INSTRUMENTATION AND SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES

MODULE 1
Measurement is the process of associating numbers with physical quantities
and phenomena. Measurement is fundamental to the sciences; to engineering,
building, and other technical matters; and to everyday activity. ... In a measurement-
and-control system (part of) the target object is identical to the measurement object.
the word “measurement” comes from the Greek word “metron,” which means “limited
proportion.” Measuring is the act of determining a target's size, length, amount
volume, weight, capacity, or other aspect with an instrument marked in
standard units.
Measurement begins with a definition of the quantity that is to be measured, and it
always involves a comparison with some known quantity of the same kind. If the
object or quantity to be measured is not accessible for direct comparison, it is
converted or “transduced” into an analogous measurement signal. Since
measurement always involves some interaction between the object and the observer
or observing instrument, there is always an exchange of energy, which, although in
everyday applications is negligible, can become considerable in some types of
measurement and thereby limit accuracy.
MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS AND SYSTEMS
In general, measuring systems comprise a number of functional elements. One
element is required to discriminate the object and sense its dimensions or frequency.
This information is then transmitted throughout the system by physical signals. If
the object is itself active, such as water flow, it may power the signal; if passive, it
must trigger the signal by interaction either with an energetic probe, such as a light
source or X-ray tube, or with a carrier signal. Eventually the physical signal is
compared with a reference signal of known quantity that has been subdivided or
multiplied to suit the range of measurement required. The reference signal is derived
from objects of known quantity by a process called calibration. The comparison may
be an analog process in which signals in a continuous dimension are brought to
equality. An alternative comparison process is quantization by counting, i.e., dividing
the signal into parts of equal and known size and adding up the number of parts.

Other functions of measurement systems facilitate the basic process described above.
Amplification ensures that the physical signal is strong enough to complete the
measurement. In order to reduce degradation of the measurement as it progresses
through the system, the signal may be converted to coded or digital form.
Magnification, enlarging the measurement signal without increasing its power, is
often necessary to match the output of one element of the system with the input of
another, such as matching the size of the readout meter with the discerning power of
the human eye.

One important type of measurement is the analysis of resonance, or the frequency of

variation within a physical system. This is determined by harmonic analysis,
commonly exhibited in the sorting of signals by a radio receiver. Computation is
another important measurement process, in which measurement signals are
manipulated mathematically, typically by some form of analog or digital computer.
Computers may also provide a control function in monitoring system performance.

Measuring systems may also include devices for transmitting signals over great
distances (see telemetry). All measuring systems, even highly automated ones,
include some method of displaying the signal to an observer. Visual display systems
may comprise a calibrated chart and a pointer, an integrated display on a cathode-
ray tube, or a digital readout. Measurement systems often include elements for
recording. A common type utilizes a writing stylus that records measurements on a
moving chart. Electrical recorders may include feedback reading devices for greater
accuracy.

The actual performance of measuring instruments is affected by numerous external

and internal factors. Among external factors are noise and interference, both of
which tend to mask or distort the measurement signal. Internal factors include
linearity, resolution, precision, and accuracy, all of which are characteristic of a given
instrument or system, and dynamic response, drift, and hysteresis, which are effects
produced in the process of measurement itself.

instrumentation, in technology, the development and use of precise measuring

equipment. Although the sensory organs of the human body can be extremely
sensitive and responsive, modern science and technology rely on the development of
much more precise measuring and analytical tools for studying, monitoring, or
controlling all kinds of phenomena.
Applications of measurements and instrumentation
Most manufacturing processes rely on instrumentation for monitoring chemical,
physical, and environmental properties, as well as the performance of production
lines. Instruments to monitor chemical properties include the refractometer, infrared
analyzers, chromatographs, and pH sensors. A refractometer measures the bending
of a beam of light as it passes from one material to another; such instruments are
used, for instance, to determine the composition of sugar solutions or the
concentration of tomato paste in ketchup. Infrared analyzers can identify substances
by the wavelength and amount of infrared radiation that they emit or reflect.
Chromatography, a sensitive and swift method of chemical analysis used on
extremely tiny samples of a substance, relies on the different rates at which a
material will adsorb different types of molecules. The acidity or alkalinity of a
solution can be measured by pH sensors.

Instruments are also used to measure physical properties of a substance, such as its
turbidity, or amount of particulate matter in a solution. Water purification and
petroleum-refining processes are monitored by a turbidimeter, which measures how
much light of one particular wavelength is absorbed by a solution. The density of a
liquid substance is determined by a hydrometer, which measures the buoyancy of an
object of known volume immersed in the fluid to be measured. The flow rate of a
substance is measured by a turbine flowmeter, in which the revolutions of a freely
spinning turbine immersed in a fluid are measured, while the viscosity of a fluid is
 measured by a number of techniques, including how much it dampens the
oscillations of a steel blade.

Instruments used in medicine and biomedical research are just as varied as those in
industry. Relatively simple medical instruments measure temperature, blood
pressure (sphygmomanometer), or lung capacity (spirometer). More complex
instruments include the familiar X-ray machines and electroencephalographs and
electrocardiographs, which detect electrical signals generated by the brain and heart,
respectively.

Physical variables

sensors target a large number of physical variations (e.g., force, mass, strain,
pressure, velocity, weight, and acceleration)
These physical sensors may work on relative variation in their electrical parameters
such as capacitance, resistance, magnetic field and piezoelectricity. Depending
on the types of active sensing elements, the sensors may be classified as solid state
sensors or liquid state sensors.

Common types of sensors

 Vision and Imaging Sensors.
 Temperature Sensors.
 Radiation Sensors.
 Proximity Sensors.
 Pressure Sensors.
 Position Sensors.
 Photoelectric Sensors.
 Particle Sensors.
 Temperature Sensors
 Temperature Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that
detect thermal parameters and provide signals to the inputs of control and
display devices. A temperature sensor typically relies on an RTD or thermistor
to measure temperature and convert it to an output voltage. Key specifications
include sensor/detector type, maximum and minimum measurable
temperatures, as well as the dimensions of diameter and length. Temperature
sensors are used to measure the thermal characteristics of gases, liquids, and
solids in many process industries and are configured for both general- and
special-purpose uses. More information about temperature sensors may be
found in our related guide All About Temperature Sensors.
 Radiation Sensors
 Radiation Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that sense the presence
of alpha, beta, or gamma particles and provide signals to counters and display
devices. Key specifications include sensor type and minimum and maximum
detectable energies. Radiation detectors are used for surveys and sample
counting. More information about radiation sensors may be found in our
related guide All About Radiation Detectors.
 Proximity Sensors
 Proximity Sensors are electronic devices used to detect the presence of
nearby objects through non-contacting means. A proximity sensor can detect
the presence of objects usually within a range of up to several millimeters,
and, doing so, produce a usually dc output signal to a controller. Proximity
sensors are used in countless manufacturing operations to detect the
presence of parts and machine components. Key specifications include
sensor type, maximum sensing distance, minimum & maximum operating
temperatures, along with dimensions of diameter and length. Proximity
sensors are generally short-range devices but are available too in designs
that can detect objects up to several inches away. One commonly used type
of proximity sensor is known as a capacitive proximity sensor. This device
uses the change in capacitance resulting from a reduction in the separation
distance between the plates of a capacitor, one plate of which is attached to
the object being observed, as a means of determining motion and position of
the object from the sensor. More information on proximity sensors may be
found in our related guides All About Proximity Sensors and Capacitive
Proximity Sensors.
 Pressure Sensors
 Pressure Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electro-mechanical devices that
detect forces per unit area in gases or liquids and provide signals to the inputs
of control and display devices. A pressure sensor/transducer typically uses a
diaphragm and strain gage bridge to detect and measure the force exerted
against a unit area. Key specifications include sensor function, minimum and
maximum working pressures, full-scale accuracy, along with any features
particular to the device. Pressure sensors are used wherever information
about the pressure of a gas or liquid is needed for control or measurement.
More information on pressure sensors may be found in our related
guide Common Types of Pressure Sensors.
 Position Sensors
 Position Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices used to sense
the positions of valves, doors, throttles, etc. and supply signals to the inputs of
control or display devices. Key specifications include sensor type, sensor
 function, measurement range, and features that are specific to the sensor
type. Position sensors are used wherever positional information is needed in a
myriad of control applications. A common position transducer is a so-called
string-pot, or string potentiometer. More information about position sensors
may be found in our related guide All About Position Sensors. See
also proximity sensors.
 Photoelectric Sensors
 Photoelectric sensors are electrical devices that sense objects passing within
their field of detection, although they are also capable of detecting color,
cleanliness, and location if needed. These sensors rely on measuring
changes in the light they emit using an emitter and a receiver. They are
common in manufacturing and material handling automation for purposes
such as counting, robotic picking, and automatic doors and gates.
 Learn more in our related article on Photoelectric Sensors.
 Particle Sensors
 Particle Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices used to sense dust and
other airborne particulates and supply signals to the inputs of control or
display devices. Particle sensors are common in bin and baghouse
monitoring. Key specifications include transducer type, minimum detectable
particle size, operating temperature range, sample volume, and response
time. Particle detectors used in nuclear engineering are referred to as
radiation detectors (see above). More information about particle sensors may
be found in our related guide All About Particle Sensors. See also proximity
sensors.
 Motion Sensors
 Motion Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that can sense
the movement or stoppage of parts, people, etc. and supply signals to the
inputs of control or display devices. Typical applications of motion detection
are detecting the stalling of conveyors or the seizing of bearings. Key
specifications include the intended application, sensor type, sensor function,
and minimum and maximum speeds. More information about motion sensors
may be found in our related guide All About Motion Sensors. See
also proximity sensors.
 Metal Sensors
 Metal Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used to sense
the presence of metal in a variety of situations ranging from packages to
people. Metal detectors can be permanent or portable and rely on a number
of sensor technologies with electromagnetics being popular. Key
specifications include the intended application, maximum sensing distance,
and certain feature choices like handheld and fixed systems. Metal detectors
can be tailored to explicitly detect metal in specific manufacturing operations
such as sawmilling or injection molding. More information about metal
sensors/detectors may be found in our related guide All About Metal Sensors
and Detectors.
 Level Sensors
 Level Sensors/Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used for
determining the height of gases, liquids, or solids in tanks or bins and
providing signals to the inputs of control or display devices. Typical level
sensors use ultrasonic, capacitance, vibratory, or mechanical means to
determine product height. Key specifications include sensor type, sensor
 function, and maximum sensing distance. Level sensors/detectors can be of
the contacting or non-contacting type. More information about level sensors
may be found in our related guide All About Level Sensors.
 Leak Sensors
 Leak Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices used for identifying or
monitoring the unwanted discharge of liquids or gases. Some leak detectors
rely on ultrasonic means to detect air leaks, for example. Other leak detectors
rely on simple foaming agents to measure the soundness of pipe joints. Still,
other leak detectors are used to measure the effectiveness of the seals in
vacuum packages. More information about leak sensors may be found in our
related guide All About Leak Sensors.
 Humidity Sensors
 Humidity Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that measure
the amount of water in the air and convert these measurements into signals
that can be used as inputs to control or display devices. Key specifications
include maximum response time and minimum and maximum operating
temperatures. More information about humidity sensors may be found in our
related guide All About Humidity Sensors.
 Gas and Chemical Sensors
 Gas and Chemical Sensors/Detectors are fixed or portable electronic devices
used to sense the presence and properties of various gases or chemicals and
relay signals to the inputs of controllers or visual displays. Key specifications
include the intended application, sensor/detector type, measurement range,
and features. Gas and chemical sensors/detectors are used for confined
space monitoring, leak detection, analytical instrumentation, etc. and are often
designed with the capability of detecting multiple gases and chemicals. More
information about gas and chemical sensors may be found in our related
guide All About Gas and Chemical Sensors.
 Force Sensors
 Force Sensors/Transducers are electronic devices that measure various
parameters related to forces such as weight, torque, load, etc. and provide
signals to the inputs of control or display devices. A force sensor typically
relies on a load cell, a piezoelectric device whose resistance changes under
deforming loads. Other methods exist for measuring torque and strain. Key
specifications include sensor function, number of axes, minimum and
maximum loads (or torques), minimum and maximum operating temperature,
as well as the dimensions of the sensor itself. Force sensors are used in load
measuring applications of all kinds, from truck scales to bolt tensioning
devices. More information about force sensors may be found in our related
guide All About Force Sensors.
 Flow Sensors
 Flow Sensors/Detectors are electronic or electro-mechanical devices used to
sense the movement of gases, liquids, or solids and provide signals to the
inputs of control or display devices. A flow sensor can be all electronic—using
ultrasonic detection from outside a pipeline, say—or partially mechanical—a
paddlewheel, for instance, that sits and spins directly in the flow stream itself.
Key specifications include sensor/detector type, sensor function, maximum
flowrate, maximum working pressure, and minimum and maximum operating
temperatures. Flow sensors are used extensively in the processing industries.
Some designs for panel mounting allow quick indication of flow conditions to
 process operators. More information about flow sensors may be found in our
related guide All About Flow Sensors.
 Flaw Sensors
 Flaw Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices used in a variety of
manufacturing processes to uncover inconsistencies on surfaces or in
underlying materials such as welds. Flaw detectors use ultrasonic, acoustic,
or other means to identify defects in materials and can be portable or fixed
installations. Key specifications include sensor type, detectable defect or
thickness range, and intended application. More information about flaw
sensors may be found in our related guide All About Flaw Sensors.
 Flame Sensors
 Flame Detectors are optoelectronic devices used to sense the presence and
quality of fire and provide signals to the inputs of control devices. A flame
detector typically relies on ultraviolet or infrared detection of the presence of
flame and finds use in many combustion control applications such as burners.
A key specification is detector type. Flame detectors find applications in safety
settings too, such as in under-the-hood fire suppression systems. More
information about flame sensors may be found in our related guide All About
Flame Sensors.
 Electrical Sensors
 Electrical Sensors/Detectors/Transducers are electronic devices that sense
current, voltage, etc. and provide signals to the inputs of control devices or
visual displays. Electrical sensors often rely on hall effect detection but other
methods are used as well. Key specifications include sensor type, sensor
function, minimum and maximum measurement ranges, and operating
temperature range. Electrical sensors are used wherever information on the
state of an electrical system is needed and are employed in everything from
railway systems to fan, pump, and heater monitoring. More information about
electrical sensors may be found in our related guide All About Electrical
Sensors.
 Contact Sensors
 Contact sensors refer to any type of sensing device that functions to detect a
condition by relying on physical touch or contact between the sensor and the
object being observed or monitored. A simple type of contact sensor is used
in alarm systems to monitor doors, windows, and other access points. When
the door or window is closed, a magnetic switch provides an indication to the
alarm control unit so that the status of that entry point is known. Similarly,
when a door or window is opened, the contact sensor alerts the alarm
controller of the state of that access point and may trigger an action such as
engaging an audible siren. There are many uses of contact sensors such as
temperature monitoring and as proximity sensors in robotics applications and
automated machinery. More information on contact sensors is available in our
related guide Types of Contact Sensors.
 Non-Contact Sensors
 In contrast to contact sensors, non-contact sensors are devices that do not
require a physical touch between the sensor and the object being monitored
in order to function. A familiar example of this type of sensor is the motion
detector used in security lights. Detection of objects within the range of a
motion detector is accomplished using non-mechanical or non-physical
means, such as via detection of passive infrared energy, microwave energy,
 ultrasonic waves, etc. Radar guns used by law enforcement to monitor the
speed of vehicles is another example of a form of non-contact sensor. Other
types of devices that fall under the category of non-contact sensors include
Hall-effect sensors, inductive sensors, LVDTs (linear variable differential
transformers), RVDTs (rotary variable differential transformers), and Eddy
current sensors, to name a few.

Different devices incorporated with sensors

 Encoders are electromechanical devices that are used to convert linear or
rotary motions to analog or digital output signals.

 Load Cells are mechanical or electronic devices designed to convert forces,

either compressive, tensile, torsional, or shear, into electrical signals.
 Monitors are typically electronic devices used to remotely or conveniently
view information as required.
 Data Acquisition Systems (abbreviated DAQ or DAS) collect analog signals
from sensors measuring real-world samples and transduce them into digital
formats that are processed by
 Data Loggers are electronic data storage devices used to gather and record
various data-over-time measurements.
 Switches are electromechanical devices that are used in electrical circuits.
 Thermocouples are mechanical devices formed of dissimilar metal wires
welded together and used for the measurement of temperature.
 Controls and Controller

What is MEMS?

MEMS is short for Micro Electro Mechanical Systems. It is a technology associated

with manufacturing of microscale devices like Sensors, Transducers, Actuators,
Gears, Pumps, Switches etc.

In other words, MEMS are microscopic integrated devices that are a combination of
electronics, electrical and mechanical elements, all working together for a single
functional requirement using a technology called Microsystems Technology (MST).

The MEMS technology is considered to be an extended form of traditional integrated

circuit (IC) manufacturing. The main difference between the traditional IC
Manufacturing technology (VLSI) and MEMS is that using MEMS you can not only
fabricate electrical components like Capacitors and Inductors but also mechanical
components like gears, springs, beams etc. Using traditional IC Technology, you can
only fabricate conductors, insulators, diodes and transistors.
The size of these MEMS Based devices is usually in the order of few micrometers
(between 1 to 100 micrometers).

Another important point to remember is that MEMS is an integration of both active

and passive components into a single silicon substrate with the help of advanced IC
manufacturing technology. The active components are the Sensors and Actuators
while the passive components are the passive electronic systems and passive
mechanical systems.

The electronic system, which consists of the signal processing circuits like Amplifier,
ADC, Filters etc. is designed using IC Fabrication Process while the mechanical
system, which consists of Gears, Cranks, Bearings etc. is designed using
Micromachining Process.

What are MEMS Sensors?

Sensors are one of the important components of today’s digital World. Since all the
computation and processing is done on digital signals, there should be a medium
between the analog world and the digital electronics. Sensors bridge this gap as they
are used to observe the temporal effects of analog physical parameters and produce
a meaningful information (to the computer).

Modern definition of a Sensor is confusing at times but in simple words a Sensor is a

device that contains basic sensing elements which sense the physical quantity like
temperature or humidity and convert it into an electrical signal. A sensor also
consists of a signal processing unit like an amplifier, filter or ADC or a combination of
these elements.

Coming to MEMS Sensors, if a Sensor is designed and manufactured using the

MEMS Technology, then it is called a Micromachined Microsensor or simply a
MEMS Sensor.

If you remember our HAND GESTURE CONTROLLED ROBOT, we used an

MPU6050 IC. It contains a 3-axis Accelerometer, a 3-axis Gyroscope and a Digital
Motion Processor. It is fabricated using MEMS Technology.

Different Types of MEMS Sensors

One of the major implementors of MEMS technology is the automotive industry.

Modern cars use a lot of sensors and most of them are MEMS based devices. The
following is a list of MEMS Sensors that are used in a modern car.

 Accelerometers – For Electronic Stability Control and Airbag deployment.

 Inertial Measurement Units or IMU (they are combination of MEMS
Accelerometer and MEMS Gyroscope) – For measuring yaw, pitch and roll for
autonomous driving.
 Magnetometer – For direction used in navigation.
 Pressure and Inertial Sensor – For braking control.
 Pressure Sensor – Tire Pressure Monitoring System.
 Airflow Sensor – Air intake monitoring.
 Fuel Sensor – Fuel Level Indicator.
 Impact and Crash Sensor – Impact detection and Airbag deployment.
 MEMS Microphone – For communication and Noise Cancellation.
 Temperature Sensor – For Automatic Climate Control and Engine
Temperature Monitoring.
 There are many other MEMS based devices for various applications.

Applications

MEMS Sensors are already being used in a variety of applications like controlling
and handling equipment, managing robots, cars, grippers, etc. You can find these
sensors in modern ink jet printers, Colour Projectors, Display Systems, Clocks and
Scanning equipment.

MEMS Technology is used to manufacture different sensors like Pressure,

Temperature, Vibration and Chemical Sensors.

Accelerometers, Gyroscopes, e-Compass etc. are some of the commonly used

MEMS Sensors in cars, helicopters, aircrafts, drones and ships.
Some of the sectors of applications of MEMS based Sensors are mentioned below:

 Automotive
 Chemical and Pharmaceutical
 Aircraft
 Industrial Automation and Manufacturing
 Defense, Space and Aeronautical
 Environmental and Health Sciences
 Computing and Communications
 Consumer Products

SENSORS SPECIFICATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS

1. Range - Min and maximum ranges of the variable sensor is measuring. For
example a Temperature sensors can measure between -40 to +125 Degree
Celsius. A CO2 sensor can measure from 240 ppm to 5000 ppm.
2. Resolution - Smallest different between two readings of the variable. For
example if a Temperature sensor can measure 10.01 and 10.02 or 10.001 and
10.002 Degree Celsius?
3. Accuracy - The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will
exist between the actual value (which must be measured by a primary or good
secondary standard) and the indicated value at the output of the sensor. It can
either expressed in % of full scale or in absolute terms. For example a
temperature sensor accuracy can be +/- 0.3 Degree Celsius.
4. Repeatability - Means for how much time the sensor will give the same O/P
considering the environment is same. Generally it is taken as a average of few
readings.
5. Electrical specifications - Power consumption, current consumption,
performance in different environmental conditions.
6. Timing Specifications - i.e. how much time a sensor take to response to a
specific command (in case if sensor is digital ) or how much time a sensor will
take to provide a O/P ( in case of analog sensor ).