First printing, English 1992 2,000 copies

First printing, French 1994 1,000 copies

Second printing, English 1994 2,000 copies
REVISED EDITION

AFarmer'sPrimer
on GrowingRice
Benito S. Vergara

1992

IRRI
INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE
P.O.Box 933,1099 Manila, Philippines
The lnternational Rice Research lnstitute (IRRI) was established in
1960 by the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations with the help and
approval of the Government of the Philippines Today IRRI is one of the
16 nonprofit lnternational research and training centers supported by
the Consultative Group on lnternational Agricultural Research
(CGIAR). The CGIAR is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture
Organiration of the United Nations, the lnternational Bank for Recon-
struction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) The CGIAR consists of 50 donor
countries, international and regional organizations, and private founda-
tions
IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a number of
donors Including the Asian Development Bank, the European Econ-
omic Community, the Ford Foundation, the lnternational Develop-
ment Research Centre, the lnternational Fund for Agricultural Devel-
opment, the OPEC Special Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, UNDP,
the World Bank, and the international aid agencies of the following
governments: Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark,
Finland. France, Germany, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea,
Mexico. The Netherlands, New Zealand. Norway, the Philippines,
Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and
United States
The responsibility for this publication rests with the Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute.

Copyright © lnternational Rice Research Institute 1992

All rights reserved. Except for quotations of short passages for
the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise, without prior permission of IRRI. This permission will not
be unreasonably withheld for use for noncommercial purposes IRRI
does not require payment for the noncommercial use of its published
works, and hopes that this copyright declaration will not diminish the
bona fide use of its research findings in agricultural research and
development
The designations employed in the presentation of the material
in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatso-
ever on the part of IRRI concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or the delimitation of its
frontiers or boundaries.

ISBN 971-22-0029-9
Foreword

In less than 30 years, the earth will be home to8 billion people, more than
half of whom will depend on rice as their staple food. To feed them will
require a 50% increase in global rice production, from today’s 518
million tons to 782 million tons.
More than ever, rice farmers, technicians, teachers, and scientists
need to understand the whys and hows of modern rice production. But
recommendations given to farmers often do not answer questions such
as how to increase the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer, how to lessen the
chance of lodging, or why modern varieties are usually superior.
IRRI Plant Physiologist Benito S. Vergara conceived the idea for the
original primer while teaching rice production courses at IRRI. He
became aware of the lack of simple but precisely written information that
clearly explained good rice-growing practices.
Forty-eight editions of A farmer’s primer an growing rice have been
published since 1979 in 40 languages in more than 20 countries in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America. Vergara has revised the primer to update and
improve the presentation of the information.
Carolyn Dedolph and Stephen Banta edited this handbook with the
assistance of Teresita Rola. John Figarola drew the illustrations. Tine
Brinkman was involved in the revision process.

Klaus Lampe
Director General
Contents

The plant 1
Growth phases of the rice plant 3
Seeds 9
Factors that affect seedling growth 19
Leaves 29
Roots 35
Tillers 47
Panicles 57
Dormancy 65
Carbohydrate production 69
Water 75
Farm management 81
How to select good seedlings 83
Transplanting 91
Fertilizers 97
How much nitrogen to apply 105
How to increase the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer 113
Why more nitrogen fertilizer is applied during dry season 121
Weeds 127
Control of weeds 137
Herbicides 145
Water management 155
Farm analysis and improvement 161
How to select the variety to plant 163
Lowland rice plant type with high yield potential 173
Factors that affect lodging 183
How to judge a rice crop at flowering 193
Yield components 205
How to use yield components 215
THE PLANT
Growth phases of
the rice plant

4 The rice plant

5 Vegetative phase
6 Reproductive phase
7 Ripening phase
8 Growth phases and stages
The rice plant

Pani
cl
e

L
eaf

St
em

Root
s

Pl
antwi
thf
ivet
il
ler
s

¢ A tiller is a shoot that includes roots, stem, and leaves. It may or

may not have a panicle.

4
Vegetative phase

¢ Seedling or nursery stage duration varies:

-dapog (9-1 1 days),
- wetbed (16-20 days), and
- direct seeding (none).
¢ Tiller number and leaf area increase during the vegetative phase.
¢ Low temperature or long daylength can increase the duration of
the vegetative phase.

5
Reproductive phase

Panicle a t flowering stage

¢ The reproductive phase begins at the start of panicle formation

and ends a t flowering. This takes about 35 days.
¢ The plant is most sensitive to stresses such as low and high
temperatures and drought during the reproductive phase.

6
Ripening phase

Panicle at ripening phase

The ripening phase starts a t flowering and lasts for about 30 days.
Rainy days or low temperatures may lengthen the ripening phase.
Sunny and warm days shorten the ripening phase.
Follow good farming practices during each growth phase to
produce high grain yields.

7
Growth phases and stages
hs
owt
Gr ag
t e

Seedl
i
ng T
rans
plant
ing Fl
ower
ing Har
ves
t

Maximum Pani
cl
e
Ti
l
lernumber f
ormati
on
h
e
owt
phas

Veg
etabl
ephs
ase Reoroduc
tiv
e Ri
peni
ng
Gr

phase phas
e
aton
i

Var
iabl
e 35day
s 30day
s
Dur

¢ The duration of the vegetative phase differs with variety.

¢ The reproductive and ripening phases are about the same for
most varieties.
¢ Panicle formation to flowering takes about 35 days.
¢ Flowering to harvest takes about 30 days.
¢ Sowing to harvest ranges from 90 to 200 days or more.

8
Seeds

10 Seed types
11 Parts of the seed
12 Stages of germination
13 Water is needed for germination
14 Air is needed for germination
15 Temperature conditions for germination
16 Why incubate seeds?
17 Why select good seeds?
Seed types

Awn

Awn

¢ Seeds vary in size, shape, color, and awn length.

10
Parts of the seed

Awn

Hul
l

Endos
per
m
Ker
nel
Embr
yo

Seed Seedc
utl
enghtwi
se

¢ The hull is the hard cover of the seed.

¢ The food needed for seed germination - starch, sugar, protein,
and fat - is in the endosperm.
¢ Almost 80% of the endosperm is starch.
¢ The embryo develops into the shoot and the roots. The
development is called seed germination.

11
Stages of germination

¢ Embryo growth dependson temperature and availability of water

and air.

12
Water is needed
for germination

¢ Uptake of water is the first need for germination.

¢ Soak seeds for at least 24 hours for a more uniform germination.
¢ Many activities go on inside the germinating seed. Starch, protein,
and fat are changed into simple foods for the embryo.

13
Air is needed
for germination

Poo
rse
edl
i
ng

T
oomu
chwa
ter I
dea
lwa
terl
eve
l

Germinating rice seeds need air to live.

Water contains very little air.
If the germinated seeds are covered too deeply with water,
embryos will grow slowly, resulting in tall, weak shoots. Embryos
will die in some cases if the water is too deep.

14
Temperature conditions
for germination

Water will boil at this

temperature.

Rice seeds may not

germinate above this
temperature.
Best temperature for rice
seeds to germinate (30 °C).

Rice seeds wiII not

germinate below this
temperature.

Warm temperature is needed t o increase the growth activities

inside seeds.
L o w temperature (10 °C) decreases activities inside seeds.
Very high temperature (40 °C or higher) decreases the germination
percentage. Too much heat can kill sprouting seeds.

15
Why incubate seeds?

Preparation of seeds for sowing

Soak clean seeds in water.

Remove seeds that float.

After 24 hours of soaking, remove water and

wash seeds. Place on cement floor and cover
with a wet sack. Incubate seeds for 24 hours
or longer. Keep sack wet.

After 1 or 2 days, seeds have germinated and are ready for

the seedbed.

incubation keeps the seeds warm. It increases embryo growth

and results in uniform germination.

16
Why select good seeds?

Poor seed Good seed

¢ Good seeds contain more food and produce healthier, heavier

seedlings with more roots.
¢ Healthy seedlings grow faster than poor seedlings when
transplanted in the field.
¢ Good seeds result in uniform germination and growth.

17
Factors that affect
seedling growth

20 Sources of food for growth

21 Water depth
22 Amount of water
23 Temperature
24 Light intensity
25 Low light intensity
26 Sufficient nutrients
27 Excess nutrients
Sources of food for growth

Fi
el
d

T
rans
it
io
n
pe
ri
od

Nu
rse
ry

Fo
odf
ro
mse
ed Fo
odf
ro
mso
ila
ndl
eav
es

¢ The seedling grows first by using food from the endosperm (A).
¢ As the seedling gets older, it depends more on the environment
for food (B).
¢ After producing four leaves, the seedling grows from food taken
up through the roots and produced in the leaves (C).
¢ The endosperm of a dapog seedling contains very little food at
transplanting. The seedling is just beginning to produce its own
food.

20
Water depth

Water depth

L
owl
andn
urs
ery T
ran
spl
ant
edt
oth
efi
el
d

Dee
pwat
er
(
10cm) Poo
r T
all
sndweak
Poo
rroo
tgr
ow
Eas
il
ydama
ged

Sho
rtandst
ron
g
Swal
l
owwat
er Goodroo
tgr
owt
(
2-5cm) Go
od Notea
sil
ydamage
d

Deep flooding results in tall seedlings and poor root growth

because of lack of air in the soil. Those tall seedlings are easily
damaged when transplanted.

21
Amount of water

Lowland nursery

Even growth

Upland nursery

Uneven growth

Good roots

Soil

The large amount of water available to the plants in a lowland

nursery results in uniform shoot growth.
The irregular distribution of water in an upland nursery results in
uneven growth. Root growth, however, is usually excellent.
Insufficient water results in slow seedling growth.

22
Temperature

Cool Warm
(lower than 25 °C) (25-35 °C)

Slow growth Fast growth

Plants grow faster a t warm temperatures than at cool

temperatures.
Seedlings grow taller at warm temperatures than at cool
temperatures.
Cool temperatures can cause leaves to yellow. Some seedlings
may eventually die.

23
Light intensity

Seedlings need light.

Cloudy days mean
less light.

Poor growth Good growth

¢ Seedlings need bright light, Cloudy days have less light.

¢ Prepare the seedbed away from shadows of trees and buildings.
¢ Plants produce food from light, water, and air. Less light means
less food and therefore weaker seedlings.
¢ Less light can cause the leaf blades and leaf sheaths to elongate,
resulting in taller and weaker plants.

24
Low light intensity

Low light intensity results in

- tall and weak - seedlings with

seedlings. low dry matter.

- seedlings that are - Increased chance

easily injured by of disease.
stresses.

25
Sufficient nutrients

Stunted seedling growth Vigorous seedling growth

Poor nutrient supply Sufficient nutrients available

¢ Fertilizer supplies nutrients (plant food) in addition to what is

already available in the soil.
¢ Fertilizer may be needed in the seedbed if the nursery period is
long, in areas with poor soil, in upland nurseries, and in cold areas.

26
Excess nutrients

Diseased leaf

Tall and weak seedling

Too much fertilizer in the seedbed may result in very tall, weak
seedlings and increase chances of seedlings being attacked by
diseases, such as blast.
The nursery period in warm regions of the world is only 10 - 20
days; fertilizer is usually not used.

27
Leaves

30 The rice leaf

31 Leaves of the main stem
32 Development of a leaf
33 Internodes
The rice leaf

The presence of both a ligule and an auricle distinguishes a rice

leaf from other grasses.
A grass leaf has a collar but may have only a ligule or an auricle or
neither.
A rice leaf, like all grasses, has parallel veins.

30
Leaves of the main stem

¢ The coleoptile comes out of the seed first. It is followed by the

primary leaf, then the secondary leaf with the first expanded leaf
blade, and then the other leaves.
¢ The last leaf is called the flag leaf.

31
Development of a leaf

L
eng
thwi
ses
ect
i
ono
fas
tem

B
L
eaf
bla
de

A new leaf develops inside the leaf sheath.

L
eaf
she
ath
Beg
inn
ingo
f
anewle
af

7d
ays

A,B,C=l
eav
es

¢ Rice leaves on the main stem are produced one at a time.

¢ A new leaf is produced about every 7 days.
¢ A new leaf grows on the opposite side of the leaf before it.

32
Internodes

Th
elo
nge
sti
nt
er
nod
e 1
sti
nt
er
nod
e

Th
esh
ort
est
int
er
nod
e

¢ The rice stem has distinct nodes and internodes. Leaves and
tillers may arise from the nodes. Internodes are the elongated
parts between two nodes.
¢ There are normally 4-6 elongated (more than 1 cm) internodes at
harvest.
¢ The longer the lower internodes, the greater the tendency for the
plant to lodge.
¢ Closer planting, cloudy weather, higher nitrogen level in the soil,
and higher temperatures will cause longer internodes.

33
Roots

36 Origin of roots
37 Crown roots
38 Root functions
39 Root development
40 Root development at 30 days after transplanting
41 Root development at 50 days after transplanting
42 Root development at flowering
43 Root distribution
44 Root distribution depends on depth of topsoil
45 Root distribution depends on depth of plowed layer
46 Root distribution depends on downward movement
of water
Origin of roots

Crown roots

Primary root

The primary root usually dies within a month.

Crown roots develop from the lower nodes.
Old roots and older parts of a root are brown.
New roots and young parts of a root are white.
J

36
Crown roots

¢ There are t w o types of crown roots: mat roots, which are shallow,
and ordinary roots.
¢ Mat roots develop when the air content of the soil is low, as in
later growth stages.

37
Root functions

¢ Soil water contains nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and

potassium.
¢ The roots take up soil water with nutrients in it.
¢ The roots support the upper parts of the plant.

38
Root development
at 30 days after
transplanting

1
8cm Pl
owed
Soi
l

Sub
soi
l

¢ Most roots are in the plowed layer of the soil (18 cm).
¢ Almost no roots are found in the subsoil.

40
Root development
at 50 days after
transplanting

Ma
tro
ots

1
8cm Pl
owed
Soi
l

Sub
soi
l

¢ Some roots have grown nto the soubsoil.

41
Root development
at flowering

More roots have penetrated the subsoil.

There are many mat roots.

42
Root distribution

¢ Root distribution depends on

- depth of the topsoil,
- depth of the plowed layer,
- downward movement of water,
- amount of air available,
- type of irrigation,
- placement of fertilizer, and
- variety.
¢ Roots must penetrate deeply and spread widely and evenly for
good uptake of nutrients from the soil.

43
Root distribution depends on
depth of topsoil

Water

Top soil

Hardpan

Shallow hardpan Deep hardpan

The topsoil is the distance between the soil surface and the
hardpan.
Deeper topsoil means deeper root penetration.

44
Root distribution depends on
depth of plowed layer

Br
oad
cas
tfe
rt
il
i
zer

Wa
ter

T
ops
oil

Dept
ho f
pl
owed
soi
l
De
epl
yplac
ed
f
er
ti
li
zer

Ha
rdp
an

Poor growth Good growth

Plow as deep as possible. Deeper plowing means deeper root

penetration.
Mix fertilizer thoroughly into the plowed soil to get deeper roots
and better root distribution.
Deep placement of fertilizer near the plant is more efficient than
broadcasting fertilizer.

45
Root distribution depends on
downward movement
of water

Water

If water moves downward freely and quickly, the roots develop

downward easily.
The downward movement of water makes more air and fertilizer
available in the lower soil layer.
The deeper the roots, the better the plant can absorb water. This
is a very important plant characteristic where the water supply is
not dependable.

46
Tillers

48 Primary tiller
49 Tillering pattern
50 Production of tillers
51 Productive and nonproductive tillers
52 How to calculate percentage of productive tillers
53 Variety affects tillering
54 Spacing affects tillering
55 Season of planting affects tillering
56 Nitrogen level affects tillering
Primary tiller

Pr
ima
ryt
i
ll
er

Bas
eof
thep
lan
t

The first primary tiller usually develops between the main stem
and the second leaf from the base of the plant.
The tiller remains attached to the mother plant at later growth
stages but is Independent because it produces its own roots.

48
Tillering pattern

Mam stem (M)

 Primary (P) tillers come from the main stem.

 Secondary (S) tillers develop from primary tillers.
 Tertiary (T) tillers develop from secondary tillers.
 The lower the point of origin on the main stem, the older the tiller.

49
Production of tillers

¢ Tillering starts 10 days after transplanting and reaches maximum

50-60 days after transplanting.
¢ After reaching the maximum, tiller number decreases as weak
tillers die.

50
Productive and
nonproductive tillers

Numberoft
il
ler
s

Daysaf
tert
ranspl
ant
ing

¢ Tillers formed during late growth stages are usually

nonproductive. Either the tillers die or the panicles produced are
too small and ripen late. Spikelets are only half-filled at harvest.
¢ Modern varieties have more tillers at flowering and lose fewer
tillers.
¢ Mutual shading, competition among tillers, or lack of nutrients
(especially nitrogen) may cause tiller loss.

51
How to calculate percentage of
productive tillers

Percent Number of panicles produced

productive = x 100
tillers Highest number of tillers produced

¢ In the drawings above, the traditional variety has 50% productive

tillers; the modern variety has 75%.

52
Variety affects tillering

A variety with 6 tillers A variety with 20 tillers

Planted at wide spacing

¢ Varieties differ in tillering ability.

¢ Spacing the plants far apart in rich soil gives maximum tillering.
¢ Most plants do not reach full tillering ability, particularly if soils are
poor or if plants are closely spaced.

53
Spacing affects tillering

50- x 50-cm spacing

33 tillers per plant
4 plants per square meter
132 tillers per square meter

10- x 10-cm spacing

3 tillers per plant
100 plants per square meter
300 tillers per square meter

The tiller number per plant increases as the distance between

plants increases.
If plants are spaced far apart, the number of tillers per square
meter may be reduced.

54
Season of planting
affects tillering

Wet season- 21 tillers Dry season- 10 tillers

¢ Plants produce more tillers during wet season than during dry
season.
¢ Plants need more nitrogen fertilizer during dry season to increase
tiller number.
¢ Closer spacing in dry season helps to produce the same number
of tillers per square meter as in wet season.

55
Nitrogen level
affects tillering

10 tillers 30 tillers
No nitrogen added Nitrogen fertilizer added

Nitrogen is important to increase tiller number.

But too much nitrogen can increase the incidence of diseases and
lodging.

56
Panicles

58 Panicle initiation
59 Booting stage
60 The spikelet
61 Flowering order of a panicle
62 Stages of grain formation
63 Causes of empty spikelets
Panicle initiation

1 mm
25 days before flowering
Magnified growing point of the shoot

¢ A panicle forms a t the tip of the growing point of the shoot.

¢ The panicle is visible to the naked eye when it is 1 mm long.
¢ At 1 mm, the young panicle has many fine, white, hairy structures
at the tip.
¢ The plant will produce three more leaves before the panicle
comes out of the leaf sheath.

58
Booting stage

¢ Booting starts 20-25 days before flowering. The panicle is 1 mm

long.
¢ The base of the leaf sheath bulges at booting.
¢ Flowering occurs 35 days after the start of panicle formation.

59
The spikelet

¢ Some anthers begin to open 1 day after the panicle comes out.
¢ When the spikelet opens, the anthers inside the spikelet will also
open.
¢ Low temperature delays the opening of the anthers.
¢ The pollen (male cells), which is like a fine dust, comes from the
anthers. It must reach the stigma and unite with the egg inside
the ovary before a grain can develop.
¢ A grain is a ripened ovary together with the lemma and palea.
¢ A spikelet bears only one grain.

60
Flowering order
of a panicle

¢ It takes about 7 days for all of the spikelets in a panicle to open.

¢ The upper spikelets (number 1) open first.
¢ The lower spikelets open last. They usually do not completely fill
in large panicles.
¢ Modern varieties have 100-1 20 spikelets per panicle.

61
Stages of grain formation

Buildup of starch inside the spikelet begins after part of the male
cell unites with the egg in the ovary (fertilization).
The spikelet reaches maximum weight 21 days after fertilization.
Extra days are needed to ripen all the grains because the spikelets
on the panicles open at different times.

62
Causes of empty spikelets

Side view of an Side view of a

empty spikelet fully filled spikelet

¢ Many factors can affect the filling of spikelets.

- Lodging, low light intensity, drying of the leaves, disease, or
insect damage can cause a lack of starch.
- High temperature or dry winds can cause the stigma to dry and
no fertilization to occur.
- Low temperature or high humidity at flowering can prevent
spikelets from opening.
- Too much nitrogen at panicle formation can prevent normal
spikelet development.
- Low temperature at panicle formation can cause damage to
spikelets.
¢ Empty spikelets will float when placed in water.

63
Dormancy

66 Seed dormancy
67 Dormancy prevents seeds from germinating on the
panicle
68 Dormancy prevents germination of seeds stored in
wet conditions after harvest
Seed dormancy

Nondormant seed
Days after
harvest

Not dormant'
(germination)

Dormant seed

0 Soak in water
Dormant (no germination)

7 Soak in water
Still dormant

21 Soak in water
Still dormant

28 Soak in water

Not dormant (germination)

¢ A mature seed is dormant if it fails to germinate under favorable

conditions.
¢ Not all varieties have dormancy.
¢ Seeds may be dormant from 0 to 80 days. Dormancy depends on
the variety and conditions a t harvest.

66
Dormancy prevents
seeds from germinating
on the panicle

Nondormant seeds
will germinate

¢ Dormancy is important during the rainy season harvest.

¢ Nondormant seeds may germinate if exposed to rain when mature.
¢ Seeds harvested during the dry season have a lower percentage
of dormancy.

67
Dormancy prevents
germination of seeds stored in
wet conditions after harvest

Nondormant seeds
will germinate

The causes of dormancy are not clear.

Dormancy can be a disadvantage. Freshly harvested seeds
cannot be planted immediately.

68
Carbohydrate
production

70 The food factory

71 Amount of green color affects carbohydrate
production
72 Amount of light affects carbohydrate production
73 Amount of carbon dioxide in the air affects
carbohydrate production
74 Amount of water in the leaf affects carbohydrate
production
The food factory

L
igh
ten
erg
y

Al
eafi
scomposedo
f
manycel
l
s.Th
isi
sonece
ll
en
lar
gedmanyti
mes.

Carbohydrates are food produced in the green leaves.

Water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air are the main
materials in the production of carbohydrates.
The roots absorb water from the soil. Air enters the plant through
pores on the leaf surface.

70
Amount of green color
affects carbohydrate

Different number of leaves Different leaf size

¢ The amount of green color per plant increases as the number of

leaves and leaf size increases. Thicker leaves usually have more
green color.
¢ Low nitrogen in the plant decreases the green color.
¢ The more green color per plant, the higher the carbohydrate
production.

71
Amount of light affects
carbohydrate production

¢ Brighter light gives more light energy to the plant, which can then
produce more carbohydrates.
¢ Plants with erect leaves receive more light and thus produce
more carbohydrates.
¢ The amount of light is less during the wet season.

72
Amount of carbon dioxide
in the air affects carbohydrate
production

The plant uses carbon dioxide from the air to produce food.
Carbon dioxide is plentiful and is rarely the cause of a decrease in
food production. The amount of carbon dioxide in the air has been
increasing in recent years.

73
Amount of water
in the leaf affects
carbohydrate production

Lack of water Enough water

Enough water

¢ Water is an important part of a carbohydrate unit.

¢ Lack of water leads to decreased food production.
¢ When the leaves lose water, their pores close and air cannot
enter. Carbon dioxide in the air is important in carbohydrate
production.
¢ The leaves roll to protect the plant from further water loss. This
reduces the amount of light the leaves can absorb to produce
carbohydrates.

74
Water

76 Major components of the plant

77 Raw material for food production
78 Water carries the food
79 Water cools the plant
80 Water stiffens the plant
Major components
of the plant

100 g of fresh 88 g of water 12 g of dried

leaf blades lost during drying leaf material

1.5 g of ash Burn the dry material

completely

Leaves, stems, and roots are mostly water. Grains have less water
than the rest of the plant.

76
Raw material for
food production

Light energy

Air taken in
by leaves

Carbohydrates
produced in leaves

Water taken up by roots

¢ Water, air, and light are needed t o produce food. Water is usually
the limiting factor.
¢ Lack of water decreases the amount of food produced.

77
Water carries the food

¢ Water carries the carbohydrates and mineral nutrients to the plant

parts.
¢ One hectare of rice plants uses at least 8 million liters of water for
one crop. That amount would cover the field waist-deep with
water.

78
Water cools the plant

As water evaporates, it cools the leaves the way perspiration

cools our bodies.
When there is not much water in the leaves, the pores close.
Water cannot pass out, and air cannot enter. Growth is greatly
slowed down.
If the temperature is too high and water does not evaporate, the
leaves dry up.
Most of the water the rice plant takes up is lost through
evaporation.

79
Water stiffens the plant

Not enough Enough Not enough Enough

water water water water

Droopy leaves Erect leaves Rolled Fully

leaf expanded
leaf

Water helps make the leaves erect and fully expanded.

Water in the plant is like air in the tires of a car.

80
FARM
MANAGEMENT
How to select
good seedlings

84 Good seedlings have uniform height and growth

85 Good seedlings have short leaf sheaths
86 Proper water depth can cause short leaf sheaths
87 Good lighting can cause short leaf sheaths
88 Good seedlings have neither pests nor diseases
89 Good seedlings have more roots that are longer and
heavier
Good seedlings have
uniform height and growth

Irregular growth Regular growth

Irregular seedling growth may indicate unevenness in

- seed distribution in the seedbed,
- seed germination,
- land preparation of the seedbed,
- watering, or
- availability of soil nutrients.

84
Good seedlings have
short leaf sheaths

Poor Good

The leaf sheath is the lower portion of the leaf that encloses the
stem and young leaves.
A long leaf sheath indicates very rapid initial elongation, making
the seedling weak.

85
Proper water depth can cause
short leaf sheaths

Seedbed water level

Poor Good

¢ Too much water can cause long leaf sheaths and weak seedlings.
¢ Weak seedlings grow poorly right after transplanting. They
recover slowly.
¢ The long, droopy leaves of poor seedlings often stick to the mud
when transplanted.
~~

86
Good lighting can cause
short leaf sheaths

Cloudy days, heavy seeding, or shadows from trees can result in

long leaf sheaths because of low light.

87
Good seedlings have neither
pests nor diseases

Leaf eaters
Stem borer Blast

Hoppers Weeds

88
Good seedlings have more roots
that are longer and heavier

Poor seedling Good seedling

Healthy seedlings-with more roots-recover from transplanting

better than poor seedlings with fewer roots.

89
Transplanting

92 Why transplant?
93 How many seedlings per hill?
94 Why transplant at the proper depth?
95 Why cut leaves before transplanting?
96 Proper spacing
Why transplant?

¢ Plant growth is set back at transplanting; it takes 2-4 days

before new roots are formed.
¢ Weed control is simpler in straight row transplanting.
¢ Rats, snails, or birds may eat direct seeded rice just after seeding.

92
How many seedlings per hill?

Two seedlings per hill

One seedling per hill

Replanting is needed If one seedling dies, the

if the seedling dies. remaining plant can produce
sufficient tillers.

If no seedlings die, there is no difference in grain yield between

one and two seedlings per hill.

93
Why transplant
at the proper depth?

Tillers normally develop 5-1 0 days after transplanting. Deep

planting delays tillering.

94
Why cut leaves
before transplanting?

Intact Leaves cut Ideal seedling

¢ Long, droopy leaves of tall seedlings touch the muddy water. This
increases the chance of diseases infecting the leaves. Cutting
the leaves prevents this.
¢ But wounds caused by cutting may allow bacteria to enter the
leaves. To avoid cutting, plant healthy seedlings of the right age.

95
Proper spacing

Spacing too close

Proper spacing

Close spacing increases the number of tillers per square meter.

Close spacing produces tall and weak plants that lodge easily.
Proper spacing helps control weeds.
Proper spacing depends on the tillering capacity of the variety and
the soil fertility.

96
Fertilizers

98 Nutrients that the rice plant needs

99 What are fertilizers?
100 Organic fertilizers
101 Inorganic fertilizers
102 Role of fertilizers
103 What happens to nitrogen fertilizer applied to the
soil?
Nutrients that the
rice plant needs

Plants need oxygen and carbon from the air and mineral nutrients
from the soil.
Plants need nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus in large
amounts. These are the major mineral nutrients.
Minor nutrients are needed in smaller amounts. The soil often
has sufficient minor nutrients; if not, they must be added.

98
What arefertilizers?

¢ Fertilizers are food for plants; they contain important mineral

nutrients.
¢ The major nutrients in fertilizers are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P),
and potassium (K).
¢ Apply fertilizers when the soil does not supply enough nutrients.
¢ Fertilizers are organic, such as farm manure, or inorganic, such as
urea.

99
Organic fertilizers

Green manure Farm manure Any organic matter

(cowpea, pigeon pea)

Crop residues
(straw, leaves, hulls, etc.)
Soil

Organic fertilizers come from plant and animal matter, such as

rotten leaves and chicken manure.
Organic fertilizers contain small amounts of the mineral nutrients
that the plant needs.
Organic fertilizers improve soil structure.
Avoid burning crop residues. Instead, plow the residues back into
the soil.

100
Inorganic fertilizers

14% nitrogen (N) 24% N 16% N

14% phosphorus (P2O5) 12% P2O5 20% P2O5
14% potassium (K2O) 12% K2O 0% K2O

Other examples
Urea (45-0-0)
Ammonium sulfate (21-0-0)
Muriate of potash (0-0-60)

¢ Inorganic fertilizers are commercially manufactured mineral

nutrients.
¢ Several combinations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
fertilizers are available.
¢ The numbers on the bag refer to the percentage by weight of
mineral nutrients in the fertilizer: 24-12-12 means 24% nitrogen,
12% phosphorus (P 2O 5), and 12% potassium (K2O).
¢ The rest of the material in the fertilizer bag is filler and may
contain calcium, sulfur, or other minor mineral nutrients.

101
Role of fertilizers

Food production for growth

and maintenance of life

Reproduction

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are needed for the life

processes going on in the plant.

102
What happens to
nitrogen fertilizer applied to
the soil?

A large percentage of the applied nitrogen is lost.

Part of the nitrogen fertilizer applied to the rice crop may be used
by the following crop.
Minimizing the loss and maximizing the use of the available
nitrogen are important.

103
How much
nitrogen to apply

106 Wet season cropping

107 Dry season cropping
108 Soil fertility
110 Yield potential of the variety
111 Profit from fertilizer applied
Wet season cropping

Nitrogen
fertilizer

¢ Plants are tall and leafy during the wet season. They shade each
other and this reduces food production in the leaves.
¢ Light energy is low above and inside the crop.
¢ The plant cannot fully use fertilizer applied during wet season for
grain production.
¢ Use smaller amounts of fertilizer during wet season.

106
Dry season cropping

¢ In dry season, plants are shorter and have fewer tillers. More
light energy is available.
¢ The applied fertilizer increases tiller number, leaf area, and rate of
food production.
¢ More sunlight and more leaves increase food production. This
results in higher profits for fertilizer applied.
¢ The possibility of increasing grain yield is greater by applying more
nitrogen during dry season.

107
Soil fertility

Nonfertile soil Large amount of Optimum nitrogen

nitrogen needed Optimum growth

¢ The right nitrogen level in the soil results in the optimum leaf
area, tiller number, and light distribution-and therefore higher
grain yield.
¢ Field trials can determine the right amount of nitrogen fertilizer
needed.

108
Fertile soil Large amount Excess nitrogen
of nitrogen

Too much nitrogen fertilizer in the soil causes too much

vegetative growth, resulting in poor light distribution and lodging.
Too much nitrogen at later growth stages increases spikelet
sterility and production of late tillers.

109
Yield potential of the variety

High yield potential-semidwarf

Low yield potential-tall

Applying fertilizer to tall varieties will increase their height and

tendency to lodge.
Grain yields may actually decrease by applying fertilizer to tall
varieties because of lodging and shading of leaves.

110
Profit from fertilizer applied

¢ Applying the right amount of fertilizer gives maximum profit.

¢ The right amount of fertilizer depends on its price in relation to
yield increase.
¢ The profit from fertilizer applied is higher during dry season than
during wet season.
¢ The right amount of fertilizer for high grain yield varies with the
variety.

111
How to increase
the efficiency of
nitrogen fertilizer

114 Apply the right amount of fertilizer

115 Use modern varieties
116 Apply fertilizer a t correct growth stage
117 Keep the field free from weeds
118 Prevent the field from drying out
119 Mix the fertilizer into the soil
120 Do not topdress when leaves are w e t
Apply the right amount
of fertilizer

The right amount of fertilizer will depend on

- cropping season,
- soil fertility,
- yield potential of the variety,
- fertilizer price, and
- time and method of application.

114
Use modern varieties

Traditional variety Modern variety

Comparative grain yields

Dry season Wet season

No N With N No N With N No N With N No N With N

Traditional Modern Traditional Modern
variety variety variety variety

Increased grain yield as a result of nitrogen application is higher in

modern varieties than in traditional varieties, regardless of
planting season or amount of nitrogen used.

115
Apply fertilizer at correct
growth stage

The darker the shade, the better the time to apply fertilizer.

The best times to apply nitrogen fertilizers are at transplanting and

at panicle initiation.
Fertilizer application after flowering may increase spikelet sterility
and cause late tillers to be produced.

116
Keep the field free
from weeds

¢ Weeds compete with the rice plants for nitrogen fertilizer.

¢ Remove the weeds before applying nitrogen.
¢ Like rice, weeds grow faster when fertilizer is applied.
¢ The more vigorous the weed growth, the greater the competition
for fertilizer, water, light, and space.

117
Prevent the field
from drying out

If fertilized flooded soils dry out and are then flooded again, part of
the nitrogen fertilizer changes into a gas that escapes into the air.
Water keeps the air from moving into the soil. The less air in the
soil, the less nitrogen gas produced.
Keep fields flooded to prevent nitrogen loss to the air.
Prevent water loss by repairing levees.

118
Mix the fertilizer into the soil

Fertilizer applied on top Fertilizer mixed

of the soil into the soil

¢ Fertilizers applied before transplanting should be mixed

thoroughly with the soil
- to prevent nitrogen losses into the air, and
- to keep the fertilizer nearer the roots.
¢ Do not topdress in water immediately after transplanting.
~~

119
Do not topdress when leaves
are wet

Do not topdress Topdress

Fertilizer sticks to w e t leaves and may cause leaf burn.

As the water evaporates, the dissolved fertilizer is lost to the air.
Do not topdress if heavy rain is expected. The fertilizer may be
washed away.

120
Why more
nitrogen fertilizer
is applied during
dry season
122 Higher grain yields from nitrogen application
123 Less danger of shading
124 Less danger of lodging
125 Increases low tiller number
Higher grain yields
from nitrogen application

Wet season
Yield

Yield
Dry season

Rice responds better t o nitrogen fertilizer during dry season than

during w e t season.
Sunlight, which is necessary for producing food, is more abundant
during dry season.

122
Less danger of shading

Wet season Dry season

¢ Dry season rice crops produce shorter and more erect leaves than
wet season rice crops.
¢ During dry season, there is more light and therefore less danger
of shading. The leaf arrangement for catching the sunlight is also
better during dry season.
¢ More light means more food produced.
¢ Yields are reduced if shading occurs.

123
Less danger of lodging

Wet season

Dry season

Plants are shorter during dry season than during wet season.
Lodging is less likely during dry season, even with higher rates of
nitrogen fertilizer.

124
Increases low tiller number

Wet season

Dry season

¢ Nitrogen increases tiller number.

¢ Rice generally produces fewer tillers during dry season than
during wet season. Use closer spacing for dry season.
¢ Most of the tillers produced as a result of nitrogen fertilization are
productive because there is less shading during dry season.

125
Weeds

128 Weeds reduce rice yield

129 Weeds compete with rice
130 Weeds decrease the effect of nitrogen fertilizer
131 Differences among grasses, sedges,
and broad-leaved weeds
132 A common grass
133 A common sedge
134 A common broad-leaved weed
135 Differences between rice and grasses
136 When to weed the rice crop
Weeds reduce rice yield

Grain yield during wet season

Weeded

Not weeded

Grain yield during dry season

Weeded

Not weeded

¢ Weeds reduce grain yield regardless of planting seadon.

128
Weeds compete with rice

¢ Weeds compete with rice for sunlight, nutrients, and water.

¢ If any of these is lacking, the others cannot be used effectively,
even if a lot are present.
¢ Competition results in poor rice growth and less gram yield.

129
Weeds decrease the effect of
nitrogen fertilizer

Grain yield

¢ Weeds compete with rice for the applied nitrogen fertilizer.

¢ Applied nitrogen favors the growth of weeds more than the
growth of rice.
¢ The more nitrogen applied, the less the grain yield if the crop is
not weeded.
¢ Control weeds before using nitrogen fertilizers.

130
Differences among grasses,
sedges, and broad-leaved weeds

Character Grasses Sedges Broad-leaved weeds

Leaf shape

Vein
arrangement

Stem cross-
section

Plantshape

Example Echinochloa Cyperus Monochoria

131
A common grass

Scientific name: Echinochloa glabrescens

Common name: barnyard grass

132
A common sedge

Scientific name: Cyperus iria

Common name: rice flatsedge
A common
broad-leaved weed

Scientific name: Monochoria vaginalis

Common name: monochoria

134
Differences between rice and
grasses

Rice

L
eaf
bla
de
L
igu
le

Aur
i
cle

L
eaf
she
ath

Wi
t
hli
gul
ean
dau
ri
cl
e
Grasses

Nol
i
gul
e,n
oau
ri
cl
e

L
igu
le

Wi
t
hli
gul
e,n
oau
ri
cl
e

135
When to weed the rice crop

Rice at 30 days after transplanting

Weed-free up to 10 days after Weed-free up to 30 days after

transplanting-poor growth transplanting-good growth

¢ Weeding in the first 30 days following transplanting is important.

¢ Grain yield is drastically reduced if rice is not weeded during the
early growth stages.

136
Control of weeds

138 Control by hand pulling

139 Control by mechanical means
140 Control by water management
141 Control by land preparation
142 Control by crop competition
143 Control by herbicides
Control by
hand pulling

Pulling weeds by hand is a manual method of control.

Hand pulling takes a lot of time.

138
Control by
mechanical means

¢ A rotary weeder is more efficient than hand weeding.

¢ Straight row planting is necessary when using a rotary weeder.
¢ Drain standing water from the field when using a rotary weeder.

139
Control by
water management

Water depth of 1-5 cm Water depth of 5-1 0 cm

Weed growth slightly reduced Weed growth greatly reduced

¢ Most grasses and sedges will not grow when covered with 5-10
cm of water.
¢ Flooding will not control some broad-leaved weeds.
¢ Many weed seeds do not germinate under water.

140
Control by
land preparation

Unevenly prepared land has many and large weeds

Evenly prepared land has fewer, smaller weeds

¢ Weeds can grow better than rice when land is poorly and
unevenly prepared and some areas are not covered by water.

141
Control by
crop competition

¢ The closer the plant spacing, the fewer the weeds because there
is less light for the weeds to germinate and grow in.
¢ The shorter the weeds, the less weed damage.

142
Control by herbicides

Applying powders or
liquids in solution

Applying
granules

143
Herbicides

146 Types of herbicide based on formulation

147 Types of herbicide based on time of application
148 Types of herbicide based on selectivity
149 Types of herbicide based on type of action
150 Rice injuries from too much herbicide-tillers
spread out
151 Rice injuries from too much herbicide-brown spots
152 Rice injuries from too much herbicide-onion-like
leaves
153 Rice injuries from too much herbicide-dwarfing
154 Herbicides can kill rice
Types of herbicide based on
formulation

Granular

Liquid

Wettable powder

¢ Commercial herbicides are available in granular, liquid, or powder

forms.
¢ Granular forms are broadcast; no special equipment is needed for
application.

146
Types of herbicide based on
time of application

Preemergence Postemergence

Before the weed seedlings After the weed seedlings

come out come out

¢ Time of application is very important in postemergence sprays.

Application when weeds are tall is too late.

147
Types of herbicide based on
selectivity

Paraquat 2,4-D

Nonselective herbicides will kill Selective herbicides (at low

all plants. concentration) kill only certain
plants.

¢ Carefully check the application rate-even for selective herbicides.

148
Types of herbicide based on
type of action

Co
nta
ct

No
tsp
ray
ed

Spr
aye
d

Sy
ste
mic(
tr
ans
loc
ate
d)

Spr
aye
d

No
tsp
ray
ed

Her
bi
cid
e
ap
pli
ed
t
osoi
l

¢ Contact herbicides kill the parts of the plant sprayed.

¢ Systemic (translocated) herbicides travel inside the plant and kill
the whole plant.

149
Rice injuries from too much
herbicide-tillersspread out

Sprayed with too much Sprayed with the correct

herbicide amount of herbicide

150
Rice injuries from too much
herbicide - brown spots

Leaf blade

Too much Right amount

herbicide of herbicide
Brown spots No injury

¢ Herbicide injury may look like blast or cercospora leaf spot, but a
closer look shows that the spots are round.

151
Rice injuries from too much
herbicide-onion-like leaves

Rolled leaf Healthy leaf

Too much Right amount

herbicide of herbicide

¢ The new leaves coming out are tubelike or cylindrical if too much
herbicide was applied.

152
Rice injuries from too much
herbicide-dwarfing

Too much Right amount

herbicide of herbicide

¢ Be sure to use the correct amount of herbicide. Follow the

recommended rate

153
Herbicides can kill rice

Wrong kind Right kind

of herbicide of herbicide

¢ Herbicides may kill rice plants by preventing food production or by

interfering with energy manufacture.

154
Water
management

156 Water source and loss

157 Prevent water loss
158 Critical stage in water management
159 Water and weeds
Water source and loss

T
ran
spi
r
ati
on
Ev
apo
rat
i
on

Ra
inf
al
l

I
rr
i
gat
i
on

Sur
fa
ce
d
rai
nage

See
pag
e

Per
col
at
io
n

¢ In lowland ricefields, water comes from rainfall, irrigation, surface

drainage, and seepage from other fields.
¢ Water is lost by transpiration, evaporation, seepage, and
percolation.
¢ Transpiration is the evaporation of water through plant surfaces.
¢ Seepage is the horizontal loss of water through a levee.

156
Prevent water loss

¢ Repair levees to minimize seepage.

¢ Remove weeds to prevent competition with rice plants for water.
¢ Increase the height of the levee to prevent surface runoff of
water.

157
Critical stage
in water management

¢ Lack of water at any growth stage may reduce grain yield.

¢ Leaf-rolling, leaf-scorching, stunting, delayed flowering, high
sterility, and poor grain filling are common symptoms of water
deficit.
¢ The rice plant is most sensitive to water deficit from booting to
flowering. Make sure there is sufficient water at these stages.
¢ Once sterility occurs because of water deficit, the plant cannot
compensate for it.

158
Water and weeds

Water level too shallow Proper water level

¢ Maintain a 5-1 0 cm water level, especially during the early

vegetative phase.
¢ This level will prevent the germination and growth of many weeds.
¢ Do not allow the field to dry during the early growth stages.

159
FARM ANALYSIS
AND
IMPROVEMENT
How to select the
variety to plant

164 High grain yield potential

165 Resistance to insects and diseases
166 Grain quality desired by consumers
168 High grain yield at the specific location
169 Wide climatic adaptability
170 Desired growth duration
171 Tolerance for specific local soil problems
High grain yield potential

Traditional variety Modern variety

Modern varieties have greater yield potential than traditional

varieties.
Even under the best conditions, traditional varietles cannot yield
more than modern varieties.
Use of fertilizers and improved farming practices will increase
grain yield more in modern varieties than in traditional ones.
Choose only from recommended varleties to minimize insect and
disease infestation.
Secure certified or good class seed for the selected variety.

164
Resistance to insects
and diseases

Variety is not resistant to Variety is resistant to

Insects and diseases. insects and diseases.
lnsecticide and fungicide
protection needed.

¢ Varieties differ in reactions to different pests. Select a variety

resistant to pests and diseases in the area.
¢ Select the right variety to minimize pesticide cost.

165
Grain quality desired
by consumers

Rice quality based on grain size and shape

Size: Long Medium Medium Short

Shape: Slender Medium Bold Round

¢ People have different preferences for size and shape of grain.

166
Rice quality based on amylose content.

Cooked rice Amylose content Examples

Hard texture, High amylose, IR8, IR42, IR52

dull appearance, hardens quickly
fluffy, big after cooking
volume expansion

High amylose, IR5, IR32, IR36,

hardens slowly IR50
after cooking

Intermediate In Intermediate IR48, C12, C168,

texture amylose UPLRi-2, C4-63,
BPI-121-407,
Milagrosa, Azucena,
Daggee

Soft texture, Low amylose IR24, IR43

glossy, moist,
sticky, tends to
readily split and
break up when
overcooked

Tender, sticky, Waxy IR29, Malagkit

moist, glossy, Sungsong, UPLRi-1
takes up very
little water; mostly
for making desserts

Amylose is the relatively soluble portion of starch.

167
High grain yield at the
specific location

¢ Farmers' evaluations of new rice selections show which varieties

produce high grain yields.
¢ Observe performance of rice varieties at the specific location.

168
Wide climatic adaptability

Sowing Flowering

¢ Most traditional varieties, such as Raminad Strain 3, flower only

when the days are short.

¢ Modern varieties, such as IR8, do not require short days to

flower. They can be planted any time of the year and harvested
after a definite number of days.
¢ This important characteristic of modern varieties makes more
than one crop per year possible.

169
Desired growth duration

Cropping patterns

¢ Desired growth duration depends on the cropping pattern.

¢ The length of time the rice crop is in the field is more flexible if
only one crop is planted per year.
¢ Shorter growth durations are needed if two crops are to be
grown.
¢ Rice crops with a shorter growth duration need intensive care.
Damage at any growth stage will greatly decrease grain yield.

170
Tolerance for specific local
soil problems

¢ Saline soils: low-lying coastal areas often flooded by sea water.

Tolerant varieties: IR4-11, lR2071-88-8-10.
¢ Zinc-deficient soils: soil or seedling treatment can overcome zinc
deficiency.
Tolerant varieties: IR34, lR2307-14-2-2.
¢ Phosphorus- and iron-deficient soils:
Varieties tolerant of phosphorus deficiency: RDI, Pelita/l, IR34.
Varieties tolerant of Iron deficiency: MI-48, IR36.
¢ Iron, manganese, and aluminum toxic soils:
Varieties tolerant of iron toxicity: IR34, IR46, lR9764-45-3.
Varieties tolerant of aluminum and manganese toxicity: IR36,
IR45, IR46.

171
Lowland rice
plant type with
high yield potential

174 Short stature

175 Nonlodging
176 Erect leaves
177 Short leaves
178 Flag leaf higher than the panicle
179 Good tillering
180 Erect tillers
181 The ideal tiller
182 Good plant type
Short stature

¢ Reduced plant height is the most important factor to increase the

grain yield potential of rice.
¢ Shorter plants are more resistant to lodging.
¢ The lower leaves of tall, leafy plants receive very little light.
¢ Shorter plants can take up more nitrogen fertilizer without
lodging, resulting in higher grain yields.

174
Nonlodging

N fertilizer Tall variety Short variety

Tall variety lodges

¢ Plant height increases with nitrogen application. Lodging can

become a problem because added fertilizer results in taller plants,
heavier panicles, and top-heavy plants.
¢ Many leaves decay on the lodged plants because they are soaked
in water and do not receive enough light.
¢ Short, stiff stems prevent lodging.

175
Erect leaves

¢ Droopy leaves mean that the lower leaves receive very little light.
¢ At the same spacing and for leaves of the same length, erect
leaves do not shade lower leaves very much.

176
Short leaves

Poor leaf type Good leaf type

Shorter leaves are more erect because they have less weight to
carry.

177
Flag leaf higher than
the panicle

Fl
agl
eaf
(l
ast
lea
f)

Poor Good

¢ The leaves should get as much light as possible.

¢ The upper leaves are shaded less if the panicles do not extend far
above the flag leaf.

178
Good tillering

Poor tillering ability Good tillering ability

Even if some plants die soon after transplanting, good tillering

ability ensures adequate tillers per unit area.
For direct seeding, a low-tillering plant may yield more.

179
Erect tillers

Upright tillers contribute to better light distribution, resulting in

more food production and higher grain yield.

180
The ideal tiller

181
Good plant type

Poor plant type Good plant type

¢ A good plant type has

- short stature (nonlodging),
- erect, short leaves,
- flag leaf higher than panicle, and
- erect tillers.

182
Factors that affect
lodging

184 Plant height

185 Light intensity
186 Spacing
187 Amount of fertilizer
188 Method of sowing
189 Wind and rain
190 Type of leaf sheath
191 Stem thickness
Plant height

Not resistant to lodging Resistant to lodging

¢ The taller the plant, the greater the tendency to lodge.

¢ Short, stiff stems prevent lodging.
¢ Avoid using tall varieties during wet season.

184
Light intensity

¢ Cloudy weather results in taller plants that have a greater

tendency to lodge.
¢ Lodging is more common during wet season.

185
Spacing

Spacing is too close Not resistant to lodging

Correct spacing Resistant to lodging

186
The ideal tiller

¢ CFertilizer (mostly nitrogen) increases plant height. Tall varieties

cannot stand too much fertilizer.

187
Method of sowing

Less resistant to More resistant to

lodging lodging

Transplanted rice is more resistant to lodging than broadcast rice

because the base of the plant is better anchored.

188
Wind and rain

¢ Wind and rain can make a plant lodge. The stronger the wind, the
more likely the plant will lodge.
¢ Many leaves on lodged plants decay and become unproductive
because they are soaked in water or do not receive sufficient
light.
¢ Avoid using tall varieties during wet season.

189
Type of leaf sheath

Exposed internodes Overlapping leaf sheaths

L
eaf
b
lad
es
L
eaf
She
ath
s

I
nt
er
nod
e

Not resistant to lodging Resistant to lodging

Overlapping leaf sheaths result in thicker and stronger stems.

190
Stem thickness

l
eaf
she
ath

I
nt
er
nod
e

Not resistant to lodging Resistant to lodging

Cross-section of 2 stems or culms

¢ The thicker the leaf sheath and the internode, the greater the
resistance to lodging.

191
How to judge
a rice crop at
flowering

194 Uniform plant height

195 No lodging
196 Lodging may indicate spacing was too close
197 Lodging may indicate too much fertilizer was applied
198 Lodging may indicate variety used was too tall
199 White to brown roots
200 Green, undamaged leaves
201 At least 3-4 leaves per tiller
202 250-350 panicles per square meter
204 Correct plant density
Uniform plant height

¢ Irregular plant height can mean

- drought, insect, or disease incidence;
- uneven land preparation;
- uneven fertilization; or
- mixed seeds.

194
No lodging

Lodged Not lodged

¢ Lodging may indicate

- plants were too closely spaced,
- too much fertilizer was used, or
- the variety used was too tall for that area and for the planting
season.

195
Lodging may indicate
spacing was too close

Spacing too close Lodged

Correct spacing Not lodged

¢ Correct spacing depends on

- the variety,
- soil fertility,
- the amount and type of fertilizer applied, and
- season of planting.

196
Lodging may indicate
too much fertilizer was applied

Too much fertilizer Proper amount of

fertilizer

Too much fertilizer causes plants to grow tall; therefore they

become more likely to lodge.

197
Lodging may indicate
variety used was too tall

198
White to brown roots

¢ Black roots and a bad smell indicate something is wrong with the
soil, such as:
- lack of drainage,
- lack of air,
- Iron toxicity, or
- presence of toxic substances.

199
Green, undamaged leaves

Damaged leaves Green

undamaged
leaf

¢ Yellow leaves may indicate a lack of nitrogen or presence of

disease.
¢ Jagged leaves may indicate attacks by pests.
¢ Spotted or discolored leaves may indicate disease, nutrient
deficiency, or soil toxicity.

200
At least 3-4 leaves per tiller

Pat
hofst
ar
ch
p
roduc
edby
g
reenl
eaves

De
adl
eav
es

Two leaves at flowering Four leaves at flowering

A tiller needs 3-4 leaves

- to provide the roots and other parts with food and
- to fill the spikelets with starch produced in the leaves.
Suspect a soil deficiency or water stress at an earlier growth
stage if a tiller has only two leaves.

201
250-350 panicles
per square meter

Start counting here

¢ Determine the number of panicles per hill by counting at least

three hills inside the field. Use the average. Do not use hills in
the first three rows from the levee.

202
¢ Figure out the spacing used and calculate the number of hills per
square meter.
If the distance between hills is 25 centimeters, then the
area per hill = 25 x 25 = 625 square centimeters
= 0.0625 square meter
Number of hills = 1 square meter
per square meter area per hill
= 1 square meter
0.0625 square meter
= 16
¢ Calculate the number of panicles per square meter assuming 20
panicles per hill (determined by counting) and 16 hills per square
meter.
Number of
panicles per = Number of panicles per hill x number of hills
square meter per square meter
= 20 x 16
= 320
¢ If number of panicles per square meter is less than 250,
something is wrong with the method of farming, the rice variety,
or the soil. Also check spacing and fertilizer application.

203
Correct plant density

The correct number of plants per unit area can be checked by

standing on a levee. If you can barely see the water or sun's rays
sparkle, the plant density is good.
If you cannot see the water, the spacing is probably too close, too
much fertilizer has been applied, or the variety is too tall.

204
Yield components

206 Growth stages when yield components are

determined
207 Sowing affects yield
208 Leaf development and tillering affect yield
209 Panicle formation affects yield
210 Flowering affects yield
211 Ripening affects yield
212 Variations in yield components-panicle weight
and number types
213 Importance of yield components
Growth stages when
yield components
are determined

Sowing Tillering Panicle Flowering Ripening

formation
(magnified
20 times)

Panicles Spikelets Fertility of Weight

Grain yield = per unit X per X of a single
X spikelets
area panicle grain

¢ Every stage of growth contributes to grain yield. Good

management is necessary at all stages.
¢ Environmental factors affect every stage.

206
Sowing affects yield

One seedling per hill

Dead seedlings result in poor growth or empty hills.

Two seedlings per hill

¢ Survival of the planted rice seedlings determines the number of

tillers that will be produced.
¢ Healthy seedlings and careful transplanting help ensure that more
plants live.
¢ Transplant at least two seedlings per hill.

207
Leaf development and tillering
affect yield

The number of tillers determines the number of panicles and is

the most important factor in achieving high grain yield.
Enough leaves are necessary to ensure many spikelets per
panicle and also to fill these spikelets.
Enough water, the right amount of fertillzer, proper spacing, and
good weed control produce the most tillers.

208
Panicle formation
affects yield

Young panicle

¢ The number of spikelets per panicle is determined at the panicle

formation stage.
¢ Very low temperatures and low light intensity during this stage
increase spikelet abortion.
¢ Spikelet abortion means lower yield.
¢ The amount of nitrogen in the plant can affect the number of
spikelets per panicle.

209
Flowering affects yield

¢ Transfer of the male cell to the female cell located in the ovary
occurs at flowering.
¢ Successful transfer will determine whether the spikelet develops
into a grain.
¢ The percentage of spikelet fertility is an important yield
component.

210
Ripening affects yield

Front view Side view Front view Side view

Partially filled spikelet Fully filled spikelet

¢ The weight of a single grain is determined at ripening.

¢ Drought and low light intensity between flowering and ripening
can cause lower grain weight.
¢ Poor tillering or low tiller number per unit area can partially be
compensated for by increasing spikelet fertility or the weight per
grain.

211
Variations in yield components-
panicle weight and number types

Few but large panicles- Many but small panicles-

panicle weight type panicle number type

¢ Increase in grain yield of panicle weight types is usually the result

of an increase in the weight per panicle.
¢ Increase in grain yield of panicle number types is usually the
result of an increase in the number of panicles.
¢ Most modern varieties are panicle number types. Traditional
varieties are panicle weight types.

212
Importance of
yield components

¢ Study the factors contributing to grain yield to understand why

yields are high or low.
¢ Estimate yield by studying a representative area of 1 square
meter.
¢ Each yield component shows wide variation. The number of
spikelets per panicle in a variety can vary from about 50 to more
than 200.
¢ The percentage of filled spikelets greatly depends on
environmental conditions,

213
Importance of
yield components

¢ Target yield = 4 tons/hectare or 400 grams/square meter

¢ Characteristics of the variety used:
- Number of panicles per hill = 14
- Spikelets per panicle = 100
- Percentage of filled spikelets = 83.3%
- Weight of a single grain = 0.025 gram
¢ Use this formula to determine the number of panicles per square
meter needed to achieve the target yield:
Yield in Weight
Panicles Spikelets Percentage
grams per of a single
= per square x per x filled x
square grain in
meter panicle spikelets
meter grams

400 grams = (panicles/square meter) x 100 x 83.3 x 0.025

~

100
400
Panicles/square meter = = 192
100 x 0.833 x 0.025
¢ If the spacing used was 25 x 25 centimeters or
16 hills/square meter
192 panicles/square meter
= 12 panicles/hill
16 hills/square meter
¢ The variety used can produce more than 12 panicles per hill at
25- x 25-centimeter spacing. Target yield could be obtained.
¢ If the actual yield was below 400 grams/square meter, something
was wrong with the crop. Study the yield components in detail t o
understand what possibly went wrong.

214
How to use
yield components

216 Panicles per unit area

217 Spikelets per panicle
218 Fertility of spikelets
219 Weight of a single grain
Panicles per unit area

Actual: Expected:
6 panicles 14 panicles

Problem: few panicles per square meter

¢ A soil deficiency or inadequate fertilizer application can reduce

panicle number. Lack of water or pest/disease damage during
early growth can also cause this.

216
Spikelets per panicle

Actual: Expected:
60 spikelets 100 spikelets

Problem: few spikelets per panicle

¢ The problem can occur a little before, during, or after spikelet

formation (26-1 6 days before flowering). Lack of sunlight, lack of
food or nutrients, or heavy disease or insect damage to the leaves
can cause this problem.

217
Fertility of spikelets

Actual: Expected:
50% filled spikelets 80% filled spikelets

Problem: low percentage of filled spikelets

¢ A low percentage of filled spikelets can result if temperature at

flowering is too low (less than 20 °C) or too high (above 35 °C),
the plants lodge, there is a lack of water at flowering, or too much
nitrogen is applied at the panicle initiation stage.

218
Weight of a single grain

Actual: Expected:
20 grams per 1000 grains 25 grams per 1000 grains

Problem: low weight of a single grain

Unfavorable conditions after flowering, such as not enough food,

not enough leaves to produce the food, or cloudy weather, can
cause low grain weight.

219