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 AJAY-9971313179

ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2020-2021)

BBYCT-131: Biodiversity (Microbes, Algae, Fungi and Archegoniates)
Note: Attempt all questions. The marks for each question are indicated against it.

Part A
Q1. a) With the help of well labelled diagram, describe the internal structure of a typical bacterium.
Differentiate a bacterial cell from an archaeal cell.
Ans. Bacterial cell and archeal cell
Bacterial cell wall is made up of peptidoglycan or lipopolysaccharide whereas archaeal cell wall is made

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up pseudopeptidoglycan
Bacteria is found mostly everywhere for example moist soil,hot springs,extreme environmental

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conditions,organic matter,in plants and animals whereas archaea are found in extreme environments like
hot springs, salt lakes,oceans, gut of ruminants and humans
Archaea reproduce asexually by binary fission, budding and fragmentation and bacteria reproduce
asexually through binary fission, budding and fragmentation

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Eubacteria have the unique ability to form spores to remain dormant over years

b) Describe the major three mechanisms for genetic recombination in bacteria.

Ans. Organisms evolve because of changes to their genomes, the DNA sequences that code for proteins
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and RNAs. Mutations to DNA can occur at any time and might change the structure of the proteins
produced. Prokaryotes have additional ways to evolve their genomes besides relying on relatively
infrequent mutations. Through genetic recombination, individual prokaryotic cells can share DNA with
other individual cells, not necessarily belonging to the same species. This can help spread a beneficial
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gene that produces heartier organisms. For example, the appearance of a gene that confers antibiotic
resistance might create a virulent strain of bacteria. The cells may spread the beneficial gene through
genetic recombination, helping to ensure the survival of the species.
Transduction
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Transduction is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another through the action of viruses. When a
virus infects a bacterium, it injects its genetic material into its victim and highjacks the bacterium’s
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machinery for synthesizing DNA, RNA and proteins. Sometimes, the viral genetic material joins with the
host’s DNA. Later, the viral DNA excises itself from the bacterium’s chromosome, but the process is
imprecise and bacterial genes might be included with the newly freed viral DNA. The virus causes the
host to replicate many copies of the virus genome along with any host genes along for the ride. The virus
A

then causes the cell to rupture, releasing new virus particles that repeat the cycle. In this way, genes from
one host combine with those of another host, perhaps from another species.
AJ

Transformation
Certain species of bacteria can ingest DNA segments, known as plasmids, from their surroundings and
incorporate the plasmids into their own chromosomes. The bacterium must first enter a special state,
called competence, that allows transformation to occur. To achieve competence, the bacterium must
activate a number of genes that express the required proteins. Bacteria usually transform DNA of the
same species. Scientists use transformation to introduce foreign DNA into prokaryotic cells by
incorporating the DNA in the growth medium. In this way, researchers can gauge the effects of different
DNA segments and even create designer microorganisms with desired traits.
Conjugation
Conjugation is the bacterial equivalent of sex. It involves physical contact between two cells, possibly via
a bridging structure called a pilus. Donor cells must contain a small DNA segment called the F-plasmid,
 AJAY-9971313179

which the recipient must lack. The donor cell provides a single strand of DNA from the F-plasmid and
transfers it to the recipient. The enzyme DNA polymerase then synthesizes a complementary strand to
produce the normally two-stranded DNA structure. In some cases, the donor also contributes
chromosomal DNA beyond that of the F-plasmid. The recipient combines the donor DNA with its own
genome.

Q2. a) Are viruses living? Comment.

Ans. Although viruses challenge our concept of what "living" means, they are vital members of the web
of life
In an episode of the classic 1950s television comedy The Honeymooners, Brooklyn bus driver Ralph
Kramden loudly explains to his wife, Alice, “You know that I know how easy you get the virus.” Half a

9
century ago even regular folks like the Kramdens had some knowledge of viruses—as microscopic
bringers of disease. Yet it is almost certain that they did not know exactly what a virus was. They were,

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and are, not alone.
For about 100 years, the scientifi c community has repeatedly changed its collective mind over what
viruses are. First seen as poisons, then as life-forms, then biological chemicals, viruses today are thought
of as being in a gray area between living and nonliving: they cannot replicate on their own but can do so

13
in truly living cells and can also affect the behavior of their hosts profoundly. The categorization of
viruses as nonliving during much of the modern era of biological science has had an unintended
consequence: it has led most researchers to ignore viruses in the study of evolution. Finally, however,
scientists are beginning to appreciate viruses as fundamental players in the history of life.
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Coming to Terms: It is easy to see why viruses have been diffi cult to pigeonhole. They seem to vary with
each lens applied to examine them. The initial interest in viruses stemmed from their association with
diseases—the word “virus” has its roots in the Latin term for “poison.” In the late 19th century
researchers realized that certain diseases, including rabies and foot-and-mouth, were caused by particles
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that seemed to behave like bacteria but were much smaller. Because they were clearly biological
themselves and could be spread from one victim to another with obvious biological effects, viruses were
then thought to be the simplest of all living, gene-bearing life-forms.
Their demotion to inert chemicals came after 1935, when Wendell M. Stanley and his colleagues, at what
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is now the Rockefeller University in New York City, crystallized a virus— tobacco mosaic virus—for the
fi rst time. They saw that it consisted of a package of complex biochemicals. But it lacked essential
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systems necessary for metabolic functions, the biochemical activity of life. Stanley shared the 1946 Nobel
Prize— in chemistry, not in physiology or medicine—for this work.
Further research by Stanley and others established that a virus consists of nucleic acids (DNA or RNA)
enclosed in a protein coat that may also shelter viral proteins involved in infection. By that description, a
A

virus seems more like a chemistry set than an organism. But when a virus enters a cell (called a host after
infection), it is far from inactive. It sheds its coat, bares its genes and induces the cell’s own replication
AJ

machinery to reproduce the intruder’s DNA or RNA and manufacture more viral protein based on the
instructions in the viral nucleic acid. The newly created viral bits assemble and, voilà, more virus arises,
which also may infect other cells.
These behaviors are what led many to think of viruses as existing at the border between chemistry and
life. More poetically, virologists Marc H. V. van Regenmortel of the University of Strasbourg in France
and Brian W. J. Mahy of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have recently said that with their
dependence on host cells, viruses lead “a kind of borrowed life.” Interestingly, even though biologists
long favored the view that viruses were mere boxes of chemicals, they took advantage of viral activity in
host cells to determine how nucleic acids code for proteins: indeed, modern molecular biology rests on a
foundation of information gained through viruses.
 AJAY-9971313179

Molecular biologists went on to crystallize most of the essential components of cells and are today
accustomed to thinking about cellular constituents—for example, ribosomes, mitochondria, membranes,
DNA and proteins—as either chemical machinery or the stuff that the machinery uses or produces. This
exposure to multiple complex chemical structures that carry out the processes of life is probably a reason
that most molecular biologists do not spend a lot of time puzzling over whether viruses are alive. For
them, that exercise might seem equivalent to pondering whether those individual subcellular constituents
are alive on their own. This myopic view allows them to see only how viruses co-opt cells or cause
disease. The more sweeping question of viral contributions to the history of life on earth, which I will
address shortly, remains for the most part unanswered and even unasked.
To Be or Not to Be: The seemingly simple question of whether or not viruses are alive, which my
students often ask, has probably defi ed a simple answer all these years because it raises a fundamental

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issue: What exactly defi nes “life?” A precise scientifi c defi nition of life is an elusive thing, but most
observers would agree that life includes certain qualities in addition to an ability to replicate. For

17
example, a living entity is in a state bounded by birth and death. Living organisms also are thought to
require a degree of biochemical autonomy, carrying on the metabolic activities that produce the
molecules and energy needed to sustain the organism. This level of autonomy is essential to most
definitions.

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Viruses, however, parasitize essentially all biomolecular aspects of life. That is, they depend on the host
cell for the raw materials and energy necessary for nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, processing
and transport, and all other biochemical activities that allow the virus to multiply and spread. One might
then conclude that even though these processes come under viral direction, viruses are simply nonliving
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parasites of living metabolic systems. But a spectrum may exist between what is certainly alive and what
is not.
A rock is not alive. A metabolically active sack, devoid of genetic material and the potential for
propagation, is also not alive. A bacterium, though, is alive. Although it is a single cell, it can generate
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energy and the molecules needed to sustain itself, and it can reproduce. But what about a seed? A seed
might not be considered alive. Yet it has a potential for life, and it may be destroyed. In this regard,
viruses resemble seeds more than they do live cells. They have a certain potential, which can be snuffed
out, but they do not attain the more autonomous state of life.
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Another way to think about life is as an emergent property of a collection of certain nonliving things.
Both life and consciousness are examples of emergent complex systems. They each require a critical level
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of complexity or interaction to achieve their respective states. A neuron by itself, or even in a network of
nerves, is not conscious—whole brain complexity is needed. Yet even an intact human brain can be
biologically alive but incapable of consciousness, or “brain-dead.” Similarly, neither cellular nor viral
individual genes or proteins are by themselves alive. The enucleated cell is akin to the state of being
A

braindead, in that it lacks a full critical complexity. A virus, too, fails to reach a critical complexity. So life
itself is an emergent, complex state, but it is made from the same fundamental, physical building blocks
AJ

that constitute a virus. Approached from this perspective, viruses, though not fully alive, may be thought
of as being more than inert matter: they verge on life.
In fact, in October, French researchers announced fi ndings that illustrate afresh just how close some
viruses might come. Didier Raoult and his colleagues at the University of the Mediterranean in Marseille
announced that they had sequenced the genome of the largest known virus, Mimivirus, which was
discovered in 1992. The virus, about the same size as a small bacterium, infects amoebae. Sequence
analysis of the virus revealed numerous genes previously thought to exist only in cellular organisms.
Some of these genes are involved in making the proteins encoded by the viral DNA and may make it
easier for Mimivirus to co-opt host cell replication systems. As the research team noted in its report in the
journal Science, the enormous complexity of the Mimivirus’s genetic complement “challenges the
established frontier between viruses and parasitic cellular organisms.”
 AJAY-9971313179

ADVERTISEMENT
Impact on Evolution: Debates over whether to label viruses as living lead naturally to another question:
Is pondering the status of viruses as living or nonliving more than a philosophical exercise, the basis of a
lively and heated rhetorical debate but with little real consequence? I think the issue is important, because
how scientists regard this question infl uences their thinking about the mechanisms of evolution.
Viruses have their own, ancient evolutionary history, dating to the very origin of cellular life. For
example, some viral- repair enzymes—which excise and resynthesize damaged DNA, mend oxygen
radical damage, and so on— are unique to certain viruses and have existed almost unchanged probably
for billions of years.
Nevertheless, most evolutionary biologists hold that because viruses are not alive, they are unworthy of
serious consideration when trying to understand evolution. They also look on viruses as coming from

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host genes that somehow escaped the host and acquired a protein coat. In this view, viruses are fugitive
host genes that have degenerated into parasites. And with viruses thus dismissed from the web of life,

17
important contributions they may have made to the origin of species and the maintenance of life may go
unrecognized. (Indeed, only four of the 1,205 pages of the 2002 volume The Encyclopedia of Evolution are
devoted to viruses.)
Of course, evolutionary biologists do not deny that viruses have had some role in evolution. But by

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viewing viruses as inanimate, these investigators place them in the same category of infl uences as, say,
climate change. Such external infl uences select among individuals having varied, genetically controlled
traits; those individuals most able to survive and thrive when faced with these challenges go on to
reproduce most successfully and hence spread their genes to future generations.
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But viruses directly exchange genetic information with living organisms—that is, within the web of life
itself. A possible surprise to most physicians, and perhaps to most evolutionary biologists as well, is that
most known viruses are persistent and innocuous, not pathogenic. They take up residence in cells, where
they may remain dormant for long periods or take advantage of the cells’ replication apparatus to
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reproduce at a slow and steady rate. These viruses have developed many clever ways to avoid detection
by the host immune system— essentially every step in the immune process can be altered or controlled
by various genes found in one virus or another.
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b) Describe the general structure of RNA virus (TMV) and DNA virus (T- phage)
Ans. Each virus consists of a very basic structure which consists of a caspid or a cellular membrane inside
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which lies the genetic material.

Tobacco mosaic virus is a very common type of virus which has RNA as its nuclear material. Tobacco
mosaic virus is name so because it affects the tobacco plant roots. It has double stranded RNA which is
present inside the capsid .
A

in addition to this the DNA strand viruses can be single stranded or double stranded
the RNA virus has a special type of enzyme which is known as DNA dependent RNA polymerase.
AJ

c) Describe the replication in bacteriophage.

Ans. The term ‘replication module’ is often used in recent papers dealing with the architecture of
bacteriophage genomes to account for the recurrent observation that replication genes co-localise in a
distinct segment of phage genomes. In some cases, the detection of similarities of one or more predicted
ORFs to particularly well-conserved proteins (e.g. helicases, DNA polymerases) were thought sufficient
to pinpoint the ‘replication module’ of a particular phage genome. We do not reject this somewhat sloppy
use of the term ‘module’ because it results in positive ‘hits’ in most cases. However, only a more precise
definition of the replication module can prevent the misleading impression that the replication of a given
phage is understood by pinpointing its ‘replication module’ the sloppy way.
Following accepted practice in molecular biology, a definition of bacteriophage replication modules
should rely largely on the results of genetic and biochemical studies. A straightforward approach would
 AJAY-9971313179

start with phage DNA fragments ligated to a selectable marker, searching for autonomous replicating
plasmids after transformation of an appropriate host. Comparable strategies led to the detection of
λdv plasmids (Matsubara & Kaiser, 1968), of the E. coli prophage Rac replication module (Díaz &
Pritchard, 1978), of the φadh replication module (Altermann, 1999) and of the replication module of φc2-
type phages (Rakonjac, 2003). However, this ‘functional approach’ is unsatisfactory at present, mainly for
three reasons. One trivial reason is the lack of functional studies for the vast majority of known phage
replicons. Another trivial reason is the implicit assumption that replication genes occur tightly packed in
a single cluster, which is the case in most but not all known phage groups. The third reason becomes
apparent when one looks more closely at the long record of research on the λdv plasmids, which were
discovered in 1968 (!) by Matsubara & Kaiser (1968). The initially studied plasmids contained the
replication origin oriλ located within O, and the O (initiator) and P (helicase loader) genes transcribed

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from the pR promoter together with the cII and cro genes in an ill-defined context. It was shown in
numerous subsequent studies that the cII and the cro regulatory loops are not essential for λ plasmid

17
replication; transcription from the po promoter seems important but not the transcript, oop RNA (for
details, see Taylor & Wegrzyn, 1995). Finally it was shown that pR can be replaced by a different
(inducible) promoter (Herman-Antosiewicz, 2001), which relieves λ plasmid replication from the intricate
control by host DnaA (Glinkowska, 2003). These results led to the functional definition of the λ-type

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replication module being composed of the O (oriλ) and P genes (Wrobel & Wegrzyn, 2002). λ plasmids
could thus serve as excellent model systems for the initiation – and initiation control – of bidirectional λ
replication in the θ mode. In addition, unidirectional replication of λ plasmids, which precedes the switch
from θDR to σDR during λ phage replication, could be shown (Baranska, 2002). However, the switch
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from θDR to σDR – characteristic for λ phage replication – was never observed with λ plasmids. It is not
clear at present whether this is due to the lack of the required recombination functions Redα/Redβ
(Exo/Bet), and RapA (NinG) in λ plasmids, or due to the lacking Gam function (inhibitor of host
RecBCD). This demonstrates that the straightforward ‘functional approach’ to define replication modules
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can eventually fail to reveal auxiliary components.
Historically, the first useful definition of a prokaryotic replication module was given in the ‘replicon
model’ by Jacob, Brenner and Cuzin: ‘The replicon is assumed to be a circular structure carrying two
specific genetic determinants. A structural gene determines the synthesis of a diffusible active element,
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the initiator. The initiator acts on a replicator, allowing the beginning of the replication which proceeds
along the circular structure’ (Jacob, 1963, p. 331). A particularly startling aspect of the ‘replicon model’
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was the hypothesis that the initiation of replication is positively regulated, which is indeed the case for all
known bacteriophage replicons (Nordström, 2003). However, this clear-cut definition can only be applied
to phage replicons with several important modifications. (1) The replicon may be circular or linear DNA.
Many linear phage genomes recircularise prior to replication, but others initiate replication on the linear
A

substrate. (2) The replicator (in modern terms: replication origin) is a unique structure in most phage
replicons, but multiple origins are known for those phages where replication is initiated at D- or R-loops.
AJ

(3) Many phages encode cognate initiators. However, phage replicons using R-loops for replisome
assembly do not encode a cognate initiator in the strict sense.
With the notable exception of the φT4-type phages, bacteriophages are semiautonomous replicons and
have evolved various strategies to recruit components of the host replication machinery. Therefore, we
must include all phage-encoded replication functions in order to obtain a useful definition of
‘bacteriophage replication modules’. As we will show in the following, the close linkage of replication
genes in most phage genomes justifies this expansion of the ‘replicon model’, and even suggests possible
functions for experimentally uncharacterised proteins in some cases.
For a precise definition of phage replication modules, the emphasis on the initiation step in the ‘replicon
model’ appears as a weak point. The replication of many phage genomes requires recombination steps
that are, in most cases, performed by cognate recombination proteins in order to provide the relinearised
 AJAY-9971313179

form that is the substrate for packaging into phage capsids (COM section C3.6.2.). As we will show in the
following, there is a striking co-localisation of replication and recombination genes in many phage
genomes. Therefore, we include known and putative recombination genes in our definition of phage
replication modules.
The discussion in this section will focus on four major types of replication modules: (1) modules
containing initiator genes, (2) modules containing DNA polymerase genes, (3) modules containing φP4α-
type helicase-primase genes and (4) the replication modules of filamentous phages. Although this formal
division seems somewhat eclectic, it reflects the present knowledge – but not phage systematics, nota bene.
Where possible, the definition of the individual types of replication modules is based on experimental
results. We will include, in addition, the results of similarity searches discussed in COM section C3.
Furthermore, the definitions will be based on the gene arrangements of fully functional phages as

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represented in the completely sequenced phage genomes. We include in the discussion several prophage
genomes but because their replication/recombination genes might have undergone rearrangements

17
and/or inactivation in the prophage state they cannot serve as a basis for the definition. We do not discuss
in depth the important point of the transcription, and its regulation, of the bacteriophage
replication/recombination genes because experimental results are too scarce and predictions doubtful. We
expect, nevertheless, that a formal classification of phage replication modules will help to improve the

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assignment of putative (pro)phage gene functions in future genomic sequencing projects.

Q3. a) Make outline diagrams of different types of life cycles in algae.

Ans.
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b) Distinguish between Chytridiomycota and Ascomycota in terms of Ecology.

Ans. Difference Between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
Definition
Ascomycota refers to a division of fungi characterized by the presence of asci and ascospores while
Basidiomycota refers to a division of fungi that have septate hyphae and spores borne on a basidium.
Thus, this is the main difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.
Also Known as
Ascomycota is also known as sac fungi while Basidiomycota is also known as club fungi.
Main Form of Reproduction
Another major difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota is their form of reproduction.

9
Ascomycota mainly undergoes asexual reproduction while Basidiomycota mainly undergoes sexual
reproduction.

17
Degeneration of Sexuality
Moreover, Ascomycota shows partial degeneration of visible sexuality while Basidiomycota shows
complete degeneration of visible sexuality. Hence, this is also a difference between Ascomycota and
Basidiomycota.

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Production of Gametangia
One other difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota is that the Ascomycota produces
gametangia while Basidiomycota does not produce gametangia.
Establishment of Dikaryophase
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Furthermore, the dikaryophase in Ascomycota is established either by the development of gametangia,
by spermatization or by somatogamy while the dikaryophase is established either by spermatization or
by somatogamy.
Dikaryophase
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Importantly, dikaryophase of Ascomycota is dependent on the haplophase for nutrition while the
dikaryophase of Basidiomycota is independent.
Dikaryophase Structure
Besides, the dikaryophase of Ascomycota is small and short-lived while the dikaryophase of
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Basidiomycota is large and long-lived. Thus, this is another difference between Ascomycota and
Basidiomycota.
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Dikaryotic Mycelia Structure

Also, one more difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota is that the Ascomycota forms croziers
in the dikaruotic mycelia while Basidiomycota forms clump connections.
Dikaryophase Gives Rise to
A

The dikaryophase is responsible for the generation of asci and ascospores in Ascomycota while the
dikaryophase of Basidiomycota is responsible for the generation of secondary and tertiary mycelia, giving
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rise to basidia and basidiospores and the sterile tissue of the fruit body respectively.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction of Ascomycota occurs through the formation of ascospores while the sexual
reproduction of Basidiomycota occurs through the formation of basidiospores. So, this is also an
important difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota.
Sexual Spores
Sexual spores is an additional a difference between Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Ascospores are
endogenous and are formed inside the ascus while basidiospores are exogenous and are formed inside
basidia.
Number of Sexual Spores
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While Ascomycota produces 4-spored or 8-spored ascus, Basidiomycota produces 1-spored to 8-spored
basidia.
Conclusion
Ascomycota is a division of fungi characterized by the formation of endogenous ascospores inside the
ascus. However, the sexual reproduction of Ascomycota is rare and the most prominent form of
reproduction is sexual reproduction. On the other hand, Basidiomycota is another division of fungi
characterized by the formation of exogenous basidiospores at the end of the basidium. Furthermore,
sexual reproduction is the most prominent. Thus, this sums up the main difference between Ascomycota
and Basidiomycota.

Q4. a) List the salient characteristic of three classes of Division Bryophyta.

9
Ans. Bryophyta, the division of green plants, refers to embryophytes which in literal terms, are land
plants, especially the non-vascular ones. This division includes-

17
• Mosses – class Bryopsida
• Liverworts – class Marchantiopsida
• Hornworts – class Anthocerotopsida
The only prime feature of a bryophyte is that it does not have true vascular tissue. Some do

13
have specialized tissues which are used to transport water, but are not considered to be a true vascular
tissue due to the lack of lignin.
Bryophytes are believed to evolve from charophytes and are considered to have been the first true plants
to have ever evolved.
Characteristics of Bryophytes
13
As stated before, the defining feature of bryophytes is that they are non-vascular plants. Other important
bryophytes characteristics are as follows:
• Plants in this category do not have roots but have crude stems and leaves.
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• They have “rhizoids” instead of roots which helps the plant to anchor to surface.
• These roots or rhizoids do not absorb nutrients like other usual plant roots.
• Mosses release spores from their leaves which travels by water and make new mosses in new
locations.
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• Water is very essential for mosses to grow and spread. They can entirely dry out and survive.
When in contact with water, they again revive and continue growing.
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The life cycle of Bryophytes is like all the other land plants (embryophytes) with alternation of
generations. A haploid gametophyte cell contains a fixed number of unpaired chromosomes. It gives rise
to diploid sporophyte, which, however, contains twice the number of paired chromosomes. Diploid
zygotes formed by the fusion of haploid sperm and eggs produced by gametophytes. Diploid zygotes
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grow into a sporophyte.

Sporophyte Characteristics of the three groups of Bryophytes
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Liverworts Mosses Hornworts

Capsule form Simple Differentiated Elongated

(operculum,
peristome)

Columella Absent Present Present

Dehiscence Longitudinal or Transverse Longitudinal

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irregular

Dispersion of Elaters Peristome teeth Pseudo-elaters

spores

Growth Defined Defined Continuous

Maturation of Simultaneous Simultaneous Graduate

spores

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Persistence Ephemeral Persistent Persistent

17
Seta Present Present Absent

Stomata Absent Present Present

13
Structure Small, without Large, with Large, with
chlorophyll chlorophyll chlorophyll

Conclusion
Bryophytes are an informal division that consists of 3 groups of non-vascular plants, namely mosses,
13
liverworts, and hornworts. Prominent bryophytes characteristics are the absence of true roots stems and
leaves. Furthermore, rhizoids perform the function of roots, essentially anchoring the plants into the
surface. Though, rhizoids do not absorb nutrients like traditional plant roots.
An environment that is high in moisture or proximity to a waterbody is very essential for mosses to grow
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and spread. However, some species of mosses are also known to survive in arid and semi-arid
environments like deserts. In such cases, they can entirely dry out and enter a state of suspended
animation. When they come in contact with water again, they revive and continue growing. For more
information on bryophyta or any other related topic, explore BYJU’S Biology.
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b) Discuss the role of Bryophytes in soil formation.

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Ans. Bryophytes are of great ecological importance due to following reasons:

(a) Pioneer of the land plants. Bryophytes are pioneer of the land plants because they are the first plants
to grow and colonize the barren rocks and lands.
(b) Soil erosion. Bryophytes prevent soil erosion. They usually grow densely and hence act as soil binders.
A

Mosses grow in dense strands forming mat or carpet like structure.

They prevent soil erosion by:
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(i) Bearing the impact of falling rain drops

(ii) Holding much of the falling water and reducing the amount of run-off water.
(c) Formation of soil. Mosses and lichens are slow but efficient soil formers. The acid secreted by the
lichens and progressive death and decay of mosses help in the formation of soil.
(d) Bog succession. Peat mosses change the banks of lakes or shallow bodies of water into solid soil
which supports vegetation e.g., Sphagnum.
(e) Rock builders. Some mosses in association with some green algae (e.g., Chara) grow in water of
streams and lakes which contain large amount of calcium bicarbonate. These mosses bring about
decomposition of bi-carbonic ions by abstracting free carbon dioxide. The insoluble calcium carbonate
precipitates and on exposure hardens, forming calcareous (lime) rock like deposits.
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Q5. a) Describe life cycle of a pteridophyte with proper diagram.

Ans. The Homosporous Pteridophytes constitute the lowest subkingdom of vascular plants. They and all
plants above them have a true fibiro-vascular system and true leaves and roots in the
sporophyteigeneration except in a few cases where leaves or roots have been lost through an adaptation
to some peculiar environment. No plants below the Homosporous Pteridophytes possess true leaves,
roots, or vascular system. These plants are called homosporous because in them there is only one kind of
nonsexual spores produced while the three higher subkingdoms of vascular plants have two kinds of
nonsexual spores and are thus called heterosporous.
The known fossil record of Homosporous Pteridophytes does not extend below the Silurian Period
although they must certainly have flourished in previous geological times. They were exceedingly
abundant in the Devonian and Carboniferous and were among the important coal forming plants. Many

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were of the tree type while at present they are mostly low geophilous perennials, although in tropical
countries tree ferns are still quite abundant.

17
There are about 2,800 known living species of Homosporous Pteridophytes. i They fall naturally into
three distinct classes— ferns or Filices with 2,600 species, horsetails or Equiseteae with 25 species, and
lycopods or Lycopodieae with 155 species.
The ferns are divided into two distinct subclasses called the Eusporangiatae and Leptosporangiatae. The

13
eusporangiate ferns have the spore bearing tissue of the sporangium developed from hypodermal cells
while in the leptosporangiate forms the sporangia arise from epidermal cells. The other Homosporous
Pteridophytes are eusporangiate. The leptosporangiate ferns appear after the Paleozoic Era and are at
present by far the most abundant. There are two orders of Eusporangiatae, the Ophioglossales and
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Marattiales. Some authors have attempted to associate the Ophioglossales with the Lycopods, but from a
consideration of all their characteristics it does not appear that there is any evident relationship. The
Leptosporangiatae are a
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compact group consisting of but one order, the Filicales. The ferns usually bear large, much compounded
leaves but occasionally the leaves are simple and entire. The horsetails are rush-like geophilous
perennials with jointed, mostly, hollow, simple or branched, aerial stems and leaves reduced to toothed
sheaths at the nodes. Some are highly impregnated with silica and are hence called scouring rushes. They
are closely related and constitute but a single order, the Equisetales, with a single family and genus. The
lycopods are small herbaceous often geophilous plants with numerous small scale-like, lanceolate or
subulate, simple leaves. There is but one order, the Lycopodiales, consisting of two families.
There is considerable similarity in the life cycles of the three classes. The general account given below of
the life history of a leptosporangiate fern will hold good for any of our conimon species of Adiantum,
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Asplenium, or Dryopteris, but other groups may show important differences in details. In no
subkingdom is the antithetic alternation of generations more clearly marked and each generation lives
independently for a part of its life. The sporophyte or nonsexual generation is the conspicuous plant
although the gametophyte is usually of some size and easily distinguishable except in the Ophioglossales
and some Lycopodiales where it is entirely subterranean.
The sporophyte of our common ferns has a horizontal rhizome and compound leaves which commonly
form a rosette above ground. The stem consists of a general ground tissue containing closed concentric
fibro-vascular bundles. The stem and root tips have definite apical cells. In the Ophioglossales the
bundles are open and arranged as in the higher plants, forming a ring of wood and central pith. There is
also a definite cambium layer outside of the xylem cylinder.
The younger leaves of the ferns are sterile but later rosettes of spore-bearing leaves are produced. The

9
rosette of sporophylls corresponds to the fertile or spore-bearing parts of a flower in the higher plants. In
some of the lycopods there are also simple zones of spore-bearing leaves alternating with* the zones of

17
sterile foliage leaves, the growth of the stem not being stopped when the sporophylls are developed. But
in others lycopods and in the horsetails the sporophylls are arranged in closely crowded cones which
terminate the branches, their growth in length being permanently checked. In these groups, therefore, we
have true primitive flowers—modified and specialized sporebearing shoots. The three essentials of a

13
flower are (1) a stopping of the growth of the floral axis, (2) a shortening of the floral axis and consequent
crowding of the floral organs, and (3) a modification of the spore-bearing leaves into specialized
sporophylls. 13
b) Compare the reproductive organs and reproduction of Selaginella, Equisetum and Pteris with
proper diagrams.
Ans. Selaginella is belongs to a class LYCOPSIDA which is a part of pteridophyta.
in lycopsida sporangia are formed on sporphylls. these are present on the tip of the plant . the group is
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called strobilus or cone.
equisetum or pipe is is belongs to a class SPHENOPSIDA which is a part of pteridophyta.in
SPHENOPSIDA sporangia are formed on sporphylls. these are present on the apical part of the aerial
stem . the group is called strobilus or cone.
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pteris belong to PTEROPSIDA . each and every leaf contain sporangia at the time of reproduction. but
they do not have cones
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Q6. Describe the morphology of thallus, vegetative and sexual reproduction in Fucus with the help of
clear and well labelled diagrams.
Ans. Life Cycle of Fucus
A

Explanation:
Thallus body of fucus
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The Thallus is enduring with an unpredictable or circle molded holdfast or with haptera
The erect part of the thallus is subpinnately stretched OR dichotomous smoothed and with a particular
midrib
Gas-filled pneumatocysts (air-vesicles) are available two by two in certain species, one on either side of
the midrib
Vegetative Collection of Fucus
The thallus, which is a sporophyte, shows the best com­plexity of structure with an outside separation
tantamount to that of a vascular plant
It has a circle like holdfast from which emerges a stem-like stipe that bears a wide leaf-like straightened
partition, the frond
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The plant overall is around 35-70 centimeter long, and the verdant bit of the thallus shows ordinary
dichotomous stretching
The thalli of certain types of Fucus (for example F. vesiculosus) contain, a little behind the apices of the
branches, air-bladders
Sexual Reproduction in Fucus
Fucus vesiculosus, is heterothal­lic
The antheridia, toward the start, are ovoid cells
Each of these ovoid cells, which are bound to form into an antheridium, is uninucleate, and this core
partitions and re-isolates until 64 cores are delivered
The Fucus plant, when presented to air during low tide, experiences shrinkage, and accordingly, the mass
of gametes, inserted in the adhesive, is expelled through the ostiole

9
At elevated tide these are washed off and the an­therozoids are liberated for preparation
The Oogonia are additionally created among the paraphyses inside the oogonia or blended conceptacles

17
During the advancement of an oogonium, a short outgrowth creates from the layer of cells for­ming the
mass of the conceptacle
The treatment of the eggs outside the body of the plant is made conceivable by reason of the incredible
number and motility of the antherozoids, just as, because of the trademark smell of a subs­tance

13
discharged by the egg by which the antherozoids are pulled in Each prepared egg at that point secretes a
flimsy cellulose divider around it framing a zygote, and this doesn't turn into a resting spore
It before long develops and develops into another plant
13
Q7. Define and differentiate between ecto- and endo-mycorrhiza with the help of clear and well
labelled diagrams.
Ans. Endomycorrhizal fungi have a symbiotic relationship with plants wherein the hyphae of the fungus
enters into the cells of a plant root to exchange nutrients, as in this diagram:
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A Y-
AJ
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9
17
13
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Q8. Explain the different structural, reproductive and physiological adaptations that have enabled
aquatic ancestors to establish on terrestrial habitats.
Ans. A biological adaptation is any structural (morphological or anatomical), physiological, or behavioral
9

characteristics of an organism or group of organisms (such as species) that make it better suited in its
environment and consequently improves its chances of survival and reproductive success. Due to
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individual phenotypic plasticity (variability), individuals will be more or less successful. Some
adaptations may improve reproductive success of the population, but not a particular individual, such as
seen in altruistic behavior in social insects.
Organisms that are adapted to their environment are able to :
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secure food, water, and nutrients

obtain air, warmth, and spaces
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cope with physical conditions such as temperature, light, and heat

defend themselves from their natural enemies
reproduce and rear offspring
respond to changes around them
Adaptation occurs in response to changes in the environment, life style, or relationship to other
organisms. Environmental dynamicity, voluntary or compelled shifting of habitat, and human activities
may put organisms in a new niche or in environmental stresses or pressures. In such circumstances, the
organisms require characteristics suitable to the new situation. Organisms that are not suitably adapted to
their environment will either have to move out of the habitat or die out. The term die out in the context of
adaptation means that the death rate over the entire population of the species exceeds the birth rate for a
long enough period for the species to disappear.
 AJAY-9971313179

While adaptations provide for the individual purpose of the organism—survival, reproduction,
development, maintenance—these same characteristics provide diversity and add to human fascination
with, and enjoyment of, nature. Furthermore, while adaptations often are seen as a static set of suitable
characteristics, in reality the process of developing adaptations is a dynamic process. Whether envisioned
as the product of design or natural selection, or natural selection on the microevolutionary level and
design for macroevolutionary changes, the reality is that new adaptations are needed when organisms
encounter new environments, and such have arisen for millions of years.
In some extreme conditions, it is possible for the previous adaptation to be poorly selected, the advantage
it confers over generations decreasing, up to and including the adaptation becoming a hindrance to the
species' long–term survival. This is known as maladaptation.
There is a great difference between adaptation and acclimation or acclimatization. The process of

9
developing adaptations occurs over many generations; it is a population phenomenon involving genetics
and is generally a slow process. Acclimation or acclimatization, on the other hand, generally occurs

17
within a single lifetime or instantly and deals with issues that are less threatening. For example, if a
human being were to move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion will become a problem.
However, after spending a period of time under the high altitude conditions, one may acclimatize to the
reduced pressure, the person's physiology may function normally, and the change will no longer be

13
noticed.
Types of adaptation
Adaptations can be structural, physiological, or behavioral. Structural adaptations are special body parts
of an organism that help it to survive in its natural habitat (e.g., skin color, shape, body covering).
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Physiological adaptations are systems present in an organism that allow it to perform certain biochemical
reactions (e.g., making venom, secreting slime, being able to keep a constant body temperature).
Behavioral adaptations are special ways a particular organism behaves to survive in its natural habitat
(e.g., becoming active at night, taking a certain posture).
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Based on the habitats for which organisms develop adaptations, adaptations can be categorized into 3
fundamental types, namely aquatic, terrestrial, and volant (flying), each of which can be further divided
into groups.
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Q9. a) Compare and differentiate between roots of Cycas and Pinus with proper diagrams.
Ans.
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Definition
Cycas refers to a genus of several palm-like cycads Old World tropical plants while Pinus refers to a large
genus of evergreen coniferous trees called pines, mostly found in the northern hemisphere. This
constitutes the basic difference between Cycas and Pinus.
A

Height
One of the visually identifiable difference between Cycas and Pinus is their height. Cycads are short while
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pines are tall.

Stem
Also, the stem of cycads is thick, and cylindrical while the stem of pines is strong, cylindrical and scaly.
Annual Rings
Another difference between Cycas and Pinus is that the cycads do not develop annual rings, while the
pines develop annual rings.
Branching
Cycad stem can be either branched or unbranched while the stem of pine is characterized by ex-current
branching.
 AJAY-9971313179

Leaves
Another clear difference between Cycas and Pinus is their leaves. Cycads have large, pinnate leaves,
which are spirally-arranged while pines have either needle-like or scaly leaves.
Roots
Furthermore, the two types of roots in cycads are tap roots and coralloid while the two types of roots in
pines are tap roots and mycorrhizal roots.
Monoecious or Dioecious
Moreover, the cycads are dioecious while pines are monoecious.
Male Cones
You can observe a difference between Cycas and Pinus in their cones too. The male cone of cycads is large
and terminal, bearing numerous microsporophylls while male cone of pines is small and clustered.

9
Female Cone
The female cone of cycads is a whorl and loosely arranged while the female cone of pines is compact.

17
You can also observe many other differences in their reproductive organs.
Microspores
Microspores of cycads are not winged while the microspores of pines are winged.
Megasporophyll

13
Megasporophylls of cycads are large and each bear 1-5 big ovules while megasporophyll of pine bear 2
ovules.
Male Gametes
Male gametes are large and multiflagellated in cycads while male gametes are small and non-motile in
pines.
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Embryos
Cycads develop a single embryo while pines develop four embryos but, one becomes functional.
Seeds
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Cycad seeds have no perisperm, but they have two cotyledons, testa fleshy and colored while pine seeds
have a perisperm; numerous cotyledons; testa dry. Furthermore, cycads seeds have no wings while pine
seeds have wings. We can say this also as an imporatnt difference between Cycas and Pinus.
Germination
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Also, cycads show hypogeal germination while pines show epigeal germination.
Conclusion
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Cycas is a genus of short trees, which are palm-like. Pinus is another genus with coniferous trees. Cycads
have a leafy crown on top of the stem. They are dioecious plants. Pines produce branches and their leaves
are needle-like. They are monoecious plants. The main difference between Cycas and Pinus is the
characteristics of trees.
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b) Give a diagrammatic representation of life cycle of Pinus.

Ans. The life cycle of Pinus is:
AJ

• Pinus is a gymnosperm plant. Sexual reproduction takes place in the pinus plants.
• Male and female cones are developed on different branches of the same tree.
• Female cones consist of megasporophylls that carry uncovered ovules.
• The male cone consists of microsporophylls that contains two microsporangia.
• Megasporophylls undergoes meiosis forms four haploid cells. These cells are considered as
megaspores.
• Microsporophylls formed into pollen grains after undergoing mitotic division.
• After that pollen grains are released into the atmosphere and dispersed by the wind.
• The mega sporophyte contains two or three archegonium cells. Pollen tubes contain sperm cells.
• Both are fused together to form an embryo. This embryo develops into mature seeds after several years.
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c) Describe the anatomical structure of Pinus stem with proper diagram.

Ans. In this article we will discuss about the anatomy of pinus with the help of diagrams.
Anatomy of Needle:
The solitary needle of P. monophylla (Fig. 16.3A) is circular. This is semicircular in the two-needle pine
(P. merkusii), and triangular in the three-needle pine (P. roxburghii) (Fig. 16.3B). The epidermis is of
isodiametric lignified cells covered with cutin. Hypodermis of 2-3 cell layers may be thin or thick-walled.
Mesophyll is chlorenchymatous, with wall infoldings in the cells, and is interspersed with resin ducts.
The endodermis is of barrel-shaped cells, containing starch. Pericycle of parenchymatous cells is
interspersed with transfusion tracheids. A single vascular bundle is placed medianly (P. wallichiana) and
two vascular bundles (P. roxburghii) are placed at an angle (Fig. 16.3B.C). A vascular cambium is present,
which cuts of secondary phloem and little or no secondary xylem.

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On the basis of one or two vascular bundles of needles, pines have been divided into haploxylon or
diploxylon.

17
Sunken stomata may be present around diploxylon needles of pines and may be absent in some
haploxylon pines.
Anatomy of Root:
The long root of Pinus may be diarch as in P. roxuburghii (Fig. 16.4A) or tetrarch as in P. edulis (Fig.

13
16.4B). The epidermis is followed by starch-filled cortex of two zones outer zone of small
parenchymatous cells and inner zone of large ones. The single-layered endodermis of casparain strips is
followed by 6-7-celled pericycle.
The vasculature is of 8-16 protoxylem elements, each one associated with a resin duct. Secondary growth
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occurs very early, due to the differentiation of cambium below the primary phloem. It cuts off secondary
xylem towards pith and secondary phloem towards cortex. In the region of resin duct the cambium cuts
off parenchymatous cells forming xylem rays. Cork cambium cuts off cork cells, in the outer region of the
pericycle, which becomes highly tanniferous. The structure of root in the final stages resembles that of the
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stem.
Dwarf root is similar to the long root. However, it differs from long root in absence of root cap (Fig.
16.5A) and resin ducts are absent here, and it is without starch in cortical cells and has reduced number of
vascular elements. Also the secondary growth is absent. Dwarf roots are characterized by dichotomous
9

branching and are mycorrhizic (Fig. 16.5B, C, D). The fungal hyphae penetrate into the cortical cells
forming ‘Hartig-net’ (Fig. 16.5E). The association is symbiotic, the pine plant is benefitted due to increase
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in the surface area of absorption.

Anatomy of Stem:
A young stem of Pinus is not circular, it shows ridges and furrows due to the surrounding leaves. The
epidermis is followed by a broad parenchymatous cortex, and the vascular tissue in the form of
A

provascular strands, is arranged in a ring. These provascular strands mature into discrete collateral and
open vascular bundles.
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In an old stem, vascular bundles form a ring and are separated from each other by medullary rays. Resin
ducts are also visible in the cortex and vascular strands.
Before the occurrence of secondary growth, the fascicular cambium present within the vascular bundle
and interfascicular cambium present between the bundles join to form a ring. This cambium cuts off two
types of cells, fusiform and ray initials. The former forms the axial system and the latter forms the radial
system. The axial system consists of xylem and phloem, whereas the radial system is composed of rays.
The cambium (Cb) cuts off a continuous cylinder of secondary xylem towards the inside and secondary
phloem (Sph) towards the outside. The former comprises the tracheids with bordered pits on radial walls
(Fig. 16.6A,B). Mature tracheids develop thickenings in between the pits. These are bars of Sanio
described in P. sylvestris, as rod-shaped thickening between radial walls of tracheids of secondary wood.
 AJAY-9971313179

However, electron microscopic study has shown that these are mere refractions. The secondary phloem
consists of sieve elements, which arise directly by the transformation of phloem initials. Rarely, phloem
initial divides to form two sieve cells. A characteristic feature of sieve cells is the formation of sieve plate.
In the wood, one can demarcate the outer lighter zone (the sap wood) and inner dark region (heart
wood). The wood consists of parenchyma cells and tracheids, and lacks vessels. On examination of a TS
of wood one comes across concentric circles known as annual or growth rings (Fig. 16.6A). These are the
result of alternate formation of vigorously produced thin-walled cells in early or spring wood and thick-
walled cells of late or summer wood.
The age of a pine tree can be determined by counting the number of these rings. The resin ducts (rd) lined
by epithellial cells are present throughout the wood.
The vascular rays initiated by the cambium and are of two types: uniseriate and multiseriate or fusiform.

9
These are to be examined in sections cut in three planes (Fig. 16.6B). In a transverse section (TS) can be
seen the width and length of the ray, whereas in a transverse longitudinal section (TLS) height and width

17
of the ray can be seen. In a radial longitudinal section (RLS) length and height of the ray can be seen.
In the first or second layer of cortex differentiates cork cambium which cuts off cork on the outside and
secondary cortex towards inside.
Q10. Write notes on the following:

13
i) Telome theory
Ans. telome theory The theory that the leaves (megaphylls) of ferns and seed plants evolved by the
modification of terminal branches (telomes) of stems. It envisages that firstly, instead of the primitive
equal (dichotomous) branching of the stem, there developed a main axis with lateral side branches. Next,
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each lateral branch system was restricted to one plane, instead of forming a three-dimensional pattern.
Lastly, the spaces between the telomes in each lateral branch system were gradually filled in by webbing
consisting of thin sheets of photosynthetic parenchymatous tissue. There is fossil evidence for this
sequence of events occurring in certain trimerophytes and progymnosperms, notably in trees of the genus
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Archaeopteris, of the late Devonian period.
ii) Types of steles in Pteridophytes
Ans. There are two types of steles
1. Protostele
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2. Siphonostele
1. Protostele:
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In protostele phloem surrounds xylem. The type includes Haplostele, Actinostele, Plectostele, and Mixed
protostele.
(i) Haplostele: Xylem surrounded by phloem is known as haplostele. Example: Selaginella.
(ii) Actinostele: Star shaped xylem core is surrounded by phloem is known as actinostele.
A

Example: Lycopodium serratum.

(iii) Plectostele: Xylem plates alternates with phloem plates. Example: Lycopodium clavatum.
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(iv) Mixed prototostele: Xylem groups uniformly scattered in the phloem. Example: Lycopodium cernuum.
2. Siphonostele:
In siphonostele xylem is surrounded by phloem with pith at the centre. It includes Ectophloic
siphonostele, Amphiphloic siphonostele, Solenostele,
(i) Ectophloic siphonostele: The phloem is restricted only on the external side of the xylem. Pith is in
centre. Example: Osmunda.
(ii) Amphiphloic siphonostele: The phloem is present on both the sides of xylem. The pith is in the
centre. Example: Marsilea.
(iii) Solenostele: The stele is perforated at a place or places corresponding the origin of the leaf trace.
(a) Ectophloic solenostele – Pith is in the centre and the xylem is surrounded by phloem
Example Osmunda.
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(b) Amphiphloic solenostele – Pith is in the centre and the phloem is present on both sides of the xylem.
Example: Adiantum pedatum.
(c) Dictyostele – The stele is separated into several vascular strands and each one is called meristele.
Example: Adiantum capillus-veneris.
(iv) Eustele: The stele is split into distinct collateral vascular bundles around the pith. Example: Dicot
stem.
(v) Atactostele: The stele is split into distinct collateral vascular bundles and are scattered in the ground
tissue Example: Monocot stem.
(vi) Polycyclicstele: The vascular tissues are present in the form of two or more concentric cylinders.
Example: Pteridium.
iii) Pollination, fertilization and embryogeny in Cycad

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ans. Pollination is of two types:-
1) Self pollination

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It is the transfer of pollen from anther to the stigma of the same flower. It is also called autogamy.
2) Cross pollination
it is the process of transfer of pollen grains from one flower to the stigma of the another flower. It's also
called allogamy.

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Fertilization:-
It is the most important event in sexual reproduction.
It is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a diploid zygote.
It's also known as syngamy.
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The process of fertilization take place outside the female body or inside the female body, on the basis of
this, fertilization is divided into two types:-
1) External fertilization.
The fertilization that take place outside the female body in the external medium(water) is called external
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fertilization.
E.g., most aquatic organism like many algae, bony fish and amphibians.
2) Internal fertilization.
The fertilization that takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization.
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E.g.,Birds, Mammalian, Plant(bryophytes)

Embryogeny in cycus:-
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Embryogeny in Cycas is characterized by presence of expanded free nuclear division. The zygote, which
is the first sporophytic cell, undergoes free nuclear divisions. The interval between pollination and
fertilization is several months in Cycas.
iv) Difference between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.
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Ans. Difference between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

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Following are the important difference between angiosperms and gymnosperms:

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Angiosperms Gymnosperms

A seed is produced by flowering

plants and is enclosed within an
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plants and are unenclosed or naked.
ovary

The lifecycle of these plants are

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These plants are evergreen
seasonal

Has triploid tissue Has haploid tissue

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Leaves are scalelike and needle-like in

Leaves are flat in shape
shape
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Hardwood type Softwood type

Reproduction rely on animals Reproduction rely on wind

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Reproductive system present in Reproductive system present in cones

flowers (unisexual or bisexual) and are unisexual
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Angiosperms
The word angiosperm derived from Greek meaning container. As the name suggests the angiosperms are
vascular plants, which bears seeds in fruits or mature ovaries. Angiosperm forms flower that carries
reproductive organs and fruits. These plants are more adaptive to the terrestrial habitat and can be found
widespread on earth, around 250000 species have been identified of this class.
Angiosperm Examples
Fruits trees including Mango, Apple, Banana, Peach, Cherry, Orange, and Pear often shows flowers
before they bear fruits and the pollination process is generally carried out by the agents including bees
and other animals.
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Grains including rice, corn, and wheat are also examples of Angiosperm. In these plants, the pollination
process is carried out by the wind. Other examples of Angiosperms include roses, lilies, Broccoli, kale,
Petunias, Eggplant, Tomato, Peppers and sugarcane are also included in the diverse group
of angiosperms.
Also, read about Angiosperms
Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are other types of plant that bear seeds directly on sporophylls without covering. As the
name suggests the gymnosperms are vascular plants of the Kingdom Plantae which bear naked seeds.
There are very fewer species of gymnosperms, few examples of these plants are cypress, Gnetum, pine,
spruce, redwood, ginkgo, cycads, juniper, fir, and Welwitschia.
The main reason for being very fewer species is the lack of protection of seeds. The seeds are naked and

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unprotected when released. They need to get into the ground quickly to take root or they will be
damaged by animals, weather conditions or any other factors.

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Also, read about Gymnosperms
v) Economic importance of Gymnosperms as food and medicine.
Ans. Economic importance of gymnosperms
1. Gymnosperms are heterosporous.magasporangia and microsporangia occur on mega and

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microsporophylls respectively. Leaves have thick cuticle and sunken stomata. All
gymnosperms are usually wind-pollinated. The plant body is sporophytic and is differentiated
into root,stem and leaves. Gymnosperms are simple and primitive seed-bearing plants without
flowers. 1. Gymnosperms-general charaters
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2. young leaves of Cycas cooked as vegetables. kaffir bread’ prepared from the stem pith of
Encephalartos Seeds and stem of Cycas revoluta used for making wine. Zamia is a rich source of
starch. The seeds and stems of cycas yield ‘sago’ which is a starch and is also called “arrow root”
Seeds of some species are edible: Cycas, Ginko, Pinus, Gnetum As food Economic importance of
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gymnosperms
3. Cycas Cycas seeds
4. Ginko Ginko seeds
5. Pinus Pinus seeds
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6. Gnetum Gnetum seeds

7. In Assam the pounded stem of Cycas pectinata is used as a hair wash for diseased hair roots.
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The juice is extracted from young leaves of Cycas revoluta is used for curing blood vomiting and
flatulence. Anti cancerous drug called taxol, is obtained from the bark of Taxus. Tincture of
Ephedra is a cardiac stimulant. Ephedrine(alkaloid) extracted from Ephedra used in treating
asthma, cough, cold, bronchitis etc. As medicine
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8. Ephreda
9. Thuja, Pinus, Taxus etc are grown in parks. Ginkgo bioloba possess beautiful ornamental
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leaves. Species of Cycas are used for decoration purposes. As ornaments

10. Taxus
11. In industry 1.Gum- Cycas gum used as a adhesive, antidote for snake bites and using
malignant ulcers. 2.Tannins- Tannins are used in leather industry and it is extracted from the
bark of Araucaria, Sequoia etc. 3.Canada balsam- it is turpentine obtained from Abies balsamea
and used as a mounting medium in biological preparations. 4.Amber- it is a fossil resin obtained
from Pinus succinifera. Wood of pinus is used for doors, poles, beams, railway wagon flooring
etc. 5.Plywood is prepared from Podocarpus. 6.Papers like newsprints, writing and printing
12. Tannins are prepared from the bark of Araucaria and Sequoia
13. Porocarpus
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14. 7.The leaves of Cycads are used for preparing baskets, mats, hats, brooms etc. 8.The fibers
obtained from the leaves of Cycas and Macrozamia are used for stuffing pillows and making
mattresses. Source of oils *Oil extracted from seeds of C.revoluta, Macrozamia, Pinus cembra and
Cephalotaxus drupacea are used as edible oils. *Red cedar wood oil extracted from the heart
wood of Juniperus virgiana is used for cleaning microscopic preparations and for oil immersion
lenses. *Oils obtained from Cedrus deodara, Ciyptomeria japonica and Cupressusserm perivirens
are used in preparations of perfumes.

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