Physics II

Atomic Physics

Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the mysteries of atomic spectra.

Explain Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom.

Explain Bohr’s planetary model of the atom.

Illustrate energy state using the energy-level diagram.

Describe the triumphs and limits of Bohr’s theory.

The great Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) made immediate use
of Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom. (Figure 1). Bohr became
convinced of its validity and spent part of 1912 at Rutherford’s laboratory.
In 1913, after returning to Copenhagen, he began publishing his theory of
the simplest atom, hydrogen, based on the planetary model of the atom.
For decades, many questions had been asked about atomic characteris-
tics. From their sizes to their spectra, much was known about atoms, but
little had been explained in terms of the laws of physics. Bohr’s theory
explained the atomic spectrum of hydrogen and established new and
broadly applicable principles in quantum mechanics.

Figure 1. Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, used the planetary model of the atom
 to explain the atomic spectrum and size of the hydrogen atom. His many
contributions to the development of atomic physics and quantum
mechanics, his personal influence on many students and colleagues, and his
personal integrity, especially in the face of Nazi oppression, earned him a
prominent place in history. (credit: Unknown Author, via Wikimedia
Commons)

Mysteries of Atomic Spectra

As noted in Quantization of Energy, the energies of some small systems

are quantized. Atomic and molecular emission and absorption spectra
have been known for over a century to be discrete (or quantized). (See
Figure 2.) Maxwell and others had realized that there must be a connec-
tion between the spectrum of an atom and its structure, something like
the resonant frequencies of musical instruments. But, in spite of years of
efforts by many great minds, no one had a workable theory. (It was a run-
ning joke that any theory of atomic and molecular spectra could be de-
stroyed by throwing a book of data at it, so complex were the spectra.)
Following Einstein’s proposal of photons with quantized energies di-
rectly proportional to their wavelengths, it became even more evident
that electrons in atoms can exist only in discrete orbits.

Figure 2. Part (a) shows, from left to right, a discharge tube, slit, and
diffraction grating producing a line spectrum. Part (b) shows the emission
line spectrum for iron. The discrete lines imply quantized energy states for
the atoms that produce them. The line spectrum for each element is unique,
providing a powerful and much used analytical tool, and many line spectra
were well known for many years before they could be explained with
physics. (credit for (b): Yttrium91, Wikimedia Commons)
In some cases, it had been possible to devise formulas that described
the emission spectra. As you might expect, the simplest atom—hydro-
gen, with its single electron—has a relatively simple spectrum. The hy-
drogen spectrum had been observed in the infrared (IR), visible, and ul-
traviolet (UV), and several series of spectral lines had been observed.
(See Figure 3.) These series are named after early researchers who stud-
ied them in particular depth.

The observed hydrogen-spectrum wavelengths can be calculated using

the following formula:

1 1 1
= R( − )
2 2
λ n n
f i

where λ is the wavelength of the emitted EM radiation and R is the

Rydberg constant, determined by the experiment to be R =
1.097 × 107 / m (or m−1).

The constant nf is a positive integer associated with a specific series. For

the Lyman series, nf = 1; for the Balmer series, nf = 2; for the Paschen se-
ries, nf = 3; and so on. The Lyman series is entirely in the UV, while part
of the Balmer series is visible with the remainder UV. The Paschen series
and all the rest are entirely IR. There are apparently an unlimited number
of series, although they lie progressively farther into the infrared and be-
come difficult to observe as nf increases. The constant ni is a positive in-
teger, but it must be greater than nf. Thus, for the Balmer series, nf = 2
and ni = 3, 4, 5, 6, …. Note that ni can approach infinity. While the formula
in the wavelengths equation was just a recipe designed to fit data and
was not based on physical principles, it did imply a deeper meaning.
Balmer first devised the formula for his series alone, and it was later
found to describe all the other series by using different values of nf. Bohr
was the first to comprehend the deeper meaning. Again, we see the in-
terplay between experiment and theory in physics. Experimentally, the
spectra were well established, an equation was found to fit the experi-
mental data, but the theoretical foundation was missing.
Figure 3. A schematic of the hydrogen spectrum shows several series
named for those who contributed most to their determination. Part of the
Balmer series is in the visible spectrum, while the Lyman series is entirely in
the UV, and the Paschen series and others are in the IR. Values of nf and ni
are shown for some of the lines.

EXAMPLE 1. CALCULATING WAVE INTERFERENCE OF

A HYDROGEN LINE

What is the distance between the slits of a grating that pro-

duces a first-order maximum for the second Balmer line at an
angle of 15º?

Strategy and Concept

For an Integrated Concept problem, we must first identify the

physical principles involved. In this example, we need to know
two things:

1. the wavelength of light

2. the conditions for an interference maximum for the pat-

tern from a double slit

Part 1 deals with a topic of the present chapter, while Part

2 considers the wave interference material of Wave Optics.

Solution for Part 1

Hydrogen spectrum wavelength. The Balmer series requires

that nf = 2. The first line in the series is taken to be for ni = 3,
and so the second would have ni = 4.

The calculation is a straightforward application of the wave-

length equation. Entering the determined values for nf and ni
yields

1 1 1
= R( − )
λ 2 2
n ni
f

7 − 1 1
  = (1.097 × 10  m 1) ( − )
2 2
2 4

6 −1
  = 2.057 × 10  m

Inverting to find λ gives

1 −9
λ = = 486 × 10  m
6
2.057×10  m− 1

  = 486 nm

Discussion for Part 1

This is indeed the experimentally observed wavelength, corre-

sponding to the second (blue-green) line in the Balmer series.
More impressive is the fact that the same simple recipe pre-
dicts all of the hydrogen spectrum lines, including new ones
observed in subsequent experiments. What is nature telling
us?

Solution for Part 2

Double-slit interference (Wave Optics). To obtain constructive

interference for a double slit, the path length difference from
two slits must be an integral multiple of the wavelength. This
condition was expressed by the equation d sin θ = mλ, where d
is the distance between slits and θ is the angle from the origi-
nal direction of the beam. The number m is the order of the in-
terference; m=1 in this example. Solving for d and entering
known values yields
(1) (486 nm)
−6
d = = 1.88 × 10  m
∘
sin 15

Discussion for Part 2

This number is similar to those used in the interference exam-

ples of Introduction to Quantum Physics (and is close to the
spacing between slits in commonly used diffraction glasses).
Bohr’s Solution for Hydrogen

Bohr was able to derive the formula for the hydrogen spectrum using ba-
sic physics, the planetary model of the atom, and some very important
new proposals. His first proposal is that only certain orbits are allowed:
we say that the orbits of electrons in atoms are quantized. Each orbit
has a different energy, and electrons can move to a higher orbit by ab-
sorbing energy and drop to a lower orbit by emitting energy. If the orbits
are quantized, the amount of energy absorbed or emitted is also quan-
tized, producing discrete spectra. Photon absorption and emission are
among the primary methods of transferring energy into and out of atoms.
The energies of the photons are quantized, and their energy is ex-
plained as being equal to the change in energy of the electron when it
moves from one orbit to another. In equation form, this is ΔE = hf
= Ei − Ef.

Here, ΔE is the change in energy

between the initial and final or-
bits, and hf is the energy of the
absorbed or emitted photon. It is
quite logical (that is, expected
from our everyday experience)
that energy is involved in chang-
ing orbits. A blast of energy is re-
quired for the space shuttle, for
example, to climb to a higher or-
bit. What is not expected is that
atomic orbits should be quan-
Figure 4. The planetary model of the
tized. This is not observed for sat- atom, as modified by Bohr, has the
ellites or planets, which can have orbits of the electrons quantized.
Only certain orbits are allowed,
any orbit given the proper en- explaining why atomic spectra are
ergy. (See Figure 4.) discrete (quantized). The energy
carried away from an atom by a
photon comes from the electron
dropping from one allowed orbit to
Figure 5 shows an energy-level another and is thus quantized. This
diagram, a convenient way to is likewise true for atomic
absorption of photons.
display energy states. In the
present discussion, we take
these to be the allowed energy levels of the electron. Energy is plotted
vertically with the lowest or ground state at the bottom and with excited
states above. Given the energies of the lines in an atomic spectrum, it is
possible (although sometimes very difficult) to determine the energy lev-
els of an atom. Energy-level diagrams are used for many systems, includ-
ing molecules and nuclei. A theory of the atom or any other system must
predict its energies based on the physics of the system.

Bohr was clever enough to find a

way to calculate the electron or-
bital energies in hydrogen. This
was an important first step that
has been improved upon, but it is
well worth repeating here, be-
cause it does correctly describe
many characteristics of hydrogen.
Assuming circular orbits, Bohr
proposed that the angular mo-
mentum L of an electron in its
orbit is quantized, that is, it has
only specific, discrete values. The
value for L is given by the formula Figure 5. An energy-level diagram
plots energy vertically and is useful
in visualizing the energy states of a
system and the transitions between
them. This diagram is for the
hydrogen-atom electrons, showing a
transition between two orbits having
energies E4 and E2.

h
L = me vrn = n (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
2π

, where L is the angular momentum, me is the electron’s mass, rn is the

radius of the n th orbit, and h is Planck’s constant. Note that angular mo-
mentum is L = Iω. For a small object at a radius r, I = mr2 and
v
ω =
r

, so that
2 v
L = (mr ) = mvr
r

. Quantization says that this value of mvr can only be equal to

h 2h 3h
, ,
2 2 2

, etc. At the time, Bohr himself did not know why angular momentum
should be quantized, but using this assumption he was able to calculate
the energies in the hydrogen spectrum, something no one else had
done at the time.

From Bohr’s assumptions, we will now derive a number of important

properties of the hydrogen atom from the classical physics we have cov-
ered in the text. We start by noting the centripetal force causing the elec-
tron to follow a circular path is supplied by the Coulomb force. To be
more general, we note that this analysis is valid for any single-electron
atom. So, if a nucleus has Z protons (Z = 1 for hydrogen, 2 for helium,
etc.) and only one electron, that atom is called a hydrogen-like atom. The
spectra of hydrogen-like ions are similar to hydrogen, but shifted to
higher energy by the greater attractive force between the electron and
nucleus. The magnitude of the centripetal force is
2
me v

rn

, while the Coulomb force is

(Zqe )(qe )
k
2
rn

. The tacit assumption here is that the nucleus is more massive than the
stationary electron, and the electron orbits about it. This is consistent
with the planetary model of the atom. Equating these,

2 2
Zqe me v
k 2
=  (Coulomb = centripetal)
rn rn

Angular momentum quantization is stated in an earlier equation. We

solve that equation for v, substitute it into the above, and rearrange the
expression to obtain the radius of the orbit. This yields:

2
n
rn = aB ,  for allowed orbits  (n = 1, 2, 3 …)
Z

where aB is defined to be the Bohr radius, since for the lowest orbit (n =
1) and for hydrogen (Z = 1), r1 = aB. It is left for this chapter’s Problems and
Exercises to show that the Bohr radius is
 2
h −10
aB = = 0.529 × 10  m
2 2
4π me kqe

These last two equations can be used to calculate the radii of the al-
lowed (quantized) electron orbits in any hydrogen-like atom. It is im-
pressive that the formula gives the correct size of hydrogen, which is
measured experimentally to be very close to the Bohr radius. The earlier
equation also tells us that the orbital radius is proportional to n2, as illus-
trated in Figure 6.

Figure 6. The allowed electron orbits in hydrogen have the

radii shown. These radii were first calculated by Bohr and
are given by the equation
2
n
rn = aB
Z

. The lowest orbit has the experimentally verified diameter of

a hydrogen atom.

To get the electron orbital energies, we start by noting that the electron
energy is the sum of its kinetic and potential energy: En = KE + PE.
Kinetic energy is the familiar
1 2
KE = me v
2

, assuming the electron is not moving at relativistic speeds. Potential en-

ergy for the electron is electrical, or PE = qeV, where V is the potential
due to the nucleus, which looks like a point charge. The nucleus has a
positive charge Zqe ; thus,
kZqe
V =
rn

, recalling an earlier equation for the potential due to a point charge.

Since the electron’s charge is negative, we see that
kZqe
PE = −
rn

. Entering the expressions for KE and PE, we find

2
1 2
Zqe
En = me v − k
2 rn

Now we substitute rn and v from earlier equations into the above expres-
sion for energy. Algebraic manipulation yields

2
Z
En = − E0 (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
2
n

for the orbital energies of hydrogen-like atoms. Here, E0 is the ground-

state energy (n = 1) for hydrogen (Z = 1) and is given by

4 2
2πqe me k
E0 = = 13.6 eV
2
h

Thus, for hydrogen,

13.6 eV
En = − (n = 1, 2, 3 …)
2
n

Figure 7 shows an energy-level diagram for hydrogen that also illustrates

how the various spectral series
for hydrogen are related to transi-
tions between energy levels.

Electron total energies are nega-

tive, since the electron is bound
to the nucleus, analogous to be-
ing in a hole without enough ki-
netic energy to escape. As n ap-
proaches infinity, the total energy
becomes zero. This corresponds
to a free electron with no kinetic
energy, since rn gets very large
for large n, and the electric po-
tential energy thus becomes
zero. Thus, 13.6 eV is needed to
ionize hydrogen (to go from –13.6
eV to 0, or unbound), an experi-
mentally verified number. Given Figure 7. Energy-level diagram for
more energy, the electron be- hydrogen showing the Lyman,
Balmer, and Paschen series of
comes unbound with some ki- transitions. The orbital energies are
netic energy. For example, giving calculated using the above
equation, first derived by Bohr.
15.0 eV to an electron in the
ground state of hydrogen strips it
from the atom and leaves it with 1.4 eV of kinetic energy.

Finally, let us consider the energy of a photon emitted in a downward

transition, given by the equation to be ∆E = hf = Ei − Ef.

Substituting En = (–13.6 eV/n2), we see that

1 1
hf = (13.6 eV) ( − )
2 2
n n
f i

Dividing both sides of this equation by hc gives an expression for

 1

hf f 1 (13.6 eV) 1 1
= = = ( − )
2 2
hc c λ hc n n
f i

It can be shown that

−19
13.6 eV (13.6 eV) (1.602 × 10  J/eV)
7
( ) = = 1.097 × 10  m
−34 8
hc (6.626 × 10  J  ⋅  s) (2.998 × 10  m/s)

is the Rydberg constant. Thus, we have used Bohr’s assumptions to de-

rive the formula first proposed by Balmer years earlier as a recipe to fit
experimental data.

1 1 1
= R( − )
2 2
λ n n
f i

We see that Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom answers the question as
to why this previously known formula describes the hydrogen spectrum.
It is because the energy levels are proportional to
1

n2

, where n is a non-negative integer. A downward transition releases en-

ergy, and so ni must be greater than nf. The various series are those
where the transitions end on a certain level. For the Lyman series, nf = 1
—that is, all the transitions end in the ground state (see also Figure 7).
For the Balmer series, nf = 2, or all the transitions end in the first excited
state; and so on. What was once a recipe is now based in physics, and
something new is emerging—angular momentum is quantized.

Triumphs and Limits of the Bohr Theory

Bohr did what no one had been able to do before. Not only did he ex-
plain the spectrum of hydrogen, he correctly calculated the size of the
atom from basic physics. Some of his ideas are broadly applicable.
Electron orbital energies are quantized in all atoms and molecules.
Angular momentum is quantized. The electrons do not spiral into the nu-
cleus, as expected classically (accelerated charges radiate, so that the
electron orbits classically would decay quickly, and the electrons would
sit on the nucleus—matter would collapse). These are major triumphs.

But there are limits to Bohr’s theory. It cannot be applied to multielectron

atoms, even one as simple as a two-electron helium atom. Bohr’s model
is what we call semiclassical. The orbits are quantized (nonclassical) but
are assumed to be simple circular paths (classical). As quantum mechan-
ics was developed, it became clear that there are no well-defined orbits;
rather, there are clouds of probability. Bohr’s theory also did not explain
that some spectral lines are doublets (split into two) when examined
closely. We shall examine many of these aspects of quantum mechanics
in more detail, but it should be kept in mind that Bohr did not fail. Rather,
he made very important steps along the path to greater knowledge and
laid the foundation for all of atomic physics that has since evolved.

PhET Explorations: Models of the Hydrogen Atom

How did scientists figure out the structure of atoms without looking at
them? Try out different models by shooting light at the atom. Check
how the prediction of the model matches the experimental results.

Click to  download the simulation. Run using

Java.
Section Summary

The planetary model of the atom pictures electrons orbiting the nu-
cleus in the way that planets orbit the sun. Bohr used the planetary
model to develop the first reasonable theory of hydrogen, the sim-
plest atom. Atomic and molecular spectra are quantized, with hy-
drogen spectrum wavelengths given by the formula

1 1 1
= R( 2
− 2
)
λ n n
f i

where λ is the wavelength of the emitted EM radiation and R is the
Rydberg constant, which has the value R = 1.097 × 107 m−1.

The constants ni and nf are positive integers, and ni must be

greater than nf.

Bohr correctly proposed that the energy and radii of the orbits of
electrons in atoms are quantized, with energy for transitions be-
tween orbits given by ∆E = hf = Ei − Ef, where ∆E is the change in
energy between the initial and final orbits and hf is the energy of
an absorbed or emitted photon. It is useful to plot orbital energies
on a vertical graph called an energy-level diagram.

Bohr proposed that the allowed orbits are circular and must have
quantized orbital angular momentum given by 
h
L = me vrn = n (n = 1, 2, 3 …)
2π

, where L is the angular momentum, rn is the radius of the nth orbit,
and h is Planck’s constant. For all one-electron (hydrogen-like)
atoms, the radius of an orbit is given by 
2
n
rn = aB (allowed orbits n = 1, 2, 3, …)
Z

, Z is the atomic number of an element (the number of electrons is

has when neutral) and aB is defined to be the Bohr radius, which is 
2
h −10
aB = = 0.529 × 10  m
2 2
4π me kqe

.
Furthermore, the energies of hydrogen-like atoms are given by 
2
Z
En = − E0 (n = 1, 2, 3 …)
n2

, where E0 is the ground-state energy and is given by 

2 4 2
2π qe me k
E0 = 2
= 13.6 eV
h

Thus, for hydrogen, 

13.6 eV
En = − 2
(n, =, 1, 2, 3 …)
n

The Bohr Theory gives accurate values for the energy levels in hy-
drogen-like atoms, but it has been improved upon in several
respects.

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS

1. How do the allowed orbits for electrons in atoms differ

from the allowed orbits for planets around the sun?
Explain how the correspondence principle applies here.

2. Explain how Bohr’s rule for the quantization of electron

orbital angular momentum differs from the actual rule.

3. What is a hydrogen-like atom, and how are the energies

and radii of its electron orbits related to those in
hydrogen?

PROBLEMS & EXERCISES

1. By calculating its wavelength, show that the first line in

the Lyman series is UV radiation.

2. Find the wavelength of the third line in the Lyman se-

ries, and identify the type of EM radiation.
 3. Look up the values of the quantities in
2
h
aB =
2 2
4π me kqe

, and verify that the Bohr radius aB is 0.529 × 10−10 m.

4. Verify that the ground state energy E0 is 13.6 eV by us-

ing
2 4 2
2π qe me k
E0 = 2
h

5. If a hydrogen atom has its electron in the n = 4 state,

how much energy in eV is needed to ionize it?

6. A hydrogen atom in an excited state can be ionized with

less energy than when it is in its ground state. What is
n for a hydrogen atom if 0.850 eV of energy can ionize
it?

7. Find the radius of a hydrogen atom in the n = 2 state ac-

cording to Bohr’s theory.

8. Show that
(13.6eV) 7
= 1.097 × 10  m = R
hc

(Rydberg’s constant), as discussed in the text.

9. What is the smallest-wavelength line in the Balmer se-

ries? Is it in the visible part of the spectrum?

10. Show that the entire Paschen series is in the infrared

part of the spectrum. To do this, you only need to calcu-
late the shortest wavelength in the series.

11. Do the Balmer and Lyman series overlap? To answer

this, calculate the shortest-wavelength Balmer line and
the longest-wavelength Lyman line.

12. (a) Which line in the Balmer series is the first one in the
UV part of the spectrum? (b) How many Balmer series
lines are in the visible part of the spectrum? (c) How
many are in the UV?

13. A wavelength of 4.653 µm is observed in a hydrogen

spectrum for a transition that ends in the nf = 5 level.
What was ni for the initial level of the electron?
14. A singly ionized helium ion has only one electron and is
denoted He+. What is the ion’s radius in the ground
state compared to the Bohr radius of hydrogen atom?

15. A beryllium ion with a single electron (denoted Be3+) is

in an excited state with radius the same as that of the
ground state of hydrogen. (a) What is n for the Be3+
ion? (b) How much energy in eV is needed to ionize the
ion from this excited state?

16. Atoms can be ionized by thermal collisions, such as at

the high temperatures found in the solar corona. One
such ion is C+5, a carbon atom with only a single
electron. (a) By what factor are the energies of its hydro-
gen-like levels greater than those of hydrogen? (b) What
is the wavelength of the first line in this ion’s Paschen
series? (c) What type of EM radiation is this?

17. Verify Equations

2
n
rn = aB
Z

and 
2
h −10
aB = = 0.529 × 10  m
2 2
4π me kqe

using the approach stated in the text. That is, equate

the Coulomb and centripetal forces and then insert an
expression for velocity from the condition for angular
momentum quantization.

18. The wavelength of the four Balmer series lines for hy-
drogen are found to be 410.3, 434.2, 486.3, and 656.5
nm. What average percentage difference is found be-
tween these wavelength numbers and those predicted
by
1 1 1
= R( − )
λ 2 2
n ni
f

? It is amazing how well a simple formula (disconnected

originally from theory) could duplicate this
phenomenon.
Glossary

hydrogen spectrum wavelengths: the wavelengths of visible light from

hydrogen; can be calculated by

1 1 1
= R( − )
λ 2 2
n n
f i

Rydberg constant: a physical constant related to the atomic spectra with

an established value of 1.097 × 107 m−1

double-slit interference: an experiment in which waves or particles from

a single source impinge upon two slits so that the resulting interference
pattern may be observed

energy-level diagram: a diagram used to analyze the energy level of

electrons in the orbits of an atom

Bohr radius: the mean radius of the orbit of an electron around the nu-
cleus of a hydrogen atom in its ground state

hydrogen-like atom: any atom with only a single electron

energies of hydrogen-like atoms: Bohr formula for energies of electron

states in hydrogen-like atoms:
2
Z
En = − 2
E0 (n = 1, 2, 3, …)
n

SELECTED SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS & EXERCISES

1.
2
1 1 1 1 (ni ⋅ nf )
= R( − ) ⇒ λ = [ ] ; ni = 2, nf = 1
2 2 2 2
λ n n R n − n
f i i f

, so that
 2
m (2 × 1)
−7
λ = ( )[ ] = 1.22 × 10 m = 122 nm
7 2 2
1.097 × 10 2 − 1

, which is UV radiation.

3. 
2
h
aB =
2 2
4π me kZqe

−34 2
(6.626×10 J ⋅ s)
  =
2 2
2 −31 9 −19
4π (9.109×10 kg)(8.988×10 N⋅m2 /C )(1)(1.602×10 C)

−10
  = 0.529 × 10 m

5. 0.850 eV

7. 2.12 × 10−10 m

9. 365 nm; it is in the ultraviolet.

11. No overlap; 365 nm; 122 nm

13. 7

15. (a) 2; (b) 54.4 eV

17. 
2 2
kZqe me V
=
2
rn rn

, so that
2 2
kZqe kZqe 1
rn = =
2 2
me V me V

. From the equation

h
me vrn = n
2π

, we can substitute for the velocity, giving:

2 2 2 2
kZqe 4π me rn
rn = ⋅
2
me 2
n h

so that
2 2 2
n h n
rn = = aB
2 2
Z 4π me kq Z
e

where
 2
h
aB =
2 2
4π me kq
e

.
Previous Next