ACCELARATION & LAWS OF MOTION

Distance- total length covered by moving object

Displacement- change in position of object; difference between initial & final positions
Speed- how fast object is moving
Velocity- how fast & where object is moving
Acceleration- rate of change in object’s velocity w/ respect to time
- velocity changes when there’s change in speed/direction  object is speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction
Motion Graphs- visual representations of the characteristics of motion (position, velocity, acceleration against time)
Non-accelerating- object w/ zero acceleration has constant velocities (velocity doesn’t change as it travels, changing its position over time)

constant positive velocity isn’t accelerating even if position increases over time constant negative velocity isn’t acceleration even if position decreases over time

Constantly accelerating- objects change velocities at same rate over time (object undergoing free fall)

positive acceleration has constant increase in velocity per unit time negative acceleration has constant decrease in velocity per unit time
position travelled exponentially increases over time position travelled exponentially decreases over time

LAW OF INERTIA
Inertia- tendency of matter to resist change in its state of motion; dependent on object’s mass
- Galileo used inclined planes

when object is released on inclined plane, it’ll reach on a level surface & absence of friction, object would continue its motion
same height as where it’s released & move indefinitely
- Isaac Newton (English physicist & mathematician); restatement of Galileo’s conception of inertia & how it affects motion
- object will remain in its state of motion (stationary/moving at constant velocity) unless acted upon by net external force
Examples:
- when sitting while car is moving, you’re initially at rest. When car suddenly stops, you tend to move forward since external force
disrupts your state of motion (stationary)
- car moving on straight line remains at constant velocity w/o being disrupted. When it passes through downward slope it tends to
accelerate, inducing increase in speed. Downward slope disrupts car’s motion as it’s pulled down the road due to gravity
- object at rest remains at rest when undisturbed. But due to air resistance in environment, some moves even if we don’t induce force

LAW OF ACCELERATION
Acceleration- acceleration is proportional to & in same direction as net force acting on it

- if quantity is in direct proportion to another quantity, there’s increase in first quantity. Force applied will result in
increase of other quantity (object’s acceleration)
- force & acceleration is dependent on mass; acceleration depends on mass & force applied
LAW OF INTERACTION
Interaction- how action results in equal & opposite reaction
- action-reaction pair (2 opposite forces):  acting on 2 different bodies  in opposite directions

 acting simultaneous on system of 2 bodies  have same magnitude

Examples:
- book on top of table: table exerts normal force on book, earth exerts gravitational force in book (weight)  not action-reaction pair
since both act on 1 body even they’re opposite in direction & equal in magnitudes
: force of table on book & force of book on table  action-reaction pair since they act on 2 bodies (book & table),
act simultaneously, w/ same magnitude, opposite direction

- man pushing on wall, 2 people on skateboards push one another

- rocket engine: burning of fuel sends huge amounts of gas toward its nozzle at high speeds. Rocket pushes particles of exhaust gas &
exerts force on them. Because of law of action & reaction, exhaust particles push back on rocket w/ equal & opposite
force, sending it upward

SCIENTISTS BEHIND MASS, MOMENTUM, & ENERGY CONSERVATION

Law of Conservation of Mass
- mass in enclosed system is neither created nor destroyed
- (chemical reaction) reactants’ mass must be equal to products’ mass In relation to this, the
- inquiry about conservation of mass by Greeks is “jumpstart” for further conservation & symmetry in nature
- Ancient Greek philosophers believed that “nothing comes from nothing”  everything in present come from origin
- Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) (Persian)  body of matter couldn’t disappear completely; It could only change its form, condition, & other
properties, turning it into different form of matter
- Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) proposed this law which he approached using chemistry  in chemical reaction, products’ total mass is always equal
to the reactants’ total mass; atoms are neither created nor destroyed, but rearranged to form new substances
Law of Conservation of Energy
- energy can’t be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another  total energy of isolated system remains constant
- Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) kinetic energy can be converted to potential energy & vice versa using pendulum
- Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) published his studies of collisions  kinetic energies of colliding objects were same before & after collision
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) used Huygen’s work on collision to derive mathematical formulation for energy related to motion (kinetic energy)
2
 vis viva (“living force”) (mv )

- James Prescott Joule (1818–1889) mechanical, heat, electrical, & other energy forms can be converted from one form to another; most notable scientist
who studied energy conservation
- Albert Einstein (1879–1955) developed theory that united concepts of mass & energy  Einstein’s energy–mass equivalence  mass & energy are not
separately conserved but could be interchanged; total “mass–energy” of universe is conserved
(E=mc ) E = kinetic energy (J); m = relativistic mass (kg); c = speed of light (3 ✕ 108m/s)  basis for nuclear bomb invention & explained energy
2

conversion in core of stars

Law of Conservation of Momentum
- object’s total momentum doesn’t change if there are no external forces acting on it
- René Descartes (1596–1650)  total “quantity of motion” of universe is conserved & it’s equal to product of object’s size & speed; similar to modern
concept of conservation of momentum except he had no concept of mass different from weight & object’s size
- John Wallis (1616–1703) suggested this law body will remain at rest/in motion unless external force applied to it is greater than its resistance
- Isaac Newton (1642–1727) “quantity of motion” (product of velocity & mass; momentum); when no force acts on object, motion quantity is conserved

WORK & ENERGY

Work- transfer of energy by a force acting on an object as it is displaced; when force is exerted on object & has caused displacement parallel to force
- W = Fd cos θ  F = force (N); d = displacement (m); θ = angle (°) between F & d; joule (J) (unit) = (N·m) or (kg m 2 /s2)
- If body A did work on another body B, “A did work” & “work was done on B”

Energy- ability to do work; limitation on how much work can be done on system; powerhouse of process involving work
- heat, electrical, chemical, sound, light, nuclear
 Mechanical- due to motion/ position of macroscopic objects

Kinetic- energy of objects/particles in motion; associated w/ body’s velocity; direction of KE = direction of velocity
- KE = ½ mv2  m = mass (kg); v = velocity (m/s)
Potential- energy due to position; PEgrav = mgh  m = mass; g = gravity; h = height

Total Mechanical Energy  TME = KE + PE

- If object is isolated, TME is conserved (throwing object upward)

- during entirety of its flight, since gravity is only force acting on object, TME remains constant; PE & KE fluctuate, but their sum stays the same
- object hits ground at moment its speed & KE are at maximum; energy is converted to other energy forms that can be observed on object & site of impact
 Thermal- “heat energy”, stored in materials at certain temp; depends on heat & temp change
 Nuclear- produced from splitting/fusion of atoms
 Electromagnetic- “radiant energy” from light/electromagnetic waves
 Sonic- energy of sound waves

 Chemical- stored in hydrogen bonds between atoms; result from chemical reactions between atoms/molecules

MOMENTUM & COLLISION

Momentum- describes body motion; same direction as velocity; p = mv
- affected by velocity & mass bigger mass = higher momentum = harder to stop motion  needs greater velocity to overcome it
nd
- If it’s steadily changing over time, change in momentum per unit of time is equal to net force causing this change (2 law of motion)

- During collision of 2 objects, they change momentum of one another  consequence of law of interaction (2 objects always exert force to each other; net
force exerted on body changes its momentum
- however, force is exerted only during very small period of time  conservation of momentum (in enclosed system, total momentum before collision is
equal to momentum after a collision)  “enclosed system” is assumption that only colliding bodies under consideration are
involved; doesn’t count for air resistance/ subsequent collision w/ another body

ELASTIC & INELASTIC

Elastic Collision- total KE & momentum are conserved; change in momentum of 2 bodies created velocities that balances KEs before & after collision
- no net external force acted on bodies during collision; all KE of objects before collision is still in form of kinetic energy after collision
Inelastic Collision- only momentum is conserved; “ “ “ produced velocities that varied total KE before & after collision
- occurs due to energy transformation; some KE is lost, turning into other forms (heat, sound)
- total KE decreased after collision; part of initial KE is transformed to other energy forms of energy; change in total KE is induced by net
external force (friction due to surface roughness) acting on bodies as they collide

KEf = KEi KEf ≠ KEi

Perfectly Inelastic Collision- 2 bodies stick together after colliding during inelastic c.; maximum KE loss occurred in system that bodies travelled together
- not required for colliding bodies to stick together after collision to be considered inelastic
 ELECTROSTATICS
Electricity- part of electromagnetic force; started w/ amber (translucent yellowish-brown fossil resin) & lodestone (magnetized iron ore)
Static electricity- charge at rest
Electric charge- attraction (unlike charges); repulsion (like charges); positive & negative; coulomb Mass Charge
(C) PROTON 1.67252 x 10-27 kg +1.6 x 10-19 C
- quantized (comes in integer multiples of elementary charge e); conserved NEUTRON 1.67495 x 10-27 kg none
ELECTRON 9.1095 x 10-31 kg -1.6 x 10-19 C
Conductor- allows charges to flow readily Insulator- resists flow of charges
Semiconductor- intermediate between conductors & insulators (silicon & germanium; 4 V. electrons)
Superconductor- offers no resistance to current charge flow below critical temperatures; produced by cooling materials to low temperatures

INDUCING CHARGE
By Friction- rubbing materials together By Conduction- contact between neutral & charging body

By Induction- no contact; neutral body is just brought near to charging body

COULOMB’S LAW- In 1788, Charles Augustin de Coulomb formulated relationship between electric force w/ distance between them

 electric force is proportional to each charges’ quantity & inversely proportional to square of distance between them
q1,q2 (don’t have signs) (C) F = electrical force (N)
d = distance (m) k = Coulomb constant (9 x 109 Nm2/C2)
 calculate totality of force applied by 2 changes

# Calculate force attraction between lone electron & proton in H atom. Average distance between them is 5.0 x 10 -11 m.

electric field- space around charged particle

F = force (N) (depends on proximity & amount of 2 charges)
E = electric field strength (N/C)
q0 = test charge magnitude in Coulomb (used to determine unknown magnitude of source)

# A uniform electric field is directed downward w/ magnitude of 5 N/C. Find force experienced by -6 C charge placed in this field

 known source of electric field (determine its strength at any point of distance)

# Point A is 0.5 m from charge of 6.0 x 10-7 C. What is magnitude & direction of electric field at point A?
Electrodynamics- electrical charges in motion (electrons) Electric circuit- closed (connected) conducting path where charges flow
Elements:
a. Electric Current- amount of charge passing through any point in conductor per unit time; rate of charge flow
- amount of charge electrons carry, not amount of electrons; more charges flowing = larger current

b. Resistance- opposition to flow of charges; ohm (Ω)

Factors:
cross sectional area- ↑ cross-sectional area = ↓ resistance
length- ↑ length = ↑ resistance 
kind of material- specific material have specific resistivity (measure of specified material’s resisting power to electric current flow)
temperature- (conductors) ↓ temperature = ↓ resistance & resistivity =↓ slow particle movement = ↑ electron movement

c. Voltage
1. Electromotive force- developed by energy source (battery, dynamo); total energy supplied by cell to move unit of charge through complete circuit
-energy transformed per unit charge from chemical (battery) to electrical
2. Potential difference- electric pressure/electric tension is difference in electric potential between 2 points per unit electric charge (parts of circuit only)
-work done (energy/ to move unit of charge/electron across 2 points in closed circuit)
- energy transformed per unit charge from electrical energy to other forms by a load (light bulb)
Ohm’s Law- current flowing in conductor is directly proportional to potential difference across its ends (if temp & physical conditions remain constant)

Common sources of EMF:

- electric cells that convert chemical energy to electrical energy
- solar/photovoltaic cells that convert light energy to electrical energy
- generators that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
electric cell- 1 positive electrode & 1 negative electrode immersed in electrolyte (ion-conducting medium)
Alessandro Volta- invented 1st cell in 1799 (primary cells=can’t be recharged; secondary cell=rechargeable)
Electric circuit- path in which electrons from voltage/current source flow
Series- w/ more than 1 piece of electrical apparatus connected one after another in single line.
- current flows in single path & is same in all parts regardless of resistance
- current stops flowing wherever a circuit part fails
Parallel - 2 or more electrical apparatus are connected side by side & where current is divided in-between them
- each apparatus operates independently; if 1 fails, current still flows on others (household appliance)
Resistor- passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as circuit element
In series:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 ... (total resistance is sum of individual resistances)
IT= I1 = I2 = I3 … (current is same in all resistors)
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 … (total voltage across combination is sum of all voltages across each resistor)
In parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + + … (reciprocal of total resistance is sum of individual resistances’ reciprocal)
R T R1 R2 R3
IT= I1 = I2 = I3 … (main current entering combination of resistors divides & part of it goes through each resistor)
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 … (voltages across resistors are equal)
 LIGHT: AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

Electromagnetic Theory- James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879); brought together Oersted, Coulomb, Gauss, Faraday
- encompasses laws of electricity & magnetism
Maxwell’s equations:
- electric field lines originate on positive charges & terminate on negative charges
- magnetic field lines are continuous (no beginning/ end)
- changing magnetic field induces electromotive force (electric field); EMF direction opposes change.
- magnetic fields are generated by moving charges/by changing electric fields
 Maxwell’s theory showed that magnetic & electric forces are not separate but manifestations of EM force
 he predicted wave presence consisting of oscillating magnetic & electric field called & electromagnetic wave
 he calculated that speed of electromagnetic wave is same w/ speed of light; concluded that light is an electromagnetic wave

Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894)- first to generate & detect types of EM waves; verified that EM waves travel at speed of light
Wave- disturbance that travels through medium, transporting energy from its source to another location w/o transporting matter
Classification of Waves
(according to medium):
 Mechanical - require medium; needs its medium’s particles to vibrate to transfer energy (water waves, seismic, sound, waves that travel in rope)
 Electromagnetic- can travel through matter/empty space; propagated by simultaneous periodic variations of electric & magnetic field intensity
(according to how particles move through them):
 Longitudinal- particle movement are parallel to energy motion (Sound waves moving through air)
 Transverse- “ “ right angles/perpendicular (wave movement through solid object like stretched rope/trampoline)
Wave Velocity
v- velocity (m/s) - wavelength (m) f- frequency (Hz ; 1/s)

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio wave- longest wavelengths (foot long to several miles ); used to transmit data (radio, satellites, radar, computer networks)
Microwave- wavelengths measured in cm; cook food, transmit info, in radar that helps to
predict weather, communication (penetrate clouds, smoke, rain)
Infrared- Near infrared  closer to visible light in wavelength; used in TV remote to change channels
- Far infrared  further away from visible light; thermal & give off heat (human body)
Visible light- can be seen by human eye; range of wavelengths from 390-700 nm w/
frequencies 430-790 THz
Ultraviolet- sun; used in equipment sterilization; helps in vitamin D production
X-ray- discovered by German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen; penetrate soft tissue; X-ray pictures
Gamma- shortest waves & most energy; cancer treatment &taking detailed images for diagnosis;
produced in high energy nuclear explosions & supernova

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Electricity- physical phenomenon of stationary/moving electric charges; common form is flowing electrons in metal conductor (within wire)
Magnetism- force exerted by magnets when they attract/repel each other; caused by electrical charge motion; magnet produces magnetic field
Magnetic field- force field created by moving electric charges (electric currents) & magnetic dipoles (magnets)
- exerts force on other nearby moving charges & magnetic dipoles; areas where object exhibits a magnetic influence
Hans Christian Oersted- electricity & magnetism: motion of electric charges creates magnetic field
Electromagnet- composed of several coils of wire that produce uniform magnetic field when current passes through wire.
- ↑ stronger current = ↑ stronger magnetic field generated
- ↑ coils = ↑ magnetic field generated (to strengthen magnetic field further, coil is wrapped around iron core)
Electromagnetic Induction- Michael Faraday; changing magnetic field can induce electric current in wire
Faraday’s Law - magnitude of induced voltage is proportional to rate at which magnetic field lines change.
Amount of current produced depends on:
1. rate at which magnetic field lines changes 3. number of turns of the coil
2. strength of magnet
Electric Motor- electrical  mechanical; consists of rigid current-carrying loop (electromagnet) & permanent magnets
Electric Generator- mechanical  electrical

POWERPLANTS
Coal-fired- burn coal  heat  water to steam  turn turbines of generator
Nuclear-produce heat by controlled splitting of atoms (nuclear fission)  water into steam  turn generator turbines
Hydroelectric- water movement  turn generator turbines

REFLECTION- bouncing of light when it hits barrier/medium

Mirror- highly-polished made of glass w/silver/aluminium surface; plane mirror (flat surface)
Laws of Reflection
1. Incident ray, reflected ray, & normal ray to reflecting surface all lie on same plane.
2. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection (θi = θr)
Specular / regular reflection – parallel rays striking a smooth surface also reflected as parallel rays
Diffuse reflection- parallel rays striking a rough surface are reflected as scattered

REFRACTION- bending of wave as it enters new medium; caused by change of wave speed as it moves from one medium to another
Laws of Refraction
1. Incident ray, reflected ray, & normal ray, to the interface of any two given mediums; all lie in same plane.
2. Ratio of incidence’s sine of angle & refraction’s sine of angle is constant
Snell’s Law : n1 sin θ1= n2 sin θ2
n1= 1st medium’s index of refraction n2= 2nd medium’s index of refraction
θ1= medium 1’s angles of ray & perpendicular Θ2= medium 2’s angles of ray & perpendicular
DISPERSION- spreading of white light into its full spectrum of wavelengths/ colors.
POLARIZATION- property applying to transverse waves that specifies geometrical orientation of oscillations