - Smooth muscle regulation
nerve’s axon terminal - Size of eye pupils
- The dendrite of the next neuron has - Heart and blood pressure regulation
receptors that are stimulated by the - Regulation of glands and sweating
neurotransmitter - Digestive system and elimination
- An action potential is started in the regulation
dendrites of the next neuron  Somatic reflexes
 Transmission of an impulse is an - Activation of skeletal muscles
electrochemical event  Reflex arcs have a minimum five elements
- A sensory receptor – reacts to stimuli
- An effector receptor – muscle or gland
stimulated
- Afferent and efferent neurons
connecting the two
- The CNS integration center

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

 CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube –

a simple tube
HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE AT SYNAPSES - The neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
- The opening of the neural tube
becomes the ventricles
 Four chambers within the brain
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

REGIONS OF THE BRAIN

 Cerebral hemispheres
 Diencephalon
 Brain stem
 Cerebellum
Development and regions of the human brain. The brain (a) A midsagittal section of the brain illustrating the
can be considered in terms of four main parts: cerebral diencephalon (purple) and brain stem (green).
hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and
SPECIALIZED AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM
cerebellum.
 Somatic sensory area in parietal lobe – receives
(a) In the developing brain, the cerebral hemispheres,
impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
initially smooth, are forced to grow posteriorly and
(except special senses)
laterally over the other brain regions by the bones of
- Occipital lobe – vision and temporal
the skull.
lobe – auditory
(b) In the adult brain, the cerebral hemispheres, now  Primary motor area – sends impulses to
highly convoluted, enclose the diencephalon and the skeletal muscles – frontal lobe
superior part of the brain stem. The left cerebral  Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak –
hemisphere is drawn so that it looks transparent, to base of the precentral gyrus
reveal the location of the deeply situated
diencephalon and superior part of the brain stem.

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (CEREBUM)

 Paired (left and right) superior parts of the

brain
 Include more than half of the brain mass
 The surface is made of elevated ridges (gyri)
and shallow grooves (sulci)

LOBES OF THE CEREBUM

 Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum

into lobes
 Surface lobes of the cerebrum – named for
cranial bone over them
- Frontal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
SENSORY AND MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX

SPECIALIZED AREA OF THE CEREBRUM

 Cerebral areas involved in special senses

- Gustatory area (taste)
- Visual area
- Auditory area
- Olfactory area
 Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
- Speech/language region
- Language comprehension region
- General interpretation area

LAYERS OF THE CEREBRUM

- Temporal lobe
 Gray matter
Diencephalon and brain stem structures. - Outermost layer
- Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies
 - Cerebral cortex  MIDBRAIN
 Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
 The cerebral aqueduct – canal that connects
 White matter the 3rd ventricle of the diencephalon to the
- Fiber tracts inside the gray matter 4th ventricle
- Example: corpus callosum connects  Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral
hemispheres peduncles – convey ascending and
 Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter descending impulses
- Helps regulate voluntary motor  Has four rounded protrusions – corpora
activities by modifying instructions sent quadrigemina – Reflex centers for vision
to the skeletal muscle and hearing
 PONS
DIENCEPHALON – INTERBRAIN  The bulging center part of the brain stem
 Sits on top of the brain stem  Mostly composed of fiber tracts
 Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres  Includes nuclei involved in the control of
 Made of three parts breathing
- Thalamus MEDULLA OBLONGATA
- Hypothalamus  The lowest part of the brain stem
- Epithalamus  Merges into the spinal cord
 THALAMUS  Includes important fiber tracts
 Surrounds the third ventricle of the brain  Contains important control centers
 The relay station for sensory impulses - Heart rate control
passing upward to the sensory cortex - Blood pressure regulation
 Transfers impulses to the correct part of the - Breathing
cortex for localization and interpretation - Swallowing
 HYPOTHALAMUS - Vomiting
 Under the thalamus RETICULAR FORMATION
 Important autonomic nervous system
center  Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
- Helps regulate body temperature stem
- Controls water balance  Involved in motor control of visceral organs
- Regulates metabolism  Reticular activating system plays a role in
 An important part of the limbic system awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
(emotions) – emotional-visceral brain  Damage here results in a permanent coma
 The pituitary gland is attached to and
regulated by the hypothalamus
 EPITHALAMUS
 Forms the roof of the third ventricle
 Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
gland)
 Includes the choroid plexus – forms
cerebrospinal fluid

BRAIN STEM

 Attaches to the spinal cord

 Parts of the brain stem
- Midbrain
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
CEREBELLUM - Folds inward in several areas that
attaches the brain to cranial cavity
 Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
 Arachnoid layer
 Provides involuntary coordination of body
- Middle layer that is web-like
movements – of skeletal muscles, balance and
 Pia mater
equilibrium
- al layer that clings to the surface of the
 Automatic pilot – continually comparing brain’s
brain following every fold
intentions with actual body performance
 Subarachnoid space filled with cerebrospinal
PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM fluid
- Arachnoid villi – projections of
 Scalp and skin arachnoid membrane protruding
 Skull and vertebral column through the dura matter
 Meninges
 Cerebrospinal fluid CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 Blood brain barrier
 Similar to blood plasma composition
- Less protein, more vitamin C, different
ions
 Formed by the choroid plexus
 Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
 Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord

BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER

 Includes the least permeable capillaries of the

body – only H2O, glucose, and essential amino
acids get through
 Excludes many potentially harmful substances
 Useless against some substances
- Fats and fat-soluble molecules
- Respiratory gases
- Alcohol
- Nicotine
- Anesthesia

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES

 Concussion
- Slight brain injury – dizzy or lose
consciousness briefly
MENINGES - No permanent brain damage
 Contusion
 Dura mater - Nervous tissue destruction occurs -
- Double-layered external covering the does not regenerate
brain - If cortex is damaged, coma for hours or
 Periosteum – attached to life
surface of the skull  Cerebral edema
 Meningeal layer – outer - Swelling from the inflammatory
covering of the brain and response
continues as the dura matter of - May compress and kill brain tissue
the spinal cord
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA)  Extends from the medulla oblongata to the
region of T12
 Commonly called a stroke
 Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of
 The result of a clot or a ruptured blood vessel
spinal nerves)
supplying a region of the brain
 Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar
 Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that
regions
blood source dies
 Loss of some functions or death may result

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

 Progressive degenerative brain disease

 Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in
middle age
 Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers
within neurons
 Victims experience memory loss, irritability,
confusion and ultimately, hallucinations and
death

SPINAL CORD

SPINAL CORD ANATOMY

 Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies that

surround the central canal of the cord
- Dorsal (posterior) horns

- Anterior (ventral) horns

 Contains motor neurons of the
somatic nervous system, which
send their axons out the ventral
root
- Together they fuse to form the spinal
nerves
 - Nerves leave at the level of each DISTRIBUTION OF CRANIAL NERVES
vertebrae
 I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
 Cell bodies of sensory neurons, whose fibers
 II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
enter the cord by the dorsal root, are found in
 III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye
an enlarged area called the dorsal root ganglion
muscles
 Damage to this area causes sensation from the
 IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
body area served to be lost
 V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face;
 Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
motor fibers to chewing muscles
- Posterior, lateral, and anterior columns
 VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye
 Each contains a number of fiber
muscles
tracts make up of axons with
 VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers
the same destination and
to the face
function
 VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for
 Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
balance and hearing
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM  IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste;
motor fibers to the pharynx
 Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous
 X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for
system
pharynx, larynx, and viscera
 Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
 XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and
 Neuron fibers are bundled by a connective
upper back
tissue sheath
 XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

STRUCTURE OF A NERVE
SPINAL NERVES
 Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
 There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of
 Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by
each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
perineurium
 Spinal nerves are formed by the combination of
 Fascicles are bound together by epineurium
the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES  Spinal nerves are named for the region from
which they arise
 Classified according to the direction in which
they transmit impulses ANATOMY OF SPINAL NERVES
 Mixed nerves – carry both sensory and motor
 Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the
fibers – spinal nerves
spinal cord
 Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses
- Dorsal rami – serve the skin and
toward the CNS
muscles of the posterior trunk
 Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away
- Ventral rami – forms a complex of
from the CNS
networks (plexus) for the anterior,
CRANIAL NERVES which serve the motor and sensory
needs of the limbs
 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head
and neck AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Numbered in order, front to back – names
 The involuntary branch of the nervous system
reveal structures they control
 Consists of only motor nerves
 Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
 Divided into two divisions
only
- Optic, olfactory, and vestibulocochlear
 - Sympathetic division – mobilizes the  They synapse with the second motor neuron in
body a terminal ganglion
- Parasympathetic division – allows body  Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
to unwind  Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION –

NERVOUS SYSTEMS THORACOLUMBAR DIVISION

 Nerves  Originates from T1 through L2

- Somatic – one motor neuron – axons  Preganglionic axons leave the cord in the
extend all the way to the skeletal ventral root, enter the spinal nerve, then pass
muscle they serve through a ramus communications, to enter a
- Autonomic – preganglionic and sympathetic chain (trunk) (near the spinal cord)
postganglionic nerves  Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
 Effector organs postganglionic neuron transmit impulse from
- Somatic – skeletal muscle CNS to the effector
- Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac  Norepinephrine and epinephrine are
muscle, and glands neurotransmitters to the effector organs
 Neurotransmitters
- Somatic – always use acetylcholine
- Autonomic – use acetylcholine,
epinephrine, or norepinephrine

COMPARISON OF SOMATIC AND AUTONOMIC

NERVOUS SYSTEMS SYMPATHETIC PATHWAYS

ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION ANATOMY OF THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Originates from the brain stem and S2 – S4
 Neurons in the cranial region send axons out in
cranial nerves to the head and neck organs
  Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
 The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop – contains centers for
regulating body temperature
 No more neurons are formed after birth, but
growth and maturation continue for several
years largely due to myelination
 The brain reaches maximum weight as a young
adult

Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system.

Parasympathetic fibers are shown in purple,
sympathetic fibers in green. Solid lines represent
preganglionic fibers; dashed lines indicate
postganglionic fibers. Note the direct connection
between the sympathetic nervous system and the
adrenal gland.

AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING

 Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”
- Response to unusual stimulus
- Takes over to increase activities
- Remember as the “E” division =
exercise, excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment
 Parasympathetic – housekeeping activities
- Conserves energy
- Maintains daily necessary body
functions
- Remember as the “D” division -
digestion, defecation, and diuresis

DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 The nervous system is formed during the first

month of embryonic development