ABSTRACT

Since 1950 to 2018, about 6.3 billion tonnes of plastics have been produced worldwide, 9%
and 12% of which have been recycled and incinerated, respectively. Human population
increase and consistent demand for plastics and plastic products are responsible for continuous
increase in the production of plastics, generation of plastic waste and its accompanied
environmental pollution. We have reviewed in this paper, the most relevant literatures on the
different types of plastics in production, the hazardous chemical constituents, prevailing
disposal methods and the detrimental effects of these constituents to air, water, soil, organisms
and human health viz-a-viz the different disposal methods. Papers that reported environmental
and public health effects of plastic constituents but not plastics directly were also reviewed.
Varieties of plastics used in the production of many consumable products including medical
devices, food packaging and water bottles contain toxic chemicals like phthalates, heavy
metals, bisphenol A. brominated flame retardants, nonylphenol, polychlorinated
biphenylethers, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, phenanthrene etc. An estimated 8 million
tonnes of plastic is yearly released into the ocean, leading to degradation of marine habitat
which eventually affects aquatic organisms. Long term usage and exposure of plastics and
plastic products to high temperature can lead to leaching of toxic chemical constituents into
food, drinks and water. Indiscriminate disposal of plastics on land and open air burning can
lead to the release of toxic chemicals into the air causing public health hazards. This paper also
presents recommendations for global prevention and control of plastic wastes.

KEYWORDS
Plastic waste, Environmental contamination, Pollution, Public health, Toxic chemicals
Introduction

Plastics are made up of synthetic organic polymers which are widely used in different
applications ranging from water bottles, clothing, food packaging, medical supplies, electronic
goods, construction materials, etc [1]. In the last six decades, plastics became an indispensable
and versatile product with a wide range of properties, chemical composition and applications.
Although, plastic was initially assumed to be harmless and inert, however, many years of
plastic disposal into the environment has led to diverse associated problems. Environmental
pollution by plastic wastes is now recognized widely to be a major environmental burden [ 2,3],
especially in the aquatic environment where there is prolong biophysical breakdown of plastics
[4,5], detrimental negative effects on wildlife [6,7], and limited plastic removal options [5,7,8].
In many instances, sheeting and packaging plastics are disposed of after usage, however,
because of their durability, such plastics are located everywhere and persistent in the
environment. Research on the monitoring and impacts of plastic wastes is still at the infancy
stage, but thus far, the reports are worrisome. In human occupational and residential
environment, plastics made of petrol-based polymer are present in high quantity. At the end-of-
life of these plastics, they are usually land-filled together with municipal solid waste. Plastics
have several toxic constituents among which are phthalates, poly-fluorinated chemicals,
bisphenol A (BPA), brominated flame retardants and antimony trioxide which can leach out to
have adverse effects on environmental and public health. Plastics in electronic waste (e-waste)
have become a serious global environmental and public health concern due to its large
production volume and the presence of inadequate management policies in several countries.
Reports from China, Nigeria, and India indicated that plastic hazardous substances from e-
wastes can migrate beyond the processing sites and into the environment [9-11].
Global Production of Plastics and Generation of Waste
In modern life, plastics are ubiquitous. Its early usage dated back to 1600 B.C., at the time
when human hands shaped natural rubber and polymerized into different useful objects in
prehistoric Mesoamerica [12]. Diverse usage and manufacturing of plastics and plastic
products began in 1839 when polystyrene (PS) and vulcanized rubber were discovered [ 13].
Production of bakelite which is the first truly synthetic polymer was in 1907 in Belgium [ 14],
however, by 1930, bakelite was everywhere, especially in fashion, communication and
electrical and automotive industries [15]. It took a decade after this for mass production of
plastics to begin and it has constantly expanded ever since.
As at 2008, the annual plastic production was estimated to be 245 million tons globally [ 16].
At present, single-use packaging is the largest sector, accounting for almost 40% of the overall
plastic usage in Europe [17], this is followed by consumer goods, materials for construction,
automotive, electrical and agriculture applications at 22%, 20%, 9%, 6% and 3%, respectively
[15]. It was estimated in 2015, that the highest rate of production is in Asia (with 49% of total
global output, with China as the largest world producer (28%), followed by North America and
Europe at 19% each. In terms of production, the rest regions are of lesser importance although
not necessarily in terms of plastic consumption [15].
Current World Production Rate of Plastics
Globally, plastic production was estimated to be 380 million tonnes in 2018. Since 1950 to
2018, plastics of about 6.3 billion tonnes have been produced worldwide, 9% and 12% of
which have been recycled and incinerated, respectively [18]. Plastics of about 5 million tonnes
are yearly consumed in UK alone, with only about one-quarter recycled, and the rest landfilled.
It has been suggested by researchers that by 2050, oceans might contain more plastics than fish
in terms of weight [19]. Yearly, approximately 500 billion plastic bags are used out of which an
estimated 13 million tonnes ends up in the ocean, killing approximately 100,000 marine lives
[18].
Future Projection of Production of Plastic
Plastic productions has increased in twenty-fold since 1964. Globally, approximately 311
million tonnes of plastics were produced in 2014, expected to double in about 20 year time and
possibly quadruple by 2050 [20]. International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook in 2015
estimated that, the largest application, plastic packaging (26% of the overall volume), is
envisaged to have continuous strong growth, which might double within 15 years, with a
possibility of fourfold increase by 2050, to about 318 million tonnes yearly, which is higher
than the whole plastic industry today.
Plastic Types
There are different types of plastics based on their constituents and type of materials used in
their production. Table 1 shows the different types of plastics, their properties and common
uses [21].
 Table 1: Types of plastics, their properties and common uses. View Table 1
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a type of plastic which is smooth, transparent and
relatively thin. It is also called stomach plastics. PET is commonly used during disposable
salad dressing, juice, mouthwash, vegetable oil, cosmetics, soft drinks, margarine and water
bottles production, because it is anti-inflammatory and fully liquid. PET is also anti-air,
preventing entrance of oxygen into it [1]. Antimony trioxide, an inorganic compound, is used
as a catalyst for the production of PET and rubber vulcanization [ 18]. Plastics made from PET
must be prevented from high temperatures so as to prevent the leaching of some toxic additives
such as acetaldehyde, antimony and phthalates. Antimony is a possible human carcinogen [ 1].
Generally, PET is manufactured for single use only [1].
High-density polyethylene
Worldwide, the most used plastic is polyethylene. High-density polyethylene is a heat-resistant
plastic produced from petroleum. It is a major constituent of refrigerators, detergent bottles,
toys, milk containers, varieties of plastic grocery bags, etc. No phthalates or BPA is present in
high-density polyethylene. High-density polyethylene container is generally considered safe
for drink and food because it has no reported health risk even though some studies showed that
a long time exposure of the plastics to sunlight can make it harmful [1].
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), a type of heat-resistant polymer, is used for packaging fruit juice,
cooking oil, etc. PVC is considered highly toxic due to the presence of chemical constituents
like heavy metals, dioxins, BPA and phthalates. Depending on non-plasticization, PVC is
flexible due to the presence of phthalates. Phthalates are harmful to humans. The entire PVC
life cycle which include the production, usage and disposal are capable of causing severe
environmental and public health risks, hence, its usage has considerably reduced. However,
due to cost-effectiveness and versatility, PVC remains very popular in the production of
consumer goods. PVC have been reported to cause chronic bronchitis, birth defects, genetic
changes, cancer, skin diseases, deafness, vision failure, ulcers, liver dysfunction and
indigestion [1].
Low-density polyethylene
Low-density polyethylene is heat resistant, fragile, flexible and rigid. It is commonly used in
packaging of milk, frozen foods and juices. Because the plastic does not have any component
that is harmful to human body, its usage is termed safe for beverages and food [1].
Polypropylene
Polypropylene, a type of plastics, is strong and semi-transparent. It is heavier and stronger than
polyethylene. It is used for packaging medicine, yogurt, ketchup, beverage, etc. Plastics made
of polypropylene have no harmful substances and like polyethylene, polypropylene containers
are considered safe for humans as packages for food and beverages [1].
Polystyrene
Polystyrene, a type of petroleum-based plastic, contains benzene which is carcinogenic to
humans [1]. Polystyrene is commonly used in the production of insulators and packaging
materials. Products from styrene are hazardous to health. Report of Dowty, et al. [ 22] showed
that a long-term exposure to small quantity of styrene can be neurotoxic and causing
cytogenetic, carcinogenic and hematological effects. The International Agency for Research on
Cancer (IARC) has categorized styrene as a human carcinogen [1].
Polycarbonate
Polycarbonates are used for packaging consumer goods such as reusable bottles. It contains
BPA. Due to exposure to high temperature, BPA can be leached from polycarbonated container
into the drink or food stored in them. Because BPA's health risk has been reported in several
studies, the usage of polycarbonated plastics have greatly decreased [1].
Size of plastics: Macro and microplastics
Size of plastics can be used for their classification, aside the plastic types and their chemical
composition. There are two major classification of plastics at sea: 1) Macro (these are plastics
higher 20 mm in diameter) and; 2) Micro (plastics which are less than 5 mm in diameter)
plastics. Of these two plastic sizes, the microplastics are the major pollutants documented for
deteriorating the ecosystem. This microplastics are either produced by design and are called
primary microplastics, or they are formed as a result of degradation of macroplastic called
secondary microplastics [23,24].
The major issues in plastic waste centered around the microplastics due to an increase
difficulty in their monitoring and a greater effect at the physical and chemical levels on
environmental and public health, because of their higher volume-to-surface area ratio [ 25].
Inadequate waste management and indiscriminate dumping are the major routes of entry of
microplastics into the marine environment [26]. Direct production of microplastics such as
plastic pellets is common, as such are used in fabricating larger items as raw material,
however, microplastics can also be produced through mechanical disintegration of larger
plastics or plastic products. This is the case in the breakdown of plastic ropes to finer filaments
such as microfibers.
Environmental release of large quantities of microplastics is in form of cosmetic products and
cleaning ingredients such as toothpaste and microbeads in face-wash. Because of the health
effects of microplastics, countries like Canada, USA and others are now phasing out their
usage in certain personal care products. Reports of recent research suggest that the detrimental
effects of microplastics especially microbeads, micro plastic fibres and degraded macroplastics
in aquatic environment might be higher than that of macroplastics [ 27-29], although studies
and legislations to manage plastic pollution are still inadequate.
Management of Plastic Wastes
Landfilling
Approximately 10% of household waste is plastics and mostly end up on the landfill [ 30]. Even
though landfilling is the commonest waste management conventional approach in many
countries, however, scarcity of space for landfills is becoming a major problem. For example,
historically, landfilling was attractive in the UK because it is relatively cheap and simple
without necessarily requiring treatment, cleaning or separation. In 1999, 65% (8.4 million
tonnes per annum) of the overall household waste recoverable plastics were sent to landfill in
Western Europe [31], but at present in the UK, plastic waste landfilling is the least favoured
waste management option. There is a growing environmental and public health concern about
the potential effects of landfills because of the types and quantities of toxic chemicals and their
potential for leaching at landfill sites [32]. It is now a government policy in the UK to reduce
the amount of wastes landfilled (e.g. Landfill Directive European Commission 1999/31/EC)
which has been difficult to materialize as an estimated 60% of England's municipal wastes is
still sent to the landfills compared to an estimated of 20% and 37% in Germany and France,
respectively [33].
Environmental pollution and risks to public health can be reduced if the landfills are well-
managed, although there are possibilities of soil and groundwater contamination by
disintegrated plastic byproducts and additives that can persist in the environment on long-term
basis [34,35].
Plastic incineration
An alternative to landfilling of plastic waste is incineration, but growing concerns exist about
the potential atmospheric release of hazardous chemicals during the process. For instance,
plastic waste fumes release halogenated additives and polyvinyl chloride, while furans,
dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are released from incineration of plastics into
the environment [36]. The disadvantage of combustion of plastics is the air pollution caused by
the noxious fumes released into the atmospheres. The combustion heater of the flue systems is
permanently damaged by plastics during plastic incineration and the products of this plastic
combustion are detrimental to both humans and the environment. Compounds of low molecular
weight can vaporize directly into the air thereby polluting the air and based on their varieties,
some may form a combustible mixture, while others may oxidize in solid form.
Incineration of plastics is usually accompanied with the formation of chark, and the coking
extent is dependent on the conditions of incineration [37]. Gaseous release in the process of
plastic and plastic composite products incineration are very dangerous. For example, Table 2
shows the compounds release during the incineration of PVC and the health effects of these
compounds. In the process of incineration of plastics, soot, ashes and different powders are
produced, which eventually settles on plants and soil, with the potential to migrate to the
aquatic environment. Rainfall can make some of these toxic compounds to sink into the soil,
contaminate the ground water or absorbed by plants growing on this soil, thus, becoming
incorporated into the food chain. Some of these plastic incineration products can chemically
react with water and the resulting compounds can alter the pH thereby change the functioning
of aquatic ecosystems.
 Table 2: Compounds generated during the incineration of polyvinylchloride and their harmful
effects. View Table 2
Due to the potential pollution impact on the environment, plastic incineration is less employed
for waste management in comparison to recycling and landfilling. Notable exceptions to this
are European countries like Sweden and Denmark, as well as Japan, with massive incinerator
facilities for managing municipal solid waste including plastics. However, countries like
Hungary has enacted regulations, 29/2014. (XI. 28.) Regulation of the Ministry of Agriculture
on waste incineration, which allow for only licensed plastic waste incineration plants to
incinerate plastics, while all other forms of burning plastic waste are banned [ 37]. An
advantage of plastic incineration is the recovery of energy from the plastic wastes [ 30].
Recycling of plastics
Reprocessing of recovered plastic scraps or wastes into usable products is called plastic
recycling. Most plastics are non-biodegradable in nature, hence, the fundamental work is
reduction of waste emissions, effective management and recycling of resulting wastes [ 38,39].
Recycling of plastics is a major aspect of the worldwide efforts in minimizing the yearly 8
million tonnes of plastics in the waste stream entering the Earth's ocean [ 8,40]. According to
Hopewell, et al. [30], plastic recycling terminology is complex due to varieties of recovery
activities and recycling. There are four main categories of recycling which are: primary (which
involves the mechanical reprocessing of plastics into a new product with equivalent
properties), secondary (which involves the mechanical reprocessing of plastics into a product
with lower properties), tertiary (which involves the recovery of the chemical constituents of the
plastics) and quaternary (which involves energy recovery from the plastics).
In comparison to the lucrative metal recycling but similar to the low value of glass recycling,
recycling of plastics is often more challenging because of low density and low value. Also,
there are several technical issues to deal with when recycling plastic. Melting together of
different plastic types often cause phase-separation similar to oil and water, and they set in
these layers. The resulting phase boundaries is responsible for structural weakness in the final
product(s), which has limited the application of this polymer blends. This is the case with
polyethylene and polypropylene, which are the two plastics commonly manufactured, and
therefore has limited their use for recycling. Of recent, block copolymers has been proposed as
a form of macromolecular welding flux [41] or molecular stitches [42] in other to overcome
this challenge of phase-separation during plastic recycling [43].
There can be increase in the percentage of plastics with the possibility of full recycling instead
of the large quantity generated as wastes if package good manufacturers reduce their mixing of
packaging materials and eliminate contaminants. In view of this, a design guide has been
issued by the Association of Plastics Recyclers for recyclability of plastics [ 44]. There has been
an increase in the volume of post-consumer plastics recycled since 1990, although it is still
incomparable to other items like corrugated fiberboard (approximately 70%) and newspaper
(approximately 80%) [45]. For example, in US, the post-consumer plastic wastes generated in
2008 was approximately 33.6 million tons, out of which 6.5% (2.2 million tons) were recycled,
while 8% (2.6 million tons) and 86% (28.9 million tons) were burned and landfilled,
respectively [46].
Some governments use policy to encourage postconsumer recycling, such as the EU Directive
on packaging and packaging waste (94/62/EC). This subsequently led Germany to set-up
legislation for extended producer responsibility that resulted in the die Gru¨nePunkt (Green
Dot) scheme to implement recovery and recycling of packaging. In the UK, producer
responsibility was enacted through a scheme for generating and trading packaging recovery
notes, plus more recently a landfill levy to fund a range of waste reduction activities. As a
consequence of all the above trends, the market value of recycled polymer and hence the
viability of recycling have increased markedly over the last few years, Globally in 2015, about
9% of the 6.3 billion tons plastic wastes generated had been recycled, while 12% and 79%
were incinerated and landfilled, respectively [14]. However, in 2016, the global rate of
recycling grew to about 14% of the total generated plastic waste [47]. Major contributors to
this increment include countries like Japan, where plastic waste recycling rose from 39%
(1996) to 83% (2014) according to their Plastic Waste Management Institute [48].
Environmental pollution by plastic wastes
Distribution of plastic waste is associated with human populations. Increase in human
population has led to increase demands for plastics and plastic products. Indiscriminate
disposal of wastes from plastics and plastic products can lead to environmental pollution which
is evident in several ways including environmental natural beauty deterioration [ 49],
entanglement and death of aquatic organisms [50,51], sewage system blockage in towns and
cities especially in developing countries [52], resulting in creating conducive environment for
breeding mosquitoes and other disease causing vectors and production of foul smells [ 53],
reduction in water percolation and normal agricultural soils aeration thus causing reduced
productivity in such lands [54].
Land Pollution
In human occupational and residential environment, plastic products are present in large
volume. Pollution by plastics and plastic products can damage and contaminate the terrestrial
environment and can be subsequently transferred to the aquatic environment. There is a
shortage of data on the volume of plastic wastes on land in comparison to the voluminous data
which exist on plastic debris in marine habitat, despite the fact that about 80% of plastic waste
present at sea originates from land-related sources [55]. Dumping of plastics on land or
landfilling plastics leads to abiotic and biotic degradation of the plastics, where plastic
additives (e.g. stabilizers, harmful colorant moieties, plasticizers and heavy metals) can leach
and eventually percolate into various aspects of the environment, thereby causing soil and
water contamination. Reports have shown that microplastics [56] as well as synthetic polymer
fibres are still detectable five years after they have been applied to sewage sludge and soils
[57]. Chlorinated plastics are capable of leaching out toxic chemicals into the soil and
subsequently seep into the underground water or surrounding aquatic system thereby polluting
the ecosystem. Methane, a dangerous greenhouse gas, which significantly contributes to global
warming is released during microbial biodegradation of plastics [58].
Water Pollution
Approximately 165 million tonnes of plastic wastes were estimated to be present in the oceans
of the world in 2012 [59], while an average of 8 million tonnes of plastics are annually
released into the ocean [8], with about 5 trillion plastic pieces floating on the ocean [60].
Typically, plastics in the oceans can degrade within a year but not completely. During this
plastic degradation process, toxic chemicals like polystyrene and BPA can be released into the
water [59] causing water pollution. Wastes found in the oceans are made up of approximately
80% plastics. Plastic debris which are floating on the ocean can be rapidly colonized by sea
organisms and due to persistence on the ocean surface for a long period of time, this mayaid
the movement of 'alien' or non-native species [61-63]. Contaminants from microplastics are
bioavailable for many marine lives because of their presence in benthic and pelagic ecosystems
and their small sizes [64]. Within the marine ecosystem, plastics have been reported to
concentrate and sorb contaminants present in the seawater from different other sources.
Examples of such contaminants are persistent organic pollutants like nonylphenol, PCBs,
dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and phenanthrene, with potential to accumulate in
several fold on the plastic debris compared to the surrounding seawater [65]. More than 260
species of marine organisms such as turtles, invertebrates, seabirds, fish and mammals ingested
or are entangled in or with plastic debris, leading to reduced movement, feeding, reproductive
output, ulcers, lacerations and eventual death [63,66].
Air Pollution
Carbon dioxide and methane are released into the air when plastic wastes which were
landfilled finally decompose. During the decomposition of solid waste in landfills in 2008, an
estimated CO2 equivalent (eqCO2) volume released into the atmosphere was 20 million tonnes.
CO2 is also released into the atmosphere during the burning of plastics and plastic products,
and this CO2 is capable of trapping radiant heat and hinder it from escaping from the earth
causing global warming [67]. Air pollution is one of the major environmental threats to public
health, and it is responsible for more than 6 million deaths associated with environmental
pollution [68]. Open burning of plastics and plastic products releases pollutants such as heavy
metals, dioxins, PCBs and furans which when inhaled can cause health risks especially
respiratory disorders. The role of plastics in air pollution in the developing and poor countries
of the world cannot be overemphasized, and the impact on the future generations may be
massive [68].
Effects of Plastic Wastes on Animals
Food supplies for human consumption can be adversely affected if animals are poisoned by
toxic constituents from wastes of plastics and plastic products [69]. Indeed, report of threat to
survival of large marine mammals have been documented due to large amount of plastic wastes
entering the world oceans [70].
Animals are exposed to plastic wastes majorly through ingestion and entanglement, however,
ingestion is more frequent than entanglement. Most animals in the oceans mistaking plastic
wastes dumped in the ocean for food, thereby ingesting them. Furthermore, entanglement in
plastic products like nets can cause harm, damage and even death in marine animals. Reports
have shown that more than 260 different species of vertebrate and invertebrate animals ingest
plastics or are entangled by plastic or plastic products, with more than 400,000 deaths of
marine mammals [69]. Marine pollution by plastic wastes majorly affects sea turtles and other
species whose main food are jelly fishes because they often confuse discarded plastic bags for
jelly fish. A similar situation is common in sea birds which can confuse microplastics for
cuttlefish or with fishes, which can mistake plastic wastes for their natural prey [ 63]. Ingestion
of plastic wastes is capable of causing obstruction and physical damage to bird's digestive
system, reduce the digestive ability of the system leading to starvation, malnutrition and
eventually, death.
Many birds, turtles, fishes, seals and other marine animals have died by drowning or
suffocation as a result of entanglement in plastic debris. Entanglement has been observed to
cause health risks in estimated 243 species of marine lives, often ending in fatalities. Animal
entanglement by plastic debris also contributes to death from predators, as the animals are
unable to untangle themselves and escape [71]. Coral reefs have been damaged by dragging
nets and other plastic products along sea beds [63]. Often times, discarded fishing nets also
called "ghost nets" trap marine animals, leading to starvation and death. Table 3 shows the
effects of different types of plastics on animals and the mechanism(s) of action.
 Table 3: Effects of plastic wastes on animals and their mechanism(s) of action.  View Table 3
Public Health Effects of Plastic Wastes
It is generally believed that plastic polymers are lethargic and of little concern to public health,
however, different types of additives and the residual monomers possibly retained from these
polymers are responsible for the suspected health risks [72]. Most of the additives present in
plastics are potential carcinogens and endocrine disruptors [18]. Ingestion, skin contact and
inhalation are the main routes of exposure of humans to these additives. Dermatitis have been
reported from skin contact with some of the additives present in plastics [ 73]. Microplastics are
major contaminants that can bioaccumulate in the food chain after ingestion by a wide range of
freshwater and marine lives leading to a public health risk [74]. Human consumption of
animals exposed to microplastics and plastic additives can be detrimental. Biomonitoring
studies on human tissues have shown that plastic constituents persist in human population
through the measurement of environmental contaminants [73].
Public Health Effects of Plastic Additives
Different additives are used in the production of plastics and they have been reported to have
various detrimental effects on humans. Table 4 shows the different types of additives use in
plastic production, their effects and the types of plastics [75].
 Table 4: Different additives used in plastic production, their effects and the plastic types.  View
Table 4
Bisphenol A (BPA)
Inner linings of food cans, reusable water bottles, and baby bottles are manufactured using
BPA. In 2003, an estimated global output of BPA was greater than 2.2 million metric tonnes
annually [76]. As a result of repeated usage of beverage and food containers over a long period
of time, BPA molecules can leach from the plastics into the drinks and food. The process of
BPA leaching from plastics is accelerated by storing acidic or basic items that can breakdown
plastic polymers, exposure of the plastic container to high temperature, and by repeated
washing of the plastic container [77,78]. BPA is an endocrine disruptor which mimics
oestrogen in females. Women exposed to BPA have damaged health system such as polycyclic
ovarian syndrome, obesity, recurrent miscarriages, endometrial hyperplasia and sterility [ 79-
81]. BPA alters thyroid hormone axis gene expression, thereby altering its biological functions
like metabolism and development. Also, BPA increases thyroid hormone receptor
transcriptional corepressor activity causing a decreasing in thyroid hormone receptor activity.
This alteration to thyroid axis causes hypothyroidism [82]. Exposure of children and women of
reproductive age to elevated concentration of BPA is of great public health concern because of
the higher vulnerability of children and developing foetus to BPA compared to adults exposed
to similar concentration [83]. Studies have reported a strong association between the
concentration of urinary BPA and liver enzyme abnormalities, cardiovascular disease and type
2 diabetes [84]. Also, BPA associated neuro-behavioural disorders (e.g. autism),male's
abnormal urethra/penile development, female early sexual maturation and increase in
hormonally-mediated cancers (e.g. breast and prostate cancers) have been reported [ 85-87].
Phthalates
Phthalates, also called 1, 2-benzenedicarboxylic acids, consist of a diverse groups of diesters of
phthalic acid which are produced in large volumes from the 1930s. In industrial applications,
particularly in the manufacture of food packaging, raincoats, medical devices, toys, hoses,
vinyl flooring and shower curtains, high molecular weight phthalates (e.g. di(2-ethylhexyl)
phthalate (DEHP)) are commonly used [88-90]. Phthalates with low molecular weight
especially dibutyl phthalate (DBP) and diethyl phthalate (DEP)are used as solvents in the
manufacture of products such as lacquers, coatings, varnishes and personal-care products (e.g.
cosmetics, perfumes and lotions) [91]. Lack of chemical bound between phthalates and the
plastic matrix makes it easy for phthalates to leach out and contaminate the environmental
[92,93]. Due to the presence of phthalates in many consumer goods, there is widespread human
exposure to phthalate.
Phthalates are endocrine disruptors with anti-androgenic activity [94]. Children and infants are
mostly exposed to phthalates because of their frequent mouthing of objects like plastic toys
and fingers, and direct skin contact with phthalate contaminated substances. Ingestion of
phthalates in breast milk, cow milk, or food packaging materials are the main routes of
exposure in breast feeding infants [95]. Using personal care products frequently can increase
the rate of exposure to phthalates of low molecular weight, indeed, report have shown that men
who recently used aftershave and cologne have increased phthalate exposure, while infants that
used certain infant-care products such as shampoos, lotions and powders also showed
increased exposure [96]. High phthalate concentration alters hormone levels thus causing birth
defects in rodents exposed to certain types of phthalates. Butyl benzyl phthalate have been
reported to cause rhinitis and eczema in children and has been classified as possible class-
Chuman carcinogen in the 1986 US EPA guidelines [96].
Brominated flame retardant
In the production of plastics, brominated flame retardants are raw materials used for safety
purposes. The most commonly used brominated flame retardants in plastic production are
tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and polybrominateddiphenyl ethers (PBDEs). These are
present in a variety of plastic products such as electronic thermoplastics (e.g. computers,
phones and televisions) and textiles [97]. About 5-30% by weight of plastic products are
PBDEs and they are not chemically bound to the polymer making it possible for PBDEs to
leach out and contaminate surrounding environment [98]. PBDEs and TBBPA are hormone
disruptors, altering the activities of thyroid hormones and oestrogen, thereby causing impaired
development of both the nervous and reproductive systems [93]. Plastic materials which
contain TBBPA have been reported to leach TBBPA [99], and contaminating sewage sludge
[100], fish, bird, sediments, soils [101] and air [102]. High concentration of PBDEs have been
observed in serum, breast milk and adipose tissue in exposed individuals. On a pro-kilogram
basis, children have a higher exposure rate to PBDEs than adults [103].
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Marine food web has been continuously polluted with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) for
the last70years, particularly in seabirds [104]. PCBs ingestion may cause reproductive
disorders, enhance disease proliferation, alters hormone levels and death [ 104,105]. PCBs can
contaminate marine food web through the plastic bits and it has been shown that PCB is
detrimental to marine life even at very low concentrations [106]. The study of Ryan, et al.
[107] showed the presence of PCBs in the tissue of great shearwaters (Puffinus gravis) after
ingestion of plastic particles.
Recommendations on Reduction and Control of Plastic Wastes
Many countries are laboring on controlling environmental pollution by plastic wastes by
reducing plastics and plastic product's production, prohibition of excessive packaging, litter
capture and recycling. In the struggle against plastic pollution, the following recommendations
might be helpful:
Policy making
To combat and curb persistent environmental pollution by plastics, there is need for realistic
policies which must be properly followed and enforced. This should include the need for global
convention on environmental pollution by plastics to mandate plastic producers to declare all
ingredients in their plastic products and put a warning on the products for consumers about the
potentially health effects of such constituents. Policies to classify some of the harmful
ingredients in plastic products should be enacted. Successful precedents exist including the
1989 reclassification of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as hazardous (Montreal Protocol) and
persistent organic pollutants in 2004 (Stockholm Convention) [107]. This led around 200
countries to completely stop the production of CFCs in the next 7 years and 30 other dangerous
chemicals.
This type of reclassification might also stimulate research into new and harmless alternatives,
which will improve our plastic waste management, and hinder continuous buildup of plastic
wastes in the environment. It is also important for government to enforce and implement
regulations that will check production, consumption, usage and eventual disposal of plastics,
irrespective of their hazardous status. The 3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle must be employed
at all stages so as to prevent zero diversion to landfills and indiscriminate disposal to the
environment [108].
Plastic waste management and recycling
In reducing toxic effects of plastic wastes on the environment and public health, waste
management plays a major role. For global reduction of plastic litters and ocean pollution,
there is need for improvement in proper plastic waste collection, treatment and disposal [ 8].
Inadequate management of landfills will make way for harmful chemicals in plastic wastes to
leach into the environment, polluting the soil, air and underground water.
Proper wastewater management will prevent microplastics from entering the environment from
the landfills. Most treated wastewaters are discharged into rivers or oceans, therefore, there is
need for a ban such as Annex V to the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution
from Ship (MARPOL) agreement, which will prevent plastic waste disposal into the sea
[109,110].
Education and public awareness
Efforts must be made to educate the general populace on the potential environmental and
public health effect of pollution by plastic wastes. This will go a long way to reduce the
pollution rate and preserve the quality of the environment. There is need for people to be aware
of the chemical constituents of plastic products and their health effects. Educational
curriculums at different levels must include ways of plastic pollution reduction and waste
management systems as information resources.
Bioplastics as alternative
Bioplastics is a plastic produced from cellulose that is made of wood pulp by a British chemist
in the 1850s. Now, bioplastics can be produced from different biodegradable and non-
biodegradable materials including weeds, hemp, plant oil, potato starch, cellulose, corn starch,
etc. [111]. Sugar-based bioplastics can biodegrade under normal conditions for composting
[18]. Bioplastics are environmentally friendly since they require less fossil fuels during
production in comparison to other types of plastic [111].
Although bioplastics have been used commercially in just few applications, they are widely
used in consumer goods for items that are disposable like cutlery, bowls, pots, crockery, straws
and packaging [112]. In principle, bioplastics can replace petroleum-derived plastics in many
applications, however, the problem lies with the cost and performance of bioplastics. If there
are no specific regulations globally to limit the use of conventional plastics, there may be no
favourable usage of bioplastics. For example, Italy has since 2011 enacted law that made it
compulsory for biodegradable plastic bags to be used for shopping [ 113]. In the production of
bioplastics, substitute for fossil fuel resources like wood, cellulose, sugar and starch are used.
This has made bioplastic production more sustainable and environmentally friendly in
comparison to conventional plastic production [114]. The production of bioplastics decreases
consumption of non-renewable energy and reduces the emission of greenhouse gases [ 114].
We believed that the problem of plastic waste generation and the accompanied environmental
and public health effects can be handled if globally, manufacturers can embrace the use of
bioplastics. The biodegradability with little or no toxic products left behind will go a long way
to protect our natural environment from the menace of conventional plastic wastes, protect our
world's organisms and make the world safer for humans.
Conclusion
Researches on worldwide production of plastics and the accompanied environmental pollution
have shown that plastic wastes have constituted a major environmental issue. The effect of
plastic wastes on marine organisms, humans and the environment at large is of public concern,
and calls for the need to salvage the ecosystems and lives therein. Despite the fact that plastics
are very useful in everyday life, the toxic chemicals used in the production need to be
thoroughly monitored so as to ensure environmental and health safety. Reducing community's
exposure to toxicants from plastic wastes will increase the chances of having a clean
environment and healthy society. There is a urgent need for government agencies and health
authorities to enact and enforce environmental laws that will monitor production, usage and
disposal of plastics. In addition, some harmful chemical constituents used in the production of
plastics (e.g. phthalates, BPA, etc) should be banned in consumer goods and in plastic products
that are in direct contact with food, beverages and children.
References
Proshad R, Islam MS, Kormoker T, Haque MA, Mahfuzur Rahman MD, et al. (2018) Toxic
effects of plastic on human health and environment: A consequences of health risk assessment
in Bangladesh Inter J Hlth 6: 1-5.
Rochman CM, Browne MA, Halpern BS, Hentschel BT, Hoh E, et al. (2013a) Policy: Classify
plastic waste as hazardous. Nature 494: 169-171.
Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
(GESAMP) (2016) Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: Part
Two of a Global Assessment. Int Mar Org, London.
Derraik JG (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: A review. Mar
Pollut Bull 44: 842-852.
Thompson RC, Olsen Y, Mitchell RP, Davis A, Rowland SJ (2004) Lost at sea: Where is all the
plastic?. Science 304: 838.
Kaiser J (2010) The dirt on ocean garbage patches. Science 328: 1506.
Wilcox C, Van Sebille E, Hardesty BD (2015) Threat of plastic pollution to seabirds is global,
seabirds, pervasive and increasing. PNAS 38: 11899-11904.
Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler TR, Perryman M, et al. (2015) Plastic waste inputs
from land into the ocean. Science 347: 768-771.
Sepulveda A, Schluep M, Renaud FG, Streicher M, Kuehr R, et al. (2010) A review of the
environmental fate and effects of hazardous substances released from electrical and electronic
equipment during recycling: Examples from China and India. Environ Impact Assess Rev 30:
28-41.
Zhang XL, Luo XJ, Liu HY, Yu LH, Chen SJ, et al. (2011) Bioaccumulation of several
brominated flame retardants and dechlorane plus in water birds from an e-waste recycling
region in South China: Associated with trophic level and diet sources. Environ Sci Technol 45:
400-405.
Alabi OA, Bakare AA, Xu X, Li B, Zhang Y, et al. (2012) Comparative evaluation of
environmental contamination and DNA damage induced by electronic-waste in Nigeria and
China. Sci Total Environ 423: 62-72.
Hosler D, Burkett SL, Tarkanian MJ (1999) Prehistoric polymers: Rubber processing in ancient
mesoamerica. Science 284: 1991-1998.
Andrady AL, Neal MA (2009) Applications and societal benefits of plastics. Philos Trans R
Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364: 1977-1984.
Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017) Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci
Adv 3: e1700782.
Worm B, Lotze HK, Jubinville I, Wilcox C, Jambeck J (2017) Plastic as a Persistant Marine
Pollutant. Annual Rev Environ Res 42: 1-26.
Plastics Europe (2009) The compelling facts about plastics. An analysis of European plastics
production, demand and recovery for 2008. Plastics Europe, European plastics converters,
European association of plastics recycling and recovery organisations and European Plastics
Recyclers.
Plastics Europe (2016) Plastics-The Facts. An analysis of European plastics production,
Demand and waste data. Brussels, Belg: Plast Eur.
http://www.wikipedia.com/.
Sutter JD (2016) How to stop the sixth mass extinction. CNN.
World Economic Forum (2016) The New Plastic Economy, Rethinking the future of plastics. 1-
36.
https://www.aaapolymer.com/recyclable-plastic-materials/.
Dowty BJ, Laseter JL, Storer J (1976) The transplacental migration and accumulation in blood
of volatile organic constituents. Pediat Res 10: 696-701.
Van Cauwenberghe L, Devriese L, Galgani F, Robbens J, Janseen CR (2015) Microplastics in
sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effects. Mar Environ Res 111: 5-17.
Alomar C, Estarellas F, Deudero S (2016) Microplastics in the Mediterranean Sea: Deposition
in coastal shallow sediments, spatial variation and preferential grain size. Mar Environ Res
115: 1-10.
Science for Environmental Policy (SEP) (2011) Plastic Waste: Ecological and human health
impact. In depth report. 1-44.
Pettipas S, Bernier M, Walker TR (2016) A Canadian policy framework to mitigate plastic
marine pollution. Marine Policy 68: 117-122.
Browne MA, Crump P, Niven SJ, Teuten E, Tonkin A, et al. (2011) Accumulation of
microplastic on shorelines worldwide: Sources and sinks. Environ Sci Technol 45: 9175-9179.
Desforges JPW, Galbraith M, Dangerfield N, Ross PS (2014) Widespread distribution of
microplastics in subsurface seawater in the NE Pacific Ocean. Mar Pollut Bull 79: 94-99.
Thompson RC (2015) Mircoplastics in the marine environment: Sources, consequences and
solutions. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L, Klages M, Mar Anthro Litt. Springer Heidelberg, 185-
200.
Hopewell J, Dvorak R, Kosior E (2009) Plastics recycling: Challenges and opportunities.
Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364: 2115-2126.
Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe (APME) (2002) Plastics consumption data by
sector. Brussels, Belgium.
Miller R (2005) The landscape for biopolymers in packaging. Miller-Klein Associates report.
Summary and Full Report available from The National Non-Food Crops Centre, Heslington,
York, UK.
European Environment Agency (EEA) (2007) The Road from landfilling to recycling:
Common destination, different routes. Copenhagen, Denmark.
Oehlmann J, Schlte-Oehlmann U, Kloas W, Jagnytsch O, Lutz I, et al. (2009) A critical
analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol
Sci 364: 2047-2062.
Teuten EL, Saquin JM, Knappe DR, Barlaz MA, Jonsson S, et al. (2009) Transport and release
of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol
Sci 364: 2027-2045.
Gilpin R, Wagel D, Solch J (2003) Production, distribution, and fate of polycholorinated
dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans, and related organohalogens in the environment. In: Schecter
A, Gasiewicz T Dioxins and health. (2 nd edn), John Wiley and Sons Inc, Hoboken, NJ.
Nagy A, Kuti R (2016) The Environmental Impact of plastic waste Incineration. AARMS 15:
231-237.
Foldi L, Halasz L (2009) Környezetbiztonság. Complex KiadóKft, Budapest, Hungary.
Padanyi J, Foldi L (2014) Environmental responsibilities of the military soldiers have to be
"Greener Berets". Ecology Manage 2: 48-55.
Hardesty BD, Good TP, Wilcox C (2015) Novel methods, new results and science based
solutions to tackle marine debris impacts on wildlife. Ocean & Coastal Management 115: 4-9.
Creton C (2017) Molecular stitches for enhanced recycling of packaging. Science 355: 797-
798.
Eagan JM, Xu J, Di Girolamo R, Thurber CM, Macosko CW, et al. (2017) Combining
polyethylene and polypropylene: Enhanced performance with PE/iPP multiblock polymers.
Science 355: 814-816.
Fleischman T (2018) Polymer additive could revolutionize plastics recycling. Cornell. Edu.
Cornell University.
APR-Design-Guide.
Alan Bridgewater, Gill Bridgewater (2007) The Self-Sufficiency Handbook: A Complete Guide
to Greener Living. Skyhorse Publishing Inc., USA, 62.
Energy and economic value of non-recycled plastics and municipal solid wastes. Journalist's
Resource.
Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2016) The new plastic economy rethinking the future of plastics.
World Economic Forum.
Pwmi.or.jp.
Andrady AL (2003) In Plastics and the environment. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex,
England.
Hofmeyr GJG, Bester MN, Kirkman SP, Lydersen C, Kovacs KM (2006) Entanglement of
Antarctic fur seals at Bouvetóya, Southern Ocean. Mar Pollut Bull 52: 1077-1080.
Lithner D, Damberg J, Dave G, Larsson Å (2009) Leachates from plastic consumer products--
Screening for toxicity with Daphnia magna. Chemosphere 74: 1195-1200.
Adane L, Muleta D (2011) Survey on the usage of plastic bags, their disposal and adverse
impacts on environment: A case study in Jimma City, Southwestern Ethiopia. Journal of
Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences 3: 234-248.
Ellis S, Kantner S, Saab A, Watson M (2005) Plastic grocery bags: The ecological footprint.
Environmental changes are spreading infectious diseases-UN study, Victoria 1-19.
Njeru J (2006) The urban political economy of plastic bag waste problem in Nairobi, Kenya.
Geo. forum 37: 1046-1058.
Sheavly SB (2005) Marine debris- An overview of a critical issue for our oceans. Washington
DC 7.
Dubaish F, Liebezeit G (2013) Suspended microplastics and black carbon particles in the Jade
System, Southern North Sea. Water Air Soil Pollut 224: 1352.
Zubris KAV, Richard BK (2005) Synthetic fibers as an indicator of land application of sludge.
Environ Pollut 138: 201-211.
Biello D (2013) Are biodegradable plastics doing more harm than good? Scientific American.
Knight G (2012) Plastic Pollut. Raintree Publisher, London.
Eriksen M, Lebreton LCM, Carson HS, Thiel M, Moore CJ, et al. (2014) Plastic pollution in
the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at
Sea. PLOS One 9: e111913.
Barnes DK (2002) Biodiversity: Invasions by marine life on plastic debris. Nature 416: 808-
809.
Barnes DKA, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009) Accumulation and fragmentation of
plastic debris in global environments. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol 364: 1985-1998.
Gregory MR (2009) Environmental implications of plastic debris in marine settings--
entanglement, ingestion, smothering, hangers-on, hitch-hiking and alien invasions. Philos
Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364: 2013-2025.
Barbosa LGA, Gimenez BCG (2015) Microplastics in the marine environment: Current trends
and future perspectives. Mar Pollut Bull 97: 5-12.
Mato Y, Isobe T, Takada H, Kanehiro H, Ohtake C, et al. (2001) Plastic resin pellets as a
transport medium for toxic chemicals in the marine environment. Environ Sci Technol 35: 318-
324.
Laist DW (1997) Impacts of marine debris: Entanglement of marine life in marine debris
including a comprehensive list of species with entanglement and ingestion records. Marine
Debris Entanglement and Ingestion, 99-139.
Chandegara VK, Cholera SP, Nandasana JN, Kumpavat MT, Patel KC (2015) Plastic
Packaging Waste Impact on Climate Change and its Mitigation. In: Subbaiah R, Prajapati GV,
Water management and climate smart agriculture. Adaptation of Climatic Resilient Water
Management and Agriculture, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi, India, 3: 404-415.
Hamlet C, Matte T, Mehta S (2018) Combating plastic air pollution on earth's day. Vital
strategies environmental health division.
Daniel DC (2004) Creating a sustainable future. Jones and Bartlett Learning. Environ Sci 8:
517-518.
Karleskint G, Small J, Turner R (2009) Introduction to marine biology. Ceng Learning. 536.
Hammer J, Kraak MH, Parsons R (2012) Plastics in the marine environment: The dark side of a
modern gift. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 220: 144.
Araujo P, Sayer C, Poco J, Giudici P (2002) Techniques for reducing residual monomer content
in polymers: A rev. Poly Engineer Sci 42: 1442-1468.
Brydson JA (1999) Plastic materials. (7 th edn), Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, USA.
Galloway TS (2015) Micro- and nano-plastics and human health. In: Bergmann M, Gutow L,
Klages M, (1st edn). Published by Springer Open, Marine Anthropogenic Litter, 343-366.
https://ecologycenter.org/factsheets/adverse-health-effects-of-plastics/.
Halden RU (2010) Plastics and health risks. Ann Rev Pub Health 31: 179-194.
Raloff J 1(999) Food for thought: What's coming out of baby's bottle? Science News Online
156: 1-4.
Kang JH, Kito K, Kondo F (2003) Factors influencing the migration of bisphenol A from cans.
J Food Prot 66: 1444-1447.
Warner M, Eskenazi B, Mocarelli P, Gerthoux PM, Samuels S, et al. (2002) Serum dioxin
concentrations and breast cancer risk in the Seveso Women's Health Study. Environ Health
Perspect 110: 625-628.
Rayner JL, Wood C, Fenton SE (2004) Exposure parameters necessary for delayed puberty and
mammary gland development in Long-Evans rats exposed in utero to atrazine. Toxicol Appl
Pharmacol 195: 23-34.
Eskenazi B, Warner M, Samuels S, Young J, Gerthoux PM, et al. (2007) Serum dioxin
concentrations and risk of uterine leiomyoma in the Seveso Women's Health Study. Am J
Epidemiol 166: 79-87.
Mathieu-Denoncourt J, Wallace SJ, De Solla SR, Langlois VS (2015) Plasticizer endocrine
disruption: Highlighting developmental and reproductive effects in mammals and non-
mammalian aquatic species. Gen Comp Endocrinol 219: 74-88.
Vandenberg LN, Maffini MV, Sonnenschein C, Rubin BS, Soto AM (2009) Bisphenol-A and
the great divide: A review of controversies in the field of endocrine disruption. Endocr Rev 30:
75-95.
Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, et al. (2008) Association of
urinary bisphenol A concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in
adults. JAMA 300: 1303-1310.
VomSaal FS, Akingbemi BT, Belcher SM, Birnbaum LS, Crain DA, et al. (2007) Chapel Hill
bisphenol A expert panel consensus statement: Integration of mechanisms, effects in animals
and potential to impact human health at current levels of exposure. Reprod Toxicol 24: 131-
138.
Hengstler JG, Foth H, Gebel T, Kramer PJ, Lilienblum W, et al. (2011) Critical evaluation of
key evidence on the human health hazards of exposure to bisphenol A. Crit Rev Toxicol 41:
263-291.
Rochester JR (2013) Bisphenol A and human health: A review of the literature. Reprod Toxicol
42: 132-155.
David RM, Mckee RH, Butala JH, Barter RA, Kayser M, et al. (2001) Patty's Toxicology.
Wiley, New York, 635.
ATSDR (2002) Toxicological profile for di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, USA.
Hauser R, Calafat AM (2005) Phthalates and human health. Occup Environ Med 62: 806-818.
ATSDR (2001) Toxicological profile for di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP). Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, USA.
Talsness CE, Andrade AJ, Kuriyama SN, Taylor JA, Vom Saal FS (2009) Components of
plastic: Experimental in animals and relevance for human health. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B
Biol Sci 364: 2079-2096.
Meeker JD, Sathyanarayana S, Swan SH (2009) Phthalates and other additives in plastics:
Human exposure and associated health outcomes. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364:
2097-2113.
Sathyanarayana S (2008) Phthalates and children's health. Current Probl Pediat Adolesc Health
Care 38: 34-49.
Duty SM, Ackerman RM, Calafat AM, Hauser R (2005) Personal care product use predicts
urinary concentrations of some phthalate monoesters. Environ Health Perspect 113: 1530-1535.
Matsumoto M, Mutsuko HK, Ema M (2008) Potential adverse effects of phathalic acid esters
on human health: A review of recent studies on reproduction. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 50: 37-
49.
ATSDR (2004) A toxicological Profile for Copper. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, Atlanta, USA.
EU (2001) Diphenyl ether, pentabromo derivative (pentabromodiphenyl ether). European
Union Risk Assessment Report. Office for Official Publications of the European Committees,
Luxembourg, Europe 1-124.
Birnbaum LS, Staskal DF (2004) Brominated flame retardants: Cause for concern? Environ
Health Perspect 112: 9-17.
Oberg K, Warman K, Oberg T (2002) Distribution and levels of brominated flame retardants in
sewage sludge. Chemosphere 48: 805-809.
Morris S, Allchin CR, Zegers BN, Haftka JJH, Boon JP, et al. (2004) Distribution and fate of
HBCD and TBBPA brominated flame retardants in North Sea estuaries and aquatic food webs.
Environ Sci Technol 38: 5497-5504.
Sjödin A, Carlsson H, Thuresson K, Sjolin S, Bergman A, et al. (2001) Flame retardants in
indoor air at an electronics recycling plant, and at other work environments. Environ Sci
Technol 35: 448-454.
Frederiksen M, Vorkamp K, Thomsen M, Knudsen LE (2009) Human internal and external
exposure to PBDEs-a review of levels and sources. Int J Hyg Environ Health 212: 109-134.
Ryan PG, Connell AD, Gardner BD (1988) Plastic ingestion and PCBs in seabirds: Is there a
relationship?. Mar Pollut Bull 19: 174-176.
Lee K, Tanabe S, Koh C (2001) Contamination of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in
sediments from Kyeonggi Bay and nearby areas, Korea. Mar Pollut Bull 42: 273-279.
Zitko V, Hanlon M (1991) Another source of pollution by plastics skin cleaners with plastic
scrubbers. Mar Pollut Bull 22: 41-42.
Rochman CM, Hoh E, Kurobe T, The SJ (2013b) Ingested plastic transfers hazardous
chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress. Sci Rep 3: 3263.
Comanita ED, Hlihor RM, Ghinea C, Gavrilescu M (2016) Occurrence of plastic waste in the
environment: Ecological and Health risks. Environ Engineer Manag J 15: 675-685.
Mouat J, Lozano RL, Bateson H (2010) Economic Impacts of marine litter. KIMO Int
conference 105.
Kershaw P, Katsuhiko S, Lee S, Samseth J, Woddring D (2011) Plastic debris in the ocean.
UNEP Year Book, 20-33.
Reddy RL, Reddy SV, Gupta GA (2013) Study of Bio-plastics as Green and Sustainable
Alternative to Plastics. Inter. J Emerg Technol Advance Engineer 3: 82-89.
Chen G, Patel M (2012) Plastics derived from biological sources: Present and future: A
technical and environmental review. Chem Rev 112: 2082-2099.
Consigliodei Ministriconferma la messa al bandodeisacchetti di plastica non biodegradabili -
Ministerodell'Ambiente e dellaTutela del Territorio e del Mare.
Gironi F, Vincenzo P (2011) Bioplastics and petroleum-based plastics: Strengths and
weaknesses. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utiliza Environ Effects 33: 1949-1959.