INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNION

ITU-T K.56
TELECOMMUNICATION (07/2003)
STANDARDIZATION SECTOR
OF ITU

SERIES K: PROTECTION AGAINST INTERFERENCE

Protection of radio base stations against

lightning discharges

ITU-T Recommendation K.56

ITU-T Recommendation K.56

Protection of radio base stations against lightning discharges

Summary
This Recommendation provides a quantitative procedure in order to protect radio base stations
(RBS) for wireless access network against lightning discharges. The level of protection is based on
the tolerable frequency of damage that is assigned to the RBS by the operator, considering the
consequences of service interruption and loss of equipment. The RBS covered by this
Recommendation is made up of a shelter or small building to house the equipment and a nearby
tower to hold the antennas. The protection procedures include earthing, bonding, shielding and
installation of surge protective devices (SPD).

Source
ITU-T Recommendation K.56 was prepared by ITU-T Study Group 16 (2001-2004) and approved
under the ITU-T Recommendation A.8 procedure on 29 July 2003.

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) i

 FOREWORD
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specialized agency in the field of
telecommunications. The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is a permanent organ of
ITU. ITU-T is responsible for studying technical, operating and tariff questions and issuing
Recommendations on them with a view to standardizing telecommunications on a worldwide basis.
The World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA), which meets every four years,
establishes the topics for study by the ITU-T study groups which, in turn, produce Recommendations on
these topics.
The approval of ITU-T Recommendations is covered by the procedure laid down in WTSA Resolution 1.
In some areas of information technology which fall within ITU-T's purview, the necessary standards are
prepared on a collaborative basis with ISO and IEC.

NOTE
In this Recommendation, the expression "Administration" is used for conciseness to indicate both a
telecommunication administration and a recognized operating agency.
Compliance with this Recommendation is voluntary. However, the Recommendation may contain certain
mandatory provisions (to ensure e.g. interoperability or applicability) and compliance with the
Recommendation is achieved when all of these mandatory provisions are met. The words "shall" or some
other obligatory language such as "must" and the negative equivalents are used to express requirements. The
use of such words does not suggest that compliance with the Recommendation is required of any party.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

ITU draws attention to the possibility that the practice or implementation of this Recommendation may
involve the use of a claimed Intellectual Property Right. ITU takes no position concerning the evidence,
validity or applicability of claimed Intellectual Property Rights, whether asserted by ITU members or others
outside of the Recommendation development process.
As of the date of approval of this Recommendation, ITU had not received notice of intellectual property,
protected by patents, which may be required to implement this Recommendation. However, implementors
are cautioned that this may not represent the latest information and are therefore strongly urged to consult the
TSB patent database.

 ITU 2003
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, by any means whatsoever, without the
prior written permission of ITU.

ii ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 CONTENTS
Page
1 Scope and purpose ........................................................................................................ 1
2 References..................................................................................................................... 1
3 Definitions .................................................................................................................... 2
4 Abbreviations................................................................................................................ 2
5 Reference configuration................................................................................................ 2
6 Need of protection ........................................................................................................ 3
7 Probabilistic analysis .................................................................................................... 4
7.1 Tolerable frequency of damage (Ft) ............................................................... 4
7.2 Frequency of strikes to the tower (Fa)............................................................ 5
7.3 Frequency of strikes to the RBS housing (Fd)................................................ 5
7.4 Analysis of the frequency of strikes ............................................................... 5
8 Determination of the lightning current parameters....................................................... 6
9 Protection procedures in LPZ0 ..................................................................................... 6
9.1 Procedures applied to the tower ..................................................................... 6
9.2 Earthing system .............................................................................................. 7
10 Protection procedures for the cables that come from the tower ................................... 7
11 Protection against the lightning effects inside the housing .......................................... 8
11.1 Shielding factor (η) ........................................................................................ 8
11.2 Mesh-BN configuration.................................................................................. 9
11.3 Mesh-IBN configuration ................................................................................ 11
11.4 Protection procedures at the boundary between LPZ1 and LPZ2.................. 11
12 Protection against the lightning effects at the services entrances................................. 12
12.1 Power service.................................................................................................. 12
12.2 Telecommunication service............................................................................ 13
Annex A – Factor for current distribution along a tower (α) .................................................. 14
A.1 Tubular tower ................................................................................................. 14
A.2 Three legs tower ............................................................................................. 14
A.2 Four legs tower ............................................................................................... 15
Annex B – Shielding factor (η) for CBN loops ....................................................................... 16
Annex C – Transfer factor (β) for cable trays and earth conductors ....................................... 17
C.1 Single earth conductor.................................................................................... 17
C.2 Double earth conductors................................................................................. 17
C.3 Earth plate tray ............................................................................................... 18
Annex D – Geometric mean radius.......................................................................................... 19
Appendix I – Rationale for effective front time....................................................................... 20
Appendix II – Example of application..................................................................................... 21

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) iii

Introduction
The widespread use of radio base stations (RBS) for mobile telephony and for wireless local loop
brought concerns about their exposure to lightning discharges, which may cause damage to the
RBS equipment and cabling. This Recommendation provides protection procedures for RBS
equipment and cabling against lightning discharges, based on frequency analysis of the installation.

iv ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

ITU-T Recommendation K.56

Protection of radio base stations against lightning discharges

1 Scope and purpose

This Recommendation addresses the RBS made up of a shelter or small building to house the
equipment and a nearby tower to hold the antennas, in such way that the tower will prevent
lightning from hitting the shelter or small building. The purpose of this Recommendation is to give
criteria for the definition of procedures in order to protect the RBS against lightning discharges.

2 References
The following ITU-T Recommendations and other references contain provisions which, through
reference in this text, constitute provisions of this Recommendation. At the time of publication, the
editions indicated were valid. All Recommendations and other references are subject to revision;
users of this Recommendation are therefore encouraged to investigate the possibility of applying the
most recent edition of the Recommendations and other references listed below. A list of the
currently valid ITU-T Recommendations is regularly published. The reference to a document within
this Recommendation does not give it, as a stand-alone document, the status of a Recommendation.
[1] ITU-T Recommendation K.39 (1996), Risk assessment of damages to telecommunication
sites due to lightning discharges.
[2] ITU-T Recommendation K.40 (1996), Protection against LEMP in telecommunications
centres.
[3] ITU-T Recommendation K.27 (1996), Bonding configurations and earthing inside a
telecommunication building.
[4] ITU-T Recommendation K.35 (1996), Bonding configurations and earthing at remote
electronic sites.
[5] IEC 61024-1-1:1993, Protection of structures against lightning – Part 1: General
principles – Section 1: Guide A: Selection of protection levels for lightning protection
systems.
[6] IEC 61024-1-2:1998, Protection of structures against lightning – Part 1-2: General
principles – Guide B – Design, installation, maintenance and inspection of lightning
protection systems.
[7] IEC 61643-1:2002, Surge protective devices connected to low voltage power distribution
systems – Part 1: Performance requirements and testing methods.
[8] IEC 61643-12:2002, Low-voltage surge protective devices – Part 12: Surge protective
devices connected to low-voltage power distribution systems – Selection and application
principles.
[9] IEC 61662:1995, Assessment of the risk of damage due to lightning.
[10] ETSI EG 200 053 (2002), Electromagnetic compatibility and Radio spectrum Matters
(ERM); Radio site engineering for radio equipment and systems.

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 1

3 Definitions
The definitions contained in the references apply to this Recommendation. Additional definitions
needed for the protection of radio base stations (RBS) are in this clause.
3.1 radio base station (RBS): Installation intended to provide access to the telecommunication
system by means of radio waves.
3.2 frequency of strikes (F): Number of times per year that lightning strikes a RBS.
3.3 tolerable frequency of damage (Ft): Maximum number of times per year that lightning
strikes are allowed to damage a RBS.
3.4 ground flash density (Ng): Probable annual number of lightning flashes per square
kilometre.
3.5 critical lightning current (Ic): Minimum peak value of lightning current that the RBS has
to withstand in order not to exceed its tolerable frequency of damage (Ft). This parameter is
associated to the return stroke of a lightning flash.
3.6 critical lightning current rate of rise (dic/dt): Minimum value of lightning current rate of
rise that the RBS has to withstand in order not to exceed its tolerable frequency of damage (Ft). This
parameter is associated to a subsequent stroke of a lightning flash.
3.7 tower factor (α): Factor that represents the fraction of the lightning current that flows
through the bundle formed by the telecommunication conductors along the RBS tower.
3.8 shielding factor (η): Factor that represents the attenuation in the induced voltage in the
telecommunication loops inside the RBS due to the shielding action of the CBN conductors.
3.9 induced voltage (Vi): Peak value of the induced voltage in the telecommunication loops
inside the RBS due to the flow of the critical lightning current through the tower.
3.10 transfer factor (β): Factor that represents the fraction of the induced voltage in the
telecommunication loops inside the RBS that is transferred to the inside unshielded cables.
3.11 geometric mean radius (r'): The geometric mean radius of a conductor(s) is the radius of
an imaginary tubular conductor of infinitesimal wall thickness without internal magnetic flux that
has the same external flux linkage as the total (internal + external) flux linkage of the original
conductor(s).

4 Abbreviations
LPZ Lightning Protective Zone
RBS Radio Base Station

5 Reference configuration
Figure 1 shows the reference configuration considered in this Recommendation. In this figure can
be seen the three lightning protective zones (LPZ) as described in ITU-T Rec. K.40:
– LPZ0: made by the tower, antennas, outside cables and the earthing system;
– LPZ1: made by the housing of the RBS, inside cables, cable trays, batteries, etc.;
– LPZ2: made by the equipment cabinet and its contents.

2 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 Antenna
tower
LPZ0

Cable support RBS housing

Cables from the tower

LPZ1 Boundary between

Equip. Equip. LPZ0 and LPZ1

Equip. LPZ2 LPZ2

LPZ2

Power
K.056_F01
Boundary between
LPZ1 and LPZ2 Telecommunication

Figure 1/K.56 – Reference configuration for a RBS

6 Need of protection
In order to estimate the need of protection of a RBS against lightning, the user shall determine the
tolerable frequency of damage (Ft) and to calculate the frequency of lightning strikes to the antenna
tower of the RBS (Fa) and the housing (Fd). If Fa + Fd is smaller than Ft, then the direct lightning
discharge is not a phenomena of prime importance for the RBS and it can be treated as an ordinary
remote electronic site, which is under the scope of ITU-T Rec. K.35. However, if Fa + Fd is greater
than Ft, then the RBS will need protection against direct lightning discharges. The implementation
of such protection accordingly with this Recommendation, will also provide protection against the
lightning discharges near the RBS, either if they hit the earth or if they hit the incoming services.
The second step is to compare Fa with Fd. If Fd is not negligible when compared with Fa, then the
installation does not fall into the scope of this Recommendation. In this case, the user shall refer to
IEC 61662 in order to protect the electrical and electronic systems within the RBS housing.
If Fd is negligible when compared with Fa, then the user shall follow the steps of this
Recommendation to identify the lightning current parameters from which the RBS have to be
protected. The protection procedures are divided into four steps:
– Protection against the voltages developed inside coaxial cables that come from the tower.
– Protection against the voltages and currents induced inside the RBS housing due to the flow
of lightning current through the tower and the associated conductors (coaxial cable, metallic
supports, etc.).
– Protection against the voltages and currents induced in the income power conductors due to
the earth potential rise of the RBS.
– Protection against the voltages and currents induced in the income telecommunication
conductors (if any) due to the earth potential rise of the RBS.
The flow diagram shown in Figure 2 describes the steps contained in this Recommendation. For
each step, it makes reference to the relevant clause of this Recommendation. The work flow is
defined by the bold arrows, while the references are indicated by normal lines.

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 3

 Clause 7.1 Set Ft

Y Apply ITU-T
Calculate Fa, Fd Ft ≥ Fa + Fd ?
Rec. K.35 Installation is out
of the scope of this
Y Recommendation
Clauses 7.2, 7.3 Fa < 10 Fd ? Apply IEC 61662

Calculate pa Calculate Ic, dic/dt Clause 8

Clause 10 Protection at LPZ0 Clause 9

Y
Calculate Vt Vt > Vres ? Install SPD
N
IBN
Calculate Vi Mesh-BN or IBN ? Insulate for V i Clause 11.3
BN
Y
Calculate Vr Vr > Vres ? Improve protection
N
Y
Protection at LPZ2 Power line Apply protection Clause 12.1
N
Y
Clause 11.4 Telecom line ? Apply protection Clause 12.2

Clause 11.2 RBS is protected for Ft

K.056_F02

Figure 2/K.56 – Flow diagram for protecting a RBS against lightning

7 Probabilistic analysis

7.1 Tolerable frequency of damage (Ft)

The purpose of the protective measures described in this Recommendation is to reduce the
economic losses due to damages to a level tolerable by the telecommunication operator. The
protection procedures regarding the safety of people are determined by the relevant safety authority
and is out of the scope of this Recommendation.
Considering the probabilistic nature of lightning, the operator has to tolerate a level of economic
losses due to lightning in order to achieve a protection design based on a technical and economic
compromise.
The tolerable frequency of damage (Ft) is given by:
Ft = Lt /Ld
where:
Lt = tolerable economic loss per year due to lightning strikes in a given RBS;
Ld = probable economic loss due to a damage caused by lightning in a given RBS.

4 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

The value of Ld can be computed by the operator considering the following sources of economic
loss, among others:
– the loss of revenue due to service interruption;
– the fines that may be imposed by a company that contracted the interrupted service or by
the Telecommunication Authority;
– the degradation of the company's image with the public;
– the cost of replacing the damaged equipment.
Therefore, the economic losses caused by one damage event depend on the characteristics of the
RBS, such as traffic, contract fines, type of equipment, accessibility to maintenance staff, etc.
The value of Lt is defined by the operator, based on its business plan, and should take into account
the cost of implementing the protection procedures. Typical values of Ft for RBS will be in the
range from 0.10 to 0.01.

7.2 Frequency of strikes to the tower (Fa)

The frequency of strikes to the tower is given by:
2
Fa = 9 c π H t N g [damages × year –1 ] (1)

where:
Ng = ground flash density (flashes × km–2 × year–1)
Ht = tower height (km)
c = exposition factor (c = 1 for flat ground and c = 2 for mountain top)

7.3 Frequency of strikes to the RBS housing (Fd)

If the RBS housing is inside a circular area around the tower defined by the radius 3 (Ht – Hh),
where Hh is the housing height, then:
Fd = 0
Otherwise, the frequency of strikes is given by:
( 2
) [
Fd = a b + 6 H h a + 6 H h b + 9 π H h N g strikes × year −1 ] (2)

where:
a = housing length (km)
b = housing width (km)
Hh = housing height (km)

7.4 Analysis of the frequency of strikes

Based on the values of Ft, Fa and Fd obtained previously, the following analysis shall be done:
– If Ft ≥ Fa + Fd
then the direct lightning discharge is not a phenomena of prime importance for the RBS and it can
be treated as an ordinary remote electronic site, which is under the scope of ITU-T Rec. K.35.
– If Ft < Fa + Fd and Fa < 10 Fd
then the installation does not fall into the scope of this Recommendation. In this case the user shall
refer to IEC 62305-4 in order to protect the electrical and electronic systems within the
RBS housing.
– If Ft < Fa + Fd and Fa ≥ 10 Fd

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 5

then the user shall follow the steps of this Recommendation to identify the lightning current
parameters for which the RBS have to be protected.

8 Determination of the lightning current parameters

The number of direct strikes to the tower is determined by the ground flash density of the region
and tower height. Considering that the reduction in the tower height is not possible due to
transmission constraints, the tolerable frequency of damage can be obtained by raising the
RBS resistibility up to a given current level. Therefore, the direct strikes with currents below this
critical level will cause no damage to the RBS. This critical lightning peak current is designated as
Ic and given by:
I c = (a – ln (100 p a )) / b [kA] (3)
where:
pa = Ft / Fa
a = 4.605 and b = 0.0117 for pa > 0.79
a = 5.063 and b = 0.0346 for pa ≤ 0.79
The critical lightning current rate of rise (dic/dt) is given by the following equation:
dic I
= c [kA / µs]
dt t eff
where:
teff = 1 µs is the effective front time described in Appendix I
The following clauses describe the protection procedures intended to protect the RBS up to the
critical current considered.
NOTE – The lightning current peak value corresponds to the first stroke, while the di/dt corresponds to a
subsequent stroke. The relation between these two parameters is in line with IEC 61662. For example, a
lightning discharge with 100 kA peak current corresponds to a di/dt equal to 100 kA/µs. In this
Recommendation, some protection procedures are determined by the current, while others are determined by
the current rate of rise (di/dt).

9 Protection procedures in LPZ0

9.1 Procedures applied to the tower

The need of lightning rods in order to protect the antennas from a direct strike shall be assessed by
the methods described in IEC 61024-1-1 [5]. For a metallic tower, there is no need to install down
conductors in order to conduct the lightning current to earth, as the tower structure itself will do this
job. For a non-metallic tower, the installation of down conductors is necessary. The down conductor
specification and installation shall comply with IEC 61024-1-2 [6].
The wave guide and the external conductor of coaxial cables shall be bonded to the metallic tower
through the antenna hardware. For non-metallic towers, the bonding shall be made to the lightning
down conductor(s).

6 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

9.2 Earthing system
The earthing system for the RBS shall be in line with ITU-T Rec. K.35 [4] with some additional
requirements. The description of the earthing system is given in this clause and its diagram is shown
in Figure 3.
– The RBS shall have a buried exterior bare conductor forming a ring around the housing and
the tower. One ring electrode shall encircle the housing and another ring shall encircle the
tower.
– The distance from the buried conductor and the associated structure shall be approximately
0.65 m, where practical. The depth of the conductor shall be approximately 0.75 m.
– The two rings shall be interconnected by at least 3 spaced conductors (see Figure 3).
– The legs of a metallic tower or the down conductors of a non-metallic tower shall be
bonded through short connections to its earth ring and to the metallic structure of its
basement.
– If the housing has a foundation steel and/or steel reinforcement at the floor, they shall be
bonded to the earth ring at least at the 4 corners. If the housing is metallic, its feet shall be
bonded to the earth ring (see Figure 3).
– One earth conductor shall connect the earth ring of the housing with the Main Earthing
Terminal (MET) located inside the housing, at the bottom of the wall that faces the tower.
This conductor shall be as short as possible and have 50 mm2 as minimum cross section
area.
– All conductors in contact with the earth shall be preferable made of copper and have
50 mm2 as minimum cross section area.
– National safety rules and/or the control of earth voltage gradient and/or the limitation of
current injected into metallic services connected to the RBS may require additional earth
electrodes. These additional electrodes shall preferably be vertical rods along the rings
and/or horizontal radial conductors from the tower.

Housing earth ring

Tower earth ring

RBS housing Tower

Radial conductors
Vertical rods (optional)
(optional)
K.056_F03

Figure 3/K.56 – Earth configuration for the RBS

10 Protection procedures for the cables that come from the tower
All cables that enter the RBS from the tower shall enter through the same window and shall be
bonded to a bonding bar installed at this point. The wave guides and the outer conductor of coaxial
cables shall be directly bonded to the bonding bar by means of short connections. The unshielded
cables (for example, power cables for lighting the tower) shall be bonded through SPD. The
bonding bar shall be bonded to the earthing system by means of vertical conductors (a minimum of
three spaced conductors is recommended). If the RBS housing is made of metal, additional bonding

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 7

shall be made between the bonding bar and the housing wall. The earth conductors and metallic
cable supports inside the RBS housing shall be bonded to the bonding bar.
The need for installation of SPD between the inner and outer conductors of coaxial cables that come
from the tower can be determined by the following steps:
– Determine the fraction of the lightning current that flows through the bundle of cables
along the tower. This parameter is represented by the tower factor "α" that is determined by
the procedures described in Annex A.
– Distribute the resultant current by the "n" conductors that make part of the bundle. For this
calculation, it is considered that the current share of a given coaxial cable is proportional to
its geometric mean radius (GMR). All conductors in the bundle, such as wave guides,
coaxial cables, power cables, down conductors and bars of cable racks (if continuous along
the tower) should be taken into consideration.
– Calculate the peak transverse voltage (Vt) in the coaxial cables by multiplying the peak
current by the cable length and its transfer impedance per unit length. For tubular cables
and the frequency range of lightning currents, the transfer impedance can be conservatively
considered as equal to the DC resistance.
– Compare the transverse voltage obtained with the resistibility of the equipment interface
connected to the cable. If the transverse voltage is greater than the resistibility, then SPD is
necessary. Equation 4 summarizes the calculation of Vt.
Vt = I c α L zt rx / rall [kV] (4)
where:
Ic: critical current [kA];
zt: transfer impedance per unit length [Ω/m];
α: tower factor from Annex A [dimensionless];
L: length of the coaxial cable [m];
rc: GMR of the coaxial cable [mm];
rall: sum of GMR of all conductors in the bundle [mm].
NOTE – The criteria used for the assessment of a coaxial cable's current share is an approximation that will
lead to conservative results when the cable is placed in the central region of the bundle.

11 Protection against the lightning effects inside the housing

In order to attenuate the inductive effects of the lightning current inside the RBS housing, the
protection procedures can be based on Mesh-BN or Mesh-IBN configurations. The characteristics
of these configurations are described in ITU-T Rec. K.27. In both configurations, the
electromagnetic field inside the housing can be attenuated by the shield effect of metallic elements
present at or near the housing walls. For the purposes of this Recommendation, these metallic
elements constitute the boundary between LPZ0 and LPZ1.

11.1 Shielding factor (η)

The induced voltage inside the RBS housing is attenuated by the shielding action of metallic
conductors coupled with the RBS cabling. This attenuation can be represented by the shielding
factor "η". Some shielding factors for different shields are summarized in the following.
– Non-screening: η = 1 (from ITU-T Rec. K.39)
This applies to walls made of non-conductive materials, as wood, bricks and concrete without steel
reinforcement.

8 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

– Metallic container: η = 0.01 (from ITU-T Rec. K.39)
The metallic container shall have its metallic sheaths connected together in several points along the
joints, forming a closed metallic cage (floor, ceiling and walls).
– Metallic grid: η = w / 8.5 (from IEC 61662)
where w is the grid width in metres. The metallic grid shall form a cage around the housing.
– Earth conductors around the housing: see Annex B for η
The installation of earth conductors around the housing forming closed loops coupled with the
internal cabling, provides a shield effect to the RBS. Annex B gives some values of shielding
factors for different arrangements of earth conductors.

11.2 Mesh-BN configuration

The general characteristics of a Mesh-BN configuration are described in the ITU-T Rec. K.27 [3].
Due to practical considerations, the Mesh-BN is usually the preferable configuration for a
RBS housing. Its application inside a RBS housing (LPZ1) requires the following procedures:
– All conductors such as equipment frames, racks, trays and cabinets shall be bonded together
as well as at multiple points to the CBN.
– The CBN is composed of metallic conductors of the housing wall (structural steel or
metallic wall), metallic conduits, PE conductors, air conditioning metallic hardware, etc.
The CBN shall be bonded to the earth network at multiple points.
Figure 4 shows schematically the cabling of a RBS with Mesh-BN configuration. The voltage Vi
induced in the largest loop inside the RBS housing is given by the following approximated
equation:
dic f +e
Vi = 0.2 h k η ln [kV] (5)
dt f
where:
h, f, e: physical dimensions (in meters) as shown in Figure 4;
dic/dt: critical current rate of rise [kA/µs];
η: shielding factor (see 11.1);
k: factor to take into account the metallic connection between the tower and the
RBS housing; for typical RBS this factor can be conservatively considered as
k = 1.5.

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 9

 Antenna
tower

Ic
CBN conductor Residual flux
e f

i
I'c

h Equip. Equip.

Equip.

Power
K.056_F04
Telecommunication

Figure 4/K.56 – RBS with Mesh-BN configuration

The induced voltage Vi will give rise to induced currents inside the RBS. The flow of these currents
tend to cancel the magnetic flux at the closed loops inside the Mesh-BN. However, a residual flux
will remain in open circuited loops made by signal and power cables, leading to a residual induced
voltage, which is given by Equation 6:
Vr = β Vi (6)
where:
Vr : residual induced voltage [kV];
Vi: induced voltage [kV] given by Equation 5 [kV];
β: transfer factor given in Annex C.
The residual voltage is applied between the unshielded signal or power conductors and the
equipment frame. This voltage shall be compared with the equipment resistibility. If it is greater
than the resistibility level, then the transfer factor (β) shall be reduced by means of shielding
conductors (see Annex C) or SPD shall be installed at the equipment port (LPZ1/LPZ2 interface).
For shielded cables, the residual voltage is given by the product of the shield transfer impedance by
the fraction of the induced current that flows through it. Considering the short length of cables
inside a RBS, the induced voltages in a shielded conductor is usually negligible.
Therefore, combining Equation 5 with Equation 6 and replacing the residual voltage by the
equipment resistibility (Vres) leads to the Equation 7 that states the condition for equipment
protection inside a RBS housing using Mesh-BN configuration:
dic f +e
Vres ≥ 0.2 β h k η ln (7)
dt f
In order to comply with the Equation 7, one or more of the following procedures can be tried:
– Re-arrange the equipment inside the RBS in order to reduce the loop exposition by
reducing the length "e" or the height "h" (see Figure 4).
– Improve the shielding factor of the RBS (see 11.1) in order to reduce η.

10 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

– Improve the coupling between the earth conductors and the cables (see Annex C) in order
to reduce the transfer factor β.
– Increase the equipment resistibility (Vres) by adding SPDs at its ports.

11.3 Mesh-IBN configuration

The general characteristics of a Mesh-IBN configuration are described in ITU-T Rec K.27 [3]. Its
application inside a RBS housing (LPZ1) requires the following procedures:
– All conductors shall enter the RBS housing through a single point connection window
(SPCW). The SPCW shall be as small as possible. Preferably, all conductors (including
cables from the tower, a.c. power and outside plant telecommunication cables) shall enter
the RBS at the same window and be bonded to the same bonding bar.
– The equipment and cabling inside the RBS shall be insulated from the floor and the walls.
This insulation shall be able to withstand the induced voltage Vi as given by Equation 5.
The Figure 5 shows schematically the cabling of a RBS with Mesh-IBN configuration.

Antenna
tower

Ic

Insulated cable support

e f
SPCW

I'c

h Equip. Equip.
Insulation
a.c./d.c.

Power
Insulation K.056_F05

Telecommunication

Figure 5/K.56 – RBS with Mesh-IBN configuration

11.4 Protection procedures at the boundary between LPZ1 and LPZ2

The boundary between LPZ1 and LPZ2 is the equipment cabinets and racks (see Figure 1). The
following procedures are recommended:
– Shielded cables shall have their shield bonded to the equipment cabinets at both sides.
– Earth conductors (PE) shall be bonded to the equipment metallic racks.
– Metallic support of the cables (trays) shall be bonded to the equipment metallic racks at
least in two spaced points.
– If necessary for Mesh-BN configuration, SPD shall be installed between the unshielded
conductors and the equipment frame (see 11.2).

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 11

12 Protection against the lightning effects at the services entrances
Typical RBS have metallic connections with power and, sometimes, telecommunication services.
The protection procedures applied to the services at the interface between LPZ0 and LPZ1 are given
in this clause.

12.1 Power service

In order to protect the power interface against lightning strikes in the RBS tower, it is necessary to
install SPDs at the point where the power conductors enter the RBS housing. These SPDs will also
protect the RBS against lightning-induced surges conducted by the power conductors to the RBS.
The SPDs shall comply with IEC 61643-1 and IEC 61643-12.
In order to reduce the residual voltage at the power entrance, the power conductor shall enter the
RBS housing near the Main Earth Terminal (MET). The connections between the power
conductors, the SPDs and the MET shall be made as short as possible and with conductors of
reasonable cross section. Preferably, one individual conductor should be used for each connection
to the MET (see Figure 6). If the power cable is shielded, its shield shall be bonded to the MET. In
order to assure that the resistibility of the equipment's power input will not be exceeded by the
residual voltage, the installation parameters shall be adjusted in order to comply with Equation 8
(see Figure 6):
dic  R g   b + rp 
Vres ≥ 0.2 Lp   ln   − Vspd (8)
dt  R g + Z p   rp 
where:
Vres: resistibility of the power input port of the equipment [kV];
Lp: length of the connection between the power conductors and the MET [m];
rp: geometric mean radius of the connection between the power conductors and the
MET (directly or through SPDs) [m];
b: distance between the SPDs and the equipment to be protected [m];
Vspd: residual voltage of the SPD [kV];
Rg: earth resistance of the RBS [Ω];
Zp: surge impedance of the power line [Ω].
The surge impedance of the power line is given by Equation 9:
 1/ 2  
Z p = 60 ln a + 648 (ρ / f L )  / rL  [Ω] (9)
  
where:
ρ: earth resistivity [Ω.m];
f L: representative frequency of the a subsequent lightning strike [Hz];
r L: geometric mean radius of the power line [m];
a: distance from power line to nearby earth [m].

12 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 b

Power conductors
rp Equipment

Lp
SPD
Earth conductor

MET K.056_F06

Figure 6/K.56 – Assessment of the maximum length between power conductors and MET

The SPD shall withstand an impulse peak current that complies with Equation 10:
Ic
I imp ≥ [kA] (10)
2n×m
where:
Ic: peak critical current (see clause 8) [kA];
n: number of metallic services connected to the RBS;
m: number of conductors in the power line.

12.2 Telecommunication service

For the protection of the telecommunication interfaces (connected to metallic lines) against
lightning strikes in the RBS tower it is necessary to install SPDs at the point where the
telecommunication conductors enter the RBS housing. These SPDs will also protect the
RBS against lightning-induced surges conducted by the metallic telecommunication line to the
RBS. The SPDs shall comply with ITU-T Rec. K.12.
In order to reduce the residual voltage at the telecommunication entrance, the telecommunication
cable shall enter the RBS housing near the Main Earth Terminal (MET). The connections between
the telecommunication conductors, the SPDs and the MET shall be made as short as possible, and
with conductors of reasonable cross section. Preferably, more than one conductor should be used for
the connection to the MET. If the telecommunication cable is shielded, its shield shall be bonded to
the MET. In order to assure that the resistibility of the equipment's telecommunication input will
not be exceeded by the residual voltage, the installation parameters shall be adjusted in order to
comply with Equation 8, where the power data should be replaced by the corresponding
telecommunication data.
The procedures for the protection of telecommunication lines against direct and indirect lightning
discharges can be found in ITU-T Recs K.47 and K.46, respectively.

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 13

 Annex A

Factor for current distribution along a tower (α)

During transient conditions created by a lightning strike, the current distribution among the
conductors of the tower is determined by the magnetic flux linkage between the conductors. The
tower factor "α" is defined as the fraction of the total lightning current that flows through the
bundle formed by the telecommunication and associated conductors. Typical situations are
considered in this annex. The assessment of the geometric mean radius for the conductors can be
done with the procedure described in Annex D.

A.1 Tubular tower

If the telecom cables are placed inside the tower, the total lightning current flows through the tower,
so that α = 0. If the telecom cables are placed outside the tower, the distribution of current is
determined by the following equation:
(
α = ln (s / rt ) / ln s 2 / rt rc )
where:
s: space between the axis of the tower and the axis of the bundle of conductors;
rt: geometric mean radius of the tower;
rc: geometric mean radius of the bundle of conductors.
Figure A.1 illustrates the dimensions considered.
Tower
Bundle of
conductors
s
rc
rt
K.056_FA.1

Figure A.1/K.56 – Distances for tubular tower

A.2 Three legs tower

For a three legs tower, the following typical situations can be found (see Figure A.2):
a) Cable at an arbitrary distance "s" from one leg (see Figure A.2)
α = {1 + 3 ln (s / rc) / ln [s ( 3d2 + s2 – 3 d s) / (3 rt d2) ] }–1
b) Cable in the centre of the tower (s = d)
α = [1 + 3 ln (d / rc) / ln (d /3 rt ) ] –1
c) Cable in one lateral (s = 3d/2)
α = [1 + 3 ln (3d / 2 rc) / ln (3d / 8 rt) ] –1
d) Cable near one leg (s << d)
α = [1 + 3 ln (s / rc) / ln (s / rt) ] –1
The distance "d" is the distance from the leg to the axis of the tower.

14 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 Tower
Leg
s

rc
Buldle of
conductors

Axis

rt d

K.056_FA.2

Figure A.2/K.56 – Distances for three legs tower

A.3 Four legs tower

For a four legs tower, the following typical situations can be found (see Figure A.3):
a) Cable at an arbitrary distance "s" from one leg (see Figure A.3)
α = {1 + 4 ln (s / rc) / ln [s (2d – s) / (2 rt d) ] }–1
b) Cable in the centre of the tower (s = d)
α = [1 + 4 ln (d / rc) / ln (d / 2 rt) ] –1
c) Cable near one leg (s << d)
α = [1 + 4 ln (s / rc) / ln (s / rt) ] –1

Axis
rc
s Bundle of
conductors

rt

Tower leg K.056_FA.3

Figure A.3/K.56 – Distances for four legs tower

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 15

 Annex B

Shielding factor (η) for CBN loops

The shielding factors (η) provided by the conductors of the CBN that form closed loops, coupled
with the telecommunication conductors, are given in Table B.1: for typical conductor arrangements,
see Figure B.1. The shielded loop is formed by the telecommunication cables, equipment racks and
part of the CBN circuit (for example, the earthing system).

Table B.1/K.56 – Shielding factors for different CBN configurations

η)
Shielding factor (η
Configuration Illustration
x = 0.15 m x = 0.4 m x = 0.8 m
Single loop Figure B.1a 0.37 0.48 0.59
Cage Figure B.1b 0.45 0.45 0.45
Cage with 1 sup. conductor Figure B.1c 0.21 0.27 0.33
Cage with 3 sup. conductors Figure B.1d 0.16 0.19 0.23
NOTE – These values have been obtained from a scale model representing a typical RBS.

Shielding x
Loop

Shielded
Loop
a) b)

c) d) K.056_FB.1

Figure B.1/K.56 – Typical shielding configuration for RBS

16 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 Annex C

Transfer factor (β) for cable trays and earth conductors

C.1 Single earth conductor
The transfer function provided by a single earth conductor is given by the following approximated
equation:
β = ln [ s / re ] / ln [ 2 h / re ]
where:
s: spacing between the earth conductor and the telecom conductor (m);
re: radius of the earth conductor (m);
h: height of the earth conductor (m);
NOTE – Equation valid for h >> s.
Figure C.1 shows the conductors diagram and Table C.1 gives values of β for typical values of the
parameters.

Table C.1/K.56 – Transfer function for single earth conductor (h = 2 m)

Spacing (s) Radius of earth conductor (re) in mm

in mm 1 2 3 4
10 0.28 0.21 0.17 0.13
25 0.39 0.33 0.29 0.27
50 0.47 0.42 0.39 0.37
100 0.56 0.51 0.49 0.47
200 0.64 0.61 0.58 0.57
500 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70

Earth conductor Telecom conductor

re

s K.056_FC.1

Figure C.1/K.56 – Circuit diagram for a single earth conductor

C.2 Double earth conductors

The transfer function provided by double earth conductors is given by the following approximated
equation:
 1/ 2 
β = 0.5 ln [ s (d – s ) / d re ] / ln  2 h / (d re ) 

where:
s: spacing between the earth conductor and the telecom conductor (m);
re: radius of the earth conductor (m);

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 17

 h: height of the earth conductor (m);
d: distance between earth conductors (m).
NOTE – Equation valid for h >> s.
Figure C.2 shows the conductors diagram and Table C.2 gives values of β for typical values of the
parameters.

Table C.2/K.56 – Transfer function for double earth conductors (h = 2 m and d = 0.4 m)

Spacing (s) Radius of earth conductor (re) in mm

in mm 1 2 3 4
10 0.21 0.16 0.12 0.10
25 0.30 0.25 0.22 0.19
50 0.36 0.31 0.28 0.26
100 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.32
200 0.43 0.40 0.37 0.35

Earth conductor Telecom conductor Earth conductor

re re

s
d K.056_FC.2

Figure C.2/K.56 – Circuit diagram for double earth conductors

C.3 Earth plate tray

The transfer function provided by a conductive plate tray is given by the following approximated
equation:
β = (2 s / a ) arctg (a / s ) / ln (2 h π / a )
where:
s: spacing between the tray and the telecom conductor (m);
a: width of the earth tray (m);
h: height of the earth tray (m).
NOTE – Equation valid for a >> s, h >> a and the distance from the telecom conductor to the border of the
tray greater than s.
The Figure C.3 shows the conductors diagram and Table C.3 gives values of β for typical values of
the parameters.

18 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 Table C.3/K.56 – Transfer function for earth plate tray (h = 2 m)

Spacing (s) Width of earth plate tray (a) in m

in mm 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
5 0.031 0.019 0.014 0.011
10 0.061 0.037 0.027 0.022
25 0.14 0.087 0.066 0.055
50 0.23 0.16 0.13 0.10
100 0.32 0.27 0.22 0.19

Telecom conductor
Earth plate tray s

a K.056_FC.3

Figure C.3/K.56 – Circuit diagram for earth plate tray

Annex D

Geometric mean radius

Table D.1 gives the geometric mean radius for typical conductors arrangements.

Table D.1/K.56 – Geometric mean radius of conductors

Conductor (s) Illustration Geometric mean radius
Solid circular conductor Figure D.1a r
Solid rectangular conductor Figure D.1b 0.318 (a + b)
Seven strand conductor Figure D.1c r
Two parallel conductors Figure D.1d (d2 r1' r2')1/4
Three parallel conductors Figure D.1e (d122 d132 d232 r1' r2' r3')1/9
n parallel conductors – (d122 d132 ... d1n2 d232 ... d(n–1)n2 r1' r2' r3'... rn')1/(n · n)
NOTE – Considering the inductive effects of lightning current (high di/dt), the conductors internal
magnetic flux has been neglected (perfect skin effect). For group of conductors, symmetric current density
at the conductors periphery has been considered (proximity effect has been neglected).

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 19

 r b
a
a) b)

r'1 r'2

d
r
c) d)

r'1 d12 r' 2

d13 d23

r'3
e)
K.056_FD.1

Figure D.1/K.56 – Geometric mean radius of typical conductors

Appendix I

Rationale for effective front time

The induced voltage close to a lightning discharge is proportional to the current rate of rise. The
effective front time (teff) is an arbitrary value of time which divides the peak current and gives the
maximum current rate of rise. Table I.1 gives the values of maximum rate of rise and peak current
for the measurements conducted by Berger in Monte San Salvatore1. This data is relative to the first
return stroke of downward negative discharges, which are the most probable discharges in RBS
towers.

Table I.1/K.56 – Distribution of current rate of rise and peak value from Berger (*)
Percentage exceeding the value in the table
Parameter Unit
95% 50% 5%
Maximum current kA/µs 9.1 24.3 65.0
rate of rise (di/dt)
First peak (I1) kA 12.9 27.7 59.5
Second peak (I2) kA 14.1 31.1 68.5
I1 / (di/dt) µs 1.42 1.14 0.92
I2 / (di/dt) µs 1.55 1.28 1.05

____________________
1 ANDERSON (R.B.), ERIKSSON (A.J.), Lightning parameters for engineering application,
CIGRE Electra 69, 1980.

20 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

The ratio I1/(di/dt) is the effective front time (teff). It can be seen from Table I.1 that stating the value
for teff = 1 µs allows a reasonable assessment of the current rate of rise from the peak value.

Appendix II

Example of application

Figure II.1 shows an example of a configuration of a RBS. The basic data is:
Antenna tower:
– 40 m high, 4 m from RBS housing (f = 4 m);
– three metallic legs, 2.6 m apart;
– each leg cylindrical with 0.4 m diameter.
Bundle of conductors at the centre of the tower (see Figure II.2):
– 3 coaxial cables from the mobile antennas (r = 12 mm, transfer impedance zt = 1 Ω/km);
– 1 coaxial cable from the micro wave antenna (r = 8mm, transfer impedance zt = 2 Ω/km);
– 2 bars for the cable support = 80 mm width, 5 mm thick.
RBS housing: 5 × 3 × 3 m, concrete (steel continuity unknown).
Cabling height: 2.4 m inside the RBS (h = 2.4 m).
Cabling length: 4 m inside the RBS (e = 4 m).
Power cable: aerial LV line (6 m high).
Telecom cable: none (upstream connection through microwave link).
Soil: mountain top with average resistivity equal to 500 Ω.m.
Lightning density: 5 flashes to ground per km2 per year (Ng = 5).

Antenna
tower
Bundle of
cables
Ic
CBN conductor

I'c
i

h
Equip. Equip.

a.c./d.c.

Power
e f K.056_FII.1
Telecommunication

Figure II.1/K.56 – Example of RBS

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 21

 50 mm 50 mm 50 mm 50 mm 50 mm

Metallic
1 2 3 4
support

80 mm 5 6
Mobile cables Micro wave

5 mm K.056_FII.2

Figure II.2/K.56 – Bundle off conductors along the tower (cross section view)

To follow the steps, please refer to the flow diagram in Figure 2.

Step 1: Determination of the tolerable frequency of damage.
Considering a typical value suggested in 7.1:
Ft = 0.05
Step 2: Calculation of Fa and Fd.
Using Equation 1:
Fa = (9) (2) (π ) (0.04)2 (5) = 0.45 strikes / year
Fa = 0.45
Considering the procedure of 7.3, the area around the tower is defined by the radius:
R = (3) (40 – 3) = 111 m
As the RBS housing is close to the tower (4 m < 111 m) the probability of a direct strike to the
housing is negligible. Therefore:
Fd = 0
Step 3: Analysis of the probabilities.
Ft ≥ Fa + Fd ? No
Fa < 10 Fd ? No
NOTE – Answering "No" for the two questions above means that the installation falls within the scope of
this Recommendation.
Step 4: Calculating the lightning parameters.
Based on Equations of clause 8:
pa = Rt / Ra = 0.05 / 0.45 = 0.11
Ic = 77 kA
dic/dt = 77 kA / µs
Step 5: Earthing and bonding.
Clause 9 states some rules for the earthing and bonding outside the RBS housing.
Step 6: Need of SPD at the coaxial cables from the tower.
Based on clause 10 and Annex A:
d = (2.6) / (3) 1/2 = 1.50 m (distance from the bundle and one leg)

22 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

Geometric mean radius (GMR):
Tower leg: rt = (0.4) / (2) = 0.2 m
Bundle of conductors:
Considering the 6 conductors of Figure II.2, their GMR are:
Coaxial cables for mobile antenna: r1 = r2 = r3 = 12 mm
Coaxial cable for micro wave link: r4 = 8 mm
Bars of support: r5 = r6 = 27 mm
Distances between conductors:
d12 = d23 = d34 = d15 = d46 = 50 mm
d25 = d24 = d13 = d36 = 100 mm
d14 = d35 = d26 = 150 mm
d45 = d16 = 200 mm
d56 = 250 mm
Using the equation for "n" conductors in Table D.1:
rc = [5010 × 1008 × 1506 × 2004 × 2502 × 123 × 272 × 8] 1/36
rc = 73 mm
NOTE – The bundle has an equivalent flux linkage equivalent to a cylindrical conductor with 73 mm radius.
Considering that the bundle is at the centre of the tower:
α = [1 + 3 ln (1500 / 73) / ln (1500 / 600)] –1 = 0.092
This means that 9.2% of the lightning current flows through the bundle.
Going back to clause 10:
Transverse voltage for coaxial cable of mobile antenna:
Vt = (77) (0.092) (40) (0.001) (12) / (36 + 8 + 54) = 0.035 kV
Transverse voltage for coaxial cable of micro wave antenna:
Vt = (77) (0.092) (40) (0.002) (8) / (36 + 8 + 54) = 0.046 kV
These values will probably be below the resistibility of the radio equipment considered and no
SPD will be necessary.
Step 7: Induced voltage inside the housing (Vi).
The induced voltage can be calculated with Equation 5:
Vi = (0.2) (77) (2.4) (1.5) (1) ln [(4 + 4) / 4] = 38.4 kV
Step 8: Bonding configuration.
Considering the relatively high voltage induced inside the RBS and the difficulties for the
establishment and maintenance of a Mesh-IBN system, it's made an option for the
Mesh-BN configuration.
Step 9: Residual voltage at equipment interfaces.
Considering that the only shielding is provided by a single earth wire (4 mm diameter) placed at
100 mm from the telecommunication cables, Annex C gives β = 0.51. Going back to 11.2 gives:
Vr = (0.51) (38.4) = 19.6 kV

ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003) 23

This value is probably above the resistibility level of the equipment. Let us suppose that the
resistibility level is 1 kV and that installation of SPD is not convenient (for example, because there
are many unshielded conductors). Therefore, it is necessary to improve the shielding of the housing.
One option is:
– To install 3 earth conductors around the housing, the central one placed about 40 cm from
the main internal conductors (η = 0.27).
– Place an earth plate tray with 30 cm width below the conductors, in such a way that all
conductors will be at least 25 mm from the tray (distance from conductor centre to the
surface of the tray), and at least 25 mm from the tray's border. The tray shall be bonded to
the equipment racks/cabinets at both extremities. This gives β = 0.066.
Therefore:
Vr = (38.4) (0.27) (0.066) = 0.68 kV
This value is safely below the equipment resistibility considered.
Step 10: Bonding at equipment racks/cabinets.
The bonding procedures stated in 11.4 are intended to provide adequate shielding from the metallic
elements inside the housing.
Step 11: Protection of power entrance.
Clause 12.1 gives a procedure to control the residual voltage across the connection of SPD at power
entrance at the housing.
Let us suppose that we have the following values (see Figure 6):
Resistibility of rectifier input port: Vres = 2.0 kV
Geometric mean radius of SPD connection: rp = 28 mm
(equivalent to 4 condutors, 6 mm2 cross-section, regularly spaced at 50 mm one from the
next)
Distance between SPD and rectifier: b = 4 m
(SPD at one side of the housing and rectifier at the other)
Residual voltage of SPD: Vspd = 1.0 kV (clamping type SPD)
Earth resistance of RBS: Rg = 5 Ω
Surge impedance of power line: Zp = 458 Ω
(for ρ = 500 Ω.m, fL = 1 MHz, rL = 10 mm, heigh = 6 m)
In order to keep the residual voltage below the resistibility level of the equipment, the maximum
length of cable for SPD connection is (see 12.1):
Lp = (2.0 – 1.0) (458 + 5) / { (0.2) (77) (5) ln [(4 + 0.028) / 0.028 ]} = 1.2 m
This is the maximum distance from the connection of the SPD with the power wires to the main
earth terminal (MET), as shown in Figure 6.
Considering that the only metallic service connected to the RBS is the power line and that it has
4 conductors (3 phases and 1 neutral), Equation 10 gives a peak value of current for the SPD as:
Iimp ≥ 77 / [ (2) (1) (4) ]
Iimp ≥ 9.6 kA
Step 12: Protection of telecommunication entrance.
There is no telecommunication metallic line coming into the RBS housing.
Step 13: End of project.
The RBS is protected for the tolerable frequency of damage (Ft).

24 ITU-T Rec. K.56 (07/2003)

 SERIES OF ITU-T RECOMMENDATIONS

Series A Organization of the work of ITU-T

Series B Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification

Series C General telecommunication statistics

Series D General tariff principles

Series E Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors

Series F Non-telephone telecommunication services

Series G Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks

Series H Audiovisual and multimedia systems

Series I Integrated services digital network

Series J Cable networks and transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals

Series K Protection against interference

Series L Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant

Series M TMN and network maintenance: international transmission systems, telephone circuits,
telegraphy, facsimile and leased circuits

Series N Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits

Series O Specifications of measuring equipment

Series P Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line networks

Series Q Switching and signalling

Series R Telegraph transmission

Series S Telegraph services terminal equipment

Series T Terminals for telematic services

Series U Telegraph switching

Series V Data communication over the telephone network

Series X Data networks and open system communications

Series Y Global information infrastructure and Internet protocol aspects

Series Z Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems

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Geneva, 2003