New developments for Opposed-Piston Engine

Tailpipe emissions analysis and test results, funded research for gasoline compression ignition
Fabien G. Redon1) Laurence Fromm 2)
1) Achates Power, Inc. 4060 Sorrento Valley Blvd, San Diego, CA, U.S.A. (E-mail: redon@achatespower.com)
2) Achates Power, Inc. 4060 Sorrento Valley Blvd, San Diego, CA, U.S.A. (E-mail: fromm@achatespower.com)

ABSTRACT: The Achates Power Opposed Piston Engine delivers a demonstrable incremental improvement in brake thermal
efficiency compared with the most advanced conventional four-stroke engines. With the elimination of components such as the
entire cylinder head and valvetrain, the Achates Power OP engine is also less complex and costly to produce.

This paper presents the promising results of new steady-state fuel consumption and transient tailpipe emissions analysis and
discusses the advantages of the OP engine as an ideal platform for incorporating gasoline compression ignition (GCI) technology,
the study of which recently was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects Agency–Energy.

KEY WORDS: Standardized: heat engine, compression ignition engine, emissions gas, fuel injection, fuel spray. Free: Opposed-
Piston Engine, gasoline compression ignition (A1)

1. INTRODUCTION Laboratory and Delphi Automotive to develop a gasoline

Achates Power, Inc. (API) has been dedicated to compression-ignition (GCI) version of the Achates Power OP
modernizing the opposed-piston engine since its inception in Engine. The grant is one of the largest awarded by the ARPA-E
2004 and has solved various mechanical challenges faced by this in its history.
engine architecture, including oil consumption, piston cooling,
cylinder cooling, and wrist pin lubrication. API also has 2. FUNDAMENTAL OP ENGINE ADVANTAGES
developed a unique set of performance, emissions and 2.1. Reduced Heat Losses
combustion-system control strategies that enable the Achates The Achates Power Opposed-Piston Engine (OP Engine),
Power Opposed-Piston Engine (OP Engine) to meet current and which includes two pistons facing each other in the same
future emissions while delivering excellent fuel consumption. cylinder, offers the opportunity to combine the stroke of both
Initial work was conducted on a single-cylinder prototype to pistons to increase the effective stroke-to-bore ratio of the
minimize cost and complexity and to accelerate turnaround time. cylinder. As a thought experiment, when a two-cylinder
In 2014, development and testing was directed to a 4.9L, multi- conventional engine with 1.1 stroke-to-bore is re-architected as a
cylinder engine. Using the multi-cylinder engine, steady-state single-cylinder opposed-piston engine with both pistons
performance and emission results were generated2. operating in the same bore, it results in an opposed-piston engine
In partnership with Johnson Matthey a detailed analysis was with 2.2 stroke-to-bore ratio. This can be accomplished while
performed to confirm that the engine out emissions level is maintaining the engine and piston speed of the conventional
6
compatible with US EPA2010 . four-stroke engine. To achieve the same stroke-to-bore ratio with
With the initial steady-state calibration established, the next a conventional four-stroke engine, the mean piston speed would
1
step was to demonstrate the transient capability of the engine . It double for the same engine speed.
is critical to advance the understanding of the transient behavior An additional benefit of the reduced heat losses in the
of the OP Engine by testing it on transient cycles in order to opposed-piston engine, especially for commercial vehicles, is the
assess the ability of the engine to match the cycle while reduction in fan power and radiator size, further contributing to
maintaining acceptable emissions output. This paper highlights vehicle-level fuel savings.
the results from testing the OP Engine on the FTP (Federal Test
Procedure), a transient cycle for heavy-duty on-road engines and 2.2. Leaner Combustion
then compares those results to the HD FTP test figures from the When configuring an opposed-piston, two-stroke engine of
3,5
2011 Cummins ISB 6.7L engine . the same displacement as a four-stroke engine – for example,
Recently, Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy converting a six-cylinder, conventional engine into a three-
(ARPA-E) awarded $9M to Achates Power, Argonne National cylinder, opposed-piston engine – the output that each cylinder
offers is the same. The two-stroke opposed-piston engine fires  Inter-digitated, mid-cylinder penetration of fuel plumes
each of the three cylinders for every crankshaft revolution, while enabling larger λ=1 iso-surfaces.
the four-stroke engine fires each of its six cylinders in one out of  Excellent control at lower fuel-flow rates because of
two revolutions. two small injectors instead of a single, higher flow rate.
Therefore the amount of fuel injected for each combustion  Multiple injection events and optimization flexibility
event is similar, but the cylinder volume is more than 50% with strategies such as injector staggering and rate-
greater for the opposed-piston engine. So for the same boost shaping.
conditions, the opposed-piston engine will achieve leaner
combustion, which increases the ratio of specific heat. Increasing The result is no direct fuel spray impingement on the piston
the ratio of specific heat increases the work extraction per unit of walls and minimal flame-wall interaction during combustion.
volume expansion during the expansion stroke. This improves performance and emissions with fewer hot spots
on the piston surfaces that further reduce heat losses.
2.3 Quicker and Earlier Combustion at the Same Pressure 3.2 Air System
Rise Rate To provide a sufficient amount of air for combustion, two-
The larger combustion volume for the given amount of energy stroke engines need to maintain an appropriate pressure
released also enables shorter combustion duration while difference between the intake and exhaust ports. For automotive
preserving the same maximum pressure rise rate. The quicker applications, which require the engine to change speed and load
combustion improves thermal efficiency by reaching a condition in a transient manner, external means of air pumping are
closer to constant volume combustion. The lower heat losses as required; there are various potential arrangements using both a
described above lead to a 50% burn location closer to the turbocharger and supercharger.
minimum volume. Advantages of such an air system:
The aforementioned fundamental opposed-piston two-stroke  The compressor provides high pressure ahead of the
(OP2S) thermal-efficiency advantages are further amplified by: supercharger, which then further boosts intake flow.
 Lower heat loss due to higher wall temperature of the This means that low supercharger pressure ratios are
two piston crowns compared to a cylinder head sufficient for high intake manifold density, reducing
(reduced temperature delta). pumping work.
 Reduced pumping work due to uniflow scavenging  The maximum required compressor pressure ratio is
with the OP2S architecture resulting in higher effective lower compared to turbocharger-only air systems of
flow area than a comparable four-stroke or a single- four-stroke engines.
piston two-stroke uniflow or loop-scavenged engine.  The use of a supercharger recirculation valve allows
 Decoupling of pumping process from the piston greater control of the flow through the engine, thus
motion because the two-stroke architecture allows providing flexibility for precise control of boost,
alignment of the engine operation with a maximum scavenging ratio, and trapped residuals to minimize
compressor efficiency plot. pumping work and NOx formation across the engine
3. EFFICIENCY AND EMISSIONS ENABLERS map.
3.1 Combustion System  Lowering the flow through the engine by decreasing
Achates Power has developed a proprietary combustion the pressure difference across the engine reduces the
3
system composed of two identical pistons coming together to pumping penalty at low load points. This, together with
form an elongated and ellipsoidal combustion volume where the having no dedicated intake and exhaust stroke for
injectors are located at the end of the long axis. moving mass to and from the cylinders improves
This advanced combustion system allows the following: BSFC.
 High turbulence, mixing and air utilization with both  The supercharger and recirculation valve improve
swirl and tumble charge motion with the high turbulent transient response.
kinetic energy available at the time of auto ignition.  Accurate control of the engine pressure differential
 Ellipsoidal combustion chamber resulting in air provides good cold start and catalyst light off
entrainment into the spray plumes from two sides. capabilities. Low-speed torque is increased by
 selecting the appropriate gear ratios on the Figure 1: Air Path Schematic
supercharger. 4.2 Steady state engine measurement
As mentioned earlier, the Achates Power A48-316 engine was
 Facilitating EGR with a supercharger reduces the
required pumping work. created as a research platform to quickly iterate through different

 Cool air and EGR together reduces fouling of the designs. In creating such a platform, some compromises were
made versus how a production engine would be designed.
coolers.
In spite of the negative impact of the additional friction of the

4. TEST BED DESCRIPTION research engine, steady-state fuel consumption measurement for
the test engine — while meeting engine-out emissions
4.1 Engine Architecture
The multi-cylinder OP Engine platform used to generate the compatible with US EPA 2010 — is compelling enough to

results presented in this paper is heavily based on the single- showcase the potential benefits of OP2S engine.
The cycle average BSFC for this data set is 200 g/kWh with
cylinder OP Engine and shares most of its power cylinder
components. Error! Reference source not found.Table 1 shows best point BSFC of 192 g/kWh. The cycle average results are

the specifications and the performance attributes for the multi- shown in Table 2.
Table 2: SET cycle average results for A48-316 engine
cylinder OP Engine.
Table 1: Multi-cylinder Achates Power OP engine
specification 13 Mode SET Cycle Results

Displacement 4.9 L Cycle Average Results

Arrangement, number of Inline 3 BSFC 200 g/kWh
cylinders. BSNOx 2.58 g/bhp-hr
BSSoot 0.016 g/bhp-hr
Bore 98.4 mm
BSCO 0.98 g/bhp-hr
Total Stroke 215.9 mm
Stroke-to-Bore Ratio 2.2 BSHC 0.07 g/bhp-hr
Compression Ratio 15.4:1
Nominal Power (kW @ rpm) 205 @ 2200
Max. Torque (Nm @ rpm) 1100 Nm @ 1200-1600

Even though this engine was conceived as a research and test-

platform, it powered all the accessories that were required to
operate it. These accessories included lubrication oil pumps, a
high-pressure fuel pump, a supercharger and a supercharger
drive and water pumps. In order to provide realistic pumping
operation, exhaust pressure was modified in real-time by using a
backpressure valve to simulate the aftertreatment system.
Figure 2: Measured BSFC map of A48-316 engine

Figure 2, 3a and 3b show the fuel, soot and NOx map

respectively for the entire torque curve of the engine. The engine
has a flat fuel map as can be seen in Fig 3. For the 12 operating
modes at A, B and C speed the difference between the best point
and cycle average is only 8 g/kWh. A grounds-up design for
4.9L engine with optimized friction and air-handling is expected
to deliver 182 g/kWh cycle average BSFC with best-point
efficiency of 176 g/kWh.
 Fully developed and validated high fidelity models for diesel
oxidation catalyst, coated Filter (CSF), SCR (Cu-based) and
ASC (Cu-based) formulations have been used in this study.
The results show that more than 96% NOx conversion can be
achieved. NH3 slip from Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
during high temperature excursions is oxidized in the Ammonia
Slip Catalyst (ASC). The ASC catalyst is a dual layer catalyst
with Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC) functionality in the
bottom layer and Cu-SCR in the top layer. The selectivity of this
catalyst to N2 is high. However, there will be some NOx remake
at high temperatures which may affect the overall (tailpipe) NOx
conversion efficiency. The tailpipe NOx emissions are provided
in Table 3 which clearly shows that the NOx target limit can be
easily reached with the proposed ATS.
Table 3: Engine out and tailpipe emissions for a 13 mode
SET cycle
Engine out Tailpipe (g/kwh)
(g/kwh) Case 1 Case 2
CO 1.264 0 0
THC 0.102 0.011 0.008
NOx 3.47 0.138 0.120
N2O 0 0.103 0.112

6. HD FTP CYCLE TRANSIENT TESTING

The heavy-duty FTP transient cycle is used for regulatory
emission testing of heavy-duty on-road engines in the US. The

Figure 3: (a) Measured BSSoot in g/bhp-hr for A48-316 cycle includes the “motoring” segment, and, therefore requires a

engine, (b) Measured BSNOx in g/bhp-hr for A48-316 engine DC or AC electric dynamometer capable of both absorbing and
supplying power. Since the API test cell is equipped with an
eddy-current absorbing unit, motoring is not possible. During the

5. TAILPIPE EMISSIONS ANALYSIS motoring portion of the cycle, 10% of maximum brake-torque

Engine out emission results from a Supplemental Emissions relative to the engine speed is commanded. Such an arrangement

Test (SET) cycle show that the Achates Power Opposed-Piston allows for generation of power during the motoring segment but

Engine has very low CO and HC emissions. The OP Engine’s it also results in a fuel-consumption penalty during those

enhanced BSFC, however, means engine-out exhaust segments.

temperature can be lower than comparable four-stroke engines, Furthermore, the FTP cycle test consists of a cold-start test

which may challenge the periodic soot removal from the followed by minimum of three hot-start tests separated by 20

aftertreatment system. However, engine-out NOx is relatively minute intervals. Overall FTP results are obtained by using a

high (~3.5g/kwh), which would assist the passive regeneration of weighting factor of 1/7 and 6/7 for the cold and hot-start results,

a diesel particulate filter (DPF), leading to balance point. In respectively. The test results presented and discussed in this

addition, to meet EPA10 regulation limits, the NOx conversion paper are confined to the hot-start portion of the FTP cycle.

across the after-treatment system (ATS) should be high. 6.1 Test Cycle Assumptions and Modifications

Johnson Matthey investigated its patented Selective Catalytic For engine mapping the following values are used

Reduction Technologies (SCRT) aftertreatment system – the 4- Minimum speed (Idle speed) = 800 rpm

way emission-control technology suitable for this engine . 6 Maximum engine speed = 2200 rpm.
6.2 Test cycle results match its steady-state performance even during transient
The engine-out brake-specific cycle average values over the operations because of the novel combustion system, flexible air-
FTP cycle are shown in the Table . NOx measurement shown in handling system and respective control strategies.
the table has been corrected for humidity. Table 5: Comparison between FTP results on Steady-state
Table 4: Cycle average results from hot-start FTP cycle map and actual measurements
BSFC (g/kW-hr) Engine-out BS Engine-out From From
Soot (g/kW-hr) BSNOx (g/kW-hr) Units Steady- Measure-
217.3 0.056 4.3 state map ment
Total Fuel Consumed (g) 3163 3201
Figure 4 shows that the torque demand during the freeway Cycle-average BSFC (g/kW-hr) 215.2 217.3
portion of the FTP cycle is easily met without generating major Engine-out cycle-
(g/kW-hr) 0.01 0.056
soot spikes; NOx values during the freeway section are relatively average Soot
higher because the engine is running near the rated speed points. Engine-out cycle-
(g/kW-hr) 4.1 4.3
average NOx

6.3 Comparison with Cummins ISB 6.7L engine

Engine efficiency measurements and an energy audit were
performed on a medium duty MY2011 Cummins ISB 6.7L
engine in. As shown in Table 6, the performance ratings for the
Cummins engine is close to Achates Power’s test engine.
Cummins engine was equipped with a DPF and SCR system,
whereas Achates Power’s OP test-engine was using a
backpressure valve to simulate the ATS.
Table 6: Performance specs comparison between API's
and Cummins ISB MD engines
MY2011
API OP Engine Cummins MD
Engine3
Displacement (L) 4.9 6.7
Rated Power (kW) 205 242.5
Rated Speed (rpm) 2200 2400
Figure 4: LA Freeway section performance
Peak Torque (Nm) 1100 Nm @1200-
1016@1600rpm
@ Speed 1600 rpm
6.2 Steady-state map-based FTP cycle results
Compression Ratio 15.4 : 1 17.3 : 1
One important objective of this study was to identify the
EGR HP cooled HP cooled
deviation from the ideal performance in the measured results for
Exhaust pressure
FTP cycle, as derived from the steady-state map. When
After-treatment simulating
simulating the measured cycle torque and cycle speed from the DPF-SCR
System DPF/DOC/SCR for
test on a steady-state map – for BSFC, BSNOx and BS Soot –
MD engine
the results between simulations and actual measurements from
the FTP test are close. The simulated value represents the brake-
specific values obtained if the cycle speed and torque is
7. A NEW ALTERNATIVE: OPGCI ENGINE
converted to fuel without factoring penalties due to engine
transient operations such as smoke-limiter or airflow lag.
As detailed in the first section, Achates Power has developed
Table 5 shows that the results for the BSFC from the
the technology, tools and processes to successfully extract the
simulation and actual measurement are within 1.2%, thereby
potential of the diesel-fueled opposed-piston engine. But with the
demonstrating the capability of the Achates Power OP Engine to
majority of global light-duty vehicles fueled by gasoline, there is
a strong motivation to leverage Achates Power’s knowledge and (CO) emissions. Fortunately, HC and CO can be mitigated with
expertise to develop a gasoline version. relatively inexpensive oxidation catalysts.
Research experience makes clear that the flexibility of the Another advantage GCI has over diesel is lower cost, both
Opposed-Piston Engine in managing charge condition, fuel because of much lower cost aftertreatment requirements (GCI
distribution and max BMEP can provide a perfect platform to engines generally do not need a particulate filter and may not
adopt gasoline compression ignition. Not only does this present need selective catalyst reduction) and because of much lower-
the opportunity to operate the Opposed-Piston Engine on the cost fuel system.
most universally accepted fuel, it also offers the potential to Delphi recently published results of experiments that yield
match diesel efficiency at a lower total engine cost. 39.3% MPG improvement in combined city and highway drive
Achates Power recently received a contract from the U.S. cycles for a GCI engine compared to a 2.4L four-cylinder port
Department of Energy’s ARPA-E to develop a gasoline fuel injected (PFI) engine.4
compression-ignition variant of the Achates Power OP Engine. 7.2 Combining OP & GCI
The initial funding will be $9 million over three years. We expect that combining the OP Engine and GCI will result
Together with Delphi Automotive and Argonne National in a number of advantages that could improve engine efficiency
Laboratory, the three organizations expect to spend $13 million by about 50% compared with spark-ignition gasoline engines.
during the duration of the program. The engine will be a three- Likewise, since both OP and GCI technologies have favorable
cylinder, three-liter design suitable for large passenger vehicles, cost positions compared to conventional engines, the combined
pickup trucks, SUVs and minivans. engine also should be markedly less costly to produce and
7.1 GCI advantages compared with diesel maintain than conventional diesel engines.
An opposed-piston, gasoline compression ignition (OPGCI) Moreover, the OP Engine design also mitigates three
engine has the potential to be a game changer in the powertrain technical challenges for GCI:
market. The combination of OP and GCI technologies could be 7.2.1 Mixture preparation
the solution to pending emissions and fuel economy regulations Robust and clean GCI combustion requires a stratified charge,
and could emerge as the internal combustion engine (ICE) that with locally lean and rich areas, and multiple injection events.
satisfies the challenges of ground mobility for decades to come. Delphi has achieved excellent GCI combustion results in
The OPGCI engine has the potential to be about 50% more conventional engine configurations with an injector inserted
efficient than a contemporary gasoline engine by combining the through the cylinder head injecting towards an approaching
benefits of compression ignition with a readily available fuel piston (Figure 5).
source – gasoline – in the highly efficient Achates Power OP
Engine architecture.
Delphi and Argonne have demonstrated that gasoline can be
combusted without a spark plug under high compression-ratio,
lean conditions and without throttling. The key is to continually
produce precisely-controlled pressure, temperature and fuel-
dispersion conditions inside the cylinder.
Delphi has shown its GCI engine offers diesel-like efficiency.
Furthermore, GCI has an advantage over diesel in creating lower
emissions.
Gasoline is a superior fuel for compression ignition because Figure 5: Conventional GCI Injection (Delphi)
gasoline evaporates more readily than diesel and has a longer But the OP injection environment offers significant potential
ignition delay. GCI has a mostly lean mixture more evenly to improve charge stratification. Diametrically opposed dual
distributed throughout the cylinder; with only a small portion of injectors spray across the diameter of cylinder (Figure 6). Each
richer mixture at the ignition sites it therefore achieves mostly injector can be independently controlled to more easily manage
lower peak temperatures and NOx. In addition, the mostly lean staggered injections for ideal mixture distribution and, therefore,
local conditions also allow for low soot formation. GCI does, efficient and controlled heat release.
however, create higher hydrocarbon (HC) and carbon monoxide
 pumping all contributed to reduced pumping work to meet the
necessary charge conditions. Finally, the larger cylinder volume
available for combustion enables faster heat-release rates without
increasing combustion noise. All this allows for fewer calibration
tradeoffs at high loads.

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS:

The A48-316 multi cylinder research engine developed by
Achates Power has demonstrated cycle average BSFC of 200
Figure 6: Achates Power Opposed-Piston Injection g/kWh for the SET cycle with the best point efficiency of 192
g/kWh. This is despite the fact that the engine friction has not
7.2.2 Charge temperature management been optimized in order to preserve the flexibility of the engine
At low loads, GCI requires higher temperatures for to act as a research platform. A grounds-up OP2S engine with
combustion. Engines operating at low loads generate relatively optimized friction and air handling components is expected to
little heat. This problem is exacerbated in small engines that have deliver 182 g/kWh on SET cycle.
high ratios of surface areas to combustion volume. Four-stroke Based on the Achates Power Opposed-Piston Engine out
engines normally push the entire content of the cylinder out conditions from steady state cycle, it can be seen that the tailpipe
during the exhaust stroke and therefore require a complex HC, CO and PM targets can be reached relatively easily. The
variable valvetrain to re-open the exhaust valve during the intake proposed after-treatment system with appropriate urea dosing is
stroke to suck the exhaust back in the cylinder to increase the sufficient to maintain the NOx level below the EPA10 target
charge temperature to the level necessary for GCI ignition. along with low NH3 slip and N2O for SET cycle. All the models
The OP Engine, however, can retain exhaust gas in-cylinder used in this study are based on catalyst formulations that are
after combustion, even at low loads when relatively little commercially available.
additional intake oxygen is required. At low loads, the OP The results in this paper show OP Engine operating
Engine can reduce the supercharger work used to boost the advantages also extend to the aggressive transient cycles. These
intake manifold pressure. This has four benefits: it reduces the results demonstrate the capability of the OP Engine to not only
amount of work by the supercharger, improving efficiency; it provide significant BSFC advantage over a conventional four-
keeps in-cylinder temperatures high for good combustion stroke diesel engine, but also highlight its ability to generate
stability; it provides a natural or internal EGR effect for low engine-out emission levels that are compatible with US2010
NOx combustion and, it provides high exhaust gas temperatures EPA requirements with a conventional after-treatment system.
for catalyst light-off and sustained activity. As for future advances with potentially high impact for the
7.2.3 High Load Operation and Pumping passenger-vehicle powertrains, the federally funded OPGCI
At the other extreme, GCI engines have challenges at high engine can be the most cost effective and financially viable way
loads. The compression ratio of a GCI engine is higher than a to reduce greenhouse gas emissions because it leverages an
conventional gasoline engine and also requires a higher level of existing fuels infrastructure and conventional-engine
air and EGR to control combustion. This combination creates manufacturing processes.
high cylinder pressures that can limit the maximum load The combination of the OP Engine with GCI combustion
capability of the engine and increase combustion noise and technology is expected to deliver 50% fuel economy
pumping work. At high loads, four-stroke GCI engines have to improvement compared with a conventional gasoline engine or
make calibration tradeoffs to maintain the mechanical integrity 30% compared with a conventional diesel engine, suggesting the
of the engine, sacrificing both efficiency and performance. way to the most cost effective solution to meeting the future
The OP Engine design has several advantages to manage the greenhouse gas emissions regulations.
high-load operation without as many trade-offs. The two-stroke
cycle operation reduces the maximum BMEP requirement (and
displacement) while maintaining performance REFERENCES
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