11 SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Disciplines and Ideas

in the Social Sciences
Quarter 1 – Module 5-7:
Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social
science theories;
a) Structural-functionalism b) Marxism c) Symbolic Interaction
 What I Need to Know

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
theories;
a. Structural-functionalism
b.Marxism
c. Symbolic Interaction

Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences is one of the subjects that
you need to take under HUMSS, which stands for Humanities and Social
Sciences. This lesson focuses on the study of Structural Functionalism,
Marxism, and Symbolic Interaction.
This module was designed and written for you in order to help you
understand the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
ideas. To do this, you are required to undergo a series of learning activities
to complete each learning competency. Each lesson includes information
sheets, tasks and activity sheets. You need to perform each activity by
yourself.
The module has 3 lessons, namely:
a. Structural Functionalism
b. Marxism
c. Symbolic Interactionism

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

• Explain the theories on Structural Functionalism.
• Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the structural
functionalism theory.
• Appreciate one’s personal and social experiences using the theories
structural functionalism.

WHAT’S NEW
1
 LESSON 1: STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Lesson 1: Structural Functionalism

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

Structural functionalism or simply functionalism, is essentially a

sociological theory that revolves around the notion that a society is
composed of a system of interconnected parts that have their own particular
functions.
Social structures formed among groups or institutions are referred to as
macrostructures, which include religion, education, tradition, and culture.
On the other hand, social structures established among individuals or within
groups that result in individual interactions are called microstructures.
The effects of the social structures or their purpose are called social
functions. Every social structure has a corresponding social function. This
relationship between social structures and social functions are the parts of
the system which structural functionalism identifies.

KEY CONCEPTS IN STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

A manifest function is the predicted, intended, expected, and knowable

effect of a social structure. An example of which is when people go to
church, in order to pray and to hear mass.

A latent function is the unintended outcome of social structure. So, if the

manifest function of going to church is to pray and hear mass, its latent
function is to gather people together in one place to reinforce the sense of
community.

MANIFEST and LATENT Dysfunctions

A manifest dysfunction is the predicted, expected, and knowable

disruptions of a social structure. For example, a large gathering of people
such as concerts and other events disrupts traffic flow within the vicinity of
the event, even though it was not intended to do so.

A latent dysfunction is the unpredicted and unexpected disruptions of

social structures. For example, there are costumers who usually take
pictures of food in social media. But since these customers are not the only
ones doing it, the average time spent by customers in their tables will
increase. The latent dysfunction in this example is that the next costumers
will have an increased waiting period. Manifest and latent dysfunctions
2
bring about negative effects or outcomes. For the sociologist, studying
manifest and latent functions is a way to promote the benefits of such
functions and further develop social structures. But because manifest and
latent dysfunctions are contrary to the idea of systems in society,
sociologists focus more on the dysfunctions to promote social stability and
solidarity. Understanding manifest and latent dysfunctions help sociologists
assess risks and prepare accordingly. Such assessments and preparations
can be in different fields and can be useful in various fields and professions.

IMPORTANT THEORISTS
Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte provided an analysis of social evolution through his Law
of Three Stages. Comte provided a theory of society and man’s cognitive
progression from religious and abstract concepts to a scientific perspective.
Comte’s ideas are considered as the precursor to structural functionalism,
as he identified tradition and other social structures as elements in shaping
the society. The Law of Three Stages itself is a critique of the social
structures and of how humans were shaped by progressive thinking.

Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer is known as the first sociological functionalist. His
comparison of society to the human body is the overarching idea of
structural functionalism. According to Spencer, each social structure is like
a body part---it has a purpose and a function in the overall well-being of the
society. He also compared the way organism evolved to how it handles
constant problems.

Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist known as one of the primary
contributors to the development of structural functionalism. Parsons
identified the different systems which make up the structure of the society,
which he called systems levels. The systems he expounded on were the
following: the cultural system, social system, personality system and
biological system. All these system work and interact with each other in
some level to provide structure to the society.
The cultural system is the structure that the society generated
throughout history so that people can socialize and live together as a
community. The social system is understood as the roles people have in
society. The personality system refers to how individuals affect society
through their personalities, attitudes, behaviors, beliefs and other

3
characteristics. Lastly, the behavioral or biological system is the physical
body of the individual and the environment where he or she lives in.

Davis and Moore

Kingsley Davis (1908–1997) and Wilbert Moore (1914–1987) were
American sociologists known for the functionalist theory of stratification
or Davis- Moore hypothesis. Their hypothesis suggest that social
inequalities are necessary so that society benefits from them---from the
poor, the middle class and the rich.
To arrive at such a hypothesis, Davis and Moore explored the
dynamics of hierarchical structure such as corporations, governments, and
the military, whose structural organizations reflect that of a pyramid----the
head (decision-maker and highest paid) is at the top, the managers and
supervisors (both receiver and provider of commands and receive a medium
pay) at the middle and the workers (receiver of command and lowest paid)
at the base.
In order for the organization structure to function properly, the
positions in this hierarchical structure are accompanied by necessary
qualifications and experiences so that competent individuals would fill the
positions. Any deviation from these qualifications would undermine the
entire organization. Thus, individuals with higher education, skill,
experience and training are placed on top of those who are less qualified.
Since those at the top enjoy higher social status and higher salaries, those at
the bottom are the motivated to acquire the necessary qualifications to
eventually be placed on top as well. Hence, individuals who understand
stratification would invest their time to further their education and hone
their skills while getting experiences. In such a case, inequality functions
and dysfunctions.

Robert Merton
Robert Merton (1910–2003) was an American sociologist who is also a
key contributor to the functionalist theory of society. Specifically, he was
the one who developed the concepts of manifest and latent functions and
dysfunctions.
A student of Parsons in Harvard University, Merton saw his mentor’s
functionalist perspective as being too theoretical and overarching. So, he
aimed to develop a theory, which he called middle range theory. This
allows some level of experimentation to ground theories more to reality. In
order to do this, he said that a middle range theory should have limited
assumptions and hypothesis, which would allow for some testing. It should
4
also have a limited range of data to research and interpret. This was how he
came up with the different descriptions of functions. Additionally, Merton
focused on dysfunction as it opposes the idea of functional unity, which
presupposes that everything works optimally all the time and that
distortions exist in society. Because dysfunction is dependent upon who is
asked, it is called valued term. For example, a vehicular accident is seen as
a dysfunction, but can also be an opportunity for a tow truck driver or
junkyard dealer to gain profit (the former by towing wrecked vehicles, the
latter by recycling the parts of the vehicles).

Almond and Powell

Gabriel Almond (1911–2002) and Bingham Powell (born 1942) are
American political scientists who applied structural functionalist theories in
comparative politics. Before the theory of structural functionalism was
introduced in political science, states were studied in a manner that they
had the same systems upon which they operated on and were subject to the
same laws and production processes. Almond and Powell, however, argued
that the study of political systems of different states must be done
contextually. They highlighted the need to understand the institutions
through which political systems were allowed to function. Finally, the
particular function and the historical context which develop and established
this institution must also be considered in conducting research.
Aside from studying the interrelationships of the function of
institutions in a political system, Almond and Powell also recognized the
function of the political system itself on society. They highlighted the
function of the political system as political socialization, recruitment, and
communication. Political socialization is the means by which proper civic
conduct, duties and good citizenship are promoted and societal values and
beliefs are passed on to the younger generation. On the other hand,
recruitment is the way by which political systems attract the interest of the
public through participation in debates and other engagements. Lastly,
communication is the means by which society learns about the issues and
affairs of the state.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING
The main idea in structural functionalism is that the society is made up of
different components such as institutions, services, and people that work
together and allow the society to function. As body parts have specific
functions, functionalism implies that all structure in society have their own
purpose and specific functions.
5
Structural functionalism
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is “a framework for
building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability.”
The structural-functional approach is a perspective in sociology that
sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote
solidarity and stability. Education, for example, has several important
functions in a society, such as socialization, learning, and social placement.

What I Can Do
Explain the major events that occurred and its contribution
which led to the emergence of the social science disciplines.

Assessment

Direction: Read each item carefully and write T f the statement is true, and
write F if the statement is false. Write your answers in your activity
notebook.
____1. Microstructures are the social structures formed among groups or
institutions.
____2. Social functions are the effects of social structures or their purpose.
____3. Macrostructures are social structures that were established by the
individual or within a group that resulted in individual interactions.
____4. Structural functionalism is the essential sociological theory that
revolves around the notion that a society is composed of a system of
interconnected parts that have their own particular function.
____5. Manifest function is the predicted, intended, and expected effect of
a social structure.
____6. Structural functionalism is the same as the human body parts that
have specific functions, functionalism implies that all structures in
society have their own purpose and specific functions.
____7. Addressing elders with respect, as an example of a macrostructure,
patterns and shapes the younger generation to promote social values.
____8. When one of the parts of the society does not perform properly, the
entire society could not function well.
____9. Political socialization is a means by which proper civic conduct,
duties and good citizenship are promoted and societal values and
beliefs are passed on to the younger generation.

6
____10. Recruitment is the way by which political systems attract the
interest of the public through participation in debates and other
engagements.
____11. The unpredicted and unexpected disruptions of social structures is
called latent dysfunction.
____12. Various parts of the society are interrelated.
____13. Davis and Moore aimed to develop a theory, which they called
middle range theory, that would be more focused and manageable.
____14. Theorists respond to the social phenomena that pervade society.
____15. Communication is the means by which society learns about the
issues and affairs of the state.

Glossary

Dysfunctions – abnormality or impairment in the function of a specified

bodily organ or system.
Functionalism – a viewpoint of the theory of the mind, and wherein mental
states are constituted solely by their functional role, such as their
causal relations with other mental states, sensory inputs and
behavioral outputs.
Precursor – a person or thing that comes before another of the same kind
Recruitment – the action of finding new people to join an organization or
support a cause.
Subsist – maintain or support oneself, especially at a minimal level.

Additional Activities
Draw an example showing the main concept of Structural
Functionalism. Draw it in a separate paper and attach it to your
quiz/activity notebook.

What I Need to Know

LESSON 2: MARXISM

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

7
 • Explain the theories on Marxism.
• Analyze the basic concept and principles of Marxism theories
• Appreciate personal and social experiences using the theories of
Marxism.

What’s In
The main purpose of structural functionalism is that the parts
and its functions, are interconnected to the other parts as a big factor for the
maintenance or continuity to function properly as a structured social
system. Thus, each institution has a part to play in maintaining the balance
of the larger structure as a whole. This assumption can also relate to the
parts similar to that found in an organism, an example of which is the
digestive system (Vincent 2001).

What’s New

MARXISM
Marxism is a sociological, political, and economic philosophy that is based
on the ideas and theories of Karl Marx (1818–1883). To understand the
ideas of Karl Marx, the historical backdrop from which he lived---during
the Revolution of the 19th century – must be considered.
Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the primary source of
living in many European countries was farming or agriculture-related work.
However, with the rise of factories, such character changed, which caused
farmers to abandon their fields to become factory workers. The introduction
of machines enabled the rapid advancements in the production process,
which allowed faster trade and consumption of goods. This development
provided factory owners with profits that enabled them to invest in factory
expansion. This cycle of production and consumption continued to create
an economy, which became known as industrial capitalism.
Industrial capitalism created two classes in society, which Marx
termed as the bourgeoisie or the factory owners or capitalist and the
proletariat or the industrial workers or labors. The bourgeoisie controls the
production (factories, machines, and land), while the proletariat, who does
not have access to such means of production, exchanges labor for wages.

KEY CONCEPTS IN MARXISM

SOCIAL INEQUALITY
In a capitalist society, oppression and exploitation are among the
social inequalities that exist between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
8
Marx argued that the profit from goods should be equally divided among
the laborers since they are the ones who work to produce such goods. But
in reality, they are given low wages and are often asked to work in terrible
working conditions. For Marx, capitalists steal by taking the profit for
themselves, while leaving the workers with salaries disproportionate to the
work that they provide.

Class Conflict
Class conflict or class struggle arises from the oppression of the
proletariat by the bourgeoisie. Such oppression happens whenever a society
has a stratified and hierarchical class division, and it is more evident in a
capitalist society where the manipulative force of capitalism creates tension
between the classes.
Marx advocated for a revolutionary consciousness to fight back
against the capitalist oppressors. At the end of the revolution, a communist
society will then be established, which for Marx, will make the citizens
happy as they will be treated equally. A communist society is characterized
by a classless society having common ownership of property and resources
(means of production). Private property and profit-based economy are
replaced by public ownership and control.

Important Theorists

Marx and Engels

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) were German philosophers
and political scientists, who are regarded as the fathers of Marxist theory.
Marx and Engels were friends, and they collaborated many times. Their
most notable work together was Communist Manifesto.
Marx and Engels presented in the communist manifesto their core
ideas in a way that the proletariat could easily grasp. They laid out their
thoughts in a simple and systematic manner which does not require the
reader to be a part of the academic elite in order to understand. The
communist manifesto provides a sociological perspective in the
understanding of history. For Marx and Engels, history is determined by the
class struggles and conflicts between the oppressor (bourgeoisie) and the
oppressed (proletariat). The bourgeoisie, who controls and monopolizes the
means of production, remains in power because of wealth accumulated
from the profits of production. The proletariat, who contributes much to the
profit of the bourgeoisie, remains as mere workers.
Moreover, the communist manifesto points to an organized proletariat
class who would revolt against the bourgeoisie by amassing political
9
power. This is the aim of communism as argued by Marx and Engels – that
workers unite to overthrow the bourgeoisie supremacy and ultimately allow
the proletariat freedom from subjugation. Thus, communism would prevent
oppressors from exploiting the working class in order to gain profit.

V. Gordon Childe
Vere Gordon Childe (1892–1957) was an Australian archeologist and
philologist. Childe used Marxist economics as a tool in distinguishing
periods of prehistory and in tracing the evolution of Western civilization.
Production is central to Marxist economics because it is the means by
which human living is maintained and sustained. It is through the process
of production where the bourgeoisie and the proletariat engage with one
another and where exploitation and oppression occur. Childe classified
periods of prehistory through their capacity to utilize the environment in
food production processes. He maintained that civilizations in those periods
developed and evolved as they gradually took control of their food
production processes. To sustain their growing population, hunter-gatherer
civilizations turned into farming and by doing so created different social
classes in the process. The emergence of social classes was primarily
caused by the surplus in food production. Surplus allowed other classes in
society to expend efforts in other ventures such as metallurgy. Just as
machine enabled the expansion of the industrial revolution, new
technologies such as metallurgy allowed for sociocultural and economic
revolutions in the prehistoric ages.

Theodor Adorno
Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) was a German philosopher and sociologist.
His most notable work, Dialectics of Enlightenment (1944), was made in
collaboration with Marx Horkheimer (1895-1973) who was also a German
philosopher. In this collaborative work, capitalist ideology was seen as
focusing on commodities so that consumers would find necessity in buying
material goods. Marx called this effect of capitalist ideology as fetishism of
commodities. Fetishism commodities places value on consumerist goods by
making the masses want and desire to consume them. Taking the argument
of Marx, Adorno applied this to the state of capitalism in his time. Adorno
argued that commodity fetishism has reached beyond material goods and
has touched different social institutions and even academic disciplines. He
explained that the process by which fetishism takes hold is through
reification, or the subjection of human beings to capitalist ideology. Human
minds are conditioned to accept ideology without a second thought and
10
apply capitalist ideology in their daily lives. Thus, ideology becomes the
driving force in all human actions, as it provides the desire and the objects
of desire while taking for granted the desire for these objects were only
made by the capitalist system.

Slavoj Zizek
Slavoj Zizek (born 1949) is a Slovenian philosopher and a sociologist.
Zizek expounded on ideology and how it directly affected everyday reality.
He argued that reality is constructed by ideology itself.
For Zizek, ideology is reflected in ordinary language. Zizek explains
that ideology blankets society with beliefs that paradoxically have no
believers. The Slovenian philosopher further elaborates on how ideology is
used by the capitalist to extract more profit from the masses; however,
Zizek points out that this extraction is now done in a more subtle way. For
example, some of today’s advertisements will say that there will be
beneficiaries (who are in desperate need of help) for every consumerist
item that is sold. The belief is that consumers do not mind buying
expensive products if part of the profit will be donated to a noble cause. For
Zizek, such capitalist strategy is how ideology works. A person knows for a
fact that a certain object has a particular value that may or may not be equal
to its advertised value; however, he or she still purchases it because every
day ideology has made him or her believe that the object is necessary in
everyday living.

ESSENTIAL LEARNING
One of the most striking arguments against Marxism which captured the
patronage of a significant number of scholars and social advocates is the
pervading issue of social inequality that is being perpetuated by systems of
oppression based on capitalistic values. More than 167 years after its
conception and despite the criticisms against it, Marxism still appears to be
influential because the social realities that it portrayed are still prevalent.
Today, Marxism remains as a critical voice against forms of oppression
relating to economics and power.
Marxism is a method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a materialist
interpretation of historical development, better known as historical
materialism, to understand class relations and social conflict as well as a
dialectical perspective to view social transformation.
The political and economic philosophy of Karl Marx and Friedrich
Engels in which the concept of class struggle plays a central role in

11
understanding society's allegedly inevitable development from bourgeois
oppression under capitalism to a socialist and ultimately classless society.
The key characteristics of Marxism in philosophy are its
materialism and its commitment to political practice as the end goal of all
thought. The theory is also about the hustles of the proletariat and their
reprimand of the bourgeoisie.
Marxism was a critique of capitalism. Its original purpose was to steer
society away from the abusive, oppressive forms of class capitalism that
were prevalent in the 19th century and reassert more universal liberal
principles.

What’s More
What specific experience in your life do you think, reflected
the basic principles of Marxism?

Assessment
Direction: Read each item carefully and write T f the statement
is true and write F if the statement is false.
____1. The purpose of Marxism is to treat the economic status equally for
every individual in the society.
____2. Marxism delves into the relationship of the people with one another
in the context of production.
____3. Bourgeoisie refers to the owner of the factory or the capitalist.
____4. During the industrial revolution, the farmers improved the method
of farming in the society.
____5. Communist society is characterized by a classless society having
common ownership of property.
____6. The two industrial capitalism created in the society are bourgeoisie
and proletariat.
____7. Karl Marx advocated for a revolutionary consciousness to fight back
against the capitalist oppressors.
____8. Class Conflict arises from the oppression of the proletariat by the
bourgeoisie.
____9. The use of machinery equipment in the factory is an example of
industrial revolution.
____10. In the theory of Marxism, the capitalists are also the laborers or the
ones who work for the company.
____11. The theory of Karl Marx is in favor of the owner of the company.
____12. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ core ideas were to have an
unequal economic status between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
12
____13. Industrial capitalism is the cycle of production and consumption
continued to create the economy.
____14. The communist society likes to have a common ownership of the
property and its resources.
____15. Social injustice, according to Marx, is to give the laborer a low
wage disproportionate to the work they provide.

Glossary
Fetishism – excessive attention or attachment to something

Grasp – to seize and hold by or as if by clasping with the fingers or arms.

Oppressors – to burden with cruel or unjust impositions or restraints;

subject to a burdensome or harsh exercise of authority or power.

Reification – to consider or make (an abstract idea or concept) real or

concrete

Struggle – to contend resolutely with a task, problem, etc.; strive

Subjugation – the action of bringing someone or something under

domination or control.

What I Need to Know

LESSON 3: SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

At the end of the module, you should be able to:

• Explain the theories on Symbolic Interactions.
• Analyze the basic concept and principles of symbolic interaction
theory.

13
 • Appreciate personal and social experiences using the symbolic
interactions theory.

What’s In

Marxism is the theory of Karl Marx which says that society's classes
are the cause of struggle and that society should have no classes. An
example of Marxism is replacing private ownership with co-operative
ownership.

What’s New

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Symbolic interactionism is a theory on society that focuses on the
individual’s interaction with objects and other people. It perceives reality
through the compositions of social interactions and the understanding of the
meanings of these social interactions that provide a perspective on social
order and social society. The basic premise of symbolic interactionism is
that behavior is influenced and can only be examined through social
interactions. Consider the following, for instance. The Filipino word for
window is often thought of as bintana, which came from the Spanish word
ventana. For Spaniards, the window is associated with ventilation, which
allows cold air to circulate around the house and the hot air to get out.
However, for the Filipino the formal word for window is not bintana but
dungawan. For the Filipinos, the window is associated with something to
look outside on; but more than that, the dungawan is a place where
Filipinos could socialize at. Typically, an individual opens his or her
window to see the neighborhood, to greet people passing by, and to learn
about the latest news in town.

Key Concepts in Symbolic interaction

Interaction-based Meaning
It can be said that meaning is not monopolized
by a single person or perspective---something
can have different meanings as there are
different perspectives. Actions are determined
by the meanings people’s association of
meanings. As meaning changes, so does
society. Even interactions with the
environment are only done through the meanings assigned to them. A tree
14
can be perceived as a source of shade during hot days, or as means to
produce a thousand sheets of paper. Symbolic interaction sees reality not
just as meanings but sees meanings as constitutive of reality itself. Hence,
culture, science, society, and mathematics to name a few are only as real as
the meanings assigned to them.

Human Agency
Humans are perceived to be active social actors who willingly negotiate
their roles and identities within and through the system. This concept
emphasizes the capacity of humans to project and plan their actions based
on certain goals formed for the betterment of their conditions. Hence,
despite the impositions of a greater structure, the individual can be seen as
an active player in the interpretation and modification of the structure’s
rules and processes.

Important Theorists
Herbert Blumer
Herbert Blumer (1900–1987) was an American sociologist who coined the
term symbolic interactionism. A central idea to Blumer’s works is that
social reality is in a continuous process of creation. This idea stems from
the notion that social interactions happen in a society at a given place and
time. It follows that social reality is in a constant process of creation and
reinvention.

Symbolic interactionism, for Blumer, has three basic premises:

1. “Humans act toward things on the basis of the basis of the perceived
goal. An individual ascribes a meaning to a particular goal and this
affects his or her actions toward achieving it.

2. “the meanings of things derive from social interaction”. The meanings

ascribed by individuals to things are formed from their interaction
with society. In a sense, the individual accepts the meanings of things
given by society.

3. “These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an

interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he
or she encounters.” Meanings are in a constant flux; they are evolving
each time interaction takes place and each time an individual reflects
on these interactions. Although the interpretation of things and the
15
 corresponding meanings produced are internal and subjective,
elements which formed the meanings are highly social and come from
interactions. As such, the creation of meaning requires, in some level,
conformity to the generally established meaning assigned by society.

In social perspective, meaning is subject to negotiation in order to

reach a consensus of a mutually understood meaning. Adjustments to
personally derived meanings must be made in order to address another
individual in a social interaction. This adjustment is done through the
process of role play. Role play, in this context, is the ability to perceive the
object of conversation through the eyes of the other. In doing so, it allows
for a better consensus on what the object means, thereby allowing a better
understanding of what the general meaning of the object is. Without a
consensus, the object would remain distant to both individuals in a dialog,
inasmuch as it becomes a limiting force in the force in the process of
understanding each other.

George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead (1836–1931) was an American sociologist,
philosopher, and psychologist, considered as one of the founders of social
psychology. Mead developed a theory of the social self, which interprets
the self as emerging from social interactions. Mead’s three activities are
language, play, and games.
Language allows communication through which attitudes, opinions,
emotions, and ideas are conveyed between individuals. Language also
allows individuals to respond to each other using symbols, gestures, and
sounds. For Mead, the use of language enables the individual to understand
and internalize the opinions of others about him or her. Play, on the other
hand, allows an individual to act in another role or capacity, or what is
commonly referred to as role play. Role play is important as it makes the
individual confine his or her actions by the expected roles assigned to him
or her. Play enables the self to internalize his or her roles and assume the
expectations derived from such roles. Lastly, games allow an individual to
act within the confines imposed by the rules of activity. They also allow an
individual to know when to bend the rules or to completely break them.
Games allow an individual to internalize and acquire knowledge of societal
rules, which are essential in order to live in a society.

Charles Horton Cooley

Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) was an American sociologist whose
main contribution in the field was the study of primary groups. He coined
16
and defined primary group as the first group where a person belongs, and
where the individual develops his or her ideas, beliefs, values, and self.
Based on the given definition, one will instinctively think of the family as
his or her primary group. The family, being the first primary group,
influences the way a person thinks and the way he or she relates to others.
Cooley’s most famous theory of self is the looking-glass self in which
the self is understood as that which is formed from interactions, such as
those done with the primary group. The looking-glass self is the process by
which self-consciousness emerges through the lens of the other.

Harold Garfinkeld
Harold Garfinkeld (1917–2011) was an American sociologist and
ethnomethodologist. Unlike other sociologist theories, the aim of
ethnomethodology is not the analysis of society, but the methods,
procedures, and practices by which members of society use to make sense
out of the world. Ethnomethodology is sometimes related to the theory of
common sense, as its main focus of study is the everyday interactions of
people through the use of symbols, language, gestures, and emotions, which
enable the construction of a meaningful social order. An example of an
everyday act which requires only common sense is having a telephone
conversation. Because there are no visual cues to help, the flow or delivery
of communication is key to have a proper conversation.
Unlike traditional sociology, ethnomethodology is not an analysis of
society. It does not provide a theory by which the society can achieve social
stability or social unity. Rather, it allows social stability, unity and order by
looking into society’s individual members and how each one performs. One
method used in ethnomethodology is termed as first time through, which
refers to the practice of describing social activities as if being witnessed for
the first time. The purpose of the first time through method is to allow the
observer to be better in framing social activities, as it would require intense
reflection on his or her part to actually conduct. Deviation from social
norms elicits bewilderment, and in most cases, a negative response from the
other. For Garfinkeld, social order is constructed using common sense or
the consensually accepted practices of society for given social interactions
and events. As such, social order is not something which naturally occurs,
but is more of a social accomplishment. Hence, members of society must be
taught common rules agreed upon and these rules must be practiced in their
daily lives. When a common-sense rule works, then it is repeated to achieve
social order.

17
 ESSENTIAL LEARNING
The theory of symbolic interactionism relies heavily on the qualitative
approach to research, as it aims to make sense of human behavior through
the social circles that an individual interacts with. The theory is highly
relevant in providing context to how we acquire our behaviors and the
importance of social groups in the formation of the self.
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from
practical considerations and alludes to people's particular utilization of
dialect to make images and normal implications, for deduction and
correspondence with others. The view of social behavior emphasizes
linguistic or gestural communication and its subjective understanding,
especially the role of language in the formation of the child as a social
being.
Symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of symbols that
people use to establish meaning, develop views about the world, and
communicate with one another. We are thinking beings who act according
to how we interpret situations.

What’s More
What specific experience in your life that shows the basic
principles of the symbolic interaction theory?

Assessment
Direction: Read each item carefully and put your answer on
the space provided before the number. Write T f the statement is true and
write F if the statement is false.

____1. Symbolic interaction cannot be applied in other subject areas.

____2. As time goes by window is not only for ventilation but also for
socializing with others.
____3. Communication and interactions defined social reality.
____4. Games are one way of socializing with others. This allows an
individual to internalize and acquire knowledge of societal roles.
____5. As humans, it is natural for each individual to have different
reactions to the things surrounding them.
____6. . Reactions can sometimes cause conflict.
____7. Interactions are important between people, especially when
providing meaning to things around us.
____8. Charles Horton Cooley is a German sociologist.

18
____9. Interaction with the things around us are based on the society we
grew
up.
____10 Roleplaying enables the self to internalize his or her roles and
assume the expectations of such roles.
____11. Social networks are responsible for creating the social self.
____12. Symbolic interactionism is viewing society as composed of
symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop views about
the world, and communicate with one another.
____13. Individuals are capable of making their own realities apart from
structural pressures.
____14. Symbolic interaction is the social dynamics of people on how they
give meaning to things.
____15. Ventana is a Spanish word which means ventilation or allows the
cold air to circulate inside the house and the hot air to get out.

Glossary
Consensus – the opinion of the majority
Ethnomethodology – the sociological study of the rules and rituals
underlying ordinary social activities and interactions.
Interactions – the direct effect that one kind of particle has on another
Perceive – to become aware of, know, or identify by means of the senses:
Role – the rights, obligations, and expected behavior patterns associated
with a particular social status.
Symbolic – characterized by or involving the use of symbols:
References

Alejandria-Gonzalez, Maria Carinnes P., and Elizabeth T. Urgel. DIWA Senior High School Series: Discipline and Ideas in Social Sciences. Makati City, Philippines: DIWA
Learning System Inc., 2016.

Betts, Jennifer. “Symbolic Interactionism Examples in Everyday Life.” Accessed August 19, 2020. https://examples.yourdictionary.com/symbolic -interactionismexamples-
in-everyday-life.html.

Wikipedia contributors, “Symbolic interactionism,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Symbolic_interactionism&oldid=973

219328 (accessed August 19, 2020).

“Marxism Dictionary Definition | Marxism Defined.” Accessed August 20, 2020.

https://www.yourdictionary.com/marxism.

19