Development of an Oil Spill Emergency

Mapping System Using Internet GIS

by

Gary Gomes

A thesis
presented to the University of Waterloo
in fulfillment of the
thesis requirement for the degree of
Master of Science
in
Geography

Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2010

© Gary Gomes 2010

 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis,
including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners.
I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public.

ii
 ABSTRACT

Oil spills have serious effects on marine ecosystems and can cost over millions of dollars in

cleanup, remediation and monitoring efforts. In British Columbia, Canada, an emergency

mapping system in a centralized way of sharing geospatial data within the oil spill

management community is not available today. Existing conventional emergency mapping

system only focuses on sensitivity mapping. Currently, many other programs and tools used

for oil spill planning are now using geographic information systems (GIS) to manage data

and display results. These include oil spill detection using RADARSAT images and the

Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT). There have been initiatives to integrate

these tools and programs with the conventional emergency mapping system. Internet GIS

provides a framework for developing such a system. It also allows rapid dissemination of

data to a number of stakeholders for a more effective response to oil spills.

This study attempts to apply the commercially available ArcGIS Server to develop an

interactive Web-GIS oil spill emergency mapping system (OSEMS). A framework was

proposed to integrate the systems mentioned above. The client application was developed

using ArcGIS API for JavaScript. The system was evaluated on its usability through a

questionnaire, which incorporates real world oil spill scenarios. The evaluation proves that

the OSEMS is very useful for oil spill response and also demonstrates that the system

integration is effective. The OSEMS application was developed to make it easy for first

responders to use without being GIS experts.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Dr. Jonathan Li for all the help and

support he has provided me during the course of my research at the University of Waterloo.

His valuable insight and input has helped me through this challenging journey. I would also

like to give great thanks to my thesis committee member, Dr. Robert Feick, Associate

Professor at the School of Planning, his guidance helped me focus my research. I also really

appreciate feedback and suggestions from my two thesis readers, Dr. Su-Yin Tan at the

Department of Geography & Environmental Management and Dr. Jane Law at the School of

Planning.

A great thanks goes out to Scott MacFarlane at the Faculty of Environment’s Mapping,

Analysis, & Design (MAD) for giving me valuable help in the implementation of my project.

My gratitude goes out to Scott Nickerson at Environment Canada for providing me data and

valuable insight into oil spill planning. I would like to acknowledge all the incredible people

I have met during this journey that have helped me with my thesis. They are my graduate

fellows, Sarah Valani, Hamad Yousif, Yuanming Shu, and the Graduate Program

Administrator, Mrs. Lynn Finch.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their love and support, through this

long and difficult undertaking.

iv
 DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this thesis to my mother Sabrina Gomes and grandmother Annette

Pinto. Their love and support has been unconditional. They both got me through hard times

in my life and provided me with the motivation to make it through this challenging journey. I

would like to thank them for believing in me and being there for me through thick and thin.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHOR'S DECLARATION ............................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................................ iv
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................... vi
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................ ix
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................. xi

CHAPTER 1 ..........................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Marine Oil Spill Pollution .............................................................................................................1
1.1.1 Mapping Systems Using Internet GIS....................................................................................2
1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................3
1.3 Thesis Objectives ..........................................................................................................................4
1.4 Study Area.....................................................................................................................................5
1.5 Thesis Outline ...............................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 2 ..........................................................................................................................................9
Internet GIS for Oil Spill Emergency Management ..........................................................................9
2.1 Internet GIS ...................................................................................................................................9
2.1.1 History of Internet GIS.........................................................................................................10
2.1.2 ArcGIS Server ......................................................................................................................14
2.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Internet GIS........................................................................20
2.2 Oil Spill Emergency Management Using GIS ............................................................................22
2.2.1 Emergencies in Context .......................................................................................................23
2.2.2 Comprehensive Emergency Management............................................................................26
2.2.3 Command System during an Oil-Spill Event.......................................................................31
2.3 Oil Spill Emergency Management Systems in Canada...............................................................35

vi
 2.4 Chapter Summary ....................................................................................................................... 38

CHAPTER 3........................................................................................................................................ 39
Oil Spill Emergency Mapping System .............................................................................................. 39
3.1 Potential Users and Their Needs................................................................................................. 39
3.2 Framework .................................................................................................................................. 43
3.2.1 Sensitivity Mapping............................................................................................................. 43
3.2.2 Oil Spill Detection Using RADARSAT Images ................................................................. 46
3.2.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique .......................................................................... 50
3.2.4 System Integration ............................................................................................................... 54
3.3 Data............................................................................................................................................. 55
3.3.1 Geographic Data .................................................................................................................. 56
3.3.2 Data Processing ................................................................................................................... 61
3.3.3 Data Optimization................................................................................................................ 61
3.4 Conceptual Design of OSEMS ................................................................................................... 62
3.4.1 Functionality of the OSEMS Application............................................................................ 62
3.4.2 Selection of Web Mapping API........................................................................................... 63
3.4.3 OSEMS Website .................................................................................................................. 64
3.4.4 Symbology ........................................................................................................................... 64
3.5 Implementation of OSEMS ........................................................................................................ 65
3.5.1 Authoring ............................................................................................................................. 65
3.5.2 Server and Publishing .......................................................................................................... 66
3.5.3 Client Viewer....................................................................................................................... 66
3.5.4 Website Design .................................................................................................................... 68
3.5.5 Testing OSEMS ................................................................................................................... 69
3.6 Chapter Summery ....................................................................................................................... 71

CHAPTER 4........................................................................................................................................ 72
Results and System Evaluation.......................................................................................................... 72
4.1 OSEMS Overview ...................................................................................................................... 72
4.1.1 Map Section ......................................................................................................................... 74
4.1.2 Toolbar Section.................................................................................................................... 75

vii
 4.1.3 TOC Control Panel...............................................................................................................77
4.2 Usability Evaluation ....................................................................................................................79
4.2.1 User Participation .................................................................................................................79
4.2.2 Utility Evaluation .................................................................................................................80
4.2.3 Usability Evaluation .............................................................................................................84
4.2.4 Changes to OSEMS Based On User Feedback ....................................................................86
4.3 Discussion on OSEMS Development Cycle ...............................................................................87
4.4 Problems Using ArcGIS JavaScript API.....................................................................................89
4.5 Database Issues and Maintenance ...............................................................................................90
4.5.1 Data Agreements ..................................................................................................................91
4.5.2 Data Updating and Maintenance ..........................................................................................92
4.6 Performance Issues......................................................................................................................93
4.7 Chapter Summery........................................................................................................................94

CHAPTER 5 ........................................................................................................................................95
Conclusion and Recommendations....................................................................................................95
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................95
5.2 Recommendations for Future Research ......................................................................................97
5.2.1 Integrating Geographic Response Plans...............................................................................98
5.2.2 Integrating Weather Data .....................................................................................................99
5.2.3 Caching Base Maps ..............................................................................................................99
5.2.4 Usability Testing ................................................................................................................100

RERERENCES..................................................................................................................................102
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................114

viii
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Map of British Columbia, Canada ....................................................................................... 7

Figure 2-1: The evolution of distributed GIS ....................................................................................... 12

Figure 2-2: ArcGIS Server - a three-tier system................................................................................... 16
Figure 2-3: Overall structure of ArcGIS Server ................................................................................... 17
Figure 2-4: Comprehensive Emergency Management Structure and the role of GIS .......................... 27
Figure 2-5: Canadian Coast Guard’s Response Management System ................................................. 34
Figure 2-6: ASMAP interface............................................................................................................... 36
Figure 2-7: E-MAP Web mapping interface ........................................................................................ 37

Figure 3-1: Framework for developing a sensitivity mapping system for oil spills ............................. 46
Figure 3-2: ISTOP workflow and integration with Map Server........................................................... 49
Figure 3-3: System design for SCAT process and integration with Map Server ................................. 53
Figure 3-4: Framework for integrating sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection and SCAT................. 55

Figure 4-1: Home page of OSEMS ...................................................................................................... 73

Figure 4-2: Graphical user interface of OSEMS .................................................................................. 74
Figure 4-3: Table of Content control panel: (a) layer section, and (b) find location tool .................... 78
Figure 4-4: Evaluating Difficulty of the functionality within OSEMS ................................................ 81
Figure 4-5: Evaluating Usefulness of the functionality of OSEMS ..................................................... 84
Figure 4-6: Usability evaluation of OSEMS ........................................................................................ 85
Figure 4-7: Development cycle of OSEMS.......................................................................................... 88

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3-1: Tools and Factions Identified for OSEMS ..........................................................................63

Table 4-1: Description of map tabs within the map section..................................................................75

Table 4-2: Description of navigational tools within the Toolbar section..............................................76
Table 4-3: Description of mark-up tools within the Toolbar section ....................................................77
Table 4-4: Characteristic of participants ...............................................................................................80

x
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

API Application Programming Interface

CCG Canadian Coast Guard

CEM Comprehensive Emergency Management

CGI Common Gateway Interface

CIS Canadian Ice Service

DBMS Database Management System

DGI Distributed Geographic Information

FISS Fisheries Information Summary System

GIS Geographic Information System

GRP Geographic Response Plan

GUI Graphical User Interface

HCI Human–Computer Interaction

HTML Hypertext Markup Language

HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol

IAP Incident Action Plan

ICS Incident Command System

ISTOP Integrated Satellite Tracking of Pollution

LAN Local Area Network

MAD Mapping, Analysis and Design

NASP National Aerial Surveillance Program

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OGC Open Geospatial Consortium

OSC On-Scene Commander

OSEMS Oil Spill Emergency Mapping System

QC Quality Control

REET Regional Environmental Emergency Team

RMS Response Management System

SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar

SAR Species at Risk

SCAT Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique

TOC Table of Contents

UE Usability Engineering

WAN Wide Area Network

WMS Web Map Server

xii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Marine Oil Spill Pollution

The Port of Vancouver is one of the largest ports on the West Coast of North America and is the

largest port in Canada. Other major ports in British Columbia include Prince Rupert, Nanaimo and

Fraser. Due to the longer coastline and large scale shipping activity, the coastal areas of British

Columbia are at high risk for major oil spills. A great deal of oil and petroleum products are

shipped through the Vancouver Port, about 4000 metric tones of hydrocarbons are transported

through the port on a yearly basis (Port Metro Vancouver, 2008).

Oil spills can cause large-scale environmental damage due to the characteristics of oil. There

are a number of ways in which oil is released into the environment. An accidental spill is only one

of several ways that oil ends up in the water. Some other ways are from naturally occurring oil

seeps, offshore oil and gas production, marine transportation, waste discharges and runoff (Fingas,

2001). Oil spills can cause adverse effects to the environment. If a major oil spill occurred along

the coast of British Columbia it would impact the biological, socioeconomic and physical

resources of the region. Over the last few years British Columbia has seen increased amounts of

vessel traffic along the cost, this is due to the rapid growth of the economy in the region. There has

been an increased amount of oil spills along the coast as well. On August 4, 2006 at Squamish

dock terminal, just north of Vancouver the M/V Westwood Anette, departing under tow from the
1
Squamish docks during high wind conditions, punctured a fuel tank on a metal piling. This caused

approximately 29,000 liters of bunker fuel to be released into the environment and the high winds

blew the oil on the shore near the terminal and into the estuary of the Squamish River. The estuary

marshes were heavily contaminated. It was estimated that about $5-million was spent on the

cleanup and monitoring program (BC Environmental Emergency Management Program, 2007).

1.1.1 Mapping Systems Using Internet GIS

The use of geographic information systems (GIS) in oil spill emergency management has grown

rapidly. Knowledge of area resources, priorities and sensitivities for spill response is the most

basic requirement. At the time of a spill it is essential to have immediate access to maps and

spatial data. GIS provides a framework for acceding the required datasets and information. A GIS

can hold information at any scale. In addition, data from different sources can reside together,

which include satellite images, air photos and sensitivity data. Web mapping based on Internet GIS

is an effective tool for this purpose since it gives responders and stakeholders’ rapid access to large

amounts of geospatial data. As Internet GIS becomes more widely utilized within the oil spill

realm, the possibilities of linking different GIS systems and data are also increasing. In this way it

is possible to exchange data between organizations operating different systems. Internet GIS

provides an effective way of integrating large amounts of spatial data and also solves the problem

of interoperability by the adoption of standards.

2
1.2 Problem Statement

In managing oil spills an initial concern is to understand the effects of oil in different eco-systems

under different circumstances (Krishnan, 1995). Sensitivity mapping plays a key role in identifying

this risk in a geographic area. The use of sensitivity mapping for oil spills has a long history.

Initially ((Strong & Semple, 1986) were some of the first to identify the use of GIS for oil spill

management. Their work outlined the deficiencies of non-computerized environmental databases

for oil spill management. They also outlined how a geographical database can be used for oil spill

response and contingency planning. The work of (Dicks & Wright, 1989) took this one step

further by linking databases to maps. It is also important to mention the work of (J. R. Jensen et

al., 1990), which proposed the integration of GIS and remote sensing for sensitivity mapping.

These early works supported the advantages of integrating GIS for oil spill risk assessment. The

ability to relate different data from many sources to produce new information is key in helping to

solve some of the spatial problems present during oil spills (Krishnan, 1995).

Sensitivity mapping applications are spatial information systems that are composed of

different types of data. Usually the three main components of data include shoreline segmentation

data, biological data and human activities data that includes commercial, recreational and areas of

high value. Many efforts have been made to develop sensitivity mapping for oil spill planning

around the world (Jensen, Halls, & Michel, 1998). Before the use of GIS, environmental sensitivity

mapping was analog. Atlases of different areas were in a paper format for areas that had a high risk

of oil spills. With the development of GIS technology, sensitivity mapping began to be available

using desktop GIS systems. With the development of new Internet GIS technology, sensitivity

3
mapping can be made available through the World Wide Web (WWW), which increases the ability

to distribute such information to a much larger audience (Baker, Spalding, & Moore, 2005). Many

other programs and tools used for oil spill planning now use GIS to manage data and display

results. They include oil spill detection using RADARSAT images, the Shoreline Cleanup

Assessment Technique (SCAT) and Development of Geographic Response Plans (GRP)

integration of all these systems into one common interface can be bifacial. These systems are stand

alone desktop GIS applications. Around the world many countries are developing Web based

emergency mapping systems that are tailored to their data and programs.

In British Colombia, there is a high risk of oil spills. There has been no development of an

emergency mapping system to meet the existing need in British Columbia. A common interface

that manages this spatial data and integrates data from other programs and tools does not exist in

British Colombia. There is an urgent need to integrate these different systems into one common

interface. This will provide stakeholders with a common platform to make better decisions during

an oil spill. The lack of an emergency mapping system poses a serious problem.

1.3 Thesis Objectives

The overall goal of this study is to develop a prototype oil spill emergency mapping system

(OSEMS) using Internet GIS for effective management of marine oil spills in British Columbia.

The system should be able to provide stakeholders with the ability to view spatial sensitivity data

from multiple agencies and integrate data from other programs such as oil spill detection using

RADARSAT images, and Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT). The focus of this

development is to integrate a sensitivity mapping system, an oil spill monitoring system and an

4
emergency response system into one interface. During an oil spill it is critical to know what is at

risk in an area of impact. The purpose of the oil spill emergency mapping is to reduce

environmental impact of oily waste to the sensitive marine and coastal ecosystems in the region.

This can be done through pre-planning and timely responding. The system that has been

developed, as part of this thesis will help improve the management and response of large-scale

marine oil spills in British Columbia and will also create a network between academia, government

and industry, which will facilitate further research within the oil spill community in British

Columbia. This system also hopes to achieve participation between various stakeholders by giving

them the ability to view sensitivity and view what is at risk. The main objectives of this study are

to:

• propose a framework for developing an oil spill emergency mapping system, which

combines sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection using RADARSAT images and the

Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT).

• develop a Web-GIS system for oil spill emergency mapping based on the framework

proposed and provide the user with background information for using this system.

• evaluate the usability of the application using real world oil spill scenarios.

1.4 Study Area

The Province of British Columbia, Canada, is the western most province in Canada. It is bordered

by the Pacific Ocean to the west, to the south by the Unites States U.S. States of Montana, Idaho

and Washington, to the east by the Province of Alberta, to the north the Territory of Yukon, and

finally to the south west by the U.S. State of Alaska. The total area of landmass in British

5
Columbia is approximately 944,000 km². The coastline of British Columbia stretches for about

27,000 km from the U.S border in the south state of Washington to the U.S. border in the north

state of Alaska. The coastline also includes numerous islands and fjords. This large coastline

makes British Columbia very susceptible to environmental devastation if an oil spill did occur.

Furthermore this region is important is because it borders the U.S., and international spills are

challenging to deal with. British Columbia’s large coastline and heavy ship traffic makes it very

susceptible to oil spills. The Web mapping interface discussed in this thesis will be developed for

the coastal areas of British Columbia.

6
 Figure 1-1: Map of British Columbia, Canada

(Source: Natural Resources Canada, 2007)

1.5 Thesis Outline

The remainder of this thesis is organized into four additional chapters.

Chapter 2 reviews literature on current Internet GIS technologies. It provides a brief history of

Internet GIS, reviews ArcGIS Server and provides the advantages and limitations of using Internet
7
GIS. A literature review on the integration of oil spill emergency management with GIS is also

provided. The Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) structure is introduced and

examples of past emergency mapping systems developed in Canada are also provided

Chapter 3 builds from previous chapters. First, the needs to develop an Internet GIS application are

identified from a user’s perspective. Data sources, data processing and database design are then

described. Furthermore, a model to integrate different applications using GIS is outlined. Finally, a

conceptual design of the application is discussed followed by the implementation of the system.

Chapter 4 presents and discusses the results based on the development of the Web application for

online mapping oil spills. The results of the usability testing are outlined. Some problems and

issues encountered during the implementation stage are discussed. The development cycle,

database maintenance and updating and performance issues associated with the OSEMS are

discussed.

Chapter 5 presents conclusions derived from the results of this study. Suggestions for further

improvements and additions to the system are also given.

8
 CHAPTER 2

Internet GIS for Oil Spill Emergency Management

In this chapter, an overview of Internet GIS is provided. It provides a brief history of Internet GIS,

reviews ArcGIS Server and provides the advantages and limitations of using Internet GIS. This

chapter also reviews GIS for emergency management, provides a framework for handling large-

scale emergencies using a comprehensive emergency management structure while integrating GIS

in each of its phases. It also introduces a command structure during an oil-spill event and explains

how GIS plays an important role within this structure. The last section introduces other emergency

mapping systems developed in Canada elsewhere for oil spill emergency mapping.

2.1 Internet GIS

GIS has evolved over the last three decades and the development has followed the progress of

computer technology. The evolution has experienced three phases which include: mainframe GIS,

desktop GIS and now distributed GIS. It is very important to define the terms since there are many

variations related to Internet GIS. Some of the common terms include: Internet GIS (Peng, 1999),

GIS on line, and distributed geographic information (Plewe, 1997). These terms refer to GIS data

access and processing over the Internet. It is critical to understand that Internet GIS is very

different from Web GIS (Plewe, 1997).

9
 For the purposes of this study, Internet GIS will refer to the use of the Internet as a medium

to exchange data, perform GIS analysis and present results. Web based GIS will refer to the use of

the World Wide Web as a primary means. Both Internet GIS and Web GIS use the client/server

model. Web GIS uses the Web as a client, but the Web is not the only client in case of Internet

GIS. The Web is a major part of the Internet and sits on top of the Internet. The term Internet GIS

is much broader in relation to Web based GIS (Peng, 1999).

2.1.1 History of Internet GIS

The Internet and GIS were created about three decades ago. In the mid 1990s there was the rapid

development in Internet technology and it soon became mainstream (Hall, 1994). The development

of the Internet was one of the most powerful driving forces for the progress in GIS technology.

This led to the development of Internet GIS. Internet GIS has a very short history since it is still a

new and emerging technology, it only dates back to a decade and a half.

At first, the Web mainly used text and images; during 1993 the first browser that supported

multimedia was introduced. This led to the revolution of Web technology. In 1994, the first Web

based map server was created. The Xerox PARC Map Viewer was one of the first Web-mapping

systems created. The PARC Map Viewer served up more than 150 million maps (Longley, 2001).

It went on to be used with the US Gazetteer Service to provide text based query functions. At the

time the system was developed using the Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML), which was made

up of a series of hyperlinks for selecting options. It was used for four years and then dismantled in

1997. NAISMap was developed by Natural Resources Canada in 1994. This system was set up to

allow the client to select map layers, order map layers and even overlay. Once the client selected
10
the location with the required operations, the client application passed this to the server. The server

would compile the data and return back to the client (Peng & Tsou, 2003). GRASSLink was

developed in 1995. It was the first and only functional system that connected the GRASSGIS

software. The main reason for its development was to facilitate sharing of data between

environmental agencies. It could perform many operations like querying, overlay and buffering. It

was the first system to display fully functional online GIS services (Plewe, 1997). Recently there

has been a rapid growth of Internet GIS. With the new advancements in Internet and Web

technology, Internet GIS is also frequently changing and evolving. Xerox PARC Map Viewer and

GrassLink Web mapping technologies were the pioneers and led to the development of many

Internet software products by different GIS vendors. By 1996 Autodesk, ESRI, Intergraph and

MapInfo, all introduced their first Internet GIS products (Longley, 2001; Plewe, 1997).

Peng and Tsou (2003) gave a brief overview of the different types of Web mapping in

terms of the evolution of Internet GIS. Four major types were identified, including static map

publishing, static Web publishing, Interactive Web mapping and distributed GIServices (Figure

2.1).

11
 High

Distributed
GIServices

Interactive Web
Mapping  Java Beans/Applets
 Corba/Java
 Active X Controls
 Application Server
Static Web  Dynamic HTML  DCOM
Mapping  Scripts  Component-based
 Plug-in  XML
 ActiveX Control  .Net
 Java Applets
Static Map  Servlets
 HTML Forms
Publishing
 Tables
 CGI
 ISAPI
 NSAPI
 HTML
 Static Map Image

Low

Low High

Figure 2-1: The evolution of distributed GIS

(Source: Peng, 1999)

Static Map Publishing: This type of Internet GIS refers to the process of embedding a static

image like a JPEG, PDF or GIF inside a HTML page. In this type of Internet GIS, the map is

static and there can be no interaction between the client and the map.

Static Web Mapping: Traditional Web publishing techniques adopted a two-tier client/server

model. Static Web mapping adopted a three-tier model, which consisted of the Web client, the
12
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) server and the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and the last

component included application servers, such as map servers and database management systems

(DBMS) servers. The client is given the ability to have some interaction like zoom in and out, find

locations and run queries. It is important to keep in mind that this three-tier architecture dominated

the early stages of Web mapping. All requests that are made on the client side are processed by the

server side application. Some examples include Xerox PARC Map and Google map (Peng, 1999).

Interactive Web Mapping: Simple HTML viewer is very limited in functionality and lacks

client interactivity in relation to spatial data. For this reason, we need more interactive and

dynamic client applications that can handle spatial data. At the client side, more dynamic Active

X, java applets, plug-ins and dynamic HTML are used to enhance the client experience. On the

server side, to improve the performance of CGI, many CGI extensions are used like ClodFusion,

Javasoft serverlets, WemObjects. Today all commercial Internet GIS products are based on this

model, which includes a dynamic viewer, integrated with CGI and CGI extensions (Green &

Bossomaier, 2002). This model still needs a desktop GIS to build up the data and then it can be

broadcasted through the server. The client component is interoperable.

Distributed GIServices: Client applications, which are in use today, are mainly designed for

graphic display of maps and cannot really provide GIS operations and analysis to the full

capabilities. Functionality is very minimal in these Web mapping applications and cannot carry out

complex GIS modeling and processing. The ideal distributed system hopes to achieve a system

where the client has direct communication with the GIS server. This would mean the elimination

of CGI applications between the client and GIS server. The distributed framework promotes

distributed components that can be located on different systems or computers. Currently, there is
13
no distributed GIService available. Distributed GIServices are the next phase in Internet GIS, and

may revolutionize the way GIS is carried out in the future (Peng, 1999).

2.1.2 ArcGIS Server

There are two sets of Internet GIS servers that can be used: one is the open source, which is

available for free download, and the other is a commercial product, which has to be purchased.

Open source products are free and available to everyone. Some of the characteristics of open

source products include availability of the source code and the right to modify it, redistribute

modifications and improvements and no restrictions on the use (Mitchell, 2005). Some of the most

popular Internet GIS open source tools include MapServer and MapGuide Open Source.

MapServer is one of the most successful open source Internet GIS products out there (The Map

Server Team, 2010). MapGuide Open Source is another Internet GIS platform like MapServer,

which enables users to develop interactive Web mapping applications. It stems out of the closed

source MapGuide developed by Autodesk (Autodesk, 2008). In today’s market, there has been an

explosion of commercial Internet GIS tools. They include Autdesk MapGuide, Intergraph

GeoMedia WebMap, ESRI ArcIMS and the new ArcGIS Server. Autodesk MapGuide Enterprise

is different from the open source product as it has more functionality and a different licensing

agreement (Autodesk, 2007). Intergraph GeoMedia WebMap is another Internet GIS tool for

publishing maps online. ESRI came out with many tools for Internet GIS, which included

ArcView IMS, MapObjects IMS and finally introduced ArcIMS (ESRI, 2002). Now ArcGIS

Server has replaced ArcIMS but it is still important to introduce this product since it is still used by

many government and private organizations in British Columbia.

14
 ArcGIS Server is the GIS server based software component from ESRI’s suite of ArcGIS

products, replacing ArcIMS to publish spatial data on the Web. It has also been included with the

data management systems ArcSDE and provides software development in the .NET framework

and JAVA programming language. Now it also has the ability to be incorporated with Web

browsers, mobile devices and existing desktop GIS systems and supports the Open Geospatial

Consortium (OGC) standards that include WMS, WFS, WFS-T, WCS and KML. It also provides

different APIs for developing client viewers in JavaScript, Java, .NET, Flex and sleverlight (ESRI,

2004).

Architecture: ArcGIS Server is an object server that can manage a set of GIS server objects.

A server object is software that serves a GIS resource such as a map or a location. Server objects

are ArcObjects, which are a collection of software objects that make up the foundation of ArcGIS.

ArcGIS Server is fundamentally an object server that manages a set of GIS server objects (ESRI,

2004). ArcObjects components have multiple developer application programming interfaces.

These include COM, .NET, Java, and C++ (ESRI, 2007).. Developers can use these APIs to build

applications that make use of ArcObjects functionality. ArcObjects is at the core of all the ArcGIS

products: ArcGIS Desktop, ArcGIS Engine, and ArcGIS Server. ArcGIS Server adds the

framework for running ArcObjects in a server. ArcGIS Server also provides a framework for

developers to build advanced GIS Web services and Web applications using ArcObjects in

standard application server frameworks such as .NET and J2EE. As described above, at the core of

ArcGIS Server is a rich ArcObjects library that can be exploited in Web applications and Web

services to deliver advanced GIS functionality to a wide range of users who interact with the server

15
through Web browsers and other client applications (ESRI, 2007). These Web applications can

deliver advanced GIS functionality to the end user through browsers.

ArcGIS Server System: The ArcGIS Server system is a three-tier system, see Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: ArcGIS Server - a three-tier system

(Source: ESRI, 2007)

The thee-tiers include the desktop authoring tier, server and publishing tier and the client or

consumption tier. The client or consumption tier is the interface that users can access, analyze and

interact with the maps and data, which include mobile devices, 2D and 3D application and desktop

systems. Within the server and publishing tier, the server handles requests from the client and the

16
administrator can manage and publish the services required. At the desktop authoring tier, the data to be

published over the Internet is put together using desktop GIS software. Figure 2-3 presents an overview

of the entire ArcGIS Server system.

Figure 2-3: Overall structure of ArcGIS Server

(Source: ESRI, 2004)

ArcGIS Server is a disabused system that consists of many different components, which can be

implemented over many different computers or just one. Each component in the ArcGIS Server

17
system plays a specific role in the process of managing, activating, deactivating, and load

balancing the resources that are allocated to a given server object or set of server objects (ESRI,

2004a). The components of ArcGIS Server can be summarized below and seen in Figure 2-3:

• GIS server—Hosts and runs server objects. The GIS server consists of a server object

manager (SOM) and one or more server object containers (SOCs).

• Web server—Hosts Web applications and Web services that use the objects running in the

GIS server.

• Web browsers—Used to connect to Web applications running in the Web server.

• Desktop applications—Connect over HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to ArcGIS Web

services running in the Web server or connect directly to GIS servers over a LAN or WAN.

Source: (ESRI, 2004)

Web Application Development: ESRI has introduced different ArcGIS Web mapping

application-programming interface APIs with the introduction of ArcGIS Server. ArcGIS Web

Mapping APIs and ArcGIS Server can be used to build and deploy Internet applications and mash-

ups that include GIS functionality and ArcGIS services. The ArcGIS Web Mapping APIs are a

collection of cross-browser and cross-platform client libraries for creating rich Internet and

desktop GIS applications (ESRI, 2004). The APIs include ArcGIS API for Flex, ArcGIS API for

Microsoft Silverlight and ArcGIS API for JavaScript.

The Flex API is a product for Adobe and it can be used to develop rich and very interactive

applications on top of ArcGIS Server. It is based on the free flex framework developed by Adobe.

It is a client side technology that is rendered by a flash player or Adobe AIR (ESRI, 2009a).
18
 The Silverlight API is built by Microsoft and can be used to create interactive Web and

desktop applications. It can provide all the functionality that ArcGIS Sever and Bing offer, which

includes: mapping, geo-coding and geo-processing. It is built on the Silverlight/WPF platform,

which integrates with Visual Studio (ESRI, 2009a). To run these applications a plug-in must be

installed.

The ArcGIS JavaScript API is easy to use and a lightweight way of embedding maps in a

Web application. JavaScript is a language that can be used to make Web pages more interactive. It

runs within the browser so it does not cause the page to refresh or blink when an operation is

carried out, like zooming in. No program is needed to program in JavaScript and all Web browsers

can understand the language. ArcGIS JavaScript API can be used to bring maps and tasks from

ArcGIS Server into the Web: a display on an interactive map, execute a GIS model on the server

and display the results, search for features or attributes in your GIS data and so on. The ArcGIS

JavaScript API can be utilized to access information from several different servers in one

application. The ArcGIS JavaScript API provides the following resources for developing Web

mapping applications: the API supports display of both dynamic and tiled map from ArcGIS

Server, the client can draw graphics and it also provides information boxes and pop-ups when the

client clicks or hovers the mouse over a graphics feature on the map. It includes the following

tasks: querying, finding addresses, identifying features and geo-processing. It also provides access

to Dojo and other libraries. Dojo JavaScript Toolkit provides access to dijits (Dojo widgets) and

other JavaScript tools (ESRI, 2009b).

19
2.1.3 Advantages and Limitations of Internet GIS

GIS started by using mainframe GIS and then desktop GIS. Mainframe GIS refers to GIS

programs hosted on a centralized terminal. Desktop GIS refers to a single software package and

the data installed on a single computer. This traditional approach is software driven and lacks

interoperability. With the growing need for GIS, this model is no longer feasible in situations,

which require multi-platform, multi-software and multi-user capabilities. Internet GIS, on the other

hand, can provide what is lacking in traditional GIS approaches. Internet GIS provides

interoperability and flexibility, which are impossible to achieve in a stand-alone GIS (Green &

Bossomaier, 2002). When using Internet GIS, all the processes which include user interface, data

and processing, are split up to optimize the system (Buttenfield, 1997). In traditional GIS, software

is needed and this can trap the user into using just one type of data format, all operations have to be

carried out on the local computer and data needs to be collected, which can cost significant

amounts of money. Using Internet GIS, little software is needed; most of the operations can be

accessed through the Internet. GIS services can be bought based on the usage, data can be used

from other sources or can be shared which reduces the cost of data (Green & Bossomaier, 2002;

Plewe, 1997; Tsou & Buttenfield, 1998). Internet GIS has many advantages over traditional GIS

approaches. It gives the user the ability to access GIS on any computer system that has Internet

access and also provides much faster and easier access to GIS and increases the usage.

Furthermore, it eliminates the need for proprietary GIS software, hence reducing the cost for the

user to access GIS. It also eliminates the duplication of work, since a common interface is being

used and gives users the ability to combine data and resources from different sources. Lastly, it

20
reduces the cost of GIS in general (Green & Bossomaier, 2002; Plewe, 1997; Tsou & Buttenfield,

1998).

One of the main advantages of Internet GIS is that it aids in the transmission of spatial data

to a much larger audience. It has helped in dispersing new ideas and information to a worldwide

audience, which has provided the general public with the ability for better decision-making and

empowerment. This process can now be carried out through the Internet. It has also facilitated

large amounts of spatial data being shared over the Internet and data access has become easier and

more convenient in the GIS world. Internet GIS has also helped in a shift from the static nature of

maps to more dynamic maps on the Web. It has given the client the ability to query, analyze and

display the data, which makes it a more interactive experience (Andrej, 1998).

Internet GIS is developing very rapidly; applications are being developed that give the

client the ability to perform many more analytical operations. Accessing GIS on the Web gives the

user the ability to be independent from operating system platforms, hardware, vendors and

applications (Andrej, 1998). It frees GIS users from making big investments in GIS software

packages and being restricted to one GIS vendor system.

The development of standards by different organizations like the Open Geospatial

Consortium, Inc. (OGC) has also helped with the development of Internet GIS. The main goal of

OGC is to develop a set of standards that can be used to develop Internet GIS. This has facilitated

interoperability with different systems and vendor software. The OGC Web mapping standards

were put forth by (Doyle, 1997) opening up a new era in Internet GIS.

21
 Our society is evolving to adapt to technological advances and many services in

government and the public sector are offering most of their services using Web mapping

technology. This is leading to the digital divide where people who are not users of this technology

are not getting the services they require. Internet GIS has given people the ability to download

data, analyze data and make decisions. This new trend of neo-geography is increasingly prevalent

today resulting in a world where there is geography with no geographers. Consequently, people

with little or no background in the area, have the ability to use GIS technology as long as they have

access to Internet. This is shifting the conventional users of GIS in academia, industry and military

to mass users of GIS, which includes the general public. Also, the introduction of open source GIS

and the OGC standards have offered the general public access to software that has been very

expensive to obtain in the past. Internet GIS is reaching people who do not know the basic

principles of GIS and the analysis carried out and yet they can still influence decision-making. It is

possible there may be a negative impact if the analysis used is not well understood (Li, 1996).

2.2 Oil Spill Emergency Management Using GIS

GIS plays a critical role in emergency management and planning. Emergency management is

defined as the discipline and profession of applying science, technology, planning, and

management to deal with extreme events that can injure or kill large numbers of people, do

extensive damage to property, and disrupt community life (Drabek & Hoetmer, 1991). There are

two types of emergencies that can be identified; the first are natural emergencies that include

floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions etc., and the second are man-made emergencies that

include oil spills, chemical spills, transportation accidents etc. Usually, most of the critical
22
problems that arise during these events are spatial problems (Brugnot, 2008). During an oil spill

most problems have an inherent spatial component. Some of the spatial problems include, looking

for the most environmentally sensitive area, and identifying areas of protection. Consequently, the

spatial aspect of emergency management makes GIS an ideal framework for contending the spatial

problems. GIS helps in asking questions that have a spatial component and ultimately decisions

can be made using GIS. GIS applications are now being integrated with emergency management

and there have been many applications developed in recent years (Mondschein, 1994).

There has been a significant amount of emerging research carried out in the field of

emergency management, which includes (Bruzewicz, 1994; Johnson, 1992; Mondschein, 1994;

Newsom & Mitrani, 1993) environmental hazards, (Emani et al., 1993; Gatrell & Vincent, 1991)

GIS and its uses for natural hazard management (Coppock, 1995; Dangermond, 1991; Wadge et

al., 1993). There are a few papers published which have examined the use of GIS in oil spill

management (Castanedo et al., 2009; Harbaugh, 2005; Martin & Moosavi, 1994). As it is a

relatively new research topic and there are very few reference journal articles, it is essential to take

into account other sources, such as conference proceedings, technical reports and trade journals, as

they will provide relevant context for discussing how GIS is influencing oil spill management.

2.2.1 Emergencies in Context

It is very important to define the different terms since many exist in the emergency management

field. Some of the terms like risk and hazard are used interchangeably despite being two different

concepts. Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazardous event of a particular

magnitude occurring in a given area over a specific period of time (Coppola, 2006). Risk is a
23
function of the probability of a particular occurrence. Risk depends on the nature of the hazard,

vulnerability of factors that are affected and economical value of those factors. Vulnerability refers

to the extent to which an area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular

hazard (Coppola, 2006). Hazard is defined as the phenomenon that poses a threat to people,

economy and the environment. The hazard could be manmade or naturally occurring (Coppola,

2006). An emergency occurs once the hazard has occured and affects people and the environment

(National Research Council, 2007).

Disaster management activities strive to reduce the impact of the disaster to the

community, economy and environment while simultaneously returning the area of impact to pre-

disaster conditions. There are a number of activities carried out before and after the disaster, which

are designed to reduce the impact to a point of elimination. Yet, the very nature of disasters makes

this unachievable (National Research Council, 2007). The following five main characteristics of

disasters that make them hard to overcome have been outlined by (Donahue & Joyce, 2001;

Waugh, 2000).

• Disasters are large, rapid-onset incidents relative to the size and resources of an affected

jurisdiction. Disasters affect a high percent of the jurisdictions property population and damage

occurs very quickly relative to the jurisdictions ability to deal with it. They may also impact the

resources and personnel that will be responding, for example if oil spills into a dock, it will

affect the boats used for response. A jurisdictions human resources, equipment, supplies and

funds are dramatically affected. If pre-incident data is available, this can provide important

insight into the nature and extent of the spill.

• Disasters are uncertain with respect to both their occurrences and their outcomes. The

24
 uncertainty comes about because hazards that cause disasters are hard to identify and the

relationship between hazards and disasters is poorly understood. This makes it difficult to

estimate risks for the type and severity of damage that can occur.

• Risks and benefits are difficult to assess and compare. Although it is important to minimize the

exposure of populations and infrastructure to disasters, such as those in high-risk coastal areas,

the majority of human populations are found in coastal areas. The development of communities

near water sources is natural as water is fundamental for life. Furthermore, ports and fisheries

are vital businesses and coastal areas are aesthetically pleasing, which increases real estate

value and population density. Consequently, these areas are usually susceptible to oil spills,

making it difficult to compare and assess risks and benefits due to the variety of these

environments.

• Disasters are dynamic events. Emergencies usually evolve as they progress through time. In

the case of oil spills, the change is based on the response and natural factors. Since an oil spill

is so dynamic, it is extremely important that responders are able to understand and adapt to the

changing nature of a spill. Managing emergencies can thus be a highly technical endeavour

requiring specialized expertise for both policy development and policy implementation

(National Research Council, 2007).

• Disasters are relatively rare. Emergencies are experienced very infrequently. Many

communities or agencies are unlikely to have experience handling large-scale emergencies and

government agencies may lack funding for disaster management. Specialized capabilities, such

as geospatial data and tools, are essential from the preparedness aspect of emergencies.

25
2.2.2 Comprehensive Emergency Management

It is important to segment the emergency management process when examining GIS and its

integration. One framework used in oil spill management and other emergency management is the

Comprehensive Emergency Management (CEM) system (National Research Council, 2007), see

Figure 2-4. In CEM the emergency management process is split into a cycle of four processes,

which is based on time. These four phases include mitigation or prevention, preparedness,

response and recovery. Mitigation is the action carried out before a spill occurs, for example,

regulations that are in place to reduce the frequency and severity of oil spills like building ships

with double hulls. Preparedness is the action adopted before an emergency to develop operational

capabilities and help in the better response to a spill, for example having stockpiles of equipment

in areas most susceptible to oil spills. The response phase is the action carried out right before,

during and immediately after an emergency occurs. In the response phase the main goal is to

reduce the impact of the oil spill to the environment and make sure that the recovery phase is

implemented effectively. The recovery phase is the action taken to return the environment to its

initial or normal level (National Research Council, 2007).

GIS plays an important role in each of these phases. In the mitigation phase, GIS is used

for risk mapping. In the recovery phase, it can be used for damage assessment and for the

environmental impact assessment. Preparedness and response phases can be considered as one

phase in relation to GIS because GIS applications developed for the preparedness phase are also

used in the recovery phase of the spill. Hence, from a GIS perspective, it is better to combine

theses two phases.

26
 Risk Mapping
Sensitivity Indexes
R&D Oil Spill Technology
Policy Development
Programs (Ice Services)

Mitigation
Prevention

Emergency Planning
Damage Assessment Comprehensive Emergency Mapping Systems
Recovery
SCAT Management Preparedne Sensitivity Index
Clean-up ss Training
GRPs

Oil Spill
Response

Emergency Plan Activation

Resource Deployment
Tracking Oil on Water
Spill Modeling

Figure 2-4: Comprehensive Emergency Management Structure and the role of GIS

Adopted: (National Research Council, 2007)

Preparedness involves all the activities undertaken before an emergency occurs. This phase

helps improve the delivery of the response by preparing organizations and individuals for an

emergency. The goal of the response phase is to help shorten the time required for response, and
27
to expedite the recovery phase. During this phase, planning is carried out to develop better ways

for response and recovery. In the case of oil spills, identifying areas of protection, developing new

ways to recover oil and developing new technologies to aid the process of protecting the

environment are a few ways of being prepared. Another aspect of the preparedness phase is

training. Training helps responders be prepared for real events through exercises and drills. These

include conceptual discussions, as well as formalized tabletop exercises where real events are

mimicked (Haddow, Bullock, & Coppola, 2008). From a GIS perspective, there are a number of

activities carried out in this phase. Some of them include identification of data required,

development of datasets and development of sharing portals. It also includes activities such as

identifying risks, locations of equipment and assets used during an oil spill response, developing

universal standards for data, making decisions based on the data sets and also compiling data and

metadata in a common repository. The preparedness phase is enhanced when all agencies and

responders are working with the same data and interface. Understanding where all the data is

originating from is critical. The preparedness phase can further be enhanced if all the data is

housed in one location and disseminated to the entire oil spill community using a common

interface. Applications like Web servers and services have to be developed in relationship to

different response and recovery activities. GIS tools can be used when identifying risks and

hazards, developing oil spill models and developing Geographic Response Plans (GRPs) for

identifying sensitivities (ESI). GIS helps to integrate information with different sources, scales,

formats and accuracy into a single source that can be used for modeling, mapping and decision-

making during an oil spill. This common Web mapping application can be used for training,

developing plans for response and identifying risk in the preparedness phase. Some of the research

28
that has been done includes real time GIS (Elliot, 1994) and remote sensing for disaster

management (Hecker & Bruzewicz, 2009).

Response activities are carried out right after an emergency occurs. The response phase starts

with the onset of the emergency, it main goals are first to reduce impact to human life, prevent

damage to property and reduce the impact on the environment. During this phase activities include

preventing the source of the oil being spilled, recovering oil that is on water, protecting areas that

are environmentally sensitive and deploying resources where they are needed. Notably, not all

emergencies occur suddenly, for example, when a tanker with large amounts of oil has run a

ground and can potentially rupture a tank, the emergency is anticipated. Consequently, the

response phase overlaps with the preparedness phase (Haddow et al., 2008). This phase usually

lasts for 72 hours for most emergencies but it is still very difficult to define a clear end point for

this phase (Hecker & Bruzewicz, 2009). After the 72-hour phase, it is followed by the recovery

phase; usually there is an overlap between recovery and response phases. GIS plays a critical role

during this phase, in regards to an oil spill emergency. GIS helps within the incident management

structure and also supplements decision-making. The incident management structure for an oil spill

will be discussed in more detail in a later section. GIS activities include developing maps showing

the location of the oil from aerial surveys, developing maps that will help field personnel locate

areas to be protected, allocation maps of assets in the area and identifying the most sensitive areas

in the vicinity of the spill. During the response phase, time plays a critical role. A timely response

can minimize damage to the environment and help save valuable ecosystems in the vicinity of the

spill. Hence, it is essential to have access to a mapping system that is easily available, simple to

use and is capable of viewing maps that can be used within the incident management structure. The
29
system proposed in this thesis can be used in the response phase to view some of the data required.

It can also be integrated with modeling to view the results over the Internet. These results can be

disseminated to all individuals and organizations involved in the planning and management of the

oil spill. Some of the literature in the recovery phase includes tracking oil on water using GIS

(Friel, Leary, Norris, Sargent, & Warford, 1993). It also includes literature in oil spill modeling

(Chen et al., 2005; Shyue et al., 2007; Xie & Yapa, 2006).

Recovery is carried out after the response phase of the spill. It includes short and long term

activities after the spill has occurred with the main purpose of restoring the areas impacted to their

original conditions, or as close as possible. Short-term activities include surveying areas that have

been impacted, developing clean-up strategies and disposal of recovered products. The long-term

activities include an environmental impact assessment and monitoring of water and soil quality.

One of the major tasks that uses GIS in the recovery phase is the shoreline clean-up and

assessment techniques (SCAT). Another important task is capturing and archiving data collected as

part of the emergency. This data needs to be viewed and disseminated to all the stakeholders

involved. Stakeholders can use the Web mapping interface proposed in this thesis to view data

captured during the response phase. This can help stakeholders visualize the effect of the oil spill

and what has been impacted which in turn will help provide better recovery efforts and reduce the

impact to the environment. Some of the literature in this phase includes development of a SCAT

database and integration with GIS (Lamarche et al., 1996; Lankford et al., 2008; Reimer et al.,

2008).

Mitigation/Prevention includes activities that are carried out after the end of one emergency

and before another one arises. The main goal of this phase is to help prevent or reduce the
30
occurrence of an emergency. Activities that are carried out during this phase include assessing risk,

developing legislature to reduce risk, assessing and reducing vulnerability to risk and identifying

hazards. In short, it is a set of sustained activities designed to reduce the impact of future disasters.

Mitigation involves implementing policy changes and new strategies (National Research Council,

2007). Examples of policy-based activities includes regulations which require vessels to have

double hulls in order to prevent spills, requiring refineries to have oil spill exercises and so on.

Other activities include identification of highly sensitive areas with the development of sensitivity

indexes. In Canada, programs have been developed to detect oil spills on water using RADARSAT

images. Canadian Ice Service (CIS), a branch of Environment Canada, has been providing such

services to detect ships discharging oil into the marine environment. In this study, data from CIS

will be integrated into the Web mapping interface. This will help stakeholders view oil spills

detected off the coastline and in turn facilitate a response.

2.2.3 Command System during an Oil-Spill Event

An Incident Command System (ICS) is used during large-scale emergencies, including oil spills

for managing the incident. It is widely accepted by government and industry for use in

emergencies because it is usable, adaptable and a well-tested approach to emergency management.

An ICS provides a management system, which organizes the functions, tasks, and staff within the

emergency response. Emergencies cause a lot of confusion and the ICS helps transform the chaos

into a well-managed system. The ICS promotes better communication and coordination during an

emergency (Lutz & Lindell, 2008). In Canada, a similar structure is followed. It is based on the

Canadian Coast Guard (CCG)’s Response Management System (RMS) (Department of Fisheries
31
and Oceans, 2006). This system is used when the Coast Guard is the lead agency for an oil spill. In

most marine spills for ship sources, CCG is the lead agency, and hence this structure will be

introduced here. Figure 2-6 shows the organizational structure of CCG’s RMS.

The RMS organization under a CCG led response is managed by the on-scene commander

(OSC) and consists of two groups; the advisory staff and response staff. The advisory staff works

directly under the OSC and includes the communication officer, health and safety officer, legal,

liaison and Regional Environmental Emergency Team (REET). The Communications Officer is

responsible for setting up the Information Center where all media sources will be able to access

relevant information for information dissemination. The Health and Safety Officer is accountable

to the OSC for all aspects of health and safety during response operations. Legal provides legal

advice to the OSC. The liaison is responsible for coordinating and maintaining relations and

communications with outside agencies, community leaders and other interest groups (Department

of Fisheries and Oceans, 2006). The REET is a group set up by Environment Canada. They are

responsible for providing environmental advice. The REET includes different stakeholders that

have involvement with the area impacted. The REET will provide advice and guidance to the OSC

(BC Ministry of Environment, 2007). Particular emphasis will be given to providing advice and

guidance during the development of the Incident Action Plan (IAP).

As shown in Figure 2-5, there are four main phases to the RES, namely planning,

operations, logistics and finance. Planning is responsible for the collection, coordination and

assessment of data, which is used to develop an IAP. The Operations phase is responsible for the

direction and conduct of response operations. Logistics is responsible for providing facilities,

services and resources for the conduct of response operations. Finance is responsible for the
32
collection and organization of all financial aspects of response operations (Department of Fisheries

and Oceans, 2006). This structure is developed in a modular way for marine oil spills. The system

is designed to expand or contract based on the size of the emergency.

The use of GIS plays a critical role within this structure. The main uses of GIS are within

the planning and REET sections of the REM. Development of an IAP requires many support

documents like mps and images. In order to make these plans, it is important to use GIS to outline

areas of operations. Within the REET, GIS is also used to identify areas of sensitivity and

protection during a spill. Many stakeholders need to identify areas that are of value to them. GIS is

an important tool that can be used to achieve some of the spatial problems that are prevalent during

an oil-spill event.

33
 OSC

Communications
Officer
Legal

Health and Safety

Officer
REET

Liaison Officer

Planning Operations Logistics Finance

Figure 2-5: Canadian Coast Guard’s Response Management System

(Adopted: Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 2006)

Several countries are developing emergency mapping systems using Internet GIS (Baker et

al., 2005). Theses systems incorporate various data sources and tools used by the oil spill

community. The main component of these emergency mapping systems is sensitivity mapping.

There has also been an initiative to incorporate other tools and programs discussed above within

theses systems. Some of the research is incorporating SCAT data with sensitivity mapping systems

(Lamarche et al., 1996; Lankford et al., 2008). There have also been incentives to incorporate oil

spill detection data within such mapping systems for quick dissemination of data (Abreu et al.,

2006).

34
2.3 Oil Spill Emergency Management Systems in Canada

This section introduces a number of emergency mapping systems that have been developed in

Canada. ASMAP is the first GIS developed by Environment Canada in the Atlantic Region. Its

development dates back to the early 1990's and it has been used since 1995 by different partners in

the Atlantic region for environmental emergencies management. ASMAP is a standalone

application (software) for installation on personal computers and laptops. It has most of the main

tools and features of GIS software. It allows users to display thematic layers over National

Topographic Database base maps, performs pre-spill and resources reports, views shoreline videos

and edits map layouts for incidents (Environment Canada, 2004). This system is purely a desktop

system and has no Web component; hence it is tough to integrate with other organization datasets.

Therefore, it causes a problem with interoperability and the updating of different datasets. Another

problem is that it uses software that is not compatible with other GIS programs commonly used by

other organizations. Today, many organizations use ArcGIS framework for managing and

dissemination of GIS data. Figure 2-6 shows a screen shot of the mapping interface.

35
 Figure 2-6: ASMAP interface

(Source: Environment Canada, 2004)

E-MAP is a mapping application accessible via the Internet. It was developed by the

Environmental Emergencies Section in the Quebec Region. It has been fully operational since the

spring of 2002. E-MAP has similar functions as ASMAP. However, since E-MAP is on the

Internet, it is capable to have real-time data, such as weather conditions. It allows users to upload

their personal data on the main server to share it with other users. It also creates maps online with

Adobe® SVG technology without any mapping software needed (Environment Canada, 2004).

This system again uses software that is not compatible with ArcView products, causing problems

with interoperability. Thus, this system could not be adopted effectively in others regions in

Canada. Figure 2-7 shows the Web mapping interface for E-MAP.

36
 Figure 2-7: E-MAP Web mapping interface

(Source: Environment Canada, 2004)

E2MS or the Environmental Emergency Management System was developed in 2006

(Environment Canada, 2004). E2MS was not developed with the purpose of being a mapping tool,

instead, an information management decision-making tool. It allows spill responders to make

better decisions by improving their access to shared data, information, and knowledge. This project

was a national project that included all the regions in Canada while past projects only developed

regional systems. The vastness of this project led to its failure and the system is no longer used

today. Also, it adopted software used by E-MAP, which was hard to be integrated with other

systems.

The main components of theses systems were sensitivity mapping. They did not

incorporate other tools and programs used in Canada, which include oil spill detection using

37
RADARSAT images, GRP and SCAT. They were designed mainly for viewing sensitivities in a

region of impact.

2.4 Chapter Summary

This chapter has presented an overview of the development of Internet GIS. Section 2.1 provides a

brief history of Internet GIS and the evolution of Internet GIS through different phases. ArcGIS

Server is introduced and looks at its architecture, system and development of applications. This

section ends by outlining some of the advantages and disadvantages of Internet GIS.

Also, this chapter has provided an in-depth look at oil spill emergency management and its

framework. It reviews the literature in relationship to emergency management and GIS. Section

2.2.2 introduces the comprehensive emergency management structure used for most large-scale

emergencies while providing an overview of each phase, which includes mitigation, preparedness,

response and recovery. The role of GIS is examined in each of these phases. An overview of the

response management system is examined. Section 2.3 concludes the chapter by providing various

examples of emergency mapping systems developed for oil spill management in Canada.

38
 CHAPTER 3

Oil Spill Emergency Mapping System

This chapter provides an in-depth look at the development of the Oil Spill Emergency Mapping

System (OSEMS). Section 1 identifies the users of OSEMS. Then a framework for OSEMS

combining sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection using RADARSAT images and SCAT is

introduced in Section 3.2. The data used to develop OSEMS are described in Section 3.3.The

conceptual design is then presented in Section 3.4 followed by an outline of how OSEMS has been

implemented in Section 3.5.

3.1 Potential Users and Their Needs

It is important to identify needs, capabilities and preferences for the way users perform activities

within an application. This understanding in turn influences the design and implementation of a

system in order to match the users requirements and the work the users need to accomplish

(Haklay & Tobon, 2003). One of the goals for the development of this application was to take

large amounts of spatial data and make it available through a medium that is accessible to most

stakeholders and responders for easy access during an oil spill. Most oil spill responders and

stakeholders have minimal experience in use of desktop GIS or other local area network (LAN)

based applications. This section outlines the potential users of such a Web-based oil spill

emergency mapping system. This system is developed to be used by expert groups in British

39
Columbia that deal with oil spill planning. There are three types of users that will be outlined in

relationship to oil spills. They include users that have no GIS experience, users that have some

GIS experience and very advanced GIS users. Most agencies and organizations that deal with oil

spills have all three levels of users.

Advanced users: These users usually include GIS professionals that have formal GIS training.

Most organizations that deal with spatial data have one or many of this type of user. They are

responsible for managing spatial data within the organizations. Some of the tasks they perform

include data collection, sharing and manipulation. These users utilize desktop GIS that have very

complex functionality. They are able to perform special analysis, complex queries and professional

map making.

Intermediary users: These users are individuals who utilize GIS products and tools but do not

necessarily have formal GIS training. They are users of GIS but do not perform complex analysis

or queries and use GIS tools and applications to aid in their performance in their job or role within

the agency or organization. Additionally, this group of users includes members of the public that

participate during an oil spill. These users may also include scientist, planners, responders,

technical experts and focus group members.

Novice users: Consists of users who have no understanding of GIS or formal training. These

users only view sensitivity data in order to carry out their jobs or tasks more efficiently. They

include response personnel, clean-up crews, equipment operators and the general public involved

with an oil spill.

40
 The development of this application is mainly for intermediary and novice users that play

important roles in the planning and management of oil spills. Advanced users have access to most

of theses data sets using advanced GIS software. These advances functionalities are not yet

available within commercial Internet GIS products. The functionality of products like ArcIMS and

ArcGIS Server is still very limited compared to desktop GIS applications. ArcGIS Server can carry

our very limited functions like queries, finds and buffers (Peng, 1999).

The application that will be developed as part of this thesis will have very easy

functionality that will give users the ability to view large amounts of spatial data related to oil

spills over the Web. It will also give the stakeholders the ability to view data from other programs

and operations that use GIS. Once an oil spill has been detected off the coast of British Columbia

for example, users can view sensitivity data near the location of detection. This will immediately

indicate to stakeholders what is at risk in a specified area which in turn facilitates a better response.

Stakeholders and responders can view GIS data through every level of an oil spill, from detection

though response and onto recovery. This will help to reduce environmental impacts and help with

making more informed decisions.

The potential users of oil spill emergency management mapping systems have a number of

needs related to different types of oil spills. A tiered response approach identifies the types of spills

(Baker et al., 2005), which include:

Tier 1: Very small-localized spills. For example, a hose line breaks on a ship and spews 50

liters of oil into the water within a port.

41
 Tier 2: Medium sized spills. These would include a ruptured tank in a ship that caused a

few thousand litres of oil to be spilled into the environment. This spill can cause damage to the

environment and effect shoreline and other resources in the vicinity

Tier 3: Major accidents. These are spills that can release thousands of tons of oil into the

environment and would cause significant environmental damage.

Usually after a spill occurs or is detected, the use of GIS and online mapping tools becomes

very important. GIS and maps are used at different levels of a response. When a large spill, several

kilometres offshore is detected with remote sensing satellites, responders are unable to predict

what areas of the shore will be impacted. Initially maps that cover large areas showing the most

important resources are required for all potential areas that can be impacted. The authorities in the

projected area of impact can be notified and preparations can then be made to combat the spill and

its damaging effects. As time passes it becomes clearer which areas a spill is going to impact.

Maps showing areas of protection and indicating possible booming points will be needed. Also

after a shoreline is impacted, surveys will be carried out and information regarding the type of

shoreline is required (Baker et al., 2005).

In addition to spill response teams, other agencies and groups that protect the resources at

risk will be interested in this data. These groups include fisheries departments, conservation

groups, local first nation communities, business owners, members of the community and the

general public. In some cases the different interests of these groups may conflict depending on the

specific area. Hence it is important to include all stakeholders when making decisions about

protection of areas. Since this is inherently a spatial problem it is important for all stakeholders to

42
understand what is at risk in the area. By viewing the sensitivity data in an area, stakeholders will

have a better understanding of what is at risk based on different perspectives. Using a common

platform to view this data will facilitate better decision-making (Baker et al., 2005).

It is important to develop a user centric system. Also, it is essential to identify the user in

order to influence the design of such an application. A usability study is essential to ensure that the

needs of the user are met. The design process encompasses the understanding of how people carry

out their work in order to implement systems that can allow users to accomplish their tasks

effectively, efficiently and satisfactorily for all stakeholders (Haklay & Tobon, 2003).

3.2 Framework

Existing oil spill emergency mapping systems mainly provide sensitivity mapping as a stand-alone

system for oil spill response. None of the systems developed in Canada incorporates other aspects

of oil spill planning and management. Recently there have been initiatives to incorporate other

programs and tools used for oil spill planning within the existing sensitivity mapping systems

(Abreu et al., 2006; Lamarche et al., 1996; Lankford et al., 2008), which include oil spill detection

using RADARSAT images and SCAT.

3.2.1 Sensitivity Mapping

During an oil spill, readily available information regarding location and vulnerability of resources

at risk is important for an effective response as this will help reduce environmental impacts. The

main objectives during an oil spill are to reduce environmental impact and promote effective

43
cleanup efforts. These objectives are best achieved if the locations of sensitive environments are

pre-identified and mapped. Knowing this information beforehand can help identify protection

priorities and develop clean-up strategies (Percy, 2005). Responders have a very narrow window

of time to respond to a spill and have no time to contact different agencies and organizations to

gather resource information on areas that are sensitive. Hence, it is very important to have

sensitivity mapping capabilities available during oil spills. For sensitivity mapping to be effective,

it must be an integral part of the overall planning activity (Jensen et al., 1998). A number of

research studies on sensitivity mapping for oil spills have been conducted, they include (Adler &

Inbar, 2007; Carmona et al., 2006; Cooper, 2005; Harper et al., 1991). Sensitivity mapping may

also be referred to as the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) in relation to oil spills. This

concept first emerged in 1979, when a prototype sensitivity map was created before a major oil

spill into Texas waters from the Ixtoc-I well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico (Jensen et al., 1998).

Sensitivity mapping applications are spatial information systems that are composed of different

types of data. There are three main components of data including shoreline segmentation data,

biological data that can be impacted by oil spills and human activities data, which includes

commercial and recreational areas and areas of high value. Many efforts have been made to

develop sensitivity mapping for oil spill planning around the world. Consequently, different

approaches have been adopted to develop such systems by many countries, including the USA,

United Arab Emirates, Israel, Jordan, El Salvador, Germany, South Africa, Mauritius, and New

Zealand. An in-depth review of different sensitivity mapping systems can be found in the literature

(Baker et al., 2005).

44
 Map atlases of different areas were created before in a paper format for areas susceptible to

oil spills. Since 1989, digital sensitivity map atlases have been prepared using GIS (J. R. Jensen et

al., 1998). This began a shift from hardcopy maps to digital maps that could be viewed on personal

computers using GIS software. Today, Internet GIS makes sensitivity mapping available through

the WWW, which increases the ability to distribute such information to a much larger audience

(Laflamme & Percy, 2005).

In Canada, as was described in the last chapter, similar efforts have been made to develop

sensitivity mapping systems. In British Columbia, a system has not yet been developed specifically

for oil spill sensitivity mapping. In this thesis, Internet GIS will be utilized to develop an

emergency mapping system that includes sensitivity mapping. It will also demonstrate how other

applications and programs using GIS can be integrated into one large system for viewing spatial

data related to oil spills. Figure 3-1 provides a framework for sensitivity mapping system using

Internet GIS. The main components of the system are spatial data from different organizations,

which include base map, shoreline, and biological, economic and cultural sensitivity data. The

other components include the map server, Web server and the client viewer. Principles adopted in

Canada will be used to develop the sensitivity-mapping component of the system (Laflamme &

Percy, 2005).

45
 Base Map Shoreline Segment
Data

Server Side Client Side

Server Response

Map Server Web Server

ULR Request

Biological Economic Cultural

Sensitivity Data Sensitivities Sensitivities

Figure 3-1: Framework for developing a sensitivity mapping system for oil spills

3.2.2 Oil Spill Detection Using RADARSAT Images

In 2006, Canada began to monitor oil spill pollution in its marine and coastal areas using

RADARSAT Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images. Canadian Ice Service (CIS) implemented

this program. The name of this program is the Integrated Satellite Tracking of Pollution (ISTOP)

and it was funded by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). The ISTOP program uses RADASAT-1

data to identify potential oil pollution from ship sources. When oil waste is illegally discharged by

46
ocean vessels into coastal waters, it has a severe impact on the marine ecosystems. Without

mitigation this problem will only worsen. With the passing of Bill C-15 in 2005, the government

moved to strengthen its ability to detect oil waste being released at sea (Abreu et al., 2006).

Implementation of new surveillance techniques was the key to meeting the goals of the new bill.

Canadian Space Agency, Environment Canada and Transport Canada partnered with MDA

Geospatial to demonstrate the use of RADARSAT-1 to optimize oil pollution monitoring and

surveillance in Canada. The use of SAR to detect oil on water has been used around the world.

MDG receives near real-time RADASSAT-1 data over Canada’s east and west coast. Using a GIS

interface, image analysis is carried out to identify potential oil and source targets, ships and

offshore platforms. The results are sent off to the different enforcement agencies and the National

Aerial Surveillance Program (NASP). NASP uses aircraft to survey Canadian waters for pollution

(Abreu et al., 2006).

Satellite detection can be used for identifying oil pollution and in turn can help during a

response. Monitoring coastal waters is a part of mitigating activities in the comprehensive

emergency management structure. Different sensors can be used to perform this task, which

include ultraviolet sensors, visible sensors, infrared sensors, and microwave sensors. An excellent

comparison of different sensors can be found in (Jha et al., 2008). Even though there are a number

of sensors being used, much attention has been given to the use of SAR. It is an active microwave

imaging system that transmits short directional electromagnetic (EM) waves and then operates as a

reviser to record the backscatter signals to form a 2D image (Richards & Jia, 2006). SAR is used

as a tool for monitoring oil spills for a number of reasons. It is an active microwave system that

can provide energy on its own, SAR is independent of solar illumination and functions day and

47
night (Richards & Jia, 2006). This is an asset since illegal oil discharge usually occurs at night

(Gade & Alpers, 1999). Short directional EM waves can penetrate clouds, fog and rain, which

allows SAR to function independently of weather conditions (Richards & Jia, 2006) SAR can

monitor large areas of ocean, which is very cost effective (Brekke & Solberg, 2005).

Manual, semi-automatic, and completely automatic methods can be used to detect oil spills

from SAR images (Topouzelis, 2008). In Canada, the semi-automatic method is used. Data is

acquired by MDA and then sent to CIS for detection activities. Once images are received at CIS

level, CEOS SAR data is split into two streams. In the first stream, the data is re-projected and

converted into an Erdas Imaging file format and it is stored in a geodatabase that is the Ice Service

Integrated System catalogue. The second stream of CEOS SAR data is imputed into the Ocean

Monitoring Workstation (OMW). This workstation, developed by Satlantic Ltd, provides

capabilities for automatically detecting oil and ships in SAR images (Abreu et al., 2006). This

workstation provides analysts with an accurate and objective first guess at the presence of oil and

ships in incoming imagery. The OMW spits out XML outputs, which are then converted into shape

files. These files are sent to an ISIS catalogue (Abreu et al., 2006). The ISIS catalogue also

contains a variety of visible, infrared and microwave imagery, as well as other related data layers,

e.g. coast lines, bathymetry. CIS analysis looks at the images using a workstation that was

developed to provide the analyst with a geospatial workspace, where they could review and

overlay the SAR imagery. The custom ArcView application allows for creation of reports for when

oil spills are detected. ISTOP reports are distributed automatically to different clients via the CIS

Product Distribution System (PDS) (Abreu et al., 2006). Figure 3-2 illustrates the workflow of

ISTOP.

48
 Ingest Environmental
Projection Data

ISTOP Analyst
CEOS using GIS Reports
PDS
SAR workstation and Maps
ISIS
Catalogue

OMW
Slick
Other Images Map Server
Ship
Wind

Figure 3-2: ISTOP workflow and integration with Map Server

(Adopted: Abreu et al., 2006)

Once spills have been detected using the process outlined above, the data must be

disseminated rapidly to different stakeholders and enforcement agencies so they can act on this

information. Traditionally this data has been passed down in a form of a report with attached maps.

If this information was published on the Web, it would allow the stakeholders to view the data in

real time. In this thesis, the results from the ISTOP program will be published using a map server.

This map server, which can be seen in Figure 3-2, will be integrated with sensitivity mapping. A

user will then have the ability to view sensitivity data in the vicinity of the detected spill.

49
3.2.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique

The SCAT process is now an important part of oil spill clean-up process and has been adopted in

many countries around the world including Canada. There are different variations of SCAT based

on the spill including aerial surveys by one person or ground surveys by multiple teams. Before the

development of the SCAT, a number of different methods were used to identify the oiling

conditions of a shoreline (Finkelstein & Gundlach, 1981; Gundlach et al., 1993). Before the SCAT,

operational personnel would carry out a survey and then direct the clean-up operations. The use of

the SCAT started in Environment Canada in 1977, and is still used today (Owens & Sergy, 2003).

The first description of the formal application of a checklist of a spill response was described by

(Owens, 1990).

Once a spill occurs and oil has impacted the shoreline, it is important to understand the

extent and amount of oiling that has occurred on the shoreline. SCAT is an assessment technique

used to survey the impacted area. A systematic survey of the area affected by the spill is carried

out to provide rapid and accurate geo-referenced documentation of shoreline oiling conditions

(Moore, 2007). This information is used to develop real-time decisions and to implement shoreline

treatment planning and response operations (Owens & Sergy, 2003). As part of the recovery phase,

the SCAT teams systematically survey the areas impacted by an oil spill. Some of the main

components of the SCAT include assessment surveys, data management and data application.

The field survey teams use specific and standard terminology to describe and define shoreline-

oiling conditions. The SCAT process itself, however, is flexible and the assessment activities are

designed to match the unique spill conditions (Lamarche & Tarpley, 1997). SCAT surveys provide

50
a geographic or spatial component for the oiling conditions or shoreline. After the survey is

carried out, the teams make recommendations regarding appropriate clean-up methods and also

provide constraints and limitations on the applications of clean-up techniques to reduce further

damage to the shoreline. The main objective of the SCAT is to provide operational support. Some

of the main activities include collecting and documenting real-time data on oil and shoreline

conditions in a rapid, accurate, systematic manner (Owens & Sergy, 2003). The SCAT surveys

provide information used to build a spatial picture of the area affected. Understanding the nature

and extent of shoreline oiling conditions is key for an effective response (Owens, 1990). The

information gathered during the survey is in a format that can be implemented and applied

effectively by planners and decision makers. In addition to its primary objective outlined above,

the SCAT surveys can be used for development of treatment or cleanup recommendations,

standards or criteria, net environmental benefit analysis, post-treatment inspection and evaluation

as well as help with long-term monitoring (Owens, 1990).

One of the main elements of the SCAT during the response phase is to make sure that the

data needed to carry out the SCAT is readily available to the users in the planning and shoreline

operations. Database management is critical when responding to large spills and the type of data

mainly needed for a SCAT is shoreline information, which includes shoreline type, structure and

wave exposure (Lankford et al., 2008). After the initial response period, when the SCAT teams

typically progress at a slower pace, data management remains an integral part of the process to

ensure that maps and data tables are kept up-to-date, and that the data is suitably stored (Lamarche

& Tarpley, 1997). Usually, data management requires specially designed software that is in a

database format that can be lined up to a GIS system for map production and results display
51
(Lamarche & Owens, 1997; Lamarche et al., 1998; Williams et al., 2005). Now, new technologies

and programs have also led to the use of computers and hand held devices in the field to collect

this data. These devices usually integrate a Global Positioning System (GPS), which can then be

integrated with the database system at the command post (Simecek-Beatty & Lehr, 1996). The

main advantage of these tools is that they help in streamlining the process of data management and

displaying results. Figure 3-3 shows how the SCAT is integrated with GIS.

All data collected in the field can be integrated with GIS and then absorbed into a Web

mapping system that will provide rapid dissemination of the data. Different stakeholders and field

personnel can view data in real time to carry out rapid clean-up operations. As part of this thesis

SCAT data will be published using a map server. This map server, which can be seen in Figure 3-

3, will be integrated with the sensitivity mapping system. Users will have the ability to view SCAT

data once it has been collected and integrated with GIS. It will also give the user the ability to view

sensitivity data in the areas that have been impacted by the spill.

52
 Shoreline Surface/Pit SCAT Suggested
Characteristi Oiling Evaluation Countermeasures
cs characteristic
s

Shoreline
Characteristi
cs

Pre-Spill Shoreline SCAT Model

Segment Model

Spatial Shoreline GIS Application

Segment Data Output
Maps

Subdivision/ Oil Pit

Locations
Map Server

Figure 3-3: System design for SCAT process and integration with Map Server

(Adopted: Lamarche & Owens, 1997)

53
3.2.4 System Integration

As discussed above, a number of aspects of oil spill planning use GIS. Through the integration of

sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection using RADARSAT images and SCAT into a common

interface, stakeholders are more easily able to view large amounts of spatial data simultaneously.

This integration will also help in faster dissemination of data since time is of the essence when

responding to an oil spill. A common interface can foster faster and better decision-making during

a spill. By using Internet GIS as a framework, these systems can be integrated. The workflow of

each of these systems is outlined above. Conceptually, different map servers would be developed

in the respective organizations that implement each of these programs. These servers would

publish maps and images over the Internet. The Web Map Services can be integrated into a

common interface where the oil spill community can access the data. Figure 3-4 outlines a

framework how these systems can be integrated. This is a conceptual design of the system.

54
 Server Side Clint Side

SCAT Map Server

SCAT Data

Sensitivity Map Server Web Server

Sensitivity Mapping Data

ISTOP Map Server

Oil Spill Detection Using

RADARSAT Data

Figure 3-4: Framework for integrating sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection and SCAT

3.3 Data

Data is one of the most important components for this project. In order to develop such a system,

data was acquired from different government agencies and organizations in British Columbia.

Three different datasets were required for the development of this application. They included data

for the sensitivity mapping, detection data and shoreline cleanup and assessment data. This section

will outline the different datasets used. It will provide an overview for how the data was pre-
55
processed and optimized for use with ArcGIS Server. One of the hardest tasks in developing this

project was data acquisition since a large volume and variety of data was required.

3.3.1 Geographic Data

Sensitivity Mapping Data

In order to develop a sensitivity mapping system for oil spills a number of data sets are required.

Once an oil spill occurs many resources in an area are impacted due to the harsh characteristics of

oil. Oil spills can affect the physical environment, the biological diversity of the area and socio-

economic characteristics in an area. Some of the main datasets that have been identified for oil

spill sensitivity mapping include the pre-spill database or shoreline data, commercial fisheries,

environmental protection areas, shellfish data, bird migration, bird colonies, species at risk,

wildlife data, archaeological sites, and base map data (Jensen et al., 1998; Krishnan, 1995;

Laflamme & Percy, 2005)

Base-Maps: The base maps form a foundation for developing this project. NTDB

topographic digital maps from Natural Resources Canada Centre were used as base maps. Three

different scales were used which include 1:50,000, 1:250,000 and 1:1,000,000. The different scales

were used because users need to have the ability to view data at different extents. Not all the

themes under NTDB were used for the project. The main themes used to develop the base map

included transportation, landcover, boundaries and text. The 1:50,000 British Columbia Watershed

Atlas was used as the hydrology layer. This dataset is a topologically structured digital

representation of all aquatic-related features streams, lakes, wetlands, obstructions, dams and it is

available for all of British Columbia. This dataset was obtained from the British Columbia
56
Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management data portal. Some of the other datasets used to

develop the base map include the 1:10,000,000 base maps of Canada, which were acquired from

Natural Resources Canada.

Shoreline Data: The objective of the pre-spill data is to collect information that would be

required by spill resource management teams in the development of planning priorities and

operational decisions. This dataset plays an important role in the definition of resources potential

priorities. This dataset usually includes shoreline segmentation data (type of shoreline), relative

exposure to wave and tidal energy, slope, substrate and bio-logical productivity and sensitivity

(Owens & Sergy, 2003). It was obtained from the British Columbia Ministry of Sustainable

Resources Management. The dataset obtained only included shoreline type, the other fields were

not provided and some areas had no data since they were collected by other agencies. In reality, a

full dataset will be needed when developing such a system. This data was collected at 1:20000

scale and it did not overlay very well in some areas since the base-maps were at a 1:50000 scale.

Bird Data: In British Columbia there is significant activity of migratory birds along the

coast. Birds are usually the most noticeable casualties of oil spills. For this thesis bird colony data

was obtained from the British Columbia GeoBC GIS data portal. This dataset provides major bird

colonies along the coast of British Columbia. Bird migration data is also collected by the Canadian

Wildlife Services (CWS); however, this data set also was not obtained due to restrictions to public

access. This information is very important when developing such a system since it provides the

time of the year some birds would be in a particular location.

57
 Species at Risk (SAR): There are a number of species at risk along the coastline of British

Columbia. It is important to know the location of these species. Species at risk data is managed by

Canadian Wildlife Services. A 2005 data set was acquired from Environment Canada.

Wildlife Data: Along the coast there is a concentration of various wildlife species. Most of the

activities of different wildlife are near water. Hence, they are prone to oiling. It is important to

know their locations. Species Inventory Wildlife Observations data was obtained from the British

Columbia GeoBC GIS data portal.

Fishery and Shellfish Data: Fish may ingest large amounts of oil through their gills. Fish

that have been exposed to oil may suffer from changes in heart and respiratory rate, reduced

growth, fin erosion and a variety of effects at biochemical and cellular levels (Fingas, 2001).

Fishery information was obtained from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. The Fisheries

Information Summary System (FISS) data was used. It includes information about Chinook,

Chum, Coho, Cutthroat, Sockeye and Steelhead. This information is linked to the Watershed atlas

outlined above. Very little is also known about the effects of oil on shellfish except for the fact that

contamination with oil will make shellfish taste and smell bad (Fingas, 2001) This makes it

impossible to use them as a food source. The shellfish location data set was not obtained for this

project since it is restricted to the general public.

First Nation Data: A number of First Nations communities live along the coastal regions of

British Columbia. Many of the traditional sites, agrological sites, burial grounds and traditional

hunting and fishing grounds are located in coastal areas. Band location data and reserve land data

were obtained from the British Columbia GeoBC GIS data portal. Other datasets including burial

sites and agrological sites were not available to the general public.
58
Vancouver Port Data: Vancouver port is one of the largest ports on the west coast of Canada.

There is constant activity of ships and other large sea vessels. Along the port, there are a number of

oil processing refineries. The Port of Vancouver is a high-risk area for a spill to occur,

consequently having accurate data surrounding the port is important. Port data was obtained from

Port Metro Vancouver. It provides detailed GIS data of the area included under Port Metro

Vancouver.

Parks and Protection Areas: British Colombia is famous for its beaches, foreshore parks,

recreational waterways and natural areas. If a spill occurred close to one of these areas it could

have a major impact. This dataset was obtained from the British Columbia GeoBC GIS data portal.

It provides information about all the parks and protection areas along the British Columbia coastal

region.

Commercial Fisheries Data: Fishery harvesting is a big business in British Columbia. It is very

important to know major locations of harvesting activities along the coastline. If an oil spill

occurred in a region of harvesting it would really impact the economy for fisheries in the region.

This data set was obtained from the British Columbia Ministry of Sustainable Resources

Management.

Canadian Ice Service Data

In order to show how detection data can be integrated with the sensitivity mapping, data

from the Canadian Ice Services was acquired. The process of how the program works and the

workflow of detecting oil spills in Canadian waters has been outlined in the last section. Data that

is acquired from the process is categorized. The detection data is classified into four categories. If

59
the detection of an oil slick is associated with a ship, it is classified as Category 1A; if there are

ships within 50 km radius of the slick it is classified as category 1B; if there are no ships within 50

km of the slick it is classified as Category 2; the slicks that have the least confidence will be

labelled as Category 3. Data for 2007 and 2008 was acquired from the Canadian Ice Services. Only

detection data for British Columbia was used. The data includes an overview polygon of the area

of detection, ships detected in the area, digitized oil slick and RADARSAT image.

SCAT Data

SCAT is carried out after a spill impacts on shoreline. The process of SCAT was outlined

in the last section. GIS is used to display the results after the assessment of the impacted shoreline.

SCAT data is usually collected after a large spill has occurred. The last major spill in British

Columbia was on August 4, 2006 at Squamish dock terminal. This spill caused approximately

29,000 litres of bunker fuel to be released into the environment and then the high winds blew the

oil on the shore near the terminal and into the estuary of the Squamish River. The SCAT data from

this spill was not available. Shoreline segmentation data outlined above was used to build the

SCAT database. Data for the impacted shoreline in Squamish (Howe Sound) was clipped from the

shoreline segmentation data. The database was developed using the environmental impact

assessment documents (Polaris Applied Sciences, 2006). A new field was imputed into the clipped

shoreline segment data and oiling conditions added as of August 11, 2006. This data is

disseminated through an environmental impact assessment to different stakeholders and agencies.

60
3.3.2 Data Processing

Data processing is one of the most tedious tasks in relation to GIS. Most of the data was secondary

data and was not developed for this project. Hence, the data had to be processed to fit the needs of

this project. Data was acquired from different agencies in different formats and geographical

extents.

To conduct all the data processing, ArcGIS 9 (ArcCatalog, ArcMap, ArcToolbox) was

used. Some datasets like the shoreline database obtained in ArcInfo Coverage format was

converted into a shapefile. The database was provided in the form of an access database. Then the

ArcGIS and the spatial file which was converted was linked using the table add join tool. Initially

all the datasets obtained were in different projected co-ordinate systems. In order to use all the data

they were re-projected to the standard BC Albers Projection. This projection has been officially

adopted by the British Columbia Government as one of the standard projections to use for spatial

data. The BC Albers projection is based on the Albers Equal Area Conic projection (Province of

British Columbia-Resources Inventory Committee, 1998). A number of the datasets obtained were

not for British Columbia alone, they included data for other provinces and territories. These

datasets were clipped to the British Columbia boundaries.

3.3.3 Data Optimization

The data for this thesis was required for only coastal areas of British Colombia. Using ArcGIS 9, a

buffer of eighty kilometres was created from the shoreline segmentation dataset. The buffer

61
created was combined with the ocean polygon. The created shapefile was used to clip datasets that

included data for the entire province of British Columbia. In order to reduce the size of some of the

datasets, the tabular data that was not needed was removed. Also the shapefiles were indexed to

increase performance.

3.4 Conceptual Design of OSEMS

OSEMS is structured in two parts: (1) a Website that provides the user access to the application

and background information about the application, and (2) the actual OSEMS map application that

is contained within the Website.

3.4.1 Functionality of the OSEMS Application

Based on the user’s needs identified in Section 3.1, a very simplistic and easy to use application is

needed since most of the users are not advanced GIS users. OSEMS is created using ArcGIS

Server. Basic navigational tools are needed for navigating within the map. Also making markups

on the map is important during presentations using the application. Basic mark up tools will also

have to be incorporated. Finding places is critical for identifying areas of impact and thus a find

location tool will also have to be incorporated. A measurement tool will also be implemented.

Table 3-1 provides a list of all the tools needed for the development of OSEMS.

62
 Table 3-1: Tools and Factions Identified for OSEMS

Navigation Tools Mark Up Tools Query Other Functions

Zoom In Draw Points Location Finder Tabs to Change Servers

Zoom Out Draw Lines Measure Lines Ability to Turn Layers on/off

Full Map Extent Clear Markups Print

Previous Extent

Next Extent

Map Pan

The user will require the ability to switch between map services accordingly tabs were

developed to easily change between each service. Users will need the ability to turn on and off

different layers within each map service. The OSEMS application is being developed for users that

are new to GIS. It is important to provide the user with enough information about how to use the

application. A help section is incorporated within the application and informational section is also

provided for each server.

3.4.2 Selection of Web Mapping API

As outlined in Section 2.1.2, a number of different ArcGIS Web mapping APIs are available for

use with ArcGIS Server. Web Mapping APIs and ArcGIS Server can be used to build and deploy

the Internet applications that include GIS functionality and ArcGIS Services. The APIs include
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ArcGIS API for Flex, ArcGIS API for Microsoft Silverlight and ArcGIS API for JavaScript. Based

on the tools and functionality outlined above, ArcGIS API for JavaScript is used to develop the

OSEMS application. The simplicity of JavaScript API programming allows for the development of

robust applications.

3.4.3 OSEMS Website

The purpose of this website is to provide the user of the OSEMS application with background

information. Feedback is important when developing such client-based systems. The website gives

the user the ability to provide feedback about the application and report issues and problems when

using OSEMS.

3.4.4 Symbology

Symbology is important for the development of OSEMS. It is critical to consider the symbology to

be used for most of the datasets. A number of the datasets for sensitivity mapping have pre-

identified symbology. There is no standard symbology developed for sensitivity mapping in

Canada.

The same symbology is used for the datasets that had pre-identified colours and symbols,

for example shoreline segmentation data. For datasets that did not have pre-identified symbology,

appropriate colours and symbols should be selected. The correct use of colors and symbols is very

important in sensitivity mapping.

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3.5 Implementation of OSEMS

This section outlines how OSEMS was implemented. The system was developed using ArcGIS

Server. As outlined in Section 2.1.2 ArcGIS Server is a tiered system. This system was developed

based on this tiered structure. The development of the website and OSEMS testing are also

outlined.

3.5.1 Authoring

The data for this project was collected from a number of sources. In the desktop authoring tier,

ArcGIS Server projects have to be set up before they are published on the Web. Three sets of data

were used to develop OSEMS; these have been outlined Section 3.3.1. ArcMap was used as the

desktop authoring tier. Using ArcMap the data was compiled into three different projects. Three

separate projects had to be developed since three different Web Mapping Services were needed

which consisted of sensitivity mapping, ISTOP program and SCAT. For each of the projects, data

was combined and layered using ArcMap. Appropriate symbology was used for each of the data

layers. In order for layers to come on at different scales, zoom extents were set for each layer in

each project. This would give the user the ability to view individual or combination of map layers

at different scales. Most of the map layers were set so they were scale-dependent, so more data and

annotation would become visible when the user zooms into regions, cities or neighbourhood. In the

proposed framework three servers were needed for implementing OSEMS. To demonstrate how

OSEMS can be implemented, only one map server was used and three different Web Map Services

(WMS) were created. A Web Map Service (WMS) is a standard protocol for serving geo-
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referenced maps and images over the Internet that are generated by a map server using data from a

GIS database (Doyle, 1997).

3.5.2 Server and Publishing

For the proposed framework, a map server was used to publish the data over the Internet. Three

different Web Map Services were created which include sensitivity mapping, the ISTOP program

and SCAT. In order to develop the map server ArcGIS Server was used. This stage is part of the

server and publishing tier of ArcGIS Server. Before the three projects were published to the Web,

a test was carried to optimize the performance of the project files. ArcMap includes a set of tools

that helps to optimize the project file. In order to optimize the Web Map Services the Map Service

Publishing toolbar was used. Carrying out this step helped with improving map display and

performance. All three Web Map Services are dynamic in nature.

3.5.3 Client Viewer

The client viewer falls under the client or consumption tier of ArcGIS Server. OSEMS application

was created using The ArcGIS JavaScript API. The application was developed and tested using

Adobe Dreamweaver. The application needed to incorporate all three Web Map Services outlined

above. The client also had to have the ability to turn on and off multiple layers within each service.

ArcGIS JavaScript API allows for incorporation of multiple services within one application. Most

of the code for this project was adopted from the sample code provided within the ArcGIS

JavaScript API (ESRI, 2010). Explicit layer coding was used in order to make all three Web Map

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Services run simultaneously within the application and also have the ability to turn layers on and

off. ArcGIS JavaScript API also allows for incorporating queries and find tasks. Using this

functionality a “find location” tool was developed. ArcGIS JavaScript API was used to develop the

navigational tool, mark-up tools, find location tool and access the map and layers from each Web

Map Services. In order to develop a measurement tool, scale bar and co-ordainments on the map

the geometry server within ArcGIS Server was used. The geometry server helps application carry

out geometric calculations such as calculating length, projecting and buffering.

ArcGIS JavaScript API was created to incorporate Dojo, this helps in simplifying the

development of Web applications. Dojo insures that the application will function the same in

different browsers. Dojo is an open source JavaScript library/toolkit designed to help in the

creation of cross-platform JavaScript applications (ESRI, 2010). Dojo helps to write robust and

efficient JavaScript code. It uses widgets, or "dijits", to add pre-packaged user interface

components to the applications. Dojo has many existing dijits to choose from such as text boxes,

buttons, menus and sliders and was incorporated with the ArcGIS JavaScript API to develop all the

tabs, buttons, sliders and information boxes used in the development of OSEMS.

The application was developed within an HTML page. JavaScript code can be embedded

directly into the HTML page. HTML was used to develop the layout of the application, as well as

embedding text and images within the application. HTML was used for the placement of images,

text and checkboxes within OSEMS.

The entire application was developed within one HTML page for better performance. The

OSEMS application was developed by integrating ArcGIS JavaScript API, Dojo and HTML.

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Using the process described above, the development of a robust and easy to use Web-based

application was created. The application also provides multiple stakeholders high performance

access OSEMS on the client side.

3.5.4 Website Design

A website was created in order to host the application and provide users with background

information about the OSEMS. The website was created using Adobe Dreamweaver. The website

provided the user with access to the application as well as additional information. The website

consists of five sections:

• About section, which provides background information about OSEMS,

• Application section, which provides the user with access to the OSEMS application,

• Data section, which provides the user the ability to view all the data, used for the

development of OSEMS,

• Other Links section, which provides the user with information about the oil spill response

community in British Columbia, and

• Contact section, which lets the user contact the developer and provide feedback about

OSEMS.

The Web server is managed and maintained by the Faculty of Environment’s Mapping,

Analysis and Design (MAD) at the University of Waterloo. The website and applications were

hosted on the Web server at MAD.

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3.5.5 Testing OSEMS

Interest in Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) has been a part of Geographical Information

Science for a long time (Haklay & Zafiri, 2008). As GIS and Web GIS have grown there is a need

to understand the usability of applications from a users’ perspective. This can be achieved by

focusing on Usability Engineering (UE) for GIS. UE is a part of HCI, which emerged in the mid

1980s with the aim of addressing system usability in a reliable and replicable manner (Haklay &

Tobon, 2003). UE is a systematic method for designing interfaces that can be learned quickly and

easily operated.

In order to test the OSEMS application a questionnaire was developed. The main purpose

of the questionnaire was to test the usability of the application, examine if the system could be

used in conditions that simulate some key aspects of real world conditions and ensure that the data

required by each stakeholder was effectively delivered using OSEMS. Usefulness is measured by

the ability of a system to achieve a desired goal. It can be further divided into utility and usability.

Utility looks at the functionality of the system and usability is the question of how well the user

can use the functions to perform a task. Usability refers to the effectiveness of interaction between

humans and computer systems and can be specified in terms of how well potential users can

perform and master tasks on the system (Butler, 1996). A system’s usability can also be measured

in terms of its learnability, efficiency, recall ability, error rate and user satisfaction as outlined by

(Nielsen, 1993). Nelson saw usability as one of many attributes of system acceptance. System

acceptability determines whether the system sufficiently satisfies all the needs and requirements of

the users, which include cost, compatibility, reliability and usability. Learnability refers to how

69
easy an application was to learn in a given amount of time. Efficiency refers to the level of

productivity that the user must gain once the system has been learned. Memorability measures how

well a person can remember how to use an application after a period of time. An error is defined as

any action that does not accomplish the desired goal (Nielsen, 1993). Through counting these

actions a system error rate can be measured. Satisfaction refers to how the user rates their

experience while using the system. Questionnaires are useful tools for analysing the usability of

systems. They can be used at different stages of development of a single system and they can be

used to evaluate user’s perceptions of different systems (Dix, 1993; Shneiderman, 1992). User

satisfaction of an application is an important measure for its acceptance (Haklay & Zafiri, 2008).

Consequently, a questionnaire was created for evaluating OSEMS, see Appendix.

The questionnaire was implemented in two ways. For experts that were located in British

Columbia the questionnaire was emailed to them and they were asked to fill it out. For the rest of

the participants they were given the questionnaire in person. Both groups were asked to go though

the questionnaire by themselves. The questionnaire was divided into four sections. At the start of

the questionnaire participants were given a brief introduction to OSIMS, they were also asked to

provide information about the level of computer usage, the ability to use web mapping application,

GIS skills and the knowledge about oil spill planning. The first section was developed to introduce

the participants to the OSEMS application. They were given a brief overview of the tools and

functionality provided. Based on the data and the proposed framework of OSEMS, three real world

oil spill scenarios were created. Each scenario was developed from a different stakeholder’s

perspective. The different perspectives that were chosen include an emergency response officer,

Canadian Cost Guard Officer and a First Nation liaison. The participants had to work through each
70
of the scenarios and carry out different tasks. At the end of each scenario users were asked to

evaluate the usability and utility in relation to satisfaction of OSEMS. They were also asked if the

system delivered the data they required as the stakeholder in each scenario. A feedback section

was also provided for future improvements of OSEMS. In order to implement the questionnaire

ethics clearance was obtained from the Office of Research Ethics at the University of Waterloo.

3.6 Chapter Summery

In this chapter, a framework for developing a new oil spill emergency mapping system was

introduced. The proposed framework will integrate sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection and

response system into one interface. A conceptual model for the development of OSEMS is

provided and outlines some of the functionality required. The details of implementation of the

proposed framework have been presented. An Overview of the testing process has also been

outlined.

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 CHAPTER 4

Results and System Evaluation

This chapter describes OSEMS in detail and also discusses the results of the usability testing. It

provides a discussion about several issues encountered during the development of OSEMS.

Section 4.1 provides an overview of OSEMS and its functionality. Section 4.2 provides the results

from the usability testing.

4.1 OSEMS Overview

The website of OSEMS (http://www.environment.uwaterloo.ca/u/ggomes) was created to provide

the end users with information about the system. The application can be accessed from

http://www.environment.uwaterloo.ca/u/ggomes/OilSpillApp/Oil Spill Emergency Mapping

Systemt.html. The major components of the website include five key sections, namely About,

Application, Data, Other Links, and Contact for users to provide feedback. Figure 4-1 shows a

screenshot of the OSEMS website. The application can be launched from the website.

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 Figure 4-1: Home page of OSEMS

OSEMS is built in JavaScript under the ArcGIS JavaScript API framework. OSEMS is a

user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI). As shown in Figure 4-2, the three main sections in

blue are the Map, Toolbar and Table of Contents (TOC) control panel. The toolbar consists of

two different tools that are the map navigational tools and the mark-up tools. A map displays the

data from each WMS, which includes sensitivity mapping, oil spill detection from RADARSAT

images and SCAT. The TOC control panel contains the main tabs as well as the ability to access

layers from each service.

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 Navigational Tools Markup Tools
Main Tabs Map Tabs

2. Toolbar

1. Map Section

3. TOC Control
Panel
Distance when using the Draw Line tool
North Arrow

Scale Bar
Latitude / Longitude
TOC Control

Figure 4-2: Graphical user interface of OSEMS

4.1.1 Map Section

The Map Section provides users with the ability to view the maps form the three different WMS’s.

It also consist of other features including an accurate scale bar, north arrow, latitude and longitude

based on the movement of the cursor and map tabs. The map tabs allow users to change map

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services, see Table 4-1 for more information. The map tabs were added for easy access when users

look at data in different services at the same time.

Table 4-1: Description of map tabs within the map section

Map Button Usage

This tab is used to access the sensitivity mapping WMS. Once this tab
is clicked, users can view sensitivity data using the “Sensitivity tab”
under the Layers tab.
This tab is used to access the CIS WMS. Once this tab is clicked, users
can view CIS data using the “ICE tab” under the Layers tab.

This tab is used to access the SCAT WMS. Once this tab is clicked,
users can view SCAT data using the “SCAT tab” under the Layers tab.

4.1.2 Toolbar Section

The Toolbar section of OSEMS provides users with two sets of tools that include the map

navigational tools and the mark-up tools. Map navigational tools provide users with basic

functionality to navigate within the map section. Tools include Zoon In, Zoom Out, Full Extent,

Zoom to Previous Extent, Zoom to Next Extent and Pan. More information about these tools

can be found in Table 4-2.

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 Table 4-2: Description of navigational tools within the Toolbar section

Icon Name Usage

The Zoom In button allows users to zoom into a particular

area on the map. Using the mouse, "left click" on the Zoom
In button and then:

• Define a window by "left clicking" on a point and,

Zoom In keeping the mouse button depressed, "pull" the
rectangle being formed until it covers the area of
interest and release the mouse button.
If you have "windowed in" too far, use the Zoom Out button
to "back out" (approximately 2X each "click") until the
appropriate area has been defined.
The Zoom Out button allows you to zoom out from a
particular area on the map. Using the mouse, "left click" on
the Zoom In button and then:
Zoom Out
• Define a window by "left clicking" on a point and,
keeping the mouse button depressed, "pull" the
rectangle being formed until it covers the area of
interest and release the mouse button.
Full Extent This button zooms to the full extent of the map. The full
extent is the extent of the map displayed when the
application is initially launched.
Zoom to Previous Extent When you press this button, the map extent changes to the
extent that it was before the last extent change.

Zoom to Next Extent When you press this button, the map extent changes to the
extent that is was previous to the new or last extent.

The Pan tool is used to move the area shown in the map
window to the left, right, up or down. This is accomplished
in two ways:

• Simply click on the map, and the map will be

Pan centered at the location you click

• Drag the map by "left clicking" the mouse cursor,

keeping the left button pressed, dragging the map
window until the adjusted area of interest is
displayed. When the mouse button is released, the
map will redraw.

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 Deactivate Navigation Tools This button will deactivate the above navigation tools. In
order to use the mark up tools, the navigations tools must be
deactivated first.

The mark-up tools can be used for marking annotations on the map. Tools include draw a point,

draw a line and clear the map, see Table 4-3. The draw line tools can be used to measure straight-

line distances on the different map services. Once a desired line has been drawn the distance will

appear in the bottom left corner of the map, see Figure 4-2.

Table 4-3: Description of mark-up tools within the Toolbar section

Icon Name Usage

Draw Point This tool is used to draw points over the map at the extent
you are looking at.

This tool is used to draw lines on the map at the extent you
are looking at. The Draw Line tool can also be used to
calculate straight-line distances. When you draw a line you
Draw Line
will see the distance appear above the latitude and longitude,
in the bottom left corner of the map.

Clear Mark-up This button will clear any mark-ups on the map.

Deactivate Drawing Tools This button will deactivate the drawing tools. It is very
important to deactivate these tools before using the
navigational tools.

4.1.3 TOC Control Panel

The TOC Control Panel consists of four main tabs which include the About section of the

application, Layers which are used to turn on/off layers in each service, the find location tool and

77
the help section. Under the layer tab there are three sub-tabs that include Sensitivity, ICE and

SCAT. These sub tabs have two functions, one is to access the different layers under each service

and the second is to change between map services, see Figure 4-3(a). Users have the ability to turn

on/off layers within the desired service. The layers can be accessed through slider bars.

Appropriate legend symbols are within these sliders. It also provides an information section about

each service when the sub tabs are clicked. The find location tool can be used to find any place in

British Columbia and displayed on the map, see Figure 4-3(b).

Layer Legend

(a) (b)

Figure 4-3: Table of Content control panel: (a) layer section, and (b) find location tool

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 The system combines an oil spill sensitivity mapping system, oil spill detection system, and

a response system (SCAT) on one interface. Users have the ability to access each of these systems

simultaneously. OSEMS has been implemented based on the framework proposed in Section 3.2.

A combination of these systems provides users the ability to access the data effectively and timely.

It also provides multiple stakeholders to access the same data using the same interface. This in turn

can help in better planning and response to oil spills. This integration makes it simple to select data

of interest from different systems, and easy-to-use functionality with a customized display.

4.2 Usability Evaluation

The user interface is a window to the users of the system, and hence it is important to develop an

easy to use GUI, which will gain acceptance by the end user. It is important to gain feedback from

the end users of OSEMS and critical to understand this information to determine if the system

meets users’ needs in relation to the problem of oil spills.

4.2.1 User Participation

For usability testing, participants were selected randomly. In total 25 participants tested OSEMS.

Out of the 25 participants, 6 were directly involved in oil spill planning in British Columbia, which

is 28% of total participants. The remaining 19 participants were students and staff from the

University of Waterloo. The main goal of testing OSEMS was to identify if the application is

satisfactory from a usability standpoint. In the first section of the questionnaire, questions were

asked to identify some key characteristics of the user, which include their ability use the Internet,

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web mapping applications and level of GIS skills. Most of the participants are novice users and

intermediary users of GIS, which is consistent with the OSEMS users identified in Section 3.1.

Additional characteristics of the participants are given in Table 4-4.

Table 4-4: Characteristic of participants

Characteristics Possible Choices Percentage Share [%]

Never 0
Sometimes (1 to 5 times) 0
Internet/PC Usage Often (5 to 20 times) 4
Frequent (20 to 40 times) 24
Very Frequent 72
Never 4
Sometimes (1 to 5 times) 36
Web Mapping Usage Often (5 to 20 times) 32
Frequent (20 to 40 times) 16
Very Frequent 12
Novice User 44
GIS Skills Intermediary User 44
Advanced Users 12
Prior Oil Spill/GIS Knowledge Yes 28
No 72

4.2.2 Utility Evaluation

The participants were asked to evaluate the utility of some of the map functions provided. Utility

refers to the functionality of the system. The functions provided within OSEMS were used to carry

out the task as part of the scenarios. These functionalities were evaluated after the participants

finished each scenario. To evaluate utility, participants were asked to rank difficulty of using the

tools and also asked how useful the tools were. The levels of difficulty of some of the utilities are
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shown in Figure 4-4. Participants found the functionality of the application very easy to use. The

TOC control uses sliders, which is a bit different from most GIS desktop applications. 36% of the

participants found the sliders very easy to use. Mark up tools allow users to annotate the map, 52%

of the participants found them easy to use.

(a) Participant response on Navigational tools (b) Participant response on Markup tools

(c) Participant response on Find Location tools (d) Participant response on TOC control

Figure 4-4: Evaluating Difficulty of the functionality within OSEMS

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 The participants were also asked to evaluate the usefulness of some of the functionality

provided within OSEMS. Various other Web mapping applications have eliminated navigational

tools. In the case of OSEMS, navigational tools were added and participants found them very

useful. Participants were asked to rate the different tools on usefulness using a 5-point Likert scale

from 1 to 5, 1 being not useful and 5 being very useful. On this rating scale, 21 participants rated

the navigation tools between 4 and 5. A measuring tool was also added to OSEMS. Participants

found the measuring tool very useful. For the measurement tools, 20 of the participants rated its

usefulness between 4 and 5. Figure 4-5 presents the results on the usefulness of some of the

functionality.

(a) Usefulness of Navigational Tools on a range from 1 to 5, 1 being not useful to 5 being very useful

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(b) Usefulness of Markup tools on a range from 1 to 5, 1 being not useful to 5 being very useful

(c) Usefulness of TOC Control on a range from 1 to 5, 1 being not useful to 5 being very useful

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 (d) Usefulness of Measurement Tool on a range from 1 to 5, 1 being not useful to 5 being very useful

Figure 4-5: Evaluating Usefulness of the functionality of OSEMS

4.2.3 Usability Evaluation

The participants were asked after each scenario if they were able to access the required information

while completing the scenario. Usability determines how well the user can use the functionality

provided to perform a task within an application. In the case of the three scenarios, the participants

took on roles as an oil spill response officer, a Canadian Coast Guard officer, and a First Nation

liaison. These would be the same individuals using OSEMS as a tool to perform their work. Most

of the participants reported that OSEMS was able to deliver the required data to evaluate the

situation in the scenario, see Figure 4-6.

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 (a) Participant response on usability for Scenario One (b) Participant response on usability for Scenario Two

(c) Participant response on usability for Scenario Three (d) Participant response on overall usability for OSEMS

Figure 4-6: Usability evaluation of OSEMS

After working through the three different scenarios the participants were asked to rate the

overall usability of the application. Figure 4-6(d) shows 60% of the participants rated OSEMS easy

to use and 12% rated it very easy to use. From a usability standpoint, the participants were satisfied

when using OSMES for each scenario. From a learnability standpoint, it was very easy for the

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participants to learn the application in a short period of time. Only 2 out of the 25 participants

could not complete the scenarios.

Some differences were observed between the participants involved in oil spill

planning in British Columbia and the other participants in the questionnaire. From the six

participants directly related to oil spill planning it was observed that they were more familiar with

the data being used. They were looking more at the functionality of the application and how it

would help them achieve the given goal. The comments by this group were focused more on the

integration of the system and the advantages and disadvantages of the integration process. One

expert user noted, “This system would be very useful in British Columbia with some more

functionality. The ability to integrate sensitivity mapping with coastal oil spill mentoring seems to

me a good idea. Implementation of this system seems realistic and feasible.”

Other participants who were not familiar with the data were more involved in

understanding what the data was trying to portray. Some of the participants commented about not

being able to identify sensitivities in the area since they lacked prior knowledge about the data

used as part of the scenarios. Comments by this group were mainly focused on the functionality of

the application.

4.2.4 Changes to OSEMS Based On User Feedback

The participants were asked to provide suggestions on how OSEMS can be improved to better

perform the tasks at hand. A number of users reported that it would be beneficial to see all the data

for the three different map services within one map and not have the ability to switch between

services. They also reported that using the map tabs to switch services was not beneficial and was
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time consuming. Changes to OSEMS were made, as the main goal of usability testing is to

incorporate the users’ perspective in order to improve the system. However, the initial design of

OSEMS was maintained. Initially, the user had the ability to switch between services using the

map tabs and layer sub-tabs. Based upon the feedback, this functionality was disabled and the map

tabs were removed. Also, users had the ability to view data from the different services in different

maps. OSEMS was modified so that layers from the different Web services would appear within

one map. OSEMS Version 2.0 can be accessed from the following link

http://www.environment.uwaterloo.ca/u/ggomes/OilSpillApp/Oil%20Spill%20Emergency%20Ma

pping%20Systemt2.html.

4.3 Discussion on OSEMS Development Cycle

OSEMS followed a development cycle, which aids in the effective implementation of such a

system. Developing an Internet GIS application for a specific problem is not as easy as buying the

appropriate software or hardware. An implementation strategy had to be developed to meet the

need of users. Figure 4.7 shows the development cycle of OSEMS, which has eight major stages.

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 1. Requirement Analysis

2. Conceptual Design

3. Identifying Software/Hardware

4. Database Design and Construction

5. Web Publishing

6. Application Development

7. Usability Testing

8. Use of OSEMS and Maintenance

Figure 4-7: Development cycle of OSEMS

Initially a requirement analysis was carried out to identify the overall requirements of the

system. The functionality as well as a detailed list of data required to developing OSEMS was

identified. Requirement analysis is important for developing the conceptual design of OSEMS. A

conceptual model was outlined to identify the structure of the system and how different systems

can be incorporated into one interface. This step is important because it helps identify what can be

implemented and what will have to be excluded. Identifying software and hardware is an important

step when developing systems like OSEMS. It usually depends on the availability of funding for

such a project. In the case of OSEMS, the software and hardware used were based on the

availability programs at the University of Waterloo. This stage would be important for

implementing such a system within a government emergency unit. The database design and

construction is a critical step in the implementation of OSEMS. At this stage, data were pre-

processed to fit the need of OSEMS. The database design includes how the data are symbolized,

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how different files are structured, identifying how active layers at different extents were identified,

and how scale dependency for each layer was identified. Some other activities that have to be kept

in mind at this stage include security levels for data access and defining the procedures for

updating, expanding and maintaining the database. Once the database design and construction is

completed, the maps can be published on the Web for application development. This stage is

important as it provides a window to the user. The most important part of application development

is taking users’ needs into account, which was identified during the requirement analysis. An

interface was developed to incorporate three different systems into one common interface. A

combination of JavaScript, HTML and Dojo was developed for this application. Bug testing is also

important as it helps eliminate any problems within the system. The next stage was to test the

OSEMS from a usability standpoint, which included developing a questionnaire for the

participants using real world scenarios on how the application would be used in reality. The last

stage includes use of OSEMS and maintenance procedures being implemented for updating the

system. This development cycle or a variation of this cycle can be used to implement OSEMS in

reality. It is extremely helpful to follow such a cycle as it can help in improving systems like

OSEMS and reducing the development time.

4.4 Problems Using ArcGIS JavaScript API

A Table of Content (TOC) control is a very important aspect of any GIS application. The ArcGIS

JavaScript API does not have the ability to add the TOC information for map layers. The ability to

see visible/active layers and also have the ability to turn them on/off on the map is essential. In the

case of OSEMS, a TOC was a must. The TOC control had to be developed from scratch using
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explicit JavaScript coding and Dojo. There were many issues faced during the development

process due to some of the limitations of the API. Multiple functions had to be developed to enable

the TOC control to work simultaneously within the three different Web services. Another

important aspect of a TOC is having dynamic legend/symbology information. ArcGIS JavaScript

API did not have the ability to add symbology. For OSEMS, individual images were clipped for

the .mxd project file and converted to a .png format. The symbology images were manually

imputed into the TOC control-using HTML. This manual process can cause difficulties when

updating or expanding the database, as additional programming time would be needed to do this.

Scale bar is an important aspect of any GIS application. ArcGIS JavaScript API does not

have the ability for imputing a scale bar into the map. For OSEMS, a scale bar was implemented

by creating a separate function. This function used a basic calculation to identify the scale of the

map. As the extent changed the map scale was calculated and displayed on the map.

Initially in the requirement analysis, a printing tool was outlined as a feature that would be

included within OSEMS. In order to develop such a tool a srvelet had to be deployed within the

servlet container on the server side. Access to the server was restricted since it was operated by the

MAD office at the University of Waterloo. As a result the print tool was not implemented in

OSEMS.

4.5 Database Issues and Maintenance

In order to develop OSEMS, geospatial data were obtained from a number of government agencies

in British Columbia. Most of the databases are updated and changed by the different agencies. In

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order to keep OSEMS operational, database maintenance plays a critical role. Some of the main

components of database maintenance include database expansion, updating and enhancement

(increasing performance). It is also important to keep in mind that changes made to the system

should not affect the user in anyway. Users can be affected by major changes or expansions. If

major changes are to be made there has to be a user review process in effect.

4.5.1 Data Agreements

For the implementation of OSEMS, a number of data agreements would have to be developed with

different agencies for effective sharing of geospatial data. These data sharing agreements would

allow for the acquisition of new versions of the data already being used. In order to keep OSEMS

operational, these data sharing agreements will play an important role. When developing such

systems quality control (QC) of the data is also necessary. Quality control is influenced by factors

such as incompleteness, error and topological errors. Quality control of the data used in this study

was assumed a responsibility of the sources as most of the data came from secondary sources. For

OSEMS some of the data may contain errors and thus it is important to determine which data has

had QC.

A number of datasets that could be useful were not obtained when developing OSEMS due

to security and data sharing issues. The data that were not obtained are identified in Section 3.3.

Some of these datasets are important for sensitivity mapping. Special agreements would have to be

developed with the agencies that have data. To publish this information on the Web, a password-

91
protected system would have to be implemented in order to assure the security of those restricted

datasets.

4.5.2 Data Updating and Maintenance

Once the new databases have been acquired it is important to update the existing data. In order to

do this the .mxd projects files must be updated using ArcMap. The databases would also have to be

optimized and symbolized appropriately. Some of the issues include changing the JavaScrip code

in the application file to incorporate changes. It would be easier to make a maintenance schedule

for making changes to the existing data which allows for a one-time update to the system. This will

help reduce the amount of time the system would have to be shut down. If new data has to be

added to the system, the JavaScript code will also have to be changed to incorporate these

additions. Any expansions and updates will have to be implemented on a fixed schedule in order to

reduce inconveniences to the user. Oil spills can happen any time and it is important to have

OSEMS running 24/7 in order for it to be an effective tool.

The oil spill detection system that is the CIS section of the application would have to be

updated depending when a spill has been detected off the coastline of British Columbia. In order to

carry out this task, operators of the system would have to update the .mxd project file when a spill

is detected. This process could be automated to reduce the time required to publish the data on the

Web.

A backup system should be in place when developing such a system. If the system ever

crashed due to technical issues, a backup system can be used to restore OSEMS. This will prevent

92
loss of data as well as help restore the system in a timely manner. A backup schedule can also be

implemented along with the schedule in order to keep the backup system updated.

4.6 Performance Issues

During the application testing, it was reported that some users found that displaying the map takes

time. Web mapping systems process data on the server side. Hence, the performance of the system

largely depends on the network speed, bandwidth and the performance of the server. In order to

develop OSEMS a map server in the MAD office was used. The server is very old and

performance is much lower than newer servers and it was the main reason for slower performance.

This thesis does not discuss server performance as the server is maintained and operated by the

MAD office.

The simplest way of dealing with performance issues is to provide the end user with some

indication that a user action is being processed. Web mapping applications have the ability to

access data from different sources and view them in one map interface. Most data sources differ in

the time it takes to respond to a user’s request. Once the data request is returned to the browser the

application renders map data. Sometimes some portions of data are visible before others sections.

Hence, it is important to let the user know that the application has not finished loading the map

data. In order to inform the users the data are still loading, a loading icon was used. A function was

developed that will show the loading icon when the map data is not completely loaded. This did

not solve the performance issues but just provided the user with the ability to know if all the data

have been loaded.

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4.7 Chapter Summery

In this chapter, the results derived from the implementation of OSEMS have been presented. The

OSEMS application was evaluated using a questionnaire. This chapter outlines the usability testing

and the results of the testing process. The results prove that the utility and usability of OSEMS are

satisfactory. It also proves that OSEMS is very learnable. The development cycle of OSEMS,

database maintenance issues and performance problems were discussed.

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 CHAPTER 5

Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter outlines the conclusions derived from the results of this study. Recommendations for

future research and enhancement of OSEMS are presented.

5.1 Conclusion

The oil spill pollution problem is inevitable and unpredictable and causes service damage to the

environment, economy and society. Oil spills cannot be evaded but a number of mitigation

measures can be put in place to reduce the impact and severity of oil spills. This thesis develops a

system that integrates a sensitivity mapping system, oil spill detection system and a response

system (SCAT). A framework for integrating these systems is proposed. A system called OSEMS

was developed based on this framework. The system was also tested from a usability standpoint,

which proved that it is easy to use and effective in delivering the needs of the end users.

Possessing a system for viewing environmental sensitivity data is important for oils spills.

Many important decisions can be made when deploying resources during clean-up operations and

monitoring the impact area when using such a system. As part of this thesis an Internet mapping

system was developed for British Columbia. A framework was proposed to integrate a sensitivity

mapping system, oil spill detection system and a response system (SCAT). Integrating these

systems is beneficial as stakeholders can view all this data within one interface and effectively

95
make decisions based on the data. It also allows for faster dissemination of data within the oil spill

community. Internet GIS provides a framework for developing such a system. It is being used to

develop many emergency-mapping systems and now this technology is being utilized for

managing oil spills. Internet GIS provides for fast access to data and helps in reaching a wider

audience. ArcGIS Server is commercially available software that was utilized to create the

OSEMS application. ArcGIS Server provides the ability to develop custom applications that fit the

needs of the user. The client viewer was developed using ArcGIS JavaScript API. The OSEMS

application was developed, by integrating ArcGIS JavaScript API, Dojo and HTML to create a

robust and highly functional Web mapping application. When developing such a system it is

important to follow a development cycle, in the case of OSMES an eight stage cycle was used.

In order to verify the effectiveness of OSEMS from a usability standpoint, testing was

carried out. As the use of Internet GIS has grown there has been a need to understand the usability

of applications from a user’s perspective. In the past not much attention was given to usability

testing. The functionality and usability of OSEMS was tested using a questionnaire. Participants

were first asked to learn the application in a short training session. After they learned the

application they were asked to work through three scenarios. These scenarios were developed

based on how OSEMS would be used in reality. The participants were asked to evaluate the

functionality and overall satisfaction of using OSEMS to carry out the given task. They found the

application very easy to use. Based on the three scenarios, 60% of the participants rated OSEMS

easy to use and 12% rated it very easy to use. This proved that OSEMS is satisfactory from a

user’s standpoint. The participants also found the incorporation of navigational tools and

measurement tools very useful. Users also reported that they would like to view all the data within

96
one map and not need to switch between services. Hence, changes were made to OSEMS based on

user feedback.

Oil spill monitoring and management has greatly benefited from the use of Internet GIS.

Some of the works carried out in this thesis have already been implemented in Canada and other

parts of the world. This is the first attempt to develop such a system in British Columbia. It is also

the first attempt to integrate different systems used for oil spill planning into one interface. The

lessons learned in the implementation of this system point out that there is a need for an easy to use

GIS applications for a specific problem like oil spills. The combination of systems is effective and

beneficial. The integration of GIS, remote sensing and real time visualization systems can lead to

the development of a totally integrated system to monitor and effectively mange oil spills. This

will also lead to better oil spill contingency planning.

5.2 Recommendations for Future Research

Most mapping systems would have to be implemented over different stages as the end user utilizes

it. Once the functionality provided have been familiarized by the end user, new and improved

functionality can be developed. Some of the most important features to be developed would be an

improved search tool that can search not only names but as well as latitude and latitude, map

printing capabilities, analysis tools that can calculate distance from oil slick to land automatically

and a report generating system that would produce reports with the environmental sensitivities in a

given region.

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5.2.1 Integrating Geographic Response Plans

In order to prevent spills from happening and reducing impacts when a spill occurs, contingency

planning is critical. Actions taken during the initial hours of response to a spill can be critical to the

effective protection of sensitive areas. Timely protection depends upon having a structure in place

to systematically guide responders (Mutter et al., 2003). These plans are known as geographic

response plans (GRPs). GRPs are site-specific response plans. They include response strategies

tailored to specific areas and are meant to minimize impact on sensitive areas threatened by the

spill. Each GRP has two main components, that is, to identify sensitive natural, cultural or

significant economic resources and to describe and prioritize response strategies. A GRP combines

local knowledge of sensitive areas and are integrated with proven operational and logistical

techniques into a document, which provides specific guidance for a rapid response. Usually GRPs

include site maps, photographs, and tables of information about resources to protect, operational

techniques to carry out the protection, equipment and personnel needs and site access (Robertson

et al., 2000). Sites are selected based on environmental sensitivities, the risk of an oil spill

occurring and the ability to protect the site. After they are developed they are sometimes tested in

the field to ensure feasibility (Heimowitz, 2005). GRPs are developed through public workshops

involving different levels of government and emergency response experts. In British Columbia

GRPs have yet to be developed, but there are plans for development in the near future. GRPs have

been developed in some states in the US, for example the Washington State Department of

Ecology has developed GRPs along the entire coastline of the state as well as inland sensitive river

systems. The GRPs are displayed as a set of static clickable maps, which are linked to the reports.

98
Some states in the U.S., like Massachusetts, have proposed the development of a Web GIS system

for displaying these plans. A GRP viewing system can be integrated with OSEMS. Users would

have the ability to access the GRPs for specific areas using OSEMS. This would be beneficial, as it

would allow responders to identify sensitivities in real time as well as access response strategies.

5.2.2 Integrating Weather Data

Weather has been recognized as one of the most important factors in predicting oil spill fate and

behavior (Lehr & Simecek-Beatty, 2000). It is very important to have weather forecast information

during an oil spill. Forecast information is an important factor of oil spills as it can influence the

clean-up operations. Incorporating coastal weather information in such a system is important as it

provides users with the ability to deploy resources and develop clean-up operations effectively. At

this point in time there is no WMS for coastal weather being broadcast by Environment Canada.

Once a coastal and marine WMS is broadcast it can be incorporated with OSEMS. Users would

have the ability of view weather forecast information along the coastal area of British Columbia.

This will make the system more dynamic and will provide real time data for responders.

5.2.3 Caching Base Maps

Implementing a map caching or tile server is a very useful method to make the map rendering

much faster. When a map cache is used, the server draws the entire map at different scales. It saves

copies of the map in an image format. When a user requests to view a map, these images are used.

It is much easier for the ArcGIS Server to process a request when the map services are cached.

Some of the main advantages of using cached maps are that performance is much higher and the
99
quality of the map is not affected. The disadvantages are that it takes up large amounts of storage

space; it is time consuming and it can only be used with layers that do not have to be updated very

frequently. In the case of OSEMS it would be beneficial to cache the base maps being used at

different zoom extents. This will help increases performance of the system and help for faster

rendering of maps. A cached map service for the base maps was not implemented due to storage

space constraints.

5.2.4 Usability Testing

Usability is often not considered when evaluating most GIS and Web GIS applications. According

to (Pinto & Onsrud, 1993) ease of use is one of the most important factors in overall satisfaction

when implementing GIS applications. In most cases when applications like OSEMS are developed,

usability questions arOSde left out. Acceptance by the user is very important when developing

such applications. It is important to incorporate user input at every stage of development. Usability

engineering is a continuous process, which should be carried out during the entire development

cycle of a system. In the case of OSEMS, many tools and functionality have to be incorporated. It

is very important to incorporate the user at every step of the development process. As part of this

study only 6 participants were directly related with oil spill planning in British Columbia. More

participation within the oil spill realm would be essential for the overall acceptance of OSEMS.

The testing carried out as part of this study demonstrates the importance of usability engineering

for GIS and the possibilities of developing methodologies within this field. The most important

thing learned in this study when carrying out the usability testing is that ease of use and usability

are concepts that are very difficult to understand when developing such applications. Simplistic
100
methods such as developing a questionnaire can be used to understand if the system meets the end

users needs.

101
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 APPENDIX

Questionnaire Used to Test OSEMS

Introduction
This application has been developed to view sensitivity data in relation to oil spills in British
Columbia. This application has been developed using Internet GIS technology. The main reason for
developing this application is so that is can be used during an oil spill in British Columbia. Right now
there is no sensitivity mapping system implemented in British Columbia for use during oil spills. This
application also integrates other tools that are used in the oil spill planning that produce GIS data.
Theses tools include Oil Spill Detection Using RADARSAT and Shoreline Cleanup Assessment
Technique (SCAT).

In 2006, Canada started to monitor marine coastal areas for oil spill pollution using satellites with
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). Canadian Ice Services (CIS) implemented this program. The name
of this project is ISTOP and it was funded by the Canadian Space Agency. The ISTOP program uses
RADASAT-1 data to identify potential oil pollution from ship sources. Oil waste is illegally
discharged by ocean vessels into coastal waters and this has a severe impact on the marine
ecosystems. This detection process produces data in GIS format. The developed application integrates
detection data so that it can be viewed simultaneously with sensitivity data. It also helps in data
dissemination to multiple stakeholders.

The Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) process is now an important part of oil spill
clean up and it has been adopted in many countries around the world. There are different variations of
SCAT based on the spill, they include aerial surveys by one person, or they can include ground
surveys my multiple teams. Once a spill occurs and oil has impacted the shoreline, it is important to
understand the extent and amount of oiling that has occurred on the shoreline. An assessment
technique called the Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT) is used to survey the impacted
area. Some of the main components of the SCAT include assessment surveys, data management and
data application. This application is designed to view the results of the SCAT, which are in GIS
format. This provides rapid dissemination of data over the Web to multiple stakeholders. It also
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provides the user with the ability to view sensitivity data alongside SCAT to understand what has
been impacted and needs to be fixed.

Three different servers have been integrated within this application. The user has access to oil spill
sensitivity data, oil spill detection data and SCAT data. The user has the ability to view all of this data
within one interface. It also gives the user the ability to turn on/off different layers of their choice and
view data simultaneously between servers.

Your Background Information:

How often do you use the computer and Internet in a week?

 Never  Sometimes (1 to 5 times)  Often (5 to 20 times)  Frequent (20 to 40 times)  Very Frequent

How often do you use web-mapping applications in a week? (google map, map quest or other
Web-GIS application)?

 Never  Sometimes (1 to 5 times)  Often (5 to 20 times)  Frequent (20 to 40 times)  Very Frequent

How would you classify your self as a GIS user?

 Novice User  Intermediary User  Advanced Users

Do you have any prior knowledge of the use of GIS for oil spill planning?

 Yes  No

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If yes, please explain in what areas you have experience?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Section 1: Familiarizing Your Self with the Application

This section of the questionnaire is designed to make you familiar with the Oil Spill Emergency Mapping
System (OSEMS)

1. First you will need to access the application, this can be done by going to the following web site
(http://www.environment.uwaterloo.ca/u/ggomes/).

2. You will see the screen below; make sure you wait until the map loads before you move on to the next
step.

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3. You will want to maximize your browser. You can do this by clicking on the F11 key on you key board.

4. In this section we will explore some of the main tools and tabs that make up this application. They
include:
• Tabs and information/layer sliders
• Navigational and mark-up tool bar above the map
• The Map tabs within the map

5. We will start by exploring the tabs and sub tabs in the left of the application.

6. There are four main tabs. They are About, Layers, Find Location and Help.

7. Now explore each of these tabs.

• About: Shows the about page for this application.

• Layers: Opens the layers for the three different servers within this application.
Within the layers tab there are three more sets of tabs that include Sensitivity, ICE
and SCAT.

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 • Find: Allows you to easily find specified locations on a map.

• Help: Opens a page that contains help for all tools and tabs in the application.

8. Once you are done exploring the tabs go back to the layer tab. The layer tab consist of three sub tabs
they include Sensitivity, ICE and SCAT.

• Sensitivity: Used to control the different sensitivity data layers under the sensitivity-mapping
server. It is also used to switch between servers. To change servers, click on the information box
or the other sliders within this tab.

• ICE: Used to control the different ICE services’ data layers under the “Ice Services Server”. It is
also used to switch between servers. To change servers, click on the information box or the other
sliders within this tab.

• SCAT: Used to control the different SCAT Servers’ data layers under the “SCAT Server”. It is
also used to switch between servers. To switch servers, click on the information box or the other
sliders within this tab.

9. Lets try using these tabs. When you click on the “ICE” tab you will see different sliders than the ones
shown in “Sensitivity” tab. Now click on the slider named “Oil Spill Detection 2007”. Once you click on
it you will see that the server changes and the map looks different.

10. Now lets turn on a layer under this server. Check the box next to “Feb 03 Cat-B1 Overview”. You will
see the layer appear in the map. A red overview polygon will appear.

11. Try this with the SCAT tab and once you are done, return back to the “Sensitivity” tab and click the
informational slider to change the server.

12. Now we will look at the Navigational tools. These tools are used to navigate within the map.

13. Explore theses tools. If you have any problems refer to the “Help” tab.

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14. Now we will look at the Mark-Up tools. These tools are used to make drawings on the map (lines and
points).

15. The Draw Line tool can also be used to calculate straight line distance. When you draw a line you will
see the results show up above the latitude and longitude in the bottom left corner of the map.

Before you use these tools make sure you deactivate the navigational tools my clicking on the “Deactivate
Navigation Tools”. Once you are done using the mark-up tools make sure you deactivate them using
“Deactivate Drawing Tools”.

16. After making some mark-ups, make sure you clear them by using the Clear Markup button.

17. Lastly we will explore the Map tabs. They include three tabs: Sensitivity Mapping, Ice Services, SCAT
Server. Theses tabs are used to switch between servers easily when looking at data in each server.
Explore them by clicking on each map tab. When changing between map tabs, the map view changes at
the same scale.

18. If you have questions about any of the tools and tabs, feel free to ask me before we move onto the
different scenarios.

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Section 2: Scenario One

In this scenario you will consider yourself an oil spills response officer working for a federal agency who is
involved in responding to oil spills. A citizen has called the emergency line and reported an oil spill. They say
the have seen a fairly large slick of black oil near the Tyee Spit in Campbell River. The caller reports that the oil
is moving towards Grouse Island.

• Location: Tyee Spit

• Time: 1300 hrs

Another call comes in from a different citizen saying they have seen oil closer towards Grouse Inland. They also
believe that it will wash up into the cove shortly.

• Location: Near Grouse island

• Time: 1315 hrs

As an oil spills response officer your job is to know what is at risk in that area. You are not familiar with that
location so you will use the OSMIS application to gain background on the area of the spill. Right now your main
concerns are with shoreline type and birds in the area.
_______________________________________________________________________________

1. Launch the application by going to the link provided in section 1. Wait for it to load before you start using it.

2. The first thing you want to do is search for the location that the citizen has given you. Click on the “Find
Location” tab, type in Tyee Spit and hit the find button.

3. You will see a red and green circle on the map indication the location. Now you will want to zoom into this
area. Use the zoom-in tool to do this.

4. Once you have zoomed-in enough to see all the road names and other annotations you are ready to see what
is at risk.

5. Now switch back to the layers tab and make sure you are under the Sensitivity sub tab.

6. At this point you want to check out the shoreline type and if there are birds in the area. You can do this by
turning the layers on.

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7. First click on the Bird Data slider and check the box next to “BC Bird Colonies”. Do the same thing with
Shoreline Data Slider.

8. Now zoom in and out to examine the area and gather some information about what is at risk. Also, make sure
you use the pan tool as well as the previous and next extent tools.

9. Immediately you will notice that the area is sensitive. Quathiaski Cove has many beach areas where oil can
wash up and also a bird colony.

10. As an oil response officer immediately you will get a sense as to what is at risk in the area. This in turn will
help you notify the appropriate agencies that will help protect this area or deploy resources needed for clean
up.
_______________________________________________________________________________

Questions:

1) How easy was it to use the map navigation tools above the map?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

2) How easy was the Find Location tab to use?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

3) How easy were the layer sliders to use?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

4) As an oil response officer using the application, how easy was it for you to get the data you were looking for?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

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5) Please make a note of any difficulties or problems you encountered while working thought this scenario:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Section 3: Scenario Two

In this scenario we will be taking a different approach than the last scenario. In this scenario you are a Coast
Guard Officer who works in the emergency unit and responsible for oil spills. You are responsible for deploying
booms and other equipment when a spill occurs. You are also responsible for gathering information about ships
in the area of the spill and passing it on to enforcement agencies.

On February 3, 2007 at about 9am you get a call from the Canadian Ice Services ISTOP program. The have
detected on oil spill near Vancouver close to the University of British Columbia. They have rated it a Category
B1 spill. Knowing this is close to the port of Vancouver you want to deploy resources so no oil will impact
shipping routes in the area. Your first task is to see where the oil is and then try and develop a booming strategy.
Also, you are interested in the birds and wildlife in the area. As part of your operations procedures you must
notify the environmental agencies about any wildlife and birds in the area of the spill.
_______________________________________________________________________________

1. Launch the application by going to the link provided in section 1. Wait for it to load before you start using it.

2. Now click on the ICE Tab and then click on the information slider. Make sure you read the information
section to understand the different categories of spills.

3. You will see that the map has changed. Now click on the “Oil Spill Detection 2007” slider. The first title is
Feb-03-Category 1B. This is the one you are interested in.

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4. Turn on all the layers related to this incident. Clicking on the check box next to them can turn them on.
• Feb 03 Cat-1B Overview
• Feb 03 Cat-1B Ship Target
• Feb 03 Cat-1B Oil Slick
• Feb 03 Cat-1B SAR Image

5. Now zoom-in near Vancouver and as you zoom in the SAR image and other layers will turn on.

6. Examine the area and now you will want to calculate the distance from the slick to the closest shoreline. For
this you will use the mark-up tools. Turn off the Feb 03 Cat-1B SAR Image before you do this.

7. First deactivate the navigational tools by clicking on the Deactivate Navigation Tools button.

8. Using the Draw Line tool, draw a line from the oil slick to the shoreline.

9. Record the distance here _________. You will see that the oil is very close to the shoreline and can impact
the shoreline. You need to respond to the spill.

10. Now that you know where the spill is you want to develop a booming strategy 1 to show to other
crewmembers.

11. Clear the screen using the Clear Mark-up Tool.

12. Now use the mark up tools to draw lines and points to develop a booming strategy. It should look like the
image below.

1
Booming Strategy: A boom is a floating, physical barrier, placed on the water to contain, deflect or
divert oil. Usually strategies are developed to carry out one of theses tasks. In this scenario we are
trying to contain the oil.

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13. Now record the distance here _________. This will be the approximate length of boom required to develop
the booming strategy.

14. Now you will want to see if there are any birds and wildlife in the area. So you will have to switch servers
using the Sensitivity tab. Click on the sensitivity tab and then click on the Wildlife Data slider. You will
notice that your mark ups have remained there.

15. Now turn on the Wildlife and Bird Data by using the sliders.

16. Immediately you will notice that there are birds and wild life in the area and you will have to notify the
appropriate Environmental agencies.

17. Now we will use the map tabs to change between servers. Click on the “Ice Services” map tab in the map to
change the server. Then click on the “Sensitivity Mapping” map tab. Keep doing this to look at the different
data. Clear the markups by clicking the Clear markup button and then click on the Deactivate drawing Tool
button.
_______________________________________________________________________________
Questions:

1) How easy was it to use the mark-up tools above the map?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

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2) Do you find the measure distance feature useful?

1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

3) Was it easy to switch between servers using the map tabs?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

4) Do you find the map tabs useful since you can already switch servers using the layer tabs?

1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

5) As a Coast Guard Officer using the application, how easy was it for you to get the data you were looking for?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

6) Please make a note of any difficulties or problems you encountered while working thought this scenario:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Section 3: Scenario Three

On August 4, 2006 at Squamish dock terminal, just north of Vancouver the M/V Westwood Anette, departing
under tow from the Squamish docks during high wind conditions, punctured a fuel tank on a metal piling. This
caused approximately 29,000 liters of bunker fuel to be released into the environment. The high winds blew the
oil on the shore near the terminal and into the estuary of the Squamish River; this impacted the shoreline in
Howe Sound. In this scenario you are a First Nation liaison and you are working for the local First Nation band
in the area of impact. Your job is to work with government agencies and other organizations to make sure all the
concerns of the band are taken care of. As part of your job you have to keep the local band Leaders up to date
about what is going on with the clean up efforts and what First Nations resources have been impacted. On
August 11, 2006 government officials carried out a Shoreline Clean-up Assessment Techniques (SCAT). You
want to access the results of the SCAT that is the oiling conditions in the area of impact. You want to identify
any First Nation land that has been impacted.
_______________________________________________________________________________

1. Launch the application by going to the link provided in section 1. Wait for it to load before you start
using it.

2. Click on the “SCAT” layer tab and then open the Squamish, BC- August 11, 2006 slider. Turn on the
Shoreline Oiling Conditions layer.

3. The server will change and you need to zoom into the red overview polygon or you could use the “Find
Location” tab to search for Squamish Harbour.

4. Now examine the oiling conditions in the area. After you have done this you will want to see first nations
sensitivities in this area.

5. Click on the “Sensitivities” Layers tab and open the First Nations Slider. Turn on First Nations Reserves
layer. This layer provides information about first nation land in British Columbia. Pan around the area to
get an understanding of what is at risk.

6. Now switch servers back and forth using the map tab (Sensitivity Mapping and SCAT) to see if any first
nation land has been impacted.

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 7. Immediately you will notice that a section of the Defense Islands has light oiling. None of the First
Nations land at the mouth of the river has been impacted.

Questions:

1) As a First Nation liaison using the application, how easy was it for you to get the data you were looking for?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

2) Please make a note of any difficulties or problems you encountered while working thought this scenario:

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

3) Over all how hard was it to use this application?

 Very Hard  Hard  Neutral  Easy  Very Easy

4) Please rate the usefulness and complexity each of the tools and tabs in this application on a scale of
I to 5

Navigation Tools
1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

Complicated      Simple
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Mark-up Tools
1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

Complicated      Simple

Main Map Tabs

1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

Complicated      Simple

Layer Tabs
1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

Complicated      Simple

Map Tabs
1 2 3 4 5
Not Useful      Very Useful

Complicated      Simple

4) Can you recommend any further improvements to the application?

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______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

5) Do you have any general comments regarding this research?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Thank you for your time and effort in participating in this research. If you have any further comments or
suggestions please feel free to email me at ggomes@uwaterloo.ca. A copy of my thesis will be sent out if you
at your request.

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