PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

OF SOLUTIONS
• Solution - a homogenous mixture of two or more
components that can be varied in composition. It is formed
when one substance disperses uniformly throughout another.
• Components of a solution:
1. Solvent - the component present in greatest amount; the
substance in which a solute dissolves.
2. Solute - other components present in the solution; the
substance dissolved.
• Solubility - the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved
in a given amount of solvent at specific temperature.
• Aqueous solutions - a solution in which water is the solvent.
• Solvation - interaction between solute and solvent molecules due
to intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA). e.g. Na+ and Cl-
ions surrounded by H2O molecules
• Hydration - solvation when solvent is water.
 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
• a. Dilute - a solution with low solute concentration.
• b. Concentrated - a solution with high solute concentration.
• c. Saturated solution - a solution that contains the
maximum amount of solute the solvent can dissolve.
Additional solute will no longer dissolve if added.
 TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

• d. Unsaturated solution - a solution containing amount

of solute less than its solubility. It has the capacity to
dissolve more solute.
• e. Supersaturated solution - a solution containing an
amount of solute greater than the solubility; an unstable
solution.
• At higher temperature, solvents can hold more solute than
at lower temperature. If a given amount of solute is
dissolved in a solvent at a higher temperature then allowed
to cool without being disturbed, the solute will remain in
solution even though the solubility decreases as the
temperature is reduced. The solution is unstable though,
and the solute will fall out of solution if the solution is
disturbed.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS

• A. Based on Elemental Composition

1. Organic solutions - solutions of compounds
containing carbon except CO2, CO, carbonates, and
cyanides.
2. Inorganic solutions - solutions of compounds of the
other elements including acids, bases, and salts.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS
• B. Based on Ionization/Electrolytic Property of Solute
Electrolytic property - the ability of the solution to conduct
electricity.
Electrolytes - substances whose aqueous solutions contain
ions and thus conduct electricity.
1. Strong electrolytes - substances which completely
dissociates into ions. e.g. salts, strong acids, strong bases
• Consider the dissolution of sodium chloride in water:
•  

By ion-dipole interaction, the intermolecular force of attraction

between the ions and water which is dipolar, the ions are
stabilized by the water molecules. The water molecules
surround the ions and hence, these ions are dispersed uniformly
throughout the solution resulting to an electrolytic solution.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS

2. Weak electrolytes - substances which produce small

amounts of ions in solution; partially dissociated into
ions. e.g. weak acids, weak bases
• Consider the equilibrium:
•  

Acetic acid, CH3COOH ionizes to form acetate anion,

CH3COO- and H+. While this happens, some ions also
combine to form back CH3COOH. This results to partial
dissociation.
 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS

3. Nonelectrolytes - substances that does not dissociate

into ions; form nonconducting solutions. e.g. most
molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes
 THE SOLUTION PROCESS
• The solute and solvent form a solution and both consist of
particles attracting each other. For one substance to dissolves in
another, three events must occur:
1. Solute particles separate from each other - to overcome
intermolecular interactions.
2. Solvent particles separate from each other - involve overcoming
intermolecular interactions.
3. Solute and solvent particles mix - the particles attract each other.
 FACTORS EXPLAINING
SOLUBILITY
• Three types of interactions to consider for solutions:
1. Solvent-solvent interaction
2. Solute-solute interaction
3. Solvent-solute interaction
• Consider the solution process taking place in three distinct
steps:
(1)separation of solvent molecules,
(2)separation of solute molecules, and
(3)mixing of solvent and solute molecules.
If solvent-solute interaction can't compete with solute-solute
and solvent-solvent interactions then the solute and the
solvent remain separated.
For liquid-liquid solutions, the rule is “like dissolves like.”
• Polar molecules will mix (miscible) with other polar
molecules.
• Nonpolar molecules will mix (miscible) with other nonpolar
molecules.
• Polar molecules will not mix (immiscible) with nonpolar
molecules.
• For solid-liquid solutions, “like dissolves like” rule
also applies.
• Note that you need to be able to determine whether a
compound is polar or nonpolar given only its formula –
i.e. determine the Lewis structure and use VSEPR to
determine shape then the polarity.
• Some solids will not dissolve in any solvent such as:
• Network covalent solids (eg. graphite, quartz) never
dissolve in any solvent.
• Metals do not "dissolve" - they may react with but do
not dissolve in solvents.
FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY
 TEMPERATURE

• For gases:
•  

• The solubility of gases decreases with increasing

temperature.
• At higher T, gas molecules are moving more quickly.
They have a higher tendency to find the surface and
escape more quickly resulting to fewer gas molecules
are in the liquid
 TEMPERATURE

• A glass of soda quickly goes flat when they are

allowed to warm.
• If a glass of cold tap water is warmed, bubbles of
air are seen on the inside of the glass.
 TEMPERATURE

• For solids:
•  

• As the temperature increases, the solubility of solids

also increases.
• The decreased solubility of in water as temperature
•  

increases is one of the effects of thermal pollution of

lakes and streams. The effect is particularly serious in
deep lakes because warm water is less dense than cold
water.
• Warm water therefore tends to remain on top of cold
water, at the surface. This situation impedes the
dissolving of oxygen in the deeper layers, thus stifling
the respiration of all aquatic life needing oxygen. Fish
may suffocate and die under these conditions.
 PRESSURE
• The solubility gas is increased as the pressure of the gas
•  

over the solvent increases. By contrast, the solubility of

solids and liquids are not appreciably affected by pressure.
• The relationship between pressure and gas solubility is
expressed by Henry’s Law:
Practical applications of Henry’s law:
• Sodas cannot be as carbonated after being opened due to
the decrease in pressure.
• Divers get the "bends" - air dissolved in blood and other
bodily fluids bubbles out when divers go from deep
water (high pressure) to the surface (low pressure).
COMPARISON OF CONCENTRATION UNITS
• Mole fractions - used for partial pressures of gases and for
dealing with vapor pressures of solutions.
• Molarity - preferred over molality because it is easier to
measure volume of a solution using calibrated glassware
than to weigh the solvent.
• Molality - independent of temperature hence, is useful when
an experiment is carried out over a range of temperatures.
Since the volume varies with temperature, molarity varies
with temperature.
• Mass percent - independent of temperature and the
molar masses are not needed.
• Parts per million - used to express very low
concentrations of solute such as impurities and
pollutants.
EXPRESSING SOLUTION
CONCENTRATION
 MASS PERCENTAGE
•  

• Total mass of solution = mass of solvent + mass of

solute
 VOLUME PERCENTAGE
•  

• Total volume of solution = volume of solvent +

volume of solute
 PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
•  
 PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
•  
 MOLE FRACTION, X
•  

• Total mol solution = mol solute + mole

solvent
 MOLALITY

• A unit of concentration which is independent of

•  

the temperature.
 MOLARITY
•  
• (a) A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of
glucose (C6H12O6) in 0.100 kg of water. What is
the mass percentage of solute in this solution?
• (b) A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to
contain 5.4 mg of Zn2+.What is the concentration
of Zn2+ in parts per million?
• (a) Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl in a
solution containing 1.50 g of NaCl in 50.0 g of
water.
• (b) A commercial bleaching solution contains
3.62 mass % sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl. What
is the mass of NaOCl in a bottle containing 2.50
kg of bleaching solution?
• A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g glucose
(C6H12O6) in 25.0 mL of water at 25 ℃.
Calculate the molality of glucose in the solution.
Water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.
• What is the molality of a solution made by
dissolving 36.5 g of naphthalene (C10H8) in 425
g of toluene (C7H8)?
• An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains
36% HCl by mass.
• (a) Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the
solution.
• (b) Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution.
• A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62
mass % NaOCl in water.
Calculate:
• (a) the mole fraction and
• (b) the molality of NaOCl in the solution.
• A solution with a density 0.876 g/mL of
contains 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) and 225 g of
benzene. Calculate the molarity of the
solution.
• A solution containing equal masses of glycerol
(C3H8O3) and water has a density of 1.10 g/mL.
Calculate:
• (a) the molality of glycerol,
• (b) the mole fraction of glycerol,
• (c) the molarity of glycerol in the solution.
•Calculate the molarity of a solution
made by dissolving 23.4 g of sodium
sulfate (Na2SO4)in enough water to
form 125 mL of solution.
•Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
dissolving 5.00 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in
sufficient water to form exactly 100 mL of
solution.4) in enough water to form 125 mL
of solution.
COLLIGATIVE
PROPERTIES
•means “depending on the collection”;
•colligative properties depend on the
collective effect of the number of solute
particles
Lowering of the freezing point and raising of
the boiling point are physical properties of
solutions that depend on the quantity
(concentration) but not the kind or identity of
the solute particles
 VAPOR-PRESSURE LOWERING
• is the pressure exerted by the vapor when it is at
equilibrium with the liquid (that is, when the rate of
vaporization equals the rate of condensation).
• A substance that has no measurable vapor pressure
is nonvolatile, whereas one that exhibits a vapor
pressure is volatile.
•When a nonvolatile solute is present, the
vapor pressure of the solution is lower
than the vapor pressure of the pure
solvent.
• Raolt’s Law
•  

which states that the partial pressure exerted by

solvent vapor above the solution, , equals the
product of the mole fraction of the solvent, , times
the vapor pressure of the pure solvent, :
• The vapor pressure of pure water at 20 °C is
•  

17.5 torr . Imagine holding the temperature

constant while adding glucose (C6H12O6) to the
water so that the mole fractions in the resulting
solution are and .
Psolution = (0.800)(17.5 torr) = 14.0 torr
The presence of the nonvolatile solute
lowers the vapor pressure of the volatile
solvent by:
17.5 torr – 14.0 torr = 3.5 torr
•  

The vapor-pressure lowering, ΔP, is

directly proportional to the mole fraction of
the solute,
•  
•The vapor-pressure lowering caused by
adding a nonvolatile solute depends on the
total concentration of solute particles,
regardless of whether they are molecules or
ions.
•Remember that vapor-pressure lowering is a
colligative property, so its value for any
solution depends on the concentration of
solute particles and not on their kind or on
their identity.
•Ideal solution is defined as one that
obeys Raoult’s law.
• Ideality for a solution implies total uniformity of
interaction. The molecules in an ideal solution all
influence one another in the same way—in other
words, solute–solute, solvent–solvent, and
solute–solvent interactions are indistinguishable
from one another.
 BOILING-POINT ELEVATION
• The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature
at which its vapor pressure equals 1 atm. Because the
solution has a lower vapor pressure than the pure
solvent, a higher temperature is required for the
solution to achieve a vapor pressure of 1 atm. As a
result, the boiling point of the solution is higher than
that of the pure solvent.
• The increase in boiling point relative to that of the
•  

pure solvent, , is a positive quantity obtained by

subtracting the boiling point of the pure solvent
from the boiling point of the solution. The value
of is directly proportional to the solution
molality:
 FREEZING-POINT DEPRESSION

•Is the temperature at which the first

crystals of pure solvent form in
equilibrium with the solution.
• Because the triple-point temperature of the
•  

solution is lower than that of the pure liquid, the

freezing point of the solution is lower than that of
the pure liquid. The decrease in freezing point, , is
a positive quantity obtained by subtracting the
freezing point of the solution from the freezing
point of the pure solvent.
•  
 OSMOSIS

• the net movement of solvent is always toward

the solution with the higher solute
concentration, as if the solutions were driven
to attain equal concentrations.
• There is a net movement of water through the
membrane from left to right, As a result, the
liquid levels in the two arms become unequal.
Eventually, the pressure difference resulting from
the unequal liquid heights becomes so large that
the net flow of water ceases.
• The pressure required to stop osmosis from a
pure solvent to a solution is the osmotic
pressure of the solution. If an external
pressure equal to the osmotic pressure is
applied to the solution, the liquid levels in the
two arms can be equalized.
DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS