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1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE :

1.1 DEFINATION OF COMPUTER :

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical

operations automatically. Modern computers can perform generic sets of operations known
as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. A computer
system is a "complete" computer that includes the hardware, operating system (main software),
and peripheral equipment needed and used for "full" operation. This term may also refer to a
group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a computer
network or computer cluster.
A broad range of industrial and consumer products use computers as control systems. Simple
special-purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls are included, as are factory
devices like industrial robots and computer-aided design, as well as general-purpose devices
like personal computers and mobile devices like smartphones. Computers power the Internet,
which links hundreds of millions of other computers and users.

1.2 COMPUTER HARDWARE, SOFTWARE AND FIRMWARES :

HARDWARES:
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of
[1]
a computer, such as the case,  central processing
unit (CPU), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, graphics card, sound
card, speakers and motherboard.

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By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware
is so-termed because it is "hard" or rigid with respect to changes, whereas software is "soft"
because it is easy to change.
Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A
combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although other
systems exist with only hardware.
HARDWARES

Mouse, keyboard, joystick, image
Input
scanner, webcam, graphics tablet, microphone

Peripheral device
Output Monitor, printer, loudspeaker
(input/output)

Floppy disk drive, hard disk drive, optical

Both
disc drive, tele printer

Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB

Computer buses
Long range (computer
Ethernet, ATM, FDDI
networking)

SOFTWARES:

Software refers to parts of the computer

which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of

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a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to

the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer
programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital
media. It is often divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and
software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is
stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC
compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware".
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute specific
tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer.
Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a
device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a computer, while hardware is the invariable
part
TYPES OF SOTWARES:
Application software. 

The most common type of software, application software

is a computer software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some cases, for
another application. An application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of programs that
run the application for the user. Examples of modern applications include office suites, graphics
software, databases and database management programs, web browsers, word processors,
software development tools, image editors and communication platforms.
System software. 

These software programs are designed to run a computer's application programs and hardware.
System software coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In
addition, it controls the operations of the computer hardware and provides an environment or
platform for all the other types of software to work in. The OS is the best example of system

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software; it manages all the other computer programs. Other examples of system software
include the firmware, computer language translators and system utilities.

FIRMWARES.

In computing, firmware is a specific class of computer software that provides the low-level

control for a device's specific hardware. Firmware, such as the BIOS of a personal computer,
may contain basic functions of a device, and may provide hardware abstraction services to
higher-level software such as operating systems. For less complex devices, firmware may act as
the device's complete operating system, performing all control, monitoring and data
manipulation functions. Typical examples of devices containing firmware are embedded
systems, home and personal-use appliances, computers, and computer peripherals.
Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and Flash
memory. Updating firmware requires ROM integrated circuits to be physically replaced, or
EPROM or flash memory to be reprogrammed through a special procedure. [1] Some firmware
memory devices are permanently installed and cannot be changed after manufacture. Common
reasons for updating firmware include fixing bugs or adding features to the device.

EXAMPLES:

 The BIOS found in older IBM-compatible PCs

 The (U)EFI-compliant firmware used on Itanium systems, Intel-based Macs, and many
newer PCs
 Hard disk drive, solid-state drive or optical disc drive firmware
 Video BIOS of a graphics card
 Open Firmware, used in SPARC-based computers from Sun Microsystems and Oracle
Corporation, PowerPC-based computers from Apple, and computers from Genesi
 ARCS, used in computers from Silicon Graphics
 Kickstart, used in the Amiga line of computers (POST, hardware init + Plug and
Play auto-configuration of peripherals, kernel, etc.)
 RTAS (Run-Time Abstraction Services), used in computers from IBM

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 The Common Firmware Environment (CFE)

1.3 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS:

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1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS:

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

BY SIZE BY PURPOSE BY TYPE

1. SUPER 1. ANALOG
1. GENERAL
COMPUTER COMPUTER
PURPOSE

2. MAINFRAME 1. SUPER
COMPUTER COMPUTER
2. SPECIAL
PURPOSE

3. MINI 1. SUPER
COMPUTER COMPUTER

4. MICRO
COMPUTER

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1.5 BASIC PARTS OF DIGITAL COMPUTER:

A computer can be viewed as a system, which consists of a number of interrelated

components that work together with the aim of converting data into information. There are
several computer systems in the market with a wide variety of makes, models and
peripherals. In general, a computer system comprises four components, namely, central
processing unit (CPU), input unit, output unit and storage (or memory) unit.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DIGITAL COMPUTER

CPU: CPU, also known as ‘processor’, is the brain of the computer system that processes data
(input) and converts it into meaningful information (output)
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): This unit performs the arithmetic (add, subtract) and logical
opera-tions (and, or) on the data made available to it.

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Control unit (CU): This unit checks the correctness of the sequence of operations.

Registers: These are the special-purpose; high-speed temporary memory units that can hold
varied information such as data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of calculations.
Input and Output units:
Input: An ‘input unit’ accepts instructions and data from the user with the help of input devices
such as keyboard, mouse, light pen and so on.

Output:  It accepts the outputs (which are in machine-coded form) produced by the computer,
converts them into the user understandable form and supplies the converted results to the user
with the help of an output devices such as printer, monitor and plotter
Storage units:
Primary: The primary memory (also called ‘main memory’) is the part of a computer that holds
the instructions and data currently being processed by the CPU, the intermediate results produced
during the course of calculations and the recently processed data. While the instructions and data
remain in main memory, the CPU can access them directly and quickly.
Secondary: The secondary memory is extensively used for storing data and instructions. It
supplies the stored information to the other units of computer as and when required.

MOUSE

CPU

PRIMARY MEMORY

PRINTER

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FLOPPY

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1.6 GENERAL FAULTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM:

1. The Computer Won’t Start:

A computer that suddenly shuts off or has difficulty starting up could have a failing power
supply. Check that the computer is plugged into the power point properly and, if that doesn’t
work, test the power point with another working device to confirm whether or not there is
adequate power.

2. The Screen is Blank:

If the computer is on but the screen is blank, there may be an issue with the connection between
the computer and the screen. First, check to see if the monitor is plugged into a power point and
that the connection between the monitor and computer hard drive is secure. If the problem is on a
laptop, then you may need to get a professional to fix it as some of the internal wires may be
worn.

3. Abnormally Functioning Operating System or Software:

If the operating system or other software is either unresponsive or is acting up, then try restarting
your computer and run a virus scan. To avoid having this happen, install reliable anti-virus
software.

4. Windows Won’t Boot:

If you are having troubles booting Windows, then you may have to reinstall it with the Windows
recovery disk.

5. The Screen is Frozen:

When you computer freezes, you may have no other option than to reboot and risk losing any
unsaved work. Freezes can be a sign of insufficient ram, registry conflicts, corrupt or missing
files, or spyware. Press and hold the power button until the computer turns off, then restart it and
get to work cleaning up the system so that it doesn’t freeze again.

6. Computer is Slow:
If your computer is slower than normal, you can often fix the problem simply by cleaning the
hard disk of unwanted files. You can also install a firewall, anti-virus and anti-spyware tools,
and schedule regular registry scans. External hard drives are great storage solutions for overtaxed
CPU’s, and will help your computer run faster.

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7. Strange Noises:
A lot of noise coming from your computer is generally a sign of either hardware malfunction or a
noisy fan. Hard drives often make noise just before they fail, so you may want to back up
information just in case, and fans are very easy to replace.

8. Slow Internet:
To improve your Internet browser performance, you need to clear cookies and Internet temporary
files frequently. In the Windows search bar, type ‘%temp%’ and hit enter to open the temporary
files folder.

9. Overheating:
If a computer case lacks a sufficient cooling system, then the computer’s components may start
to generate excess heat during operation. To avoid your computer burning itself out, turn it off
and let it rest if it’s getting hot. Additionally, you can check the fan to make sure it’s working
properly.

10. Dropped Internet Connections:

Dropped Internet connections can be very frustrating. Often the problem is simple and may be
caused by a bad cable or phone line, which is easy to fix. More serious problems include viruses,
a bad network card or modem, or a problem with the driver.

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2. Motherboard:

2.1 Types of motherboards:

1. AT Motherboard: These motherboards have bigger physical dimensions of hundreds of

millimeters and hence they are not the right fit for the mini desktop category of computers.
Bigger physical size also inhibits installing new drivers. Sockets and six-pin plugs are used as
power connectors in these motherboards. These power connectors are not that easily identifiable
and hence users face difficulties in connecting and using it.
2. ATX Motherboard: ATX denotes Advanced technology extended, it was developed by Intel
during the 1990s and it was an improved version over an earlier version of AT motherboard. It is
smaller in size when compared to AT and it provides interchangeability of the connected
components. There is a marked improvement in the connector aspects.

3. LPX Motherboard: This board had two improvements over earlier versions. The first one is
Input and Output ports were taken to backside and the second one was the introduction of Riser
card to facilitate more slots and easier connection. Some of these features were deployed in the
AT motherboard. The main disadvantage in this board is the lack of Accelerated Graphic Port
(AGP) slots which led to a direct connection to PCI. Issues in these motherboards were
addressed in NLX boards.
4. BTX Motherboard: BTX denotes Balanced Technology Extended, intended to manage
demands of new technologies in terms of more power requirements hence generation of more
heat. Intel stopped further development of BTX boards during the mid-2000s to concentrate on
low power CPU.
5. Pico BTX motherboard: These boards are smaller in size and hence the word Pico. Two
expansion slots are supported in spite of being sharing the top half of BTX. Half-height or riser
cards are its unique features and it supports the demands of digital applications.
6. Mini ITX motherboard: It’s a miniature version of motherboard over its earlier versions.
Designed in the early 2000s and its dimension is 17 x 17 cm. Mainly used in small form factor
(SFF) computer due to its lower power consumption and faster cooling ability. This motherboard
is the most preferred in the home theater domain due to its lower level of fan noise that will
improve the quality of the theatre system.

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2.2 Functional block diagram of motherboard:

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2.3 CPU and supporting chips:

CPU : A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or

just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer
program. The CPU performs basic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O)
operations specified by the instructions in the program. This contrasts with external components
such as main memory and I/O circuitry,[1] and specialized processors such as graphics processing
units (GPUs).
Supporting chips:

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2.4 Bios:
In computing, BIOS an acronym for Basic Input/Output System and also known as the System
BIOS, ROM BIOS, BIOS ROM or PC BIOS) is firmware used to
perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on startup), and to provide
runtime services for operating systems and programs. The BIOS firmware comes pre-installed on
a personal computer's system board, and it is the first software to run when powered on. The
name originates from the Basic Input/Output System used in the CP/M operating system in 1975.
The BIOS originally proprietary to the IBM PC has been reverse engineered by some companies
(such as Phoenix Technologies) looking to create compatible systems. The interface of that
original system serves as a de facto standard.
The BIOS in modern PCs initializes and tests the system hardware components (Power-on self-
test), and loads a boot loader from a mass storage device which then initializes an operating
system. In the era of DOS, the BIOS provided BIOS interrupt calls for the keyboard, display,
storage, and other input/output (I/O) devices that standardized an interface to application
programs and the operating system. More recent operating systems do not use the BIOS interrupt
calls after startup.

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2.5 cmos setup :

To enter the CMOS Setup, you must press a certain key or combination of keys during the initial
start-up sequence. Most systems use "Esc," "Del," "F1," "F2," "Ctrl-Esc" or "Ctrl-Alt-Esc" to
enter setup. There is usually a line of text at the bottom of the display that tells you "Press ___ to
Enter Setup."

Once you have entered setup, you will see a set of text screens with a number of options. Some
of these are standard, while others vary according to the BIOS manufacturer. Common options
include:

 System Time/Date - Set the system time and date

 Boot Sequence - The order that BIOS will try to load the operating system
 Plug and Play - A standard for auto-detecting connected devices; should be set to "Yes"
if your computer and operating system both support it
 Mouse/Keyboard - "Enable Num Lock," "Enable the Keyboard," "Auto-Detect
Mouse"...
 Drive Configuration - Configure hard drives, CD-ROM and floppy drives
 Memory - Direct the BIOS to shadow to a specific memory address
 Security - Set a password for accessing the computer
 Power Management - Select whether to use power management, as well as set the
amount of time for standby and suspend
 Exit - Save your changes, discard your changes or restore default settings

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2.6 Types of buses on the motherboard :

A computer sends several kinds of electronic signals back and forth among its various
components. For efficiency, separate paths on the motherboard called buses each carry only one
kind of signal; this boosts the computer's speed and simplifies its operation. While PC
motherboards have different buses for expansion cards and external devices, all computers have
three fundamental buses: Control, Instruction and Address. The whole system operates through
these buses.
Bus Architecture
Computers consist of several main functional units, including the central processor, memory and
input/output. The central processor performs basic arithmetic and logic, memory stores programs
and data, and input/output routes data to the computer's keyboard, screen and hard drive. These
parts communicate with each other. Some computer designs use a single bus shared by all parts.
While inexpensive, the system must manage its signals carefully, and some parts wait until
others finish communicating and relinquish control of the bus. Multiple buses reduce the waiting
time and keep the parts running efficiently. The layout of a computer's buses and parts is called
its bus architecture.
Control Bus
The motherboard's control bus manages the activity in the system. The control bus, like the other
buses, is simply a set of connections among the parts in the computer. All parts "agree to
recognize" that if one connection carries a voltage and the next one does not, it means that the
central processor reads from memory. If the connections reverse roles, the processor writes to
memory. Other connections deal with the "chunking" of data 8, 16, 32 or 64 bits at a time. Still
others determine if data is being shuttled to the central processor from memory or the keyboard.
This signaling system prevents data from going to the wrong place.
Data Bus
The data bus acts as a conduit for data from the keyboard, memory and other devices. It passes
information at speeds up to billions of characters per second. The central processor reads the
data, performs calculations, and moves new data back to memory, the hard drive and other
locations. The control bus determines which direction the data is moving.
Address Bus
The computer must be able to access every character of memory rapidly, so every character has
its own address number. The central processor specifies which addresses it wants to read or write
and the address bus carries this information to a memory controller circuit, which locates and
fetches the information. Some locations, called random-access memory, hold program
instructions and temporary calculation results. Other locations point to the hard drive, mouse and
keyboard. The control bus specifies which of these two sets of addresses become active for a
particular memory operation.

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2.7 Jumper setting on motherboard :

In a computer, a jumper is a pair of prongs that are electrical contact points set into the computer
motherboard or an adapter card . When you set a jumper, you place a plug on the prongs that
completes a contact. In effect, the jumper acts as a switch by closing (or opening) an electrical
circuit. Jumpers can be added or removed to change the function or performance of a PC
component. A group of jumpers is sometimes called a jumper block .
Jumper setting :

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2.8 Connectors on motherboard :

Memory Sockets : A typical motherboard has at least two sockets for Random Access Memory
(RAM). RAM acts as a high-speed system for temporarily storing the data needed by programs
while they are running. When the processor needs instructions, it receives them from the RAM,
and when you save a document or file, it goes from the RAM to the hard drive.

Hard Drive Connectors : Generally, a motherboard has at least two hard drive connectors.
Current motherboards use Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) hard drive
connectors, which have L-shaped curves to ensure that cables are connected in the correct
direction. The older Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) connector uses two rows of 20 pins each.
Some motherboards have connectors for both SATA and IDE drives. The computer's CD or
DVD drive also connects to an IDE or SATA interface.

Floppy Drive Connector : Although few modern computers use floppy drives for storage, many
motherboards continue to include floppy drive connectors to support legacy devices. A floppy
drive connector has two rows of 17 pins each.

Peripheral Connectors : Motherboards have connectors for different types of peripherals,

usually located on a back plane that remains exposed on the back of the computer case when the
tower is closed. The most common peripheral connection is the Universal Serial Bus (USB)
connection, while some motherboards also have connections for audio speakers along with ports
for FireWire, serial and parallel devices. Some motherboards have additional "headers," or banks
of pins, that can be used to connect additional peripheral ports on the front of the computer case.

Add-on Card Connectors : Many motherboards have connectors for computer add-on cards.
These connectors are long slots into which the cards are inserted. There are several types of add-
on card connectors. Some of the most common include Peripheral Component Interconnect
Express (PCIe) and Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP), used mainly for video cards, and
conventional Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), used for other types of add-on cards
such as sound cards and storage controllers.

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Power Connector : Every motherboard has at least one power connector. This connector is used
to bring power from the computer's main power supply to all of the computer's components.
Because some of today's desktop computers have very high power requirements, some
motherboards have additional ports for auxiliary power connectors.

Case Connectors : On the side of the motherboard closest to the front of the computer case are
the case connectors, a bank of pins to which very small wires attach. The case connectors are
used for the power and status lights on the front of the computer case, as well as the power
button that turns the computer on.

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2.9 Battery on motherboard :

CMOS battery is the part of the motherboard that is installed for the basic hardware settings like
BIOS, date, time, and other configurations. The system loses all this information’s in off power
mode.

So to retain the stored setting’s, CMOS battery provides power to its chip. People generally think
that this battery provides power to the computer system. But the actual function is to provide the
same to chip only.

Specifically speaking, this battery is generally used by:

 Digital Logic Circuits

 Microcontrollers.

 Microprocessors.

 SRAM- Static RAM.

CMOS chip requires very less power to increment the time parameters. It is also known as
‘backup power’ for motherboard.

The major function of the CMOS battery is to keep a real-time clock. This battery operates with
the CMOS chip even when the computer system is off. The primary parameter of this battery is
to keep the parameter values stored. The circuit of chip updates the time on-increment basis with
the power of its battery. So, the parameter will be the same at the time of the booting up of the
computer.

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2.10 Faults of motherboard :

Common symptoms of motherboard issues are similar to CPU problems: The system does not
display anything; an error code appears; one or more beeps occur; the system locks; the system
reboots; a Windows BSOD (blue screen of death) appears; or one or more of the ports, expansion
slots, or memory modules fails.

Motherboard problems and power problems are probably the most difficult issues to
troubleshoot. Because various components are located on the motherboard, many things can
cause errors. POST (power-on self-test) is one of the most beneficial aids for troubleshooting a
motherboard. The meaning of any codes that appear on the screen should be researched. If
multiple POST error codes appear, you should troubleshoot them in the order they are presented.
The following list helps with motherboard troubleshooting:

 Is the motherboard receiving power? Check the power supply to see if the fan is
turning. If the CPU or motherboard has a fan, see if it is turning. Check voltages
going from the power supply to the motherboard. See Chapter 5 for directions.
 Check the BIOS/UEFI settings (covered in Chapter 4) for accuracy.
 Check for overheating. Power down the computer and allow the computer to cool.
Power on the computer with the cover off.
 Check the motherboard for distended capacitors. These are small components that
might appear to be bulging. If sighted, replace the motherboard as soon as possible.
 Reseat the CPU, adapters, and memory chips.
 Remove unnecessary adapters and devices and boot the computer.
 Plug the computer into a different power outlet and circuit, if possible.
 Check to determine whether the motherboard is shorting out on the frame.
 Check the CMOS battery (see Chapter 5 for how to take voltage readings).
 With a motherboard that has diagnostic LEDs, check the output for any error code.
Refer to the motherboard documentation or online documentation for the problem
and possible solution.

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