Econtent Module Epsc 223 PDF

ECONTENT MODULE EPSC 223 TO PDF
EGERTON UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING
EPSC 223: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
By
Ezra Maritim
ezra.maritim@egerton.ac.ke
+254 720 482 588
OCTOBER, 2019
Page 1 of 169
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................... i
COURSE PRELIMINARIES ............................................................................................................vi
Is this course for you? ..............................................................................................................vi

Introduction to the course ......................................................................................................vi
Course Content .......................................................................................................................... vii
Course Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................... vii
Course Study Skills .................................................................................................................. viii
Need Help? ................................................................................................................................... ix
Assignments/Activities ............................................................................................................. ix
Course Learning Requirements ..............................................................................................x
Self-assessment...........................................................................................................................x
TOPIC ONE: THE DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING ...................................... 11
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 11
Topic Time .................................................................................................................................. 11
Topic Learning Requirements .............................................................................................. 11
Topic Content ............................................................................................................................. 12
1.1 The Domains of Psychology of Learning .............................................................. 12
1.2 The Concept of Learning ............................................................................................ 13
1.3 Types of Learning ............................................................................................................. 16
1.4 The Concept of Behaviour ......................................................................................... 22
1.5 Theories of Learning ........................................................................................................ 23
Topic Summary ......................................................................................................................... 25
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................... 25
Further Reading ........................................................................................................................ 25
Topic Activities .......................................................................................................................... 26
Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 26
Assignment ................................................................................................................................. 27
TOPIC TWO: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING LEARNING THEORY ................................... 27
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 28
Topic Time .................................................................................................................................. 28
i
Topic Learning Outcomes ...................................................................................................... 28
2.1Basic Concept of Classical Conditioning Theory ..................................................... 29
2.2 Principles of Classical Conditioning Theory ............................................................. 32
2.3 Applications of Classical Conditioning Learning Principles ................................ 34
Topic Summary ......................................................................................................................... 38
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Further Reading ........................................................................................................................ 38
TIP ................................................................................................................................................. 39
Assignment ................................................................................................................................. 40
TOPIC THREE: OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY ......................................................... 40
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 41
Topic Time .................................................................................................................................. 41
3.1 Basic Concept of Operant Conditioning Theory ..................................................... 42
3.2 Principles of Operant Conditioning Theory .............................................................. 45
3.3 Applications of Operant Conditioning Learning Principles ................................. 49
Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 57
Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 57
TOPIC FOUR: THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING ........................................................... 58
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 58
Topic Time .................................................................................................................................. 58
4.1 Basic Concept of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning .................................................... 59
4.2 Principles of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning ............................................................. 66
4.3 Applications of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning Principles .................................... 66
Topic Summary ......................................................................................................................... 72
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................... 72
ii
Further Reading ........................................................................................................................ 72
Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 73
Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 73
TOPIC FIVE: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY ........................................................................... 74
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 74
Topic Time .................................................................................................................................. 74
5.1 Basic Concepts of Social Learning Theory ........................................................... 75
5.2 Principles of Social Learning Theory .......................................................................... 78
5.3 Applications of Social Learning Principles………………………. ................................ 79
Topic Summary ......................................................................................................................... 81
Glossary ....................................................................................................................................... 81
Further Reading ........................................................................................................................ 82
Tip .................................................................................................................................................. 83
Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 84
TOPIC SIX: FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING ................................................................... 85
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 85
Topic Time .................................................................................................................................. 85
6.1 Biological Foundation ...................................................................................................... 86
6.2 Psychological Foundation ............................................................................................... 99
6.3 Environment Foundation .............................................................................................. 113
Topic Summary ....................................................................................................................... 119
Further Reading ...................................................................................................................... 119
Topic Activities ........................................................................................................................ 120
Tip ................................................................................................................................................. 121
Assessment .............................................................................................................................. 121
TOPIC SEVEN: INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEMORY ...................................... 121
iii
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 122
Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 122
Topic Learning Requirements ............................................................................................ 122
Topic Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................... 122
7.1 Information Processing Model .................................................................................... 122
7.2 Theories of Forgetting and Loss of Memory ......................................................... 125
7.3 Improving Memory......................................................................................................... 130
Topic Summary ....................................................................................................................... 132
Further Reading ...................................................................................................................... 132
Tip ................................................................................................................................................ 133
Assessment .............................................................................................................................. 133
TOPIC EIGHT: TRANSFER OF LEARNING ........................................................................... 135
Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 135

8.1 Principles of Transfer of Learning ............................................................................. 136
8.2 Theories of Transfer of Learning ............................................................................... 140
8.3 Application of Transfer of Learning Principles..................................................... 144
Topic Summary ....................................................................................................................... 145
Further Reading ...................................................................................................................... 145
Tip ................................................................................................................................................ 147
Assessment .............................................................................................................................. 147
TOPIC NINE: CONCEPT LEARNING ...................................................................................... 148
Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 148

9.1 First Language Acquisition .......................................................................................... 149
9.2 Definition of a Concept ................................................................................................. 150
9.3. Mode of Learning Concepts ....................................................................................... 152
9.5 Instructional Strategies in Concept Learning ....................................................... 153
iv
9.6 Educational Applications .............................................................................................. 154
Topic Summary ....................................................................................................................... 154
Further Reading ...................................................................................................................... 155
Tip ................................................................................................................................................ 156
Assessment .............................................................................................................................. 156
TOPIC TEN: PROBLEM-SOLVING .......................................................................................... 157
Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 157

10.1 Problem and Problem-Solving ................................................................................. 158
10.2 Problem-Solving Strategies ...................................................................................... 162
Tip ................................................................................................................................................ 167
Assessment .............................................................................................................................. 167
v
COURSE PRELIMINARIES
EPSC 223: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
Is this course for you?
Welcome to psychology of learning course. As a student taking

undergraduate degree programme in education this course will of benefit
to you. However, while the course is primarily designed in approach and
the examples provided are for prospective and practising teachers and
school psychologists, the behavioural principles drawn from the learning
theories and research in educational psychology covered in the course are
also useful to other practitioners who deal with human behaviours and
challenges in such fields as nursing.
Though there are no pre-requisites for the course, it is assumed that you
have taken such courses as human development, introduction to
psychology and developmental psychology. You are expected to complete
the course in 50 hours within a period of one semester/session.
Introduction to the course
Welcome to psychology of learning course. This course on the psychology

of learning is concerned with application of principles of behavioural
learning theories and psychological research to all aspects of educational
practice, teaching and learning and the management of the learning
environment, and human behaviour in general. In this context, the
primary areas that psychology of learning focuses broadly on are: the
learner, how the learner learns, why the learner learns and conditions
under which the learner learns.
vi
Course Content
There are ten topics to be covered in this course, namely:
Topic 1: Domains of psychology of learning

Topic 2: Classical conditioning theory
Topic 3: Operant conditioning theory
Topic 4: Thorndike’s laws of learning
Topic 5: Social learning theory
Topic 6: Factors affecting learning
Topic 7: Information processing and memory
Topic 8: Transfer of learning
Topic 9: Concept learning
Topic 10: Problem-solving
Course Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course you should be able to:

 Discuss domains of psychology of learning, the concept of “learning”
and “behaviour”.
 Discuss the implications of classical conditioning principles for
learning environment
 Discuss the implications of operant conditioning principles for
learning environment
 Discuss the implications of Thorndike’s law of learning for learning
environment
 Discuss the implications of social learning principles for learning
environment
 Discuss the factors that affect learning
 Describe the principles of transfer of learning and their implications
for learning environment
 Explain the concept of information processing and memory.
vii
 Describe learning of concepts.
 Explain problem solving.
Course Study Skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from

your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have
professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most
likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic
responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now-before starting your self-study--

to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent
resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
http://www.how-to-study.com/
The "How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You
will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good
study skills), taking notes, strategies for reading text books, using
reference sources, test anxiety.
viii
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You
will find links to time scheduling (including a "where does time go?” link),
a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques, control of the study
environment, note taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills
("remembering”).
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another "How to study” web site with useful links to time management,
efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most
out of doing ("hands-on” learning), memory building, tips for staying
motivated, developing a learning plan.
Need Help?
The instructor for this course is Ezra Maritim. My office is in the

Department of Psychology, Counselling and Guidance and Educational
Foundations, Faculty of Education and Community Studies. I can be
consulted during the normal working hours or contacted through: Phone
+254 720 482 588; Email: ezra.maritim@egerton.ac.ke. or
ekmaritim@yahoo.com, Office: Njoro Campus, Education Building, 2nd
Floor Room 15.
For technical support e.g. lost passwords, broken links etc. please contact
tech-support via e-mail elearning@egerton.ac.ke. You can also reach
learner support through elearnersupport@egerton.ac.ke.
Assignments/Activities
Assignments/activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some

assignments/activities will be submitted to me while others will be for
your self-assessment. Ensure you carefully check which assignment
requires submission or not.
ix
Course Learning Requirements
 Timely submission of the assignments

 2 CATs (30%) – CAT 1 marks are derived from assignments.
 Final Examination (70% of total score)
Self-assessment
Self-assessments are provided in order to aid your understanding of the
topic and course content. While they may not be graded, you are strongly
advised to attempt them whenever they are available in a topic.
****************************************************
x
TOPIC ONE: THE DOMAINS OF PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
Introduction
Welcome to this first topic of the course. This topic is aimed at introducing
you to areas of psychology of learning that are important to a teacher or
any practitioner who handles human behaviours. In your other courses in
psychology you came across the influence of nature and nurture on
human behaviour. This course picks up some learning aspects from this
perspective that are relevant to teaching and learning.
Topic Time
 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice

exercises [3 hours]
 Optional further reading [2 hours]
 Total student input [5 hours]
Topic Learning Requirements
 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

 At least two elaborate contributions to the discussion topic. You
may also start your own discussion thread.
Topic Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Define the concept “learning” and “behaviour”.

 Distinguish between different types of learning.
 Discuss the importance of learning to educators and practitioners in
human behaviours
11
Topic Content
1.1 The Domains of Psychology of Learning

Let us look at the specific components of psychology of learning that are
core to a teacher: the learner; how the learner learns; why the learner
learns; and conditions under which the learner learns. All these reflect the
interaction of nature and nurture.
1. The learner: The teacher or any the person who handles a child
needs to pay attention to internal and external factors involved in
learning process. The nature and characteristics of the learner
including growth and development .e.g. individual differences in
ability to learn, past experience, mental health, emotions; readiness
to learn, critical period; maturation, appropriateness of study
materials are critical to understanding a learner.
2. How the learner learns: This refers to the learning process. The
considerations that need to be taken into account are the child’s
developmental stage and the learning styles. Some learners learn
more through visual or auditory presentation or play; some are
impulsive and others are reflective.
3. Why the learner learns: There are a number of issues that explain
in part why children learn. These include being taught; motivation
and interest; and maturation-being in a biological stage of readiness
to perform an activity. A teacher needs to capture and harness
these. Hence the theories of learning help teachers to choose the
appropriate method of teaching- how and why?
4. Conditions under which the learner learns: These are teaching and
learning situations. These include the manner in which the learning
process may be facilitated by the teacher.
12
1.2 The Concept of Learning
Moments of Learning
On the surface learning appears to be a simple concept. One question
that is frequently asked particularly in relation to workplace is when do
we learn. The Five Moments of Learning Needs that have been identified
in a workplace point out that we learn:
 When we encounter for the first time a new situation, object or
event (when something is new to us).
 When we need to expand what we have already learned (that is,
when we want to , learn more)
 When trying to remember or act upon what has been learnt (when
we want to apply what we have learnt to a new situation).
 When something goes wrong or when we encounter problems
(problem solving).
 When things change i.e. when things do not go according to your
plan, then you need to learn. This takes place when learners must
make changes in the way they currently carry out a task or update
an already learnt concept.
For details of the moments of learning needs visit:
http://www.learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/949//
Definition of Learning
As you interact with the materials in the field of psychology of learning,
one concept that you will frequently encounter is “learning”. While this is
the core concept of this course, the two major challenges with this
concept are: first it is a construct and second there is no one definition
that psychologists have agreed on.
First, it is difficult to define learning because it is a construct and hence

cannot be observed directly. From you earlier courses, in psychology and
research methods you learnt that constructs are those ideas or things we
13
cannot directly observe but we make inferences to account for them. For
example,
 Witches. Most African communities believe in the existence of
witches. We cannot observe witches. However, what we do observe
are people are said to be sick due witchcraft.
 Society. Society is also a construct because of its lack of texture
nobody has ever seen or felt or touched a society. However, we
make inference about the existence of a society.
Second, there are various definitions of learning. Though learning falls in

the category of witches and society as constructs and hence can only be
inferred from observable change in an individual’s behaviour, most
psychologists agree that learning is a relatively persistent or permanent
change in an individual’s possible behaviour due to experience or practice
(Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2014).
This learning definition draws your attention to three things:

 First, that learning must change an individual in some way;
 Second, that this change comes about as a result of experience or
practice;
 Third, that it is a change in one’s possible behaviour.
The first point is that when you learn a skill, you become a different
person from when you were without.
The second point of emphasis stresses that the change must come about
as a result of experiences or practice.
The third point stresses that when change in behaviour takes place it is a
change in potential rather than in actual performance.
Examples of situations which show that an individual demonstrates
change of behaviour after learning are given below.
14
Before Learning Observable Behavioural Change
after Learning
 Not able to speak French  Able to speak and write French
 Not able to type  Able to type
 Not able to copy a diagram  Able to copy a diagram
 Not able to dance or swim  Able to dance or swim
 Fear of strangers  Comfortable with strangers
You noted from the definition of learning that these changes in behaviour
must be relatively permanent for an indication that learning has taken
place.
Critical Period in Language Learning

The case of Genie
What makes human different from other animals is the ability to learn
language. A child starts learning language at the age of about 14 months.
But why is it difficult for adults to learn a second language (to be
bilingual) or to be multilingual? In explaining the difficulty of adults in
learning another language, psychologists have come up with the concept
of a critical period. This is a period when there is learning readiness;
beyond this period learning language is difficult or impossible (Papalia,
Olds, & Feldman, 2008; Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2014). This lasts up to
around the age of 12 years. This period is set by biology.
If a child has no opportunity to learn and practice a language he/she

cannot acquire a language-even with pre-programmed Language
Acquisition Device (LAD). While human beings are naturally programmed
to acquire language, if the environment for language acquisition is not
provided to a child as in the case of Genie, the child cannot acquire
language despite having a natural Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
Language cannot automatically develop. It requires an environment to
15
facilitate its development. In this situation both LAD and environment
must interact for the child to acquire language.
Hence,
Language learning= function (LAD + E)
Genie case is a good example that shows that the ability to acquire
language is subject to critical period. This case is accessible at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genei_(feral_child)
Maturation
One other important concept in learning is maturation. By definition,
maturation is a biological/physical readiness to perform an activity
(Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2008; Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2014).
Normally, children acquire language (one-word utterance) from the age of
12 to 24 months. In the case of Genie, though she was biologically ready
at one stage to acquire language, this did not happen because her
language acquisition device was depressed by her growing environment.
1.3 Types of Learning

From you readings you will find that there are many types of learning.
We will focus in this course on the following types of learning:
 Habituation learning
 Classical learning
 Operant learning
 Observational learning
 Motor learning
 Associative learning
 Experiential learning
Habituation Learning
This is the simplest form of learning. This learning occurs when a reflex
response temporarily disappears as a result of being elicited repeatedly by
the same stimulus. Papalia, et al.(2006), described habituation as “a
16
type of learning in which repeated or continuous exposure to a stimulus
reduces, slows or stops a response to that stimulus (p.193).For example:
 If we clap our hands loudly near an infant, the infant will display a
full-body surprise or frighten response. If we continue to clap our
hands at frequent intervals (say, every 15 seconds) the size of the
frighten response will decrease steadily until it may be difficult to
detect it at all.
 Infants learn to sleep through routine household noises if given the
opportunity. If given enough exposure, babies habituate very
quickly to slamming doors, ringing telephones, and other such
sounds that might otherwise continually wake them.
 Anyone who lives next to railway tracks learns to sleep throughout
the night when the trains are passing by.
Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/habituation
Classical Learning
This is a learning associated with Pavlov classical conditioning. First, this
form of learning begins with any reflex, which is described as an
17
unconditional stimulus (UCS) that elicits an unconditioned response
(UCR). The second stage of this learning occurs when a neutral stimulus
is paired with the UCS and as a result this neutral stimulus acquires the
ability to elicit the UCR.
Operant Learning
This is a learning that is controlled by consequences such as being given a
reward. This type of learning was initially referred to by Skinner as
instrumental learning.
Operant learning is seen more among children who want to do something

or display desirable behaviours in order to get a reward or avoid painful
situations from the parents or teachers. Examples of operant learning
include:
 Where a learner puts up his/her hand in class because he knows
he/she will be praised by the teacher.
 Where the child completes her homework because such behaviour
leads to her receipt of reward from her father.
There are situations when we may want to change the operant behaviour
of children. The two mechanisms or tools that are used to bring about
operant behaviours of learners in a learning environment are:
reinforcement and punishment.
Observational Learning
Most of our behaviours are acquired through observation. Observational
learning is a learning that occurs through observing/watching the
behaviour of other people or models. The influential figures that children
take as their models are: TV characters; friends/peers; teachers; and
parents. Whatever these models do the children engage in role plays –
e.g. girls acting like a mothers and boys acting as fathers?
18
Motor Learning
Motor learning is a learning that involves acquisition of movement skills
as a result of practice leading to a permanent change in the capacity for
skilled actions. As applied to patients, motor learning is the re-acquisition
of previously learned actions and skills. Through our developmental
process and maturation, we learn three types of motor skills, namely:
gross-motor skills; fine motor skills and graph motor skills.
i. Gross Motor Skills
This is motor learning that involves the use of the whole body movement.
These involve the learning of the following skills: dancing; walking;
running; jumping; hopping; leaping; skipping; dodging; twisting;
throwing; catching and kicking.
ii. Fine Motor Skills
This is motor learning that involves use of smaller parts of the body such
as fingers to hold spoon, chop sticks or pick objects; use of the lips and
tongue. For one to learn to speak for example Xhosa, the click language
of South African bush tribe, one has to learn to use the lips and the
tongue. Besides maturation, graph motor skills are also dependent upon
instruction and practice.
iii. Graph Motor Skills
Handwriting falls under graph-motor skills. Graph motor skills are

handwriting skills. The development of handwriting process occurs in early
childhood. There is developmental sequence of graph motor skills and as
children develop, the scribbling and picture drawing evolve into
handwriting. Graph motor skills involve highly specialized coordination
between eye-hand-finger movements used for writing. They include how
to effectively hold writing tools such as a pencil/pen. When a child is able
19
to hold a pencil correctly and write letters of alphabet and numbers with
precision we say he/she has mastered graph motor skills.
How to hold a pencil correctly
Developmentally, the graph-motor skill development emerges as follows:
20
Associative Learning
Both classical and operant conditioning theories are referred to as
associative learning theories. They are associative in the sense that a
stimulus is always associated to a response. They are also referred to as
S-R theories (Stimulus-Response theories). In Pavlov’s experiment, the
dog associated the ringing of the bell with food delivery. In B. F. Skinner’s
experiment, a reward or a consequence is used until the organism learned
a particular behaviour. A dog trainer uses a biscuit if the dog under
training shows a desired behaviour and hence the dog associates the
giving of a biscuit to a response acceptable to a trainer.
Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/learningtheory%28education%29
Experiential Learning
This is learning that we acquire through our experiences. Adult learning
learn more through experiential learning. This comes from concrete
experience, reflective observation e.g. learning from mistakes, and active
experimentation.
21
1.4 The Concept of Behaviour
Like “learning”, human “behaviour” is a complex concept. Again,
psychologists do not have one meaning for behaviour. However, it is
generally agreed that our behaviours are influenced by both nature
(genetic) and nurture (environment) and the interaction between nature
and nurture. In this context, behaviour is diagrammatically seen as:
Behaviour= function (P + E + Interaction of P and E)
Where,
P=Person
E= Environment
One definition that we want to use in this course is where psychologists
define behaviour as an action which can be seen and observed in an
objective way such as fainting, salivating, vomiting (Plotnik &
Kouyoumdjian, 2014). This is a positivism paradigm approach. This
definition of behaviour has been drawn from behaviourism school of
psychology.
Nature component
We can say that the aggression and sociability behaviours that we
demonstrate are part of our 98% evolutionary traits that we share with
animals.
Nurture Component
Across the world, children are brought up in many diverse ways and they
will gradually learn the behaviour that is considered appropriate to the
environments they have grown up. For them to survive in a hostile
environment they have to learn to be aggressive.
Categories of Behaviours
Having considered the nature and nurture components of behaviour, we
can now put behaviour in two categories.
22
Reflex behaviour
This is an inborn behaviour elicited by a stimulus.
 When you step on a hot object or fire, your foot automatically
withdraws.
 The baby of an antelope runs immediately after birth.
 Salivation is an innate reflex
Operant behaviour
This is the behaviour that is produced by effects or consequences. It is a
response to the environment. The learner discharges responses to the
environment, and those responses, if reinforced, tend to be repeated.
1.5 Theories of Learning
Any discipline has its own theories. In psychology, we define a theory as a

broad set of statements describing the relationship between behaviour
and factors assumed to influence it. This can also be seen as describing a
functional relationship between variables.
How do you explain aggression (behaviour) in children or adults? In

explaining theoretical background of aggression, you might say:
 Because we have been socialized to be aggressive (socialization/
rewards theory).
 While growing we saw a lot of aggressive incidences in our
environment (observation theory)
 Because we are part of the animal kingdom and hence for protective
functions we are aggressive (ethological/evolutionary theory-). We
share 98% gene characteristics with chimps.
 Because we have a lot of energy that we need to spend
(Psychoanalytic theory-displacement or way of releasing excess
energy).
23
Many factors are involved in the dynamics of learning. This leads us to
ask the question: Why are there many theories that explain human
behaviour? This is because human behaviour is complex and therefore
many theories have therefore evolved to try to explain this complexity of
human behaviour. Learning theories are classified or grouped into three
basic categories shown in Figure 1.1 below.
Figure 1.1 Learning Theories

In this course we will focus on four behaviourism theories, namely:
 Classical Conditioning theory – Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936).
 Operant Conditioning theory – B. F. Skinner (1904 –1990).
 Thorndike’s Laws of Learning – Edward Thorndike (1874 –1949).
 Social Learning theory – Albert Bandura (1925- Present).
24
Topic Summary
In this topic you were introduced to key areas that the psychology of
learning addresses and their importance to prospective or practising
teachers and trainers and the major theories of learning. We discussed
the complexities of the definitions of learning and behaviour and provided
the working definitions for these two concepts. Though the literature
provides many types of learning we only discussed seven types of
learning that are closely related to the areas covered by both the
psychology of learning and the theories of learning that will be addressed
in the course.
Glossary
 Critical Period: A period when there is learning readiness and
beyond this period learning is difficult or impossible.
 Response: This is a reaction to a stimulus: e.g. salivation; eye
contraction (due too much light), removal of hand from a hot plate.
 Stimulus: A stimulus is energy or situation that produces a response
in an organism. For example: food, light; hot plate.
Further Reading
McLead, S. A. (2018). Nature vs. nurture in psychology.

www.simplypsychology.org/naturevsnurture.html
Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development. Boston: Pearson.
Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning. New York: Sloan.
Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2006). Adult development and

aging. Belmont: Wadsworth.
Felder, R. M., & Solomon, B. A. (2005). Learning styles and strategies.

http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/iLsdir/styles.htm
Papalia, D. E., & Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. D. (2008). A child world:
Infancy through adolescence. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
25
Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2014). Introduction to psychology.
Belmont: Wadsworth.
Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology. Boston: Pearson.
Topic Activities
1. Under what circumstances can we fail to learn a language? Think about
this question for a moment and read the case of Genie and report three
findings: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genie_(feral_child)
a)
b)
c)
1 Read the following case study:
Suppose you have been teaching as a primary school teacher for the past
20 years in an urban school that caters for children from middle class
families. Early in the year, you were transferred to a school located in a
slum area. In your new school, children normally come late and they are
doing poorly in class. While in class children are restless, fidgeting and
looking out through the windows. Having noticed this behaviour, what
should you do about your new learners? What do you need to know about
your learners? Write your answer in the space provided below.
a)
b)
Tip
Make sure you revisit nature-nurture debate in psychology of learning.
26
Assignment
a. Assignment 1 and 2 is for your self-response. These are to help you
assess your understanding of the coverage of the topic.
b. Assignment 3 and 4 is to be submitted online in not more than 150
words each to your e-tutor for marking.
1. Explain the importance of psychology of learning to a
teacher/trainer.
2. From what you have learned from this topic, write down, without
referring to the module notes on the influences of learners’
behaviours on learning.
3. What is meant by nature? What is meant by nurture? Which is
more important in human behaviour? Why?
4. Explain using your own example the three components of the
definition of learning.
****************************************************
27
TOPIC TWO: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING LEARNING THEORY
Introduction
Welcome to topic two of our course on psychology of learning. Many
factors are involved in the dynamics of learning. This leads to the
question: Why are there different theories that explain human behaviour?
As we saw in topic one, this is because human behaviour is complex.
Certain theories of learning have therefore evolved to try to explain
human behaviour. In this topic, you will be exposed to the role of classical
conditioning learning theory in understanding the processes involved in
human learning and in aiding effective teaching and the creation of
conducive learning environments. This theory is associated with Ivan
Pavlov (1849-1936),the Russian physiologist.
Topic Time

exercises [3 hours]

 Describe classical conditioning theory.

 Describe the principles of classical conditioning theory.
28
 Discuss the implications of classical conditioning learning principles
to learning environment.
Topic Content
2.1 Basic Concept of Classical Conditioning Theory

If you have a family dog, you may have noticed that whenever you arrive
home the dog barks. Why do you think it packs?
 Possibly the dog is welcoming you home.
 Possibly the dog thinks you are bringing food.
These possibilities led to the theory of classical conditioning. This theory

belongs to behaviourism school of psychology. This school is based on
positivism paradigm of learning and research which advocates that all
behaviours are learnt and must objectively be observable. In this context,
behaviourism school focuses on behaviour that can be observed. This
position is in line with the way we defined behaviour in Topic One.
Invariably, according to behaviourism school, learning is a process that
involves acquisition of behaviour from the environment. In this context, in
early 1900s Pavlov noticed that dogs in his physiological laboratory began
to salivate as soon as they saw food or heard the footsteps of the
caretakers. As a behaviourist, Pavlov manipulated the dog’s environment
in order to observe a behaviour that a dog could elicit. He manipulated
the dog’s environment by introducing the ringing of a bell before
presenting food to the dog and observing the reaction of the dog. The
variables which were manipulated in this laboratory experiment were:
 Unconditioned stimulus (US): The food
 Unconditioned reaction (UR): The dog’s natural salivation to food
 Neutral stimulus (NS): The bell
 Conditioned stimulus (CS): The bell with the food (pairing)
 Conditioned reaction (CR):The dog salvation
Conceptually, conditioning refers to training. Pictorially, the effect of the
manipulation of these variables in the order given above is shown below.
29
In this pictorial representation:
i. Food is referred to as unconditioned stimulus (US). It is called
unconditional stimulus because it involves no learning or training.
ii. Salivation which occurs in response to food is called the
unconditional response (UR). It is called unconditional response
because they dogs do not learn to respond to food by salivating.
Salivation is natural or instinctive behaviour for the dog.
iii. Conditioned Stimulus (CS). This is a stimulus the dog is
conditioned or trained to response (e.g. ringing the bell).
iv. Conditioned response (CR). Salivation that occurred in response
to the sound of the bell is called conditioned response. This is an
acquired behaviour.
In step 1, when the dog saw food it salivated. In this context salivation is
natural, inborn and hence involuntary response. In step 2, when bell was
rang, the dog did not salivate. That is it did not respond. In step 3, the
presentation of food was paired with the ringing of the bell. The dog
learned that when the bell rang, the food was to follow. In step 4, the
30
dog keeper kept ringing the bell and the dog continued to salivate.
However, after several ringing of the bell with no food accompanying it,
the dog stopped salivating. The dog’s salivation became extinct.
If you look carefully to the behaviour of the dog in this experiment, you
can conclude that the dog’s behaviour was for its survival.
Little Albert Experiment

A psychologist by the name of Watson applied the classical conditioning
principles to 11 month old boy by the name of Little Albert. Watson was
interested in finding out if conditioning plays a role in the development of
emotional responses in children. Crying is an emotional response.
The study was designed to show that fear is an unconditioned response

(natural/innate) that can easily be conditioned to a variety of stimuli in
the environment. Albert was observed playing very happily with a tamed
white rat. This was regarded as a pleasurable experience for the baby. At
31
the same time that Albert was playing, a sudden loud noise was made out
of sight, which frightened him and made him cry. After this was repeated
a number of times, Albert began to cry whenever he saw the white rat.
He had become so conditioned that he was found to cry and show fear at
anything that was soft and white. The experiment shows two things,
namely:
i. That human behaviour can be conditioned.
ii. That stimulus generalization took place-S1, S2, S3, S4 R
2.2 Principles of Classical Conditioning Theory
The principles of learning that can be drawn from classical conditioning

theory include:
2.2.1 Association
Pavlov observed that whenever his laboratory dogs saw their keeper
approaching or hear his footsteps, they began to salivate. The dogs
formed association or link between the sight of the keeper and
presentation of food.
2.2.2 Extinction
From the Pavlov’s experiment you noted that conditioning responses were
not necessarily permanent. If CS (bell-ringing) was repeated without US
(food), eventually the dog stopped responding to CS. The association is
broken. This is called extinction-the disappearance of a previously learned
behaviour. Extinction can occur in all types of behaviour conditioning.
2.2.3 Spontaneous recovery

Extinction is not always permanent. After extinction, spontaneous
recovery can occur. Spontaneous recovery is the sudden recurrence of
behaviour after it had shown extinction. That is, the dog can salivate gain
32
after it hears the bell ringing. This is a short-lived and limited occurrence
if the bell ringing continues not producing food.
2.2.4 Stimulus Generalization

Pavlov rang another bell which was completely different from the original
CS. But the dog still showed the same CR. The term “stimulus
generalization” refers to the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to
evoke similar response after the response has been conditioned.
Diagrammatically,
S1
S2 R
S3
S4
S1=White rat; S2=White cat; S3=white goat; S4=White toy FEAR

(R).
2.2.5 Stimulus Discrimination

Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization. The
term “stimulus discrimination” refers to a situation where an organism
responds differently to two stimuli. In one of his experiments Pavlov
showed that the dog learned to differentiate two tones of bells, and
33
responded selectively to tones that most closely resemble the original CS.
Meaning that the dog learned to discriminate the stimulus.
S1 R1
S2 R2
This is where the response is narrowed to one stimulus.
2.2.6 Higher-order conditioning
Pavlov found that even the bell can be associated with another Neutral
Stimulus for instance, a black box. Eventually the dog will salivate on the
sight of a black box which leads to bell and food.
Black box + bell + food Salivation

Black box Salivation
2.3 Applications of Classical Conditioning Learning Principles
The behavioural principles of classical conditioning can be effective in

many diverse learning environments.
2.3.1 Association
A lot of our learning takes place through the principle of association.

Children are known to be good learners. Invariably, classical conditioning
through association is an important means of learning in childhood. The
human behaviours that are learned through association include inter alia:
Child’s crying Behaviour

You may ask the question: why do babies cry? A baby stops crying when
picked up instead of continuing until he/she is actually fed. The fact that
he/she has been conditioned is demonstrated by the fact that he/she may
resume crying if not fed soon after being picked up. He associate picking
with feeding.
Child’s Expectancy Behaviour
34
When a child sees the mother picks up her hand bag he/she associates
the picking with going away. Similarly, when he/she sees her pick up a
stick after showing angry face, he/she associate the action with beating
and either cries or runs away.
Child’s Pleasant Experience

You may also ask the question: why do children not like school? or why
do they like school? If children associate schooling with hostility, cruelty,
punishment they are likely to hate being in school, absent themselves or
drop out of school or tell their parents that they are sick in order to avoid
going to school. On the hand, if they associate schooling with good
teachers’ reception–smiles, greetings and identification by names, they
will like school.
If the teacher’s initial encounter with his/her pupils is characterized on

his/her part by smiles, greetings and identifying pupils by name, the
children will look forward to going to school every day. Subsequently, the
child tells her mother: “I like my teacher”. The mother may ask; why?
The child may reply “because she does not beat us”. Hence, B=F (S, R).
Child’s Phobia Behaviour

 Fear of heights. Children who have had no experience in climbing the
ladder or trees will associate climbing and falling and hurting
themselves.
 Fear of certain subjects. If children associate failing or passing in a
particular subject, this will determine their attitude towards that
particular subject. Similarly, if the environment at school is very
strict, children might associate school with fear.
 Fear of snakes. In their growing environments, children learned to
fear snakes. This a conditioned behaviour associated with snakes
being dangerous.
35
 Fear of a nurse. Situations that are associated with pain are avoided.
Initially, a child may not be afraid of a nurse. However, if a nurse
gives him/her an injection, the child henceforth will develop fear of
anybody in white uniform.
 Fear, love and hatred towards specific school subjects are created
through conditioning. Example: Students may dislike behaviour and
teaching style of the mathematics teacher or the label the teacher has
given to them e.g. calling them Ngombe (cow).The students develop
hatred towards mathematics due to the teacher’s behaviour.
Hunger Situation
Some people feel extremely hungry only on the site of a restaurant or
some other places where food is provided. This is due to the association
of a restaurant with food.
Teaching Alphabets
At kindergarten, learning is based on the principle of association. For
example children are made to associate:
 A is with an apple
 B for Boy
 G for Girl
 C for Cat
Symbolic Signals
A teacher might clap his/her hands and at the same time say to the class,
“tidy-up time”. After a short while the teacher can stop saying the words
and merely clap his/her hands to prompt the children to tidy up. The
children have been conditioned to respond to the claps in a specific way.
Other Educational Implications

Repetition: Some school learning comes through classical conditioning.
Repetition, drill and practice are important learning avenues. It is
36
essential that the child be led to do what he is to learn; examples are
spelling, learning number combinations (e.g. 1 and 8 is 18 and 8 and 1 is
81), chemical symbols and formulas etc.
2.3.2 Discrimination
In a number of instances learning is a matter of discrimination. In a

practical situation, discrimination implies that the learner is able to make
different responses to stimuli that may be objects or events. In a
classroom situation, children face situations that involve manipulation of
objects in order to differentiate their features, characteristics, texture,
shapes and colours. In teaching, teachers use such teaching styles as
repetition; drill and practice as learning avenues for discrimination. It is
essential that the child be led to do what he expected to learn through
such examples as:
 Spelling: discrimination of letters that make up a word. A pre-

school child is able to correctly compose a word through
discrimination. One needs to discriminate between d and g in
order to write and read “dog”.
 Learning number combinations: 1 and 8 is 18; 8 and 1 is 81.
 Dyslexic children have challenges with discrimination of letters and
numbers and hence are unable to read and add numbers. We shall
discuss the case of Kendi Oketch later in this course.
2.3.3 Generalization
Learning in one situation can be generalized to other situations and hence

a similar response is elicited. For example, if a young boy has been
conditioned to fear a stuffed rabbit, he will exhibit fear of objects similar
to the conditioned stimulus such as a white toy rat.
There is a saying in some African communities that if you have been

chased by a black buffalo you are always afraid of black bulls. Similarly in
some sub-cultures men who make false promises to women on marriage
37
are also referred to as “black bulls” and hence women develop fear of
dating them.
2.3.4 Extinction
Through punishment some unwanted behaviours come to extinction.
Topic Summary
This topic focused on one kind of learning called classical conditioning. We

looked at how classical conditioning is established and tested; how
learning takes place during classical conditioning; and the learning
principles drawn from this theory. You learnt that classical conditioning
experiment was intended to show that learning takes place through
association. The association we saw in this experiment involves the
pairing of two stimuli-one that initially elicited a response and one that did
not initially elicit a response called a neutral stimulus.
Glossary
 Stimulus: A stimulus is energy or situation that produces a
response in an organism. For example: food, light; hot plate.
 Response: This is a reaction to a stimulus: e.g. salivation; eye
contraction (due too much light) removal of hand from a hot
plate.
Further Reading

Denyeko, C. A. (2018) Learning psychology. Accessible at

https://oer.avv.org//handle/123456789/499

38
Infancy through adolescence. Boston: McGraw - Hill.

Belmont: Wadsworth.
Topic Activities
1. Read the case of Watson’s experiment on Little Albert and watch

the video given at: https://www.simplypsychology.org/classica-
conditioning.html
a) Identify the behavioural principles demonstrated by this
experiment.
b) Identify the stimuli that created fear on Little Albert.
2. Read the following case study:
Imagine you work as a clerk at a supermarket and you have always seen
a mother and her young son come to the store regularly. The child
always screams when he is going out, until the mother agrees to buy him
some sweets. For a long time, you witnessed the mother buying sweets
during checkout so that child stops screaming. Then one day, you notice
the mother refuses to buy the sweets. The child becomes increasingly
upset when denied sweets; however, a few weeks later, you see the
mother and the child at the store and the child does not cream any longer
for not being bought sweets.
a) What was the child learning from the mother’s behaviour?

b) What behavioural learning principle did you finally witness?
TIP
Review the pictorial representation of Pavlov’s experiment given in this

topic.
39
Assignment
1. Discuss the situation where you can use spontaneous recovery to
explain punishment and smoking behaviour.
2. Give your explanation on whether the dog in Pavlov’s experiment
was active participant or passive participant in the experiment.
3. Give three examples of how we learning by association.
4. Give three examples of application of classical conditioning
principles to educational settings. Visit “Uses of Classical
Conditioning in the Classroom” accessible at:
https://classroom.synonym.com>Classroom
****************************************************
40
TOPIC THREE: OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
Introduction
Welcome to topic three of our course on the psychology of learning. We
have looked in the previous topic at a situation where behaviour is
produced mechanically and hence the organism was quite passive. That
is, Pavlov’s dog did nothing but responded to the experimental situation.
The focus of this topic is B. F. Skinner’s Operant conditioning theory. In
contrast to Pavlov’s inactive dogs, Skinner’s animals operated in the
environment and hence were active. In this topic, we will look at the place
of this theory in psychology of learning. B. F. Skinner saw classical
conditioning as being too simplistic in providing a complete explanation of
complex human behaviour and he hence added operant or instrumental
conditioning to Pavlov’s classical conditioning.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

 Describe basic concepts of operant conditioning theory.

 Describe the principles of operant conditioning theory.
41
 Discuss the implications of operant conditioning learning principles
to learning environment.
Topic Content
3.1 Basic Concept of Operant Conditioning Theory

If one day a mother comes home from work and upon putting her bag on
the table asks her 3 year old daughter to pick a sweet from her bag, in
future whenever she puts her bag on the table on arrival from work, the
child will always go and check whether there is a sweet in her mother’s
bag. What you have seen in this case is that the child is repeating
checking whether there is a sweet in her mother’s bag because the first
action was rewarding or reinforcing. This is the idea behind the theory of
operant conditioning- repeating a behavior that is rewarding.
The leading proponent of this theory was B. F. Skinner (1904-1990).

Skinner expanded the work of both Edward Thorndike’s (1874-1949) on
operant conditioning and Pavlov’s concept of behavior where the
organism generates a behavior out of being acted upon by the stimuli. He
saw learning in terms of reinforcement and hence referred to learning by
reinforcement as instrumental or operant conditioning learning. In this
context, the organism’s behaviour is controlled by the consequences of its
actions. The key variable that Skinner introduced in his theory is
reinforcement, or reward. In the process of the development of this
theory, Skinner used different animals including pigeons and rats in the
various experiments he carried out. Initially, he referred to this theory as
instrumental conditioning theory. The reason behind this was that the
organism was responsible for its own actions. In other words, behaviour
must occur in order to be reinforced or rewarded. Unlike in classical
conditioning where the organism is passive, the organism is active under
instrumental conditioning. The simplest explanation of operant
conditioning is that behaviours that are reinforced tend to be repeated;
those that are not reinforced are less likely to be repeated.
42
The Skinner’s experimental procedures borrowed heavily from Thorndike’s
experimental procedures. Skinner carried out his experiments in Skinner
Box which was a modification of Thorndike’s Puzzle Box. This box is
also call operant chamber.
The two key concepts that underpin the understanding of operant

conditioning are:
43
 Reinforcement
 Punishment
These are the two consequences that follow behaviour. The behaviour is
either reinforced or punished. Reinforcement is any event/stimulus that
strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforcements:
Positive Reinforcement. In positive reinforcement something favourable,

pleasant or good is added or given to the organism to strengthen the
behaviour or response that has been displayed by the organism.
Negative reinforcement. Students have difficulty understanding this

concept. They normally take it as punishment. This is a layman’s
conception. They forget the reinforcement part. This kind of reinforcement
involves the removal of unfavourable stimuli, unpleasant or something
bad after the display of behaviour. In this situation, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. The
following two examples helps to explain further the concept of negative
reinforcement.
Example 1: Skinner’s use of electric shock
i. Before rat’s behaviour =Electric shock

ii. Behaviour of the rat =Switched off the button
iii. After the rat’s behaviour =No more annoying electric shock
iv. Future rat’s behaviour =Rat pushes switch button to switch off
electric shock
Example 2: Parents complaining to the child for not cleaning his bedroom
i. Before child’s behaviour =Complaining parent

ii. Behaviour of the child =Child’s cleans the room
iii. After child’s behaviour =No more complains from the parent
44
iv. Future child’s behaviour=Child keeps room clean to avoid parent’s
complains
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the desired behaviour increases

and hence is likely to be repeated by the organism.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an unfavourable

event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows.
There are two kinds of punishment:
Positive punishment involves the presentation of an unfavourable event or

outcome or something bad in order to weaken the response it follows.
Negative punishment, occurs when a favourable event or outcome is
removed or taking away something good after behaviour occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behaviour decreases.
3.2 Principles of Operant Conditioning Theory

The behavioural principles that can be drawn from operant conditioning
include:
3.2.1 The Reinforcement

Reinforcement is any action or event that increases the probability that a
response will be repeated. The response is instrumental in producing
reward. The behaviour must occur in order to be reinforced or rewarded.
That is, reward only comes because of certain responses. Reinforcement
increases or strengthens the response or behaviour tendencies. That is,
response  reinforcement / reward.
3.2.2 Reinforcement Schedules

The effects of reinforcement on behaviour depend on many factors, one of
the most important of which is the schedule of reinforcement. Skinner
came up with these schedules through doing experiments on pigeons. The
term–reinforcement schedule-refers to:
 The frequency with which reinforcers are given,
45
 The amount of time that elapses between opportunities, and
 The predictability of reinforcement.
The reinforcement schedules were dispensed either:
 Continuously (regularly) or
 Intermittently (inconsistently)
Under continuous reinforcement schedule, reinforcement was given every

time the animal gave the desired response. In other words, the behaviour
was only rewarded after certain ratios or intervals of responses. Under
intermittent reinforcement schedule, reinforcement was given only part of
the times the animal gave the desired response. In other words, only
behaviour was rewarded after certain ratios or intervals of responses.
While the behaviours acquired through continuous reinforcement come to

extinction faster, those that are acquired through intermittent
reinforcement last long and hence extinction is slow.
3.2.3 Extinction
But what happen when reinforcers are withdrawn? Eventually the
behaviour will be decreased and ultimately, it will disappear.
a. Imagine a rat in a “Skinner Box.” In operant conditioning if no
food is delivered immediately after the lever pressing then after
several attempts the rat will stop pressing the lever. The
behaviour becomes extinct.
b. Imagine an employee who is not getting his/her salary. How long

would he/she continue to go to work if his employer stops paying
him/her the salary? The behaviour of coming to work ceases-
becomes extinct.
3.2.4 Behaviour Shaping and Behaviour Modification

Behaviour shaping and behaviour modification are interchangeably used
in psychology. The Skinner’s experiment was intended to shape or modify
the behaviour of an organism. Skinner taught rats to press the
46
lever/pedal in order to get the food pellet. This is shaping the behaviours
of rats. Behaviour shaping is the way of teaching the organism to
respond in a certain way. The term “shaping” is used in behavioural
learning theories to refer to the teaching of new skills or behaviours by
reinforcing learners for approaching the desired final behaviour.
Animal trainers use instrumental conditioning to take animals through a
series of behaviours that eventually result in whatever tricks the trainers
want the dogs to learn. When a dog under training approaches a desired
behaviour it is given a dog biscuit.
Through the technique of shaping, animals may be trained to perform

complex acts that are outside of their normal range of behaviour. This is
commonly done to dogs. Each time an animal comes closer or
approximate a desired behaviour it is rewarded.
In human learning situation, behaviour modification or behaviour therapy
is used to eliminate undesirable behaviour, such a temper tantrums, or
instil desirable behaviour, such as putting away toys after play. For
example, every time a child puts toys away, she or he gets a reward,
such as praise or treat or new toy. Behaviour modification is particularly
effective among children with special needs such as those with mental or
emotional disabilities.
3.2.5 Punishment
While reinforcement and punishment are symmetrical, the effect of

punishment is simply the opposite of reinforcement (Catania, 2013).
Figure (a) illustrates reinforcement while figure (b) illustrates punishment.
The former increases responding whereas the later decreases or weakens
it. The end result of reinforcement is to increase or strengthen the
behaviour, whereas the end result of punishment is to decrease or
weaken the behaviour. We reinforce the behaviour not the person.
Similarly, we punish the behaviour not the person.
47
(a) Reinforcement
Baseline Reinforcement Extinction

Response per Session
Sessions
48
(b) Punishment
Baseline Punishment Recovery

Response per Session
Sessions
3.3 Applications of Operant Conditioning Learning Principles
Unlike in the Skinner Box, in a classroom situation, an organism is the

learner. Operant conditioning theory has the advantage of dealing with
factors that teachers can work with them. While we do not expect the
theory to explain all learning phenomena, there are several ways in which
teachers may take advantage of the operant learning theory. The
primary purpose of reinforcement in the classroom is to maintain
desirable behaviour and to do this the teacher can adopt the following
strategies anchored on the operant learning principles.
3.3.1 Leaners’ Participation

One thing that teachers should realize is that pupils learn by what they
do. That is, by being active participant in an activity. Through this
practice and experience they develop habit patterns of learning. In this
respect, learning is more effective when it involves the active participation
of the learner. Less learning takes place when the learner is passive.
49
3.3.2 Repetition
How were you taught multiplication table in your early years of schooling?
For many decades, teachers have realized that repetition, practice, and
drill add value to learning. Practice, drill, or repetitions are necessary to
consolidate knowledge, for example, of multiplication tables or formula in
mathematics or chemistry. One thing that has not change much in
learning in early years of primary school teaching is the use of drill. For
instance, drill should be sufficiently effective so that a pupil can give the
product of 7 x 8 without having to repeat 7 x 5, 7 x 6 and 7 x 7 before
he/she arrives at 56.
3.3.3 Review of Learnt Material

The teachers’ scheme of work and the lesson plans realize and
acknowledge the importance of review and provision is made for such
activity. Review of material studied prevents the initially rapid forgetting
that often accompanies learning. Hence, review serves the purposes of
sustaining learning. The word “review” means “taking another view”-
placing the material studied in a different perspective, relating the facts
learned to another problem and attaching them to the present lesson.
3.3.4 Control of Extraneous Factors

A Skinner Box learning environment was free of extraneous variables.
Though conditioning may be reduced to one stimulus in the laboratory, in
the classroom there are always multiple stimuli. As discussed in Topic
One, teacher should be aware of the existence of conflicting and
competing stimuli in the classroom situation. For example:
 The child may be unaware of a good learning environment the
teacher has created because he/she is concerned about the illness
of his/her mother. Revisit the case study of Jane give in Topic one
Activity. A true measure of learning is only achievable if these
variables can be controlled or minimized.
50
 His father may be unnecessarily strict with him/her. A learner is a
composite of such extraneous variables.
 High school students are pre-occupied with peer relationships and
can be an interruptive variable to learning.
These are distractive forces to learning. There are situations that conflict
with classroom learning. Research studies show that too often such
conflicting stimuli are not properly evaluated by teachers. Some teachers
take the attitude that the pupil’s inattentiveness in class as in the case
study of Jane is a personal insult to him/her and reprimand the child
accordingly.
3.3.5 Behaviour Shaping

Shaping is an important tool in classroom instruction. The term “shaping”
is used in behavioural learning theories to refer to the teaching of new
skills or behaviours by reinforcing learners for approaching the desired
final behaviour. As a teacher how do you achieve this?
i. You need to use step by step teaching and reward learners along
the way: When you teach skills step by steps, you are gradually
shaping the final skills. Should a pre-school teacher withhold
reinforcement until a child knows or masters the sounds of all the
26 letters? The answer is no.
 It would be better to praise children for recognizing one letter,
then for recognizing several, and finally for learning of all 26
letters and,
 Children/students need your reinforcement along the way.
Example
What is this letter A?
Child’s reply: A
Teacher’s: Good
What is this letter B?
Child’s reply: B
Teacher’s: Good
51
Do the same for every letter of the 26 alphabets and finally reward for all
the 26 alphabets.
When you guide students toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that
lead to success, you are using a technique called shaping.
ii. You need to reward good behaviour: Children’s responses are
shaped by socialization processes toward desired social behaviours.
 As a classroom teacher you shape students behaviour by providing
feedback on learner’s performance, for example, provide
complements, approval, praise, encouragement and affirmation.
Praise children for every attempt they make (regardless of whether
the answer is correct or not). For example, “a good trial”. This is
one practice that teacher trainers look for when supervising the
teacher trainees during Teaching Practice or internship.
3.3.6 Schedules of Reinforcement

Teachers need to reinforce the child’s response immediately instead of
after a time lapse. As a teacher, do not wait until the end of the school
day to tell the child that you did well in English in the morning. When
reinforcement is presented immediately after the behaviour is displayed,
it increases the frequency of that behaviour in future.
3.3.7 Extinction of Behaviour
i. Ignoring unwanted behaviours: As a teacher you can extinguish

unwanted behaviours, such as dominating class discussion through
ignoring.
ii. Providing cue of unacceptable behaviours, for example facial

expression or too much sustained eye contact (staring): As a teacher
find a way of extinguishing unwanted or destructive behaviour.
Extinction of a previously learned behaviour can be hastened when
some stimulus or cue informs the individual that behaviours that were
52
once encouraged will no longer be reinforced. For example, cases
where students are used to getting the attention of the teacher
through chorus call-out or noise. To extinguish this call out behaviour,
teacher can tell her class: “I will no longer respond to you unless you
are silent and raising up your hands”.
3.3.8 Informing a Child of Good Behaviour
Teachers need to inform the child that he/she is successful because this
motivates future learning.
3.3.9 Teachers Need to Vary Reinforcement
For example, using praise, approval, edible reinforcers, and tangible

reinforces, for example, giving a pencil, etc.
3.4.0 Giving Appropriate Reinforcement
Teachers need to give a reinforcement that is appropriate to a child, for

example, giving a child an exercise book when parents can afford to buy
may not be motivating. Giving U$10 as pocket money may not be
effective when the parent normally gives U$ 50.
3.4.1 Conditions for Effective Punishments
Those who handle children in the classroom, institutional homes or

rehabilitation centres or at home need to know the conditions under which
punishment can be effective. Studies show that punishment can be
effective in reducing undesirable behaviours if:
 It is relatively tense.
 Given promptly and immediately.
 Delivered clearly and consistently.
 Not be associated with positive reinforcement.
 It leads to avoiding behaviour being punished.
53
3.4.2 Side Effects of Punishment
Punishment can produce a number of side effects that parents and
teachers do not anticipate. These include:
 Strong punishers can elicit aggression and other emotional
behaviours in children, including crying. That is, punishment
increases aggression.
 The individual who delivers the punishment sometimes becomes so

closely associated with punishment in general that the child may
begin to avoid interaction with the person. This is a common
situation in a school where one teacher is designated as a school
disciplinarian. The pupils will try at all cost to avoid such a teacher.
 Punishment can reduce an entire class of responses–sometimes

including behaviours that do not qualify as a problem. For example,
the child who is punished by the teacher for speaking out of turn in
class may react by decreasing the rate of all verbal participation in
class.
 Parents who use punishment may be serving as models for

behaviour that they do not want to see their children imitate.
Studies show that abused children frequently grow up to be abusing
parents–children’s imitation of aggression by the parents.
 Punishment is not a good teaching device because it only tells
children what they did wrong and not what they should be doing
instead.
 Punishment has an addictive quality. Because it often is successful
in temporarily ending the child’s aversive behaviour, it negatively
reinforces parents who use it and make them more likely to use it
again in similar situations.
 Punishment creates fear that can be generalized to undesirable
behaviours, for example, fear of school.
54
 Punished behaviour is not forgotten. It is a suppressed behaviour
which may return when punishment is no longer present.
Topic Summary
In this topic you were introduced to B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning

theory and that the theory is anchored on behaviourism school of
psychology. We pointed out thatoperant conditioning postulates that an
organism’s behaviour is controlled by the consequences of its actions.
These include reinforcement and punishment. We also discussed that the
theory holds certain implications for educational practice.
Glossary
A reinforcer is defined as any consequence that strengthens the frequency

of behaviour. Example: food, praise, money, toys, sweet, etc.
Further Reading
Behaviourismzzzzzzzzzzx - Operant Conditioning - Schedules of

Reinforcement https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71bNh1UwgMc

Denyeko, C. A. (2018) Learning psychology. Accessible at

https://oer.avu.org//handle/123456789/499

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_F_Skinner
55
Belmont: Wadsworth.
Reinforcement-https://www.youtube.com.watch?V=PbusPZK-sYO
Topic Activities
1. Case Study of Baby Grace:

Baby Grace lies peacefully in her crib. When she happens to smile, her
mother goes over to the crib and plays with her. Later her father does the
same thing. As this sequence is repeated, Baby Grace learns that her
behaviour (smiling) can produce a desirable consequence (loving
attention from a parent); and so she smiles again to attract her parents’
attention.
Show how this case study of Baby Grace fits the operant learning
principles.
2. Case of dog training:

Take a minute to think about the question below. Write your answer down
in the space provided. What three procedures would you use to operantly
condition your dog to sit up?
a) --------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) --------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) --------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------
56
Tip
Before you respond to these questions visit online source: Reinforcement-

https://www.youtube.com.watch?V=PbusPZK-sYO
Assessment
words to your e-tutor for marking.
1. Describe the activities of the experimental rat in the Skinner Box.
2. Discuss the similarities and differences between classical and
instrumental conditioning.
3. Discuss the pros and cons of spanking children. What is your
position on the issue? Why?
4. Discuss four applications of operant conditioning principles to
classroom setting at the specific level of education. Visit www.teach-
nology.com>Teacher Articles>Teaching
*********************************************************
57
TOPIC FOUR: THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING
Introduction
Welcome to topic four on Thorndike Laws of Learning. In topic one we
discussed the concept of learning and behaviour. In this topic and in the
next topic one question we want to ask on the onset is: what makes
behaviour to persist? The answer to this question lies in operant
conditioning whose major proponents were Edward Lee Thorndike and
B.F. Skinner. In this topic you will be exposed to basic concepts from the
experimental work of Thorndike, the learning principles drawn from his
experiments and how these principles can be applied to the learning
situation such as the classroom.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

 Describe basic concepts of Thorndike’s laws of learning.

 Describe the principles of Thorndike’s laws of learning.
 Discuss the implications of Thorndike’s laws of learning principles to
learning environment.
58
Topic Content
4.1 Basic Concept of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

While operant conditioning is widely associated with B. F. Skinner as we
discussed in topic three, the concept of operant conditioning was first
established by Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949). He was the first
educational psychologist to introduce the concept of operant conditioning.
The concept of learning by reinforcement was first called operant
conditioning by Thorndike and the concept of instrumental conditioning
was introduced by B. F. Skinner. However, later B. F. Skinner reverted to
Thorndike’s concept of operant conditioning. That is, B. F. Skinner
improved on Thorndike’s approach. As defined by Thorndike then operant
conditioning is a mode of learning in which the frequency of behaviour is
increased or decreased depending upon its consequences.
Thorndike’s concepts and laws of learning were drawn from experiments
carried out using cats placed in what he referred to as a Puzzle Box.
Thorndike experiments involved:
 Placing a hungry cat in a Puzzle Box.

 Placing the food outside the Puzzle Box door where the can see.
 The task of the cat was to find a way of opening the door for it to
access the food placed outside to satisfy the hunger.
Results:
 After several trials, the hungry cat learnt to pull a latch in order to
free itself and access food place outside the door.
59
 The cat’s correct behaviour of touching the latch to achieve a
solution was rewarded or reinforced by a satisfying consequence.
 Over series of successive trials, the cat became increasingly
efficient in getting out of the Puzzle Box. By the 25th trial, the cat
took only 10 seconds to escape from the box. When he plotted these
successive trials, he arrived at what has come to be called
Thorndike’s learning Curve given in Table 4.1 below.
Seconds
Trials
Figure 4.1.Thorndike’s Learning Curve
Laws of Learning
Through his experiments on how cats learned to get out of the Puzzle Box
and gain access to food placed outside the box, Thorndike formulated
three laws of learning, namely:
 The Law of Effect

 The Law of Exercise
 The Law of Readiness
For a summary of all these three laws of learning visit “Thorndike Laws of
Learning” at: https://www.youtube.com>watch
60
These laws of learning were based on the followings activities of the cat in
the Puzzle Box and the consequences of those activities:
 Operant conditioning. This is a situation in which an organism has
to be active in seeking for a solution/learning. The cat was active in
the Box and found the solution to open the door. That is, the cat
engineered his escape from the Box.
 Reinforcement/rewards. The organism has to be rewarded for the
learning to take place. The cat got the food after opening the door
of the Box.
 Trial and error. The cat in the Puzzle Box learned to access the food
outside by trial and error learning. Trial-and-error learning is a
process of selecting one response from among many responses. For
simplicity, let us breakdown the cat’s trial-and-error learning in the
Puzzle Box into three successive phases as diagrammed in Figure
4.2.
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
R1
R2
R3
R4 R1
S R5 S R3 S----------------RC
R6
-----------------R7--- ------------------R7-----
RC RC
Many errors are made Number of errors Learning is complete in

in this phase of considerably reduced in this phase (See
learning (See learning this phase (See learning curve after 25
Curve 1-10 trials) learning curve 10-20 trials).
trials).
Figure 4. 2. The trial-and-error in diagram form
61
S =Stimulus (e.g. puzzle box, maze, problem solving)
R1-R7=Incorrect responses (errors)
RC =Correct response leading to a solution of the problem
THE LAW OF EFFECT

The Law of Effect is the most important of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning.
From Puzzle Box experiments, Thorndike concluded that behaviour
changes because of its consequences. He called this the Law of Effect.
The law of effect states that:
 “Whenever a connection is made between a stimulus and a
response and the response is followed by a satisfying state of
affairs, the strength of the connection is increased”.
Alternatively stated,
 “If the response is satisfying to the learner, the response is learned,
if it not satisfying it is eliminated”.
 “If some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence
or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the
future”.
In short, an S-R connection is strengthened when the connection results

in success or satisfaction for the learner. Hence a bond between S and R
is established. There are several ways of restating Law of Effect without
losing its meaning, namely:
 If a response is followed by a satisfying or pleasurable state of
affairs or feelings it is more likely to be repeated.
 The behaviour (touching the latch) that allowed the cat to escape
the box and reach the food caused a “satisfying state of affairs”.
 A learner or the organism would tend to repeat, and therefore learn,
those responses which are followed by satisfying consequences.
62
THE LAW OF EXERCISE
This is second Thorndike’s law of learning. The law of exercise states that:
 “The strength with which a response will be connected with a
situation depends upon the number of times the response has
occurred in that situation”. Alternatively,
 “That drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of
learning”.
 Example:
-Learning driving a car
-Learning Typing To learn these tasks one needs
-Learning Music several exercises and repetitions
-Learning Mathematical tables
What do you get from this definition?

 If a response is practiced for a certain number of times, it will tend
to be permanently established.
 Those things that are often repeated are best remembered.
While the Law of Exercise concerns the role of practice in learning, it
operates only in conjunction with Law of Effect. Let us look at S-R
connect:
 The connection between a stimulus and a response can be
strengthened or weakened.
 This connection can be strengthened by practice and can be
weakened by discontinuing the practice.
 Practice alone will not strengthen connections between S and R; it
only provides opportunity for reward to occur more frequently to
strengthen connections. If a practice does not get feedback it does
not improve.
63
Two Parts of Law of Exercise
Thorndike’s Law of Exercise has two parts, namely:
The Law of Use: The Law of Use asserts that the more a connection or
association between a stimulus (a situation) and a response is made or
used, the stronger that connection will be. In brief, the Law of Use states
that the more we practice the acquired skills, the skills are strengthened
or the stronger the skills become.
The Law of Disuse: The Law of disuse asserts that, when a connection or
association between a stimulus (a situation) and a response is not made
or used over a period of time, the strength of the connection is weakened.
In brief, the Law of Disuse states that if the skills acquired are not put in
practice or used over a period of time, the skills are weakened or become
weak.
Law of Exercise Principles
The Law of Exercise has a number of principles applicable to classroom

settings, namely:
Practice
Pupils should be given every opportunity to use what they know. More
and more opportunities should be given to students to use and repeat the
knowledge they get in class.
 Pupils learn best and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition.
 Practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive
feedback.
64
Repetition and Revision of Learnt Materials
 To maintain the connection for longer time review of the learnt
material is necessary.
 Revision provides an opportunity for repetition (exercise) and
practice and at the same time places knowledge in new settings.
 Though drill is now considered an obsolete practice in learning, it is
still present in classroom practices. Drills play an important role in
pre-school and primary school classes in the learning of
mathematical tables. Learning of alphabets and meaning of words.
Drills help in increasing efficiency and durability of learning.
Provision of Opportunity for Discussion

 Instead of rote recitation, discussions should encourage pupils to
bring their own experiences to class for interpretation in terms of
the content being presented. Recent professional literature places
much emphasis on discussion, pupils’ contributions and the
conversational method.
 Discussions should encourage pupils to bring their own experiences
to class for interpretation in terms of content.
 Provision of appropriate exercises. The child should be provided
with tasks and physical exercises and activities appropriate to
his/her developmental stage for example in pre-school.
THE LAW OF READINESS

 Readiness implies a degree of preparedness to learn-concentration
and eagerness.
 It asks the question: Is the learner prepared to learn? If not ready,
no learning will take place.
The law of readiness asserts that:
“a satisfying state of affairs results when an individual is ready to learn
and is allowed to do so. Being forced to learn when not ready or being
65
prevented from learning when ready to learn, results in an annoying state
of affairs”.
What do you get from this definition?
 That learning is dependent upon the learners’ readiness to act.
 Learners are resistant to learning when they are not ready.
4.2 Principles of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

The learning principles that can be drawn from Thorndike Laws of
Learning (the three laws put together) include:
Trial and Error
We learn best by making mistakes. Thorndike conception of learning as

chiefly trial and error puts learning as a matter of habit formation. When
animals and human being find it difficult to get a solution they resort to
trial and error approach.
Reinforcement
This principle increases occurrence of a desired behaviour across all

learning situations.
Practice and Opportunity
The law of exercise brings out the principle of practice in a learning

environment. However, enhancement of practice and outcomes of a
practice require an opportunity for practice and feedback.
Readiness
Readiness is a prerequisite for learning various activities.
4.3 Applications of Thorndike’s Laws of Learning Principles
While some of the learning principles associated with Thorndike’s laws of

learning are contestable with respect to their application to human
learning environments, there are several ways in which teachers and
66
others in charge of learning environments may take advantage of some of
the principles.
Trial and Error

This principle clearly spells out that in trial and error, many responses
may be tried before a satisfying one is hit upon. We learn best by making
mistakes.
The significance of trial-and-error learning for education is that:
 It gives pupils an opportunity or a chance to experiment for
themselves; to learn from their own errors.
 Medical trainees use plastic dummies as this allows them to make
mistakes and learn from mistakes before they handle real-life
situations.
 Student lawyers holds mock trials during their training
 KNEC train new examiners using dummy scripts.
Pre-school Example
When the time playing time ends, a teacher may want pre-school children
learn to organize playing materials in a box. These playing materials may
be: bat/club, toys, big balls, small balls, and building blocks. It will take
several trials for the children to organize these materials to fit in the box.
Reinforcement
The primary purpose of reinforcement in a learning environment is to

maintain desirable behaviour and to do this those in charge of the
learning environments can adopt the following strategies anchored on the
Thorndike laws of learning principles. All these should be accompanied by
provision of positive feedback.
67
House Chores
If a child helps in sweeping the house and receives praise from the
parent, the praise makes the child feels good and satisfied and therefore
more likely to want to help to sweep again.
Asking Questions
The outcome of asking questions in class may lead to positive or negative

rewards. If a child receives more negative outcomes for asking the
questions in class, the fewer questions the child will ask. If a child
receives more positive outcomes for asking the questions in class, the
more the questions the child will ask.
Practicing Addition
Classroom activities such as addition can be satisfying to a child if there is

a strong connection between stimulus and response.
Stimulus (9+2) Response (11)
Connection between stimulus “9 plus 2” and response “11” is
strengthened when the connection results in success or satisfaction for
the learner”. Response 11 will be satisfying to the child when he/she
hears the teacher say “CORRECT”.
Learning Curve
This is very important concept in teaching and learning. Learning starts

slowly but then increases rapidly. In teaching we may reach a point
where instructions being delivered are no longer effective that is where no
progress in learning is being made-meaning the plateau has been reached
and hence a new strategy is required. Alternatively, learning can starts
from acquisition of simple skills (knowledge) to higher level skills
(evaluation).
68
For more details of the various stages of the learning curve depicted
above and its implications to learning and teaching, visit “Typical Curve
With Educational Implications” at the cite indicated
below:https://center4study.wordpress>2016/05/22>typical-learnin-
curve-
Readiness
 The teacher must wait till the learner is ready to learn and should
give those experiences which help to enhance readiness.
69
 Pupils learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally
ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for
learning.
 Readiness is dependent upon both maturation and experience. Let
us look at various learning situations that rely on readiness.
Reading readiness
Studies show that a child who has reached the mental age of 6 ½ years,
is mentally capable of learning to read. If he/she does not have the
requisite maturation, the experience of trying to learn to read will be
annoying and frustrating. But he/she must also have the mental set, the
desire, to learn to read.
Readiness for Motor Skills
Since learning is an active process, students/children physical activity

where such is required for learning to take place is facilitated by
maturation/or physical readiness such as catching a ball and handwriting.
The girls shown below are not ready to play any game involving catching
a ball. They lack eye coordination of the coming of the ball and making
their hands ready to catch the ball. Their hands are open.
Girls each receiving a ball displaying awkward hands position
70
Handwriting falls under graph-motor skills. The development of
handwriting process occurs in early childhood. Graph motor skills involve
highly specialized coordination between eye-hand-finger movements used
for writing. They include how to effectively hold writing tools such as a
pencil/pen.
How to hold a pencil correctly

Developmentally, the graph-motor skill development emerges as follows:
Teaching
If the teaching is satisfying to the students, the students will be

motivated to learn. Where the teacher makes difficult subject easy to be
71
followed by students and avoiding calling them ngombe (cows), the
teaching condition created will be satisfying to the students for them to
learn.
Topic Summary
In this topic you were introduced to Thorndike Laws of Learning. We

discussed three components of the laws of learning, namely: the Law of
Effect; the Law of Exercise; and the Law of Readiness as well as their
implications they hold for teaching and learning.
Glossary
Bond: Means connection or attachment.
Trial: The length of time (or number of errors) it takes the subject to
attain the right solution.
Further Reading

Felder, R. M., & Solomon, B. A. (2005). Learning styles and

strategies.http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/iLsdir/styles.htm

Belmont: Wadsworth.
72
Topic Activities
1. Were you ever in a situation where you felt that you were not ready
to learn? How did that make you feel? Write your feeling down in the
space provided below:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Complete the following diagram by explaining each section of

Learning Curve in your own words
a) Slow beginning
-------------------------------------------------
b) Steep acceleration
-------------------------------------------------
c) Plateau
-------------------------------------------------
Tip
You need to revisit the cat’s behaviour in the Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
before answering question 2.
Assessment
a. Assignment 1 is for your self-response. These are to help you
b. Assignment 2 to be submitted online in not more than 150 words
each to your e-tutor for marking.
1. Discuss situations where medical trainees and lawyers apply trial
and error principles.
2. Identify and discuss three implications of a learning curve to
teaching and learning.
73
TOPIC FIVE: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Introduction
Welcome to topic five of our course on the psychology of learning. In this
topic we will look at social learning theory also referred in the literature as
social cognitive theory or observational learning theory. The leading
proponent of the theory is Albert Bandura (1925-Present). The theory’s
anchorage is that learning takes place in a social context and hence
according to Bandura much of human learning is a function of observing
the behaviour of others or of symbolic models such as fictional characters
and television heroes. The contexts of both Skinner’s and Bandura’s
experiments were totally different. The Skinner Box is not a real world,
while Bandura’s experimental situation is a real world.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

 Describe basic concepts of social learning theory.

 Describe the principles of social learning theory.
 Discuss the implications of social learning principles to learning
environment.
74
Topic Content
5.1 Basic Concepts of Social Learning Theory

Bandura built this theory of social learning more on the principles of
operant conditioning discussed in Topic three. Remember that the
Skinnerian theory of operant conditioning put emphasis on the effects of
consequences of behaviour. You will find the same idea in social learning
theory with an addition of the role of thought process in learning. This
topic will therefore expose you to the theory itself and the experiment
which were carried out.
The aspect of the theory being referred to as social cognitive is anchored
on Bandura’s view that the behavioural responses that an individual
display are not only determined by the environment but are self-activated
or initiated by that individual.
The genesis of Bandura’s theory is an experiment that is referred to in the
literature as the Bobo Doll’s experiment. However, there are other variant
experiments based on the salient elements of Bobo Doll’s experiment that
have been carried out. The findings of these other experiments will also
be presented in this discussion.
5.1.1 The Bobo Doll’s Experiment

Let us examine the Bob Doll’s Experiment. This classic experiment
involved two groups of children in two different rooms.
Group 1: Watched a video of an adult who was acting aggressively
against Bobo Doll (the first row of the pictures shown below).
Results: When this group were left alone in their playing room they were
seen through one way mirror mimicking the behaviour of aggressive
adult.
Group 2: Watched a video of an adult showing a passive behaviour

towards the Bobo Doll. Results: Contrary to Group 1 children, these
children would imitate adult behaviour of being passive.
75
From various experiments, Bandura concluded that we learn through
modelling in two ways, namely:
 Direct imitation/observation, where one watches a model;

 Vicarious reinforcement, where one learns through seeing another
person being rewarded or punished.
From Bobo Doll’s experiment results, Bandura argued that as children

grow their learning is based on modelling. In Bandura’s terminology,
modelling has two aspects, namely:
76
 Observation and
 Imitation
Observational learning is occasionally referred to as vicarious learning.

The individuals that are observed by the children are called models and
hence in the child’s growing environment, the role models that the child
can learn from include:
 Real life models. This is a situation in which an actual person is
demonstrating the desired behaviour. The models can be the
“significant others”.
 Symbolic models, for example, pictorial and representation (film
and TV personalities such as superman). This is a situation in which
modelling occurs by means of a media, including movies, television,
internet, and radio. The stimuli can be real or fictional character.
According social learning theory, imitation of models is the most

important element in how children learn:
 Language
 Deal with aggression
 Develop a moral sense
 Learn gender-appropriate behaviours.
At times children learn these through role playing. Other studies based on
Bandura’s social learning theory have shown that children are likely to
imitate people with the following characteristics:
 Nurturant
 Intelligent
 Good looking
 Powerful
 Popular
 Successful
Non-good-looking people are scaring to the children.
77
5.1.2 Basic Process in Observational Learning
Bandura identified four key processes that are crucial in observational

learning. The first two, attention and retention highlight the importance of
cognition in this type of learning (Slavin, 2015).
 Attention: To learn through observation, the learner must pay

attention to another person’s behaviour and its consequences.
 Retention: You may not have an occasion to use an observed
response for weeks, months or even years. Hence, you must store
mental representations of what you have witnessed in your memory
so that they can be retrieved.
 Reproduction: Enacting a modelled response depends on your
ability to reproduce the response by converting your stored mental
images into overt behaviour. This may not be easy for some
responses.
 Motivation: Finally you are unlikely to reproduce an observed
response unless you are motivated to do so. Your motivation
depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe
that the response is likely to successful for you.
5.2 Principles of Social Learning Theory

The key behavioural learning principles that can be drawn from social
learning theory include: retention; reproduction; motivation; modelling;
vicarious reinforcement and self-regulated learning (Slavin, 2015). All
these are required for successful learning.
Vicarious Learning
For this principle of learning, an individual learns by seeing others

reinforced or punished for engaging in certain behaviours. Examples:
 If a pupil cheats in school examination and he not punished, other

pupils cheat in the next school examination.
78
 If the cheating pupil is punished other will think twice before
cheating or avoid cheating.
 If a pupil is rewarded by the teacher for a specific behaviour,
another pupil will want to behave in the same way to be rewarded
too.
For more details visit “Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory and
Vicarious Learning” at: https://www.youtube.com>watch
Self-Regulated Learning
One other principle of learning associated with Bandura’s social learning

theory is self-regulated learning. This is a situation where an individual
observes his/her own behaviour and judge it against his/her own
standards. Regardless of what other people’s judgments, individuals know
when they have done well or not.
5.3 Applications of Social Learning Principles
Classroom is both a social and a competitive environment. As a structured

learning environment, the teacher and the learners are in constant
interaction. The social learning theory applies to the classroom situation
in many ways including but not limited to:
5.3.1 Modelling
 The teacher needs to be a good model: Parents have entrusted their
children to teachers and expect them to be above average citizens
as models. Children are good observers and good learners. Children
assume that teachers know best what to do and what they do and
use them as role models for their own behaviours. From the
teachers, pupils learn about neatness, doing running, and exercise
and copy the same. If children see their teachers always eating
banana, drinking water, and removing debris in the school
79
compound, children without being told copy these teachers’
behaviours.
 The teacher needs to be a good gender model: Boys are more likely
to imitate the male teachers as models while girls identify more
with female teachers.
 What about where all teachers are females particularly in primary
school? The specific behaviour children imitate depends on what
they perceive as valued in their culture. If all the teachers in a
school are women, a boy probably will not copy their behaviour,
which he may consider “unmanly”.
 The teacher being nurturant: When children see teachers perform a
positive act such as taking part in helping someone, the children are
likely to copy.
5.3.2 Vicarious Reinforcement

 Punishing: Children who are aggressive in school may have
acquired such behaviour from their parents and hence teachers
need to address. You need to punish a pupil who is behaving in
class in order to deter other pupils from engaging in similar
behaviour.
 Singling out good students: In a situation where a teacher finds
that one student is not working hard in class work, she/he can
single out a student who is working hard and reinforce him for doing
well. The lazy student will see that working hard is being reinforced
and he also works hard.
5.3.2 Making pupils to work together in small groups
Putting children into learning groups facilitates learning from each

other through observation. If this is done, those who excel will
serve as models to the others.
80
5.3.3 Overcoming phobias
 The observation of models has been very effective in helping
people overcome phobias.
 There are children who are afraid of heights and climbing
ladders and trees. If these children see models or other
children climbing ladders and tree their fears will disappear.
5.3.4 Self-regulated learning
 Self-regulation: This principle points that we are able to judge own

action against our own standards. Not all students in a school want
to achieve higher levels. High achieving students set their own
standards for achievement. When two students get 90% in
mathematics, one may be happy with 90% achievement and the
other may be disappointed.
 Self-reinforcement: Children at all levels of education can be taught
to set their own performance standards and their own
reinforcement.
Topic Summary
In this topic we discussed that while the two theories of learning, namely,
classical and operant, discussed in Topic 2, 3 and 4 are anchored on the
school of behaviourism-a school of psychology that views all behaviours
as learnt, social learning theory acknowledges that behaviours are
influenced by the environment and reinforcement, but adds the influence
of observation, imitation and thought process. We also discussed the
implications of the principles drawn from this theory in educational
practice.
Glossary
Observational learning: Learning by observing and watching the
behaviours of other persons and imitating models.
81
Further Reading


http://infed.org/mobi/learning-theory-models-product-and-process/
Plotnik, R., &Kouyoumdjian, H. (2014). Introduction to psychology.

Belmont: Wadsworth.
82
Topic Activities
1. Complete the following diagram
Observational Learning Process
e)---------------------------
a)-------------------------
d)--------------------------------
c)-----------------------------------------
b)---------------------------------------------
2. We have now studied the learning principles drawn from social

learning theory. Where have you experienced these principles in
your life? Write down your thought in the space provided below.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tip
Review the Bobo Doll Experiment.
83
Assessment
1. Give specific behaviours you have acquired by social learning? How
has the learning taken place?
2. Discuss Bandura’s concept of “reciprocal determinism”. Visit
https://www.verwellmind.com>....>Theories>SocialPsychology
3. Bandura’s analysis of observational learning involves four
processes. Describe each process.
4. Give two applications of social learning principles to a social setting.
***********************************************************
84
TOPIC SIX: FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
Introduction
Welcome to topic six. In Topic One we mentioned that psychology of
learning looks into the nature of the learner’s internal and external factors
involved in the learning process. For many decades psychology of learning
has been dominated by nature-nurture controversy. This debate is about
the extent to which nature influences learning, and the extent to which
environment influences learning. In this topic, we will look into the
various elements of this nature-nurture debate and their implications to
learning environment.
Topic Time

exercises [3 hours]

 Describe the biological foundation of learning.

 Describe the environmental foundation of learning.
 Describe the psychological foundation of learning.
 Discuss the implications of these internal and external factors on
the learning process.
85
 Explain the difference between general intelligence and multiple
intelligences.
Topic Content
6.1 Biological Foundation
The nature of the learner is a biological issue. Hence biological factors

that influence one’s ability to learn include: intelligence, learning style,
maturation, and dyslexia.
6.1.1 Intelligence
Intelligence is a word that is commonly used in formal and non-formal

discussions. You can hear one being told to use his/her own intelligence
to solve a problem. In such situations you may think those who use the
word know the meaning of intelligence. Surprisingly, if they are asked to
define, they find it difficult. This tells you that there is no consensus
definition of intelligence. Furthermore you may want to ask yourself:
 How and why some people or communities survive in hostile
environments?
 Why some learners have phobia for mathematics while they find it
easy to write an essay on democracy?
Different cultures have different conception of intelligence: In Africa

intelligence may mean doing something practical and hence a butcher
may be considered more intelligent than a Ph.D holder, if a Ph.D holder
cannot do what a butcher can do; in Europe, intelligence may mean show
of logical thinking; and in Asia, it may mean a totally different thing.
Even though there are several tests of intelligence such as Stanford-Binet
tests and Wechsler tests, psychologists have not agreed on a single
definition of intelligence. Some common definitions include:
86
 One’s ability and capacity to adapt to environment and learning
from experience.
 Intelligence is what intelligence test measures.
 Ability to figure out a solution to a problem.

You can use the third conception of intelligence to argue that:
 For people to survive in hostile environments they had ability to
figure out the solution for survival in such an environment.
 For those with mathematics phobia this situation develops because
the person had no ability to figure out a solution for a mathematical
problem.
 For those who are good in social sciences, they have the ability to
figure out solutions for social problems.
The question has been whether there is a single intelligence or there are
multiple intelligences. Is intelligence one composite ability or several
abilities?; Can intelligence be measured with one instrument that gives
one score that can be used to summarize a person’s ability or you need
several instruments to measure different abilities?
The three major definitions of intelligence are drawn from: general
intelligence theory and multiple intelligence theory.
General Intelligence Theory

While others define intelligence as one’s ability and capacity to adapt to
environment, in psychometric terms, intelligence has been defined as
what intelligence test measures. This is the oldest and widely acceptable
definition of intelligence.
The general intelligence theory, also referred to as g-factor theory, argues
that an individual’s intelligence can be measured through cognitive tasks.
If an individual takes an IQ test such as Stanford-Binet test he gets an IQ
score. The IQ score achieved is taken as a single measure of an
individual’s general ability.
87
Alfred Binet (1905) was one of the proponents of this psychometric
approach to intelligence. This approach portrays intelligence as a
composite of abilities measured by mental tests. The test is composed of
a mixture of cognitive items that measure different abilities, such as
analogies, classification, series completion, matching items, and
identification of the differences in the objects given. One single IQ score is
generated by these composite of abilities, namely: verbal, reasoning,
memory, and numeracy.
The psychometric tests of mental abilities used for measuring general
intelligence include:
 Analogies (e.g. lawyer is to client as doctor is to …..).
 Classification (e.g. which word does not belong to this group?)
robin, sparrow, chicken, rabbit).
 Series completion (e.g. what number comes next in the following
series 3, 6, 10, 15, 21,…..) The next number is 28.
3–6= 3
6 – 10= 4
10 – 15 = 5
15 – 21 = 6
21 – 28 = 7
3 6 10 15 21 ---------?28
3 4 5 6 7
 Identifying the differences in the objects.
88
Calculating IQ
Psychometric approach quantifies cognitive abilities or factors that are
thought to be involved in intellectual performance. The computation of IQ
therefore takes into account:
i. Mental Age (MA): Mental capacity of the child.
ii. Chronological Age (CA): Actual physical age of the child.
89
Hence,
1Q = MA x 100
CA
An 8 old child can perform at three different levels on a cognitive test

designed to measure IQ.
1. An “average” 8 year old child (CA=8) could have a mental age of 8

(MA=8).
MA
IQ = /CA x 100 = 8/8 x 100 = 100.
2. A brighter 8-year-old-child (CA=8) might have a MA of 10 (MA=10)

because he/she could answer questions up to the 10 year-old level.
IQ =MA/CA x 100 = 10/8 x 100 = 125.
3. A much duller 8 year old (CA=8) might have a MA of 6 (MA=6)
because he/she could only answer questions up to a 6 year -old level.
IQ =MA/CA x 100 = 6/8 x 100 = 75.
Alfred Binet (1905) Psychometric Approach
The first intelligence test was developed in 1905 by Alfred Binet. Binet
was asked by the French Government to find a way of identifying children
who were academically weak and were not likely to benefit from going to
school.
How did Binet develop the test?
He watched a large population of children solving different kinds of
problems and built up a set of questions or items which were typical of
the performance of children of different ages, and which discriminated
between the bright and the dull ones (see below):
90
Age Test
Level
2 Build a four block tower
3 Copy a circle
4 Name objects (shown in pictures) from memory
5 Copy a square
6 A table is made of wood, a window is made of _______
7 In what way are wood and coal alike?
8 What should you do if you found on the streets of a city a
three-year-old baby that was lost from his parents?
9 What is foolish about: “George’s feet are so big that he has to
pull his trousers over his head?”
10 How many words can you say in one minute?
11 In what way are a knife blade, penny and a piece of wire alike?
12 Repeat these five digits backwards: 5, 9, 6, 7, 3, 8, 1.
 If a 6 year old child could answer the questions for age levels 6, 7,
8, 9 and 10 that meant that he was as intelligent as the average
10-year-old. Thus, his mental age (MA) would be 10, regardless of
his actual age (Chronological Age of 6 – CA).
 Binet worked out the standards for his test by giving it to very large
groups (population) of children at different ages and working out
the averages (norms) for each age group. This enables him to place
individuals in relation to their peer group – average, above average
and below average as given in the figure below.
91
Multiple Intelligence Theory
The question is: Is there more than one intelligence? Before you answer
this question, consider two scenarios:
i. One child is good in making analogies.
ii. Another child is good in playing a piano.
Is the first child more intelligent than the second child just because IQ
test include analogies and hence can score high on IQ test and the second
child scores low on IQ test because there are no test items on piano
playing?
Some psychologists reject the conception that intelligence can be
expressed by a single number, an IQ score. The recent debate is that an
individual has a range of different types of or multiple intelligences.
According to Howard Gardner each person has several distinct forms of
intelligence. In other words, instead of one kind of general intelligence,
there are at least eight different kinds:
 Verbal intelligence (e.g. poets, dramatists)
92
 Musical intelligence (e.g. musicians)
 Logical-mathematical intelligence (e.g. mathematicians)
 Spatial intelligence
 Body movement intelligence ( e.g. football players, dancers)
 Intelligence to understand oneself
 Intelligence to understand others
 Naturalistic intelligence (biologists, rain makers of Africa)
Merits and Criticisms of Intelligence Tests

IQ score predicts future academic performance and it gives an indication
or an estimate of a child’s present level of functioning – mental ability and
this may enable a teacher to recognize underachievement and take steps
to remedy it.
One of the dangers of IQ scores is that they may be misinterpreted or
misused and the child or the community where he/she comes from
93
labelled negatively can be used to justify racism and differential allocation
of resources to schools and employment opportunities in multicultural
societies. Earlier studies in USA showed that on the average the IQ scores
for African Americans were about 15 points lower than the average
whites. Example, Head Start Programme in USA in 1970 and Arthur
Jensen article on 80% nature and 20% nurture composition of IQ among
black people in USA became very controversial.
Children from disadvantaged background perform poorly in intelligence
tests. This has been attributed to:
 Lack of experience – lack of toys and other playing apparatus.
 Unfamiliar concepts used in intelligence tests.
 Intelligence test items are closely linked with formal education. That
IQ tests tend to focus on school abilities and hence fail to capture
aspects that are key in life such as common sense, social skills, or
art (a spatial ability).
 Intelligence tests are culturally biased (unfair). Use items such as
vocabulary/language and information of white people and hence
disadvantaging children from other cultures.
6.1.2 Learning Style

This is an important concept in learning. The basic principle here is that
learners have different ways of learning. Some of us remember the
names of the people we met in a conference because we saw their names
written on their name tags. In this case we are visual learners. Some of
us remember the names of the conference participants because their
names were read out. In this context, we are auditory learners. Learning
style also referred to as cognitive style, refers to how individuals process
instructional materials.
By nature, we are all endowed with different information processing

styles. These styles are summarized in Table 6.1
94
TABLE 6.1
Learning Styles
Learning Style Description of the Learner
Analytical/Global Analytical learner is a A global learner is a
learner who learns learner who starts
better in a situation solving a problem by
where the materials to breaking down a big
be learned are logically idea into parts. This
presented in a linear learner takes in
step by step approach. information holistically.
Impulsive/Reflective Impulsive learner is a Reflective learner is a
learner who gives or learner who takes into
jumps into giving a account all parameters
response before taking or pauses to reflect
into account all before responding. In
parameters. In most most such a learner
cases such a learner takes time to think and
takes less time to think hence in most cases
and hence gives a gives a correct
wrong response to a response to a question
question posed. posed.
Virtual/ Auditory Visual learner learns Auditory learner is a
and remembers better learner who learns
by seeing or reading. better by hearing or
That is, in a situation spoken explanations.
where materials are
presented in pictures,
diagrams, charts,
demonstrations, films,
etc.
Source: https://www.theclassroom.com>Social Studies
95
6.1.3 Maturation
Developmental psychologists define maturation in a number of ways
including:
 Biological readiness to perform an activity.
 Developmental changes that are biologically/genetically
programmed rather than acquired through learning or life
experiences (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2004).
While in learning, maturation process sets the timetable for readiness to
learn a language, learn to walk, learn to talk, learn to catch a ball, and
learn to sit, it works harmoniously with environmental factors.
Language learning
While biology sets the timetable for language learning readiness, the
critical period, language learning cannot take place without the child’s
exposure to an environment where language is being spoken. Remember
Genie case of having missed exposure to being talked to.
Learning to walk/sit
While the development of motor skills such as walking and sitting are
heavily influenced by maturation as a genetic programme, children who
are given more opportunities to practice (nurture) their stepping reflex
earlier will walk at earlier age than children who lack such opportunities.
Similarly. African children learn to sit earlier than American children
because this motor skill is taught by caretakers.
What we are learning here is that the timing of a biological
programme/timetable can be slowed down or speeded up by experience
or practice.
Link: https://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov>pubmed
Implications Intelligence in Educational Settings

 Following Alfred Binet study, children in French schools were put
into ability streams or ability groups for purposes of teaching.
96
 Critical period
 Different forms of teaching impact differently on different learners.
 One teaching strategy may not be useful to all learners. You need to
diversify the teaching approaches to appeal to students’ senses e.g.
musical, visual intelligences. Those with musical intelligence benefit
from songs, poster benefit those with visual intelligence.
6.1.4 Dyslexia
Approximately 20% of the world population are dyslexic. This is a learning
challenge that most teachers of young children may ignore as a minor
developmental problem. Dyslexia is a perceptual problem in which a child
writes words and numbers he/she can vocalize in reverse order. Even as
an adult, a dyslexic person reads at nursery school level. Such persons
have difficulty learning to read, to write and to interpret symbols despite
having high intelligence, high motivation and education including high
academic degrees.
What are possible causes of dyslexia?
 Some researches attribute the causes of dyslexia to hereditary.
 Some attribute dyslexia to faulty phonemes producer thus
making it difficult for an individual to distinguish between phonemes
(ba, pa, la)resulting in problem distinguishing between like sounds
(bark, park, lark).This makes reading difficult.
 Perceptual problems. This causes individuals to be reversing letters
and numbers. For example:
-On addition a child writes: 10 + 8= 81 instead of 18. When asked
what he has written he says eighteen or instead of writing 5 he
writes 2.
-Instead of writing dog he writes pog.
An example of somebody with dyslexia is Kendi Oketch (photo below).
Her case was reported by Sunday Standard Newspaper (November 4,
2018, p.15). Oketch is a graduate with a diploma and a degree in Finance
97
and has worked in a bank for 10 years as a teller. For several years
Oketch’s learning problems remained undiagnosed.
Kendi Oketch didn’t know why she always had difficulties expressing
herself or reading well. She said, “I wasn’t dumb, just dyslexic”.
In her early school years Oketch reported:

 “I discovered while in class four that I had challenges in learning
and comprehension. I would try reading but could not understand a
word”.
 “When multiple choice questions were introduced, I would guess
answers from the first question to the last one”.
 “I was always the last one in class no matter how hard I worked”.
 “Surprisingly, I did well in sciences and mathematics but anything
that required reading would stump me”.
 “I thrived in sciences and mathematics because they were more
practical”.
At adulthood Oketch reported that she kept failing promotion and job
interviews because she could not express herself well:
 “I went in for an interview (where she worked) but the oral part was
really bad for me. I failed.”
98
 “I went for another interview with a different bank and the story
was the same because I could not express myself properly. The
interview was over within a few minutes”.
 “I was frustrated with myself. Sometimes I knew the right answer
to a question but I couldn’t get the right words out”.
 “I eventually quit banking”.
Treatment of Dyslexia
 As a genetic problem it has lasting deficit and there is no known
cure.
 Working dyslexic individuals can only manage dyslexia by focusing
on performing practical aspects of the job. This is what Kendi
Oketch did when she left the Bank and joined another company.
 Parents of dyslexic children should allow children to play computer
rhyming games to help them develop correct association between
sounds and words.
6.2 Psychological Foundation

In addition to biological factors, other internal factors that influence ability
to learn are psychological factors. These include: attitude, emotion and
motivation.
6.2.1 Attitude
Attitudes have significant influence on learning and behaviour. Attitudes

are define as relatively stable positive or negative beliefs or feelings
towards ideas, one or group of objects, persons, events, groups, events,
or situations. These beliefs predispose us to act in a certain way toward
that object, person, or event (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2014). When we
evaluate these objects, persons, events or situations long a continuum,
we form attitudes which are either negative or positive.
99
In your course on philosophical foundation of education, you learnt that
the 18th century philosopher, John Locke described the mind of a child as
“tabula rasa”, a creek word that means empty slate. According to John
Locke, the society in which the child is born into implants values and
beliefs about him/herself and others. From John Locke’s perspective, the
feelings we have towards others are learnt from the agents that represent
the society-parents, societal institutions such as schools and religious
organizations.
You may have heard of such statements as:
 People from costal region are lazy.

 Black people are not good in mathematics and science.
 Mathematics is a boys’ subject.
 Obese people have awkward movements and are ugly.
While in some communities obesity is looked down upon, it is a well-

accepted body size among the people of Tonga Island. In some African
cultures, obese or overweight women are considered a sign of a well
taken care of women.
It is clear from these narratives that we are not born with attitudes. We
are not born with tastes and preferences. We acquire tastes and
preferences through learning. They are acquired through conditioning
processes.
Whether we are adults or children the attitudes we have directly influence
our learning. The attitudes we have may be directed to:
 The facilitators of our discussions
 Those who study together in class
Parental Role
Parents as primary socialization agents play a significant role in shaping

the attitude of their children towards people, school, objects and
environment. As “significant others” their evaluations of people or objects
100
are internalized by the children and then use them as the mirror of seeing
these objects.
We know of situations where parents prevent their children from playing

with children from certain SES or certain religious organizations.
Sometimes the parents give their children reasons for denial for such
associations. If the reasons are negative, the parent will have implanted a
virus in the child’s mind.
Community Role
Community socialization either creates cohesion or conflict in a country. It

is at the community level that negative ethnicity is acquired. Imagine a
country with heterogeneous communities and each community promotes
ethnocentrism and stereotypes in their child rearing practices. Such a
country ends up in civil wars. Community members tell children stories,
some are bias against other communities.
Children learn from the community whether going to school has value or
not. If the community values see education for girls is of little value, girls
in turn will develop their self-concepts that are aligned to the
community’s attitude towards education. Girls from such communities
perform poorly in school. Early marriages may also be rooted on
community’s attitude towards girls’ education. Similarly, community’s
religion can be a facilitator or an inhibitor of positive attitude towards
other communities and provision of education to girls.
There are religious organizations that do not believe that medicine cures
diseases and hence when their children are sick they use prayer as the
substitute of conventional medical treatment.
School Role
In the same way we learn to hate people from other ethnic groups, other
races or religions, children learn attitude towards school, mathematics,
history or professions through their parents, peers and teachers.
101
The child’s attitude affects the way he/she learns and what he/she learns.
In this context both the teachers and the learners must examine their
attitudes before learning can improve. A child’s attitude towards subject
matter often sets up a process of selective attention and mental blockage.
What he/she will learn is determined in part by his readiness to receive
information. His/her self-concept affects what he/she learns.
6.2.2 Emotion
In taxonomies of educational objectives, we have three domains; namely:
cognitive domain; affective domain and psychomotor domain. Affective
domain addresses feelings/emotions. The whole purpose of school
counselling is centred on addressing feeling of individuals. We all know
that there are situations when we are happy and there are situations
when we are sad. The learner’s emotions can be categorized as:
 Constructive emotions (positive emotions) = joy, happiness,
excitement, pride, affection.
 Disruptive emotions (negative emotions) = anxiety, anger, sadness,
aggression, prejudice, fear.
These conditions either facilitate or inhibit our learning. Constructive
emotions (positive emotions) have the following positive effects on the
learner:-
-Motivation
-Enjoyment /happiness
-Relaxation
-Affection
-Excitement
-Endurance
-Pride
Disruptive emotions (negative emotions) have negative effects on the

learner:-
-Decrease in school performance

-Insomnia/lack of sleep)
102
-Restlessness/lack of concentration
-Fatigue
-Headache
-Lack of appetite
-Memory lapse
-Stress/irritability
Let us look at the role of anxiety in learning and performance. How does
the child’s anxiety affect his/her learning and performance in school?
While moderate level of anxiety is beneficial to learning, too much anxiety
or high anxiety level interferes with effective learning and performance,
since it reduces a child’s ability to discriminate clearly. It impairs high
level cognitive processes and blocks information processing. High anxiety
increases physiological arousal (tension)-indicated by increased muscle
tension, rapid heartbeat, perspiration. These may demobilize action or
readiness for action and learning. In short:
 High anxiety children are tense.
 Low anxiety children are relaxed.
Sources of Anxiety in Children

Classroom situation is a competitive environment. Children compete for
good grades and the teachers’ attention. This competitive situation is
anxiety-provoking or anxiety creating situation. The task of the teacher is
to create the proper level of anxiety. The handling of the classroom
anxiety is an important task for the teacher. The sources of anxiety in
children include:
1. Fear of failure. One of the most potent/common sources of anxiety
in children is the fear of failure. We see these particularly in
examinations where a great deal is often at stake. When children
are in the state of fear, they doubt their abilities to pass the tests;
they are easily discouraged and cannot concentrate on their work.
In this content excessive anxiety hampers learning and thinking and
103
lead to withdrawal of interest in school, resulting consequently in
school failure. Besides fear of examinations, children may have
fears of some classmates or teachers.
2. Task difficulty. The more difficult the task, the more likely a given
degree of anxiety is to interfere with it.
3. Ambiguous expectations. Unclear expectations provoke anxiety.

That is, in situations where children are unsure of what is expected
of them, they become anxious. Situations that are reassuring or
are simple and unconfused produce little anxiety.
4. Beliefs about self. Closely linked to anxiety is the question of self-

esteem or self-concept. That is how we see ourselves in terms of
our abilities. Children with high-esteem consistently perform better
than children of similar ability with low-self-esteem. They set
themselves higher goals, and attribute their success to their abilities
and efforts rather than luck or external forces.
5. Belief about the school subjects. Students may develop a variety of

beliefs about different subjects-matter domains. Their beliefs then
affect their attitudes and interest in respective subjects. Attitudes
are relatively stable positive or negative feelings. Learners who
have negative self-concept of themselves in mathematics will
perform poorly in mathematics.
Impact of Anxiety on Learning and Performance

 High-anxiety pupils make more errors in a complex learning task
than low-anxiety children.
 Anxiety is negatively correlated with intelligence and school
achievement. Children who register high anxiety tend to score
lower in IQ and school achievement tests.
104
6.2.3 Motivation
You may be bordered by the following questions:
 What makes a student want to learn?

 What drives us to do what we do?
 Why some learners are keen to learn and others are not keen?
 Why some societies have high need to achieve?
What compels you to act is what we call motivation. It is the reasons for
learning or reasons for being involved in an activity. If a child has a
reason for learning, he/she will have the energy to learn. In this context,
the child must have the need to learn; the need to achieve a goal
(reward/incentive).
Motivation is a central concept in most of the theories of learning we have

discussed such as Thorndike laws of learning, Skinner instrumental
conditioning and Albert Bandura social learning theory. Motivation is
closely related to attention, anxiety, and feedback/reinforcement. For
example, a person needs to be motivated enough to pay attention while
learning; anxiety can decrease our motivation to learn. Receiving a
reward or feedback for an action usually increases the likelihood that the
action will be repeated.
There are several theories of motivation. We will look briefly at the

following five theories of motivation, namely:
 Drive-reduction theory
 Attribution Theory
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 McClelland’s Achievement Need Theory.
 Reinforcement Theory
105
Drive Reduction Theory
In your general psychology course you were exposed to the concept of
drive. According to this theory, drive reduction is a major cause of
learning and behaviour. Put yourself in the following situations that
require your reaction or action:
 Are you hungry now? If yes, get a snack.
 Are you thirsty? If yes, drink water
 Is your chair / seat uncomfortable and cause pain? If yes, get a new
chair / seat.
When your body tells you that you need something or that you need to
change something; that want is a drive. In this situation you are
motivated to reduce the drive.
When you want or need something, it means you are not operating at
your homeostatic normal level. Your homeostatic normal level is when
you don’t need or want anything; you are satisfied. Ii is a state of
equilibrium. If you have achieved homeostasis, your motivation is zero,
since you have no drive to reduce.
The purpose of biological drives is to correct disturbance of homeostasis.

In this situation, drives give rise to an individual’s motivation.
Attribution Theory
The theory looks at motivation in terms of how we perceive the causes of
our success and failure in what we do. The theory attempts to explain
how individuals interpret events that happen to them.
Teachers know very well the kind of reasons pupils give when they either
pass or fail an examination. The question is: where do pupils attribute
the causes of their success or failure? Where is there locus of control?
106
Let us take an example. Mary has been a good student and in a
continuous assessment test administered at the beginning of the
semester she got a D grade. The grade D she got is not consistent with
her past performance. If asked by the teacher for an explanation she
might give the following reasons:
 “I did not work hard”
 “I did not revise”
 “I was not feeling well that day”
 “I was not lucky”
 “I am smart and I will get a better grade next semester”
The two basic kinds of attribution of our success and failure are:
(i) External attribution (external factors/causes). This is when we
attribute our success or failure in a task e.g. examination to such
instable factors as luck, illness, lack of preparedness.
(ii) Internal attribution (internal factors/causes). This is when we
attribute our success or failure in a task e.g. examination to such
stable factors as ability and effort.
Those who attribute their success to internal factors work harder and
consistently perform better. Luck or prayer is unstable factor in success
and those attribute their success to luck show inconsistent performance.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

People have many needs that they try to satisfy. These needs include
inter alia:
 Needs for food
 Needs for shelter
 Needs for water
 Needs for love
 Needs for praise
 Needs for association
 Needs for money
107
The hierarchy of needs theory was developed by Maslow. According to
this theory our needs are in hierarchical order ranging from lower or basic
needs to higher needs. Theory sees motivation as a function of needs.
We do what we do because of the needs. We engage in sex because we
want to satisfy the sex need. That is our motivational energy goes into
meeting or satisfying our physiological (physical) and social needs.
Maslow identified two types of needs as illustrated in the figure given

below, namely:
 Deficiency needs
 Growth needs
According to this theory lower needs take priority. They must be filled or
satisfied before the other needs are activated. That is, individuals strive
to seek higher needs when lower needs are fulfilled. You look for food
first before you think of a house or clothes to wear. Once a lower level
need is satisfied it no longer serves as a source of motivation. Needs are
motivators only when they are unsatisfied. The highest need is self-
actualization need-defined as the desire to become everything that one is
capable of becoming. For example being:
 Senator
 Owner of Mercedes Benz
7. Self-actualization needs-Education, religion, advancement, owing
Mercedes car
6. Aesthetic needs- Appreciation of beauty
5. Need to know and understand-things around one’s life.
4. Esteem Needs -Approval by friends, family, community, recognition
3. Belongingness and love needs-Needs for relationship with family
members, friends and teams
2. Safety needs-Security e.g. job security
1. Physiological needs-Food, water, shelter, heat, air
108
Self-
Growth actualization
Needs need
Aesthetic needs
Need to know and understand
Esteem needs
Deficiency
Needs Belongingness and love needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
Source: Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology. Boston: Pearson.
Maslow’s Implications
 Hunger: Hunger is a basic need that needs to be satisfied. An
hungry student does not have psychological energy for learning.
Such students normally fidget in class and spend a lot of class time
looking outside the classroom. To satisfy this and motivate the
children to concentrate on learning, the school provides feeding
programmes.
109
 Love: Children who feel they are not loved or rejected by their
“significant others” have no motivation to drive them to achieve in
school tasks.
 Self-concept: A child with low self-concept will have low motivation
to achieve.
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory

In 1961, David McClelland wrote a book entitled: “The achieving Society”.
In his cross–cultural analysis of societies, he found that countries that
were economically better off had people with high need for achievement.
He identified three motivators that he believed we all have, namely:
 A need for achievement =Needs to set and accomplish challenging
goals.
 A need for affiliation =Needs to belong to a group. Those who want
to be liked by others; these are also people who follow decisions of
others and work better in a group.
 A need for power =Needs to control and influence others. These are
those who enjoy status and recognition and like to win arguments.
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory is also referred to as “the
need to achieve theory or achievement motive theory”.
What do we mean when we say a person/a child has a need to achieve?
It means:
 He/she has ambition. In examination not everybody has
the same ambition of doing well.
 He/she has the desire to do well.
McClelland defined motivation as “the desire to compete or evaluate
yourself against some standards of excellence”. That is strong desire to
do well.
McClelland was interested on the causes and consequences of motivation.
What causes some people or some cultures to do well and others not to
do well? According to McClelland, causes and consequences of motivation
are:
110
 Socialization process or child-rearing practices. Children
who are high in achievement motive are those who are
given more independence and mastery in childhood.
 The spirit of capitalism in protestant ethics.
Cultures with high achievement motives e.g. Ibos of Nigeria, Chaggas of
Tanzania and Gikuyus of Kenya are economically better than others.
The people who have a need for achievement seek/try to attain
challenging goals. The need for achievement is a motive to reach the
goals you set for yourself in life. People who have a high need for
achievement are likely to be ambitious and do whatever it takes to reach
the top. The person who has a high achievement need:
 Likes to take personal responsibility.
 Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.
 Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.
 Often likes to work alone.
 Likes to receive regular feedback on his/her progress and
achievement.
 Tends to choose experts to work with, i.e. expert partners
at workplace.
 Tends to be more resistant to social pressures.
 Tends to have higher memory than a person or persons of
low achievement.
Reinforcement Theory
B. F. Skinner’s instrumental/operant conditioning theory is a motivational
theory in the sense that positive reinforcement has the effect of
strengthening behaviour. That is, motivation develops in response or as a
result of a strong reinforcement. For example:
 Child’s love for football while at home might come about because
whenever he plays he receives praises from his peers. Peer praises
are potent forms of reinforcement. The child turns to football
playing as an excellent way of attracting praises. In consequence,
football playing becomes established as part of his behaviour both
111
in school and outside school. In school he also gets praises from
teachers and at home he receives praises from parents.
 Every hour you report to work early, you receive a bonus of US$10.
The bonus of US$10 is reinforcement and as a motivation to report
early.
Kinds of Motivation
The two kinds of motivation that are commonly recognized are:
 Intrinsic motivation.
 Extrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation to learn and perform at school comes from an
individual himself or herself. It refers to motivation that is driven by an
individual. This is a situation where an individual engages in learning for
the sake of enjoyment, happiness or the satisfaction that he/she receives
from learning. The motivation for learning is found in the action itself
(learning) and not in some external force (e.g. being rewarded or pleasing
your parents). Examples of intrinsic motivation include:
i. The child going to school every day because he/she enjoys learning
about new things.
ii. The child reading a book because reading he/she is fun or gives
him/her happiness.
Extrinsic Motivation
Not all children have internal drives to perform tasks. Extrinsic motivation
to learn and perform at school comes from outside an individual. It refers
to motivation that is driven by external tangible rewards such as money,
incentives, grades, job security and praise. In this situation an individual
takes action in order to obtain a reward or outcome. People who are
extrinsically motivated act on the basis of what they receive as rewards.
For example, where a child performs activities in order to avoid
112
punishment or blame e.g. working on school homework to avoid
punishment or to please the teacher or the parents.
The total motivation to learn and perform at school is a combination of
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
6.3 Environment Foundation

Environment is a very wide concept. It consists of many variables that
affect learning. In attitude formation, we have discussed family which is a
key component of the child’s growing environment. Other family variables
that affect children’s learning and performance in school include:
 Socio-economic status
 Family size
 Birth order
 Family religion
 Family cultural background
The two key issues to remember about the influence of environment on

learning are:
 John Locke philosophy of “tabula rasa” putting emphasis on the

significant role the society plays on the child’s learning of his/her
identity and values as shown as in figure a and b, respectively.
a. Tabula rasa
113
b. Mind loaded with learnt societal values
 The nature-nurture controversy is anchored on twin studies. The
identical twins studies found that even though the identical twins
were reared apart by different families, they showed no significant
differences in intelligence. This means that environment effect was
less than heredity.
6.3.1 Socio-Economic Status
Socio-economic is measured by two primary variables-the educational

level and the occupation of the child’s parents. SES either facilitates or
inhibits children learning. Studies show that children from high SES
perform better in school than those from lower SES. This attributed to the
fact that these children are growing up in an environment with good
learning resources such as playing toys; TV; exposure to learning-
114
enhancing situations such as visits to museums; high parental attention;
and parental interest in their school activities.
6.3.2 Birth Order
Though studies of the effect of birth order on learning and academic

achievement are not consistent, several birth order studies show that
more first born children are:
 Over represented in competitive positions such leadership and in

university admission.
 High achievers and high in IQ test.
 More responsible than later born children.
 If women, they are bossy and controlling.
 If women, they are more likely to end up in divorce.
 Less likely to get into drug abuse and get pregnant as teenagers.
The explanations that have been given over these unique characteristics
of the first born children include:
 Resource dilution hypothesis. This hypothesis says that parents

spend more of their resources such as love, attention and
attendance to good schools on their first born children.
 First born children are given more responsibilities by the parents
such as taking care of younger siblings.
 They are expected to behaviour like adults at much earlier than
their siblings.
 High expectations to excel are put on them by the parents.
6.3.3 Culture
Culture is the overall umbrella of socio-cultural influence on learning.

Though the family practices are sub-set of the culture values, we want to
look here at the global influence of culture on members of one same
culture.
115
Task Assignment
One of the variables that differentiate cultural behaviours is the chores

children are assigned (Whiting & Whiting, 1974). Among the pastoral
societies of East Africa such as Maasai of Kenya and Ankole of Uganda,
herding boys who are assigned herding tasks at the age of about 5 years
learn to:
 Control animals that are bigger than them.

 Be responsible with respect to animal care.
 Understand the relation between what he does and the family
subsistence economy. He learns that:
-If he allows family bulls to fight with other bulls they can break
they legs and hence die.
-If he does not drive the cattle to the river to drink water, the
family will not get enough milk.
Girls are assigned the responsibilities of taking care of smaller livestock

such as sheep, goats and calves. The picture shown below shows a young
Kenyan girl from one of the pastoral communities taking home a lost lamp
(Standard, Friday, April 14, 2017, p.11).
116
117
Five years old Ankole boy (Uganda) controlling animals bigger than him
Similarly, in some communities girls are forbidden from climbing trees.

Hence girls are conditioned to fear climbing and heights. When girls
therefore enter pre-school they fear climbing playing ladders because
they do not have climbing skills.
Children who play a lot with objects with different shapes such as stones
while herding are better in visual/spatial ability.
118
Boys playing a game using stones
Topic Summary
In this topic you were first introduced to the nature-nurture controversy

in psychological literature and that one question in regard to this
observation is the sources of our differences in learning. Though the
sources of our differences in learning can be accounted for by the learning
theories we have studies in in previous topics, in this Topic we looked at
selected specific factors. We looked at learning from three dimensions:
biological, environmental and psychological. We discussed specific
elements of these broad determinants of learning.
Further Reading
119


Belmont: Wadsworth.
Whiting, B., & Whiting, J. (1974). Children of six cultures: A psycho-

cultural analysis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Topic Activities
1. Now that you are familiar with the different learning styles. Use
Richard Felder and Barbara Solomon Index of Learning Styles
Questionnaire:
http:www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilweb.html.to find out your
own learning style.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Complete also learning style questionnaire available
at:www.whatismylearningstyle.com>global-vs-analytic-test
2. Complete the following table by filling in five characteristics of high

achievers.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
120
Tip
You need to revisit McClelland’s achievement theory before answering
activity 2. https://www.mindtools.com>pages>article>human-
motivation-theory
Assessment
a. Assignment 1 to 2 is for your self-response. These are to help you
b. Assignment 3 to 4 is to be submitted online in not more than 150
1. Explain how intelligence is influenced by:
i. Genetic inheritance
ii. Culture
iii. Experience
2. If Arthur Jensen was giving a public lecture at your University or
place of work what questions or comments would you want to pose

to him based on his article on “How Much Can We Boost IQ and
Scholastic Achievement? Accessible at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org>
3. Explain how negative attitude to the following elements may reduce
motivation to learning:
i. The facilitator of a discussion
ii. The subject being learnt
iii. The learning situation and
iv. Self as a learner.
4. Using motivation principles, explain how schools in various cultures

motivate students to learn.
****************************************************
TOPIC SEVEN: INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEMORY
121
Introduction
Welcome to topic seven. We will look into how our learning depends on
our memory. In this topic we are going to look at three basic perspectives
on memory processes, namely: the information processing model;
theories of forgetting and loss of memory; and improving memory.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

 Explain processes involved in information processing

 Discuss theories of forgetting and memory loss
 Discuss strategies of increasing memory efficiency
Topic Content
7.1 Information Processing Model

When memory is compared with the computer, information processing is
referred to as the software of the memory. If you have been in a noisy
environment or where there are multiple conversations, you can still be
able to sustain a conversation with a friend. This happens through what is
referred to as selective attention. As shown in the figure given below
122
you mind blocks stimuli (sensory information) that are not important to
you.
Before we discuss how our minds process the sensory information we

receive from the environment, let us first have a basic understanding of
what the memory is. By definition memory is the mental ability to retain
and recall information that you have learned or experienced.
Measuring Memory
The next question is how is memory measured? The following tests are
used to measure memory:
Recall
This method requires a person to reproduce correctly what he/she has

previously learned. You may have been taught civil rights and racial
discrimination in USA and one recall question you may be asked is: Who
said the following statement: “I have a dream”.
Recognition
Recognition is discrimination between seen and unseen materials, items,

choices, and objects. This is common in multiple choice tests in which
you are required to identify the correct answer out of the distracters or
asked to identify the missing parts of objects. The case of Kendi Oketch
we discussed in Topic six is an example of recognition. She had difficulty
with recognition of words and numbers.
123
Re-learning
The difference between the number of trials to learn the material initially
learnt and the number of trials required. For example, if relearning
material that was once learned may require ten (10) trials and initial
learning the same material required twenty (20) trials, the difference of
10 is the index of retention.
a) Initial learning of material took 20 trials.

b) Re-learning same materials took 10 trials
Therefore 20–10=10 is the index of retention
If one person takes five trials to relearn and other takes 10 trials, the one
who took 5 trails has a better memory.
Information Processing Model
This is the model that explains how memory works. The information
processing model given below involves three memory processes, namely:
 Encoding
 Storage (Retention)
 Retrieval
Light Encoding Retrieval

Storage
Sounds
Taste
Smell
Touch
Encoding (Receipt of Sensory Information)

This is the first stage of information processing. This is the sensory
register of the brain. It involves the registration of the basic information
124
or receipt of sensory information from our five senses: sight, hearing,
taste, smell and touch. When you are looking at a painting or a photo or
when you are hearing a friend’s phone, this information is temporally
registered or encoded through the operation of sensory receptors and
internal nervous circuits.
Storage (Retention)
This second process reflects the fate of the information encoded. The
storage involves two processes: rehearsal and coding.
Retrieval (Recall)
This third process of the memory involves the utilization of stored
information. Thus, if I were to ask you the name of your Standard Three
teacher, it is not enough that it was originally encoded and stored; you
must be able to find it and retrieve it from your mental storehouse. Even
if it is there, somewhere, it is still possible you will not come up with it; it
is inaccessible. Inaccessibility should be distinguished from unavailability.
If information is “lost” it is unavailable, not simply inaccessible at the
moment. Thus, if a book is misplaced in a library or if its catalogue card
is out of order, the book is inaccessible; but if the book is not in the
library (discarded or stolen), then it is unavailable.
Why Do We Fail to Remember Things?

Since memory depends on these three processes – encoding, storage and
retrieval – the failure to remember something does not tell us much about
where the fault lies.
 Perhaps it was never encoded.
 Perhaps it was encoded but not kept in a permanent store and so it
is unavailable.
 May be it was encoded and stored but it is currently inaccessible.
7.2 Theories of Forgetting and Loss of Memory

You may ask yourself the following questions:
125
 Why should people have diaries, address books, calendars,
notepads, etc.?
 Why do parents and teachers of young children give repeating a
statement more than once to a young child?
 Why after 20 years you cannot remember the names of some of
your classmates in high school?
 Why after the final high school examination, we cannot remember
the formula for calculating the area of a cylinder?
These situations have something to do with how we receive, process, and
store information in our memory. The answer is to aid memory. A number
of factors contribute to forgetting or loss of memory – inability to recall
things from memory. These factors include:
Brain damage/head injuries
 Through an accident, disease, or at birth or drugs the mother took
during pregnancy. The part of the brain that deals with new memories
and learning is called the hippocampus. If this part is damaged we
lose memory.
 Brain diseases are also major causes of memory loss. Children who
suffer from brain diseases appear confused and also have
speech/communication problems.
126
Information fading/decay
Information fades or decays overtime because of:
 Age of the learner (aging effects).
 Not being used frequently e.g. formula; home-made shorthand that
many students employ in lectures fades from memory.
 Learning the subject that was boring and uninteresting.
These situations are called decay theory.
Anxiety
Material that can readily be recalled in a relaxed state may prove elusive
when an individual is in a stressed state.
Nutrition
Poor nutrition is a cause of memory failure in later life. Nutritional
deficiency in protein and fats affect brain development and memory.
Drugs
Many drugs have been associated with memory problems. The most
widely known of these are alcohol and caffeine, both of which, if abused
over a long period, are associated with severe memory loss. Also
sedative, sleeping pills and tranquilizers have been found to impair
memory performance. Other bad foods for memory are: artificial
sweeteners, foods high in sugar content and fatty foods.
Interference Theory
 Forgetting is more likely to occur as a result of the interference of
the other learned material.
 Our attempts to recall material we have memorized may be
interfered with or inhibited by:
-Material we learned earlier (proactive inhibition) or
-Material learned subsequently (reactive inhibition).
Most forgetting takes place through proactive inhibition.
7.2.1 Prior Learning (Proactive Interference)
127
Proactive interference occurs when earlier learned materials seem to
block the recall of later learned materials, as when, for example, a child
starts learning a second foreign language and finds himself unable to
remember the word he wants because the equivalent in the first foreign
language keeps coming to mind.
Last week’s material Blocks This week’s material recall
7.2.2 Later Learning (Retroactive Interference)
Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned materials appear to

inhibit the recall of that learned earlier. The phenomenon appears to take
place at all levels of learning and is apparent in the student, for example,
who crams for an examination and finds the facts he learned the night
before keep coming back when he tries to recall those he studied previous
week.
Previous Current
materials materials
stored at the Blocks stored in EXAMINATION
back of the front of last SITUATION
brain being week material
blocked by and hence
last night interfering
materials. with recall of
last week
materials.
Types of Memory
At the practical level, psychologists recognize the existence of two types
of memory.
128
 Short-term memory
 Long-term memory
Short–Term Memory
Short-term memory is also called working memory (Cavanaugh &
Blanchard-Fields, 2006). All information received by the senses and which
we pay attention to enter short-term memory, but it can only be held
there briefly for between 2 and 30 seconds and it is either:
 Forgotten or
 Transferred to long-term memory.
Forgotten
orSensory Short-Term
Information Memory
Long-Term
Memory
Short time memory can hold an average of seven items.
Long-Term Memory
 Information transferred from Short-Term Memory to Long Term
Memory, held more permanently or over long periods of time.
Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2006) defined long-term memory
as “ability to remember rather extensive amounts of information
from a few seconds to a few hours to decades” (p.223),
 Information is held briefly in short-term memory and can be
forgotten and hence the need to transfer to long-term memory
where it can be held more permanently (though still subject to
forgetting).
 Long-term memory stores almost unlimited amount of information.
 Transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory is
vital for the teacher. Available evidence suggests transfer involves
129
some form of consolidation. Even after an interesting lesson,
children often remember little. This happens when each piece of
information is so quickly followed by the next delivery that there is
no time for consolidation.
Memory consolidation is the process where our brain converts short-term
memories into long-term ones.
7.3 Improving Memory

Let us look at how we can improve memory or minimize forgetting. A
number of strategies exist both for helping consolidation and for
increasing the efficiency of long term memory. The strategies or factors
that a teacher can use to aid or improve the child’s long-term memory
include, but not limited to:
 Pausing, repeating and questioning: Each of these prompts
children to dwell sufficiently upon material for transfer from short to
long-term to take place.
 Relevance and interest: Children best remember those things
that appeal directly to their own experience and feelings.
 Attention span: The process of concentrating on a task for any
length of time is difficulty for some children. Their attention
wanders, and material is neither listened to nor remembered. A
rough rule is that the teacher can expect to hold attention with a
normal class at any one point, even with interesting material, for
more than a minute-and- a- half for each year of the children’s age
(e.g. 10–15 minutes for a class of ten year olds).
 Practical use: Material that is put to practical use tends to be
remembered better than material which is not.
 Meaning: Material which is understood by the child is more
memorable than material which is not.
 Overlearning: Skills or knowledge that the child goes on practicing
and revising even after he apparently got them off to perfection or
mastery (i.e. material that is over-learned) persist better in the
memory than material that he does not. This is especially true of
130
material required to be remembered in a stressful situation (e.g. in
the examination room, on the concert platform).
 Chunking: Chunking means grouping a set of items into
subgroups for easy recall. This reduces the number of items to be
remembered. Breaking materials into small or manageable chunks.
For example, in trying to memorize the telephone number
0720482588, you can reduce the chunks to be recalled as 0720,
482, 588 or as 07, 20, 48, 25, 88.
 Sleep/rest: Sleeping or resting after studying reduces interference
and enhances memory consolidation.
 Recitation: This method involves repeating to yourself what you
have learnt. Recitation forces you to practice retrieving information
as you learn.
 Creation of pictures or diagrams: It is easy to remember things
in form of pictures or diagrams e. g. physical geography.
 Association: Unfamiliar material is remembered more effectively if
it is associated with something familiar. Realization of the truth of
this lies behind the old (and good) primary school adage that
learning should always go from the known to the unknown; that is,
that new material should be keyed in by reference to the
association between it and something already known.
 Physical Exercise/Physical Education: Several studies have
shown the positive impact of exercise has on keeping the mind
sharp as people age. So do children.
 Nutrition: Locally available memory boosting foods include:
 Salmon: Omega–3 fatty acids- A nutrient found in salmon have
been shown to lower the risk of cell inflammation that triggers a
decline in memory.
 Spinach: Spinach and other leafy green vegetables have been
shown to slow memory decline due to aging.
 Red onions: Can help reverse age–related memory loss.
131
 Nuts and Seeds: There are sources of Vitamin E, which is an
important antioxidant that can help reduce a decline in memory as
you age.
 Lean beef: The iron content of lean beef is very important to a
person’s memory. Studies have shown the possibility of a link
between iron deficiency and memory loss. Iron is important to the
body and helps keep the mind sharp. Those who are suffering an
iron deficiency can become anaemic and start to lose their memory.
Topic Summary
This topic exposed you to the role of information processing and memory
in learning. One thing we noted in this topic is that information being
transmitted to our memory comes to us in the form of stimuli through our
five common senses and that not all stimuli that come to us will be
attended to or processed. We also discussed that the process of
information takes place through encoding, storage and retrieval. You were
also exposed to situations when memory is not functioning or is impaired
and in such situations we forget what we had learnt. We explored
improvement of memory in such situations.
Further Reading


132
Belmont: Wadsworth.
Topic Activities
1. Explain in your own words the term “working memory” in the space
provided below.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Were you ever in a situation where you experienced retroactive

interference? In what situation were you? Write down what you did
in space provided below.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tip
Remember the two types of interferences in long term memory.
Assessment
133
1. In reference to https://explorable.com>selective-attention explain
the concept selective attention.
2. Briefly discuss the memory process and explain how a child
remembers a friend’s telephone number.
3. Discuss two processes that are involved in memory storage.
4. Explain two ways that a teacher can use to improve the memory of
his/her students.
****************************************************
134
TOPIC EIGHT: TRANSFER OF LEARNING
Introduction
Welcome to topic eight. Educational programmes presume that after

formal instruction students have the ability to transfer what they have
learned from one situation to another and indeed, for several decades
educationists have raised questions on: whether the child’s mastery of
mother tongue makes it easy for the child to learn other languages or do
better in school; whether the mastery of numeracy make children logical
thinkers; and whether the mastery of music skills useful in studying
physics. Indeed, for many years, schools and colleges in Europe were
required to offer courses in Latin and geometry because they were
believed that Latin and geometry strengthened memory and reasoning,
respectively. The research on transfer of learning or transfer of training
started with questions like these. From these perspectives, this topic
addresses the principles that underpin transfer of learning and their
applications to the educational practice and training.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

135
 Explain the term “transfer of learning”

 Explain types of transfer of learning.
 Describe the theories of transfer of learning.
 Apply transfer of learning principles to educational and training
settings.
Topic Content
8.1 Principles of Transfer of Learning

Many plane crashes have been attributed to lack of transfer of skills from
old planes to new planes. After World War 11 new fighter jets were
introduced and many experienced pilots lost their lives in identical
crashes. The crashes were attributed to pilots applying earlier landing
skills or habits which were not appropriate to new jets. The old skills were
not transferrable to the new jets. This is same case in the recent
Ethiopian Airline that crashed on March 10, 2019. The experienced pilots
were alleged not to have mastered the new functionalities of 737 MAX 8.
136
8.1.1 Definition of Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning implies application of learned concepts, knowledge

and skills/attitudes learned in one situation to another or a new situation.
Transfer of learning applies to all forms of learning and training in all
disciplines and professions. In a non-classroom situation, this implies
trainees’ application of their knowledge and skills gained in training to
their jobs. Evidence of transfer is often used as a measure of learning-
that learning has taken place. What we have learned in the past can
affect our present learning.
For more information on the concept of transfer of learning and its
importance visit: “what is transfer of learning and why it is important? at:
https://www.youtube,com>watch
8.1.2 Types of Transfer of Learning
Studies show that second language students learn English more quickly
and effectively if they maintain and develop their proficiency in the
mother tongue. Many skills acquired in the first language can be
transferred to the second language. For example, a child who has
137
developed good reading skills in a native language is likely to be able to
apply these skills when learning English. This is reason behind UNESCO’s
recommendation of teaching using mother tongue in lower primary
school. However, this is a contestable position in multi-linguistic
communities.
There are three types of transfer of learning, namely:

 Zero transfer
 Positive transfer
 Negative transfer
8.1.3 The Basic Transfer Learning Design

You may want to experimentally investigate the effects of learning of
learning of Latin on learning English. This design attempts to answer
question: Which group is performing better or learning faster? Such an
experimental design may be represented by the following design:
Basic Transfer Design
Learn Learn Test

Group 1(Experimental): Latin (X) English (Y) English (Y)
Group 2(Control): ……… English (Y) English (Y)
 Like in any experiment, subjects are randomly assigned to Group 1

and Group 2.
 If no difference between Group 1 and Group 2, then zero transfer.
That is, learning X has no effect in learning Y.
 If Group 1 performs better than Group 2, then positive transfer has
taken place. That is, transfer is positive when learning (Y) is helped
by previous learning (X).
 Transfer is negative if previous learning or habits (X) got in the way
of learning a new task (Y).This is when learning (Y) is not helped by
138
learning X. If Group 1 performs worse or makes more errors than
Group 2, then negative transfer has taken place.
The ease or magnitude of transfer from one task to another depends on

similarities and differences between the old and the new items. In the
basic transfer design:
 The experimental group receives both tasks X and Y, whereas the
control group receives only task Y.
 We compare the performance of the two groups on task Y.
 If the experimental group (Group1) performs better than the control
group (Group 2), we say that this is due to the effects of task X.
That is the experience with X improves Y.
Zero Transfer
In zero transfer, learning Y after X is essentially equal to learning just Y.

This is also called neutral transfer.
Learn X then learn Y = No difference on performance. Hence there is no
effect of learning X on learning Y. Learning X makes no difference in
learning Y.
This means:
 The performance on a new task (Y) seems to be unrelated to
performance on a prior task (X).
Positive Transfer
In positive transfer, learning Y after X is more rapid or occurs with

fewer errors than learning only Y. Learning X makes Y easier to learn.
 Learn X then learn Y= less errors in learning Y. Hence new learning
is helped by previous learning X.
139
This means:
 The results of previous learning (X) enhance or increase
performance in a new situation (Y).
 Many educational programmes assume that formal instruction will
result in positive transfer when students leave school and go on to
other tasks.
Negative Transfer
In negative transfer, learning Y after X is slower or occurs with more

errors than learning only Y. Learning X = makes Y harder to learn.
Learn X then learn Y= more errors in learning Y. This means prior
learning (X) has decrement effect to performance in a new situation (Y).
That is when previous habits get in the way of a new task.
For more information on positive and negative transfer visit: “Learning
and transfer of training” at: https://www.youtube.com>watch
8.2 Theories of Transfer of Learning

There are two theories of transfer of learning.
8.2.1 Theory of Identical Elements
This theory, initially proposed by Thorndike, states that transfer occurs

where the earlier learning situation is similar or identical to another
situation. The more the similarity of the situations, the more the transfer
of learning. That is, the more the similarity there is between learning
situations; the more likely it is that transfer will occur. For this reason,
pilot training often involves a simulation of the actual airplane cockpit and
various situations are programmed onto the instruments so that the pilot
learns to react appropriately.
There are several theories that have been put to explain the
disappearance of Malaysia passenger Airline Flight MH 370 on March 8,
2014 with 227 passengers. The plane left Kuala Lumpur airport for Beijing
140
airport. To this date, the plane has never been traced. The theories that
have been advanced for its disappearance include:-
 Conspiracy by CIA
 Explosion in Mid–air
 Mechanical malfunction
 Burns from inside
 Short by US missile for crossing unauthorized zone
 Suicide plan by one of the co-pilots  who may have incapacitated
his co-pilot.
https://en.wikipedia.org>wiki>Malaysia_Airlines_370
The plausible theory (suicide theory) on the disappearance of Malaysia

Airline Flight MH 370 on March 8, 2014 is that one of the two pilots who
had been practicing on his home simulator might have been responsible
for causing the disappearance. Simulators are mock models used in pilot
training schools. They mimic many of the problems a pilot might run into
while operating the plane.
a. Pilot on simulator
141
b. Plane diversion
c. Plane crashed
142
8.2.1 Theory of Generalization of Experience/Stimulus
Generalization
This theory provides that what is learnt in Task “A” transfers to task “B”
because in studying “A” the learner develops a general principle which
applies in part or completely in both “A” and “B”.
Stimulus and response relations are also important for transfer whenever
the learning involves clear-cut stimulus – response reactions. In tasks
that involve learning to shift a response to a new stimulus, positive
transfer is greater when the two stimuli are most similar. Let us use an
example drawn from a country like Kenya with multilingual societies. The
majority of the communities are Bantu and hence share similar
phonemes. For example, after learning that “Itano” means “five” in
Kikamba community it is easier to learn the Kiswahili word for “Five”
“Tano”, or itano in Kisii both being bantu than it is to learn the Kalenjin
word “five”, Mut or imiet in Masaai that are not bantu.
Response
Stimulu
s
“Isano” - Kisii
“Ithano” - Kikuyu
“Itano”
Kikamba
“Tano” – Kiswahili
143
8.3 Application of Transfer of Learning Principles
Transfer of learning has implications for educational practice.
Visit:https://www.youtube,com>watch. We know that when pupils learn
essay writing skills in English, they use the same skills to write essay in
History.
8.3.1 Relationship of Old and New subject
The teacher should know that transfer of learning will not take place when
both the old and new are unrelated. Hence, the teacher should
endeavour to teach his/her subject-matter in a more meaningful and
detailed way rather than by note.
8.3.2 Provision for Opportunity for Practice
The teacher should provide the opportunity for his/her students to

practice a subject-matter being discussed. When the learners are allowed
to take active part in teaching-learning activities, they will be able to
repeat the task at another time.
While teaching the teacher should reduce verbalism and replace with
objects, charts, and motion pictures. That is, the teacher should base the
classroom work on life-like materials.
8.3.3 Emphasis on Relationship
For a transfer of learning to take place, the teacher should always

emphasize the relationship that exists between one subject matter and
another.
8.3.4 Positive Attitude
The teacher should endeavour to develop positive attitudes towards a

learning task so that the students can be motivated to like the task rather
than avoiding it.
144
8.3.5 Task Manipulation/Experience
It is believed that what students see, touch, feel or manipulate will be

better remembered and transferrable than the one they are not familiar
with. Hence, for a meaningful transfer to take place, the teacher should
incorporate exercises that task the various senses of learners in the
learning process that involve touch, visual aid, sound and smell.
8.3.6 Explicit Teaching
The teacher may explicitly or directly teach children how to use or apply
skills they have learnt in different situations.
8.3.7 Group Learning
Where children learn in groups each child brings in his/her experiences

outside the classroom that others can learn from (transfer to others)
8.3.8 Generalizing
This is where we teach children to learn to generalize broader principles

to specific situations. E.g. how the principles of human rights can be used
to fight against FGM practices.
Topic Summary
In this topic you were introduced to the old debate on the study of Latin
and geometry in schools and the thinking that what is learnt or taught in
one situation is applicable to other situations provided that the two
situations share identical elements in a subject or activity and where
stimulus generalization can be made. This is the origin and essence of the
whole concept of transfer of learning or training that you were exposed to
in this topic. You were also exposed to different types of transfer of
learning and implications for educational practice.
Further Reading
145

Plotnik, R., &Kouyoumdjian, H. (2014). Introduction to psychology.

Belmont: Wadsworth.
Topic Activities
1. Who do you think is responsible for the transfer of learning? Write your
thoughts down in the space provided below.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Take a minute to think about the next activity, and write your answer
down in the space provided below. What factors do you think influence
transfer of learning?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
146
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tip
Think of a child who is assigned the task of milking cows and how such an
activity helps him or her in conservation of liquid test.
Assessment
test your comprehension of the coverage of the topic.
1. Give a common definition of the term “transfer of learning”. In

answering this question consult: www.psychologydiscussion
net>essay>essay-transfer-of-learning-types
2. Discuss using the learning of English and Kiswahili the basic transfer of
learning design.
3. Explain in three paragraphs educational interpretation of:
 Zero
 Negative transfer
 Positive transfer
4. Discuss the place of transfer of learning in educational setting.
****************************************************
147
TOPIC NINE: CONCEPT LEARNING
Introduction
Welcome to topic nine. The topic focuses on how children and adults learn
concepts through Piaget’s principles of assimilation and accommodation,
the attributes of concepts, the mechanisms of learning concepts and
instructional and educational applications of concept learning in a
classroom set up.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

 Define concept.
 Identify the basic attributes of concepts.
 Differentiate between assimilation and accommodation.
 Explains how concept learning takes place.
 Explain the place of concept learning in classroom setting.
148
Topic Content
9.1 First Language Acquisition

In our Topic One you were introduced to the concept of Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) and critical period in learning a language. From
human development perspective, at the age of around 14 months, a child
starts to learn language around him or her. The major sequence of first
language learning is as follows:
 One-word utterance stag e.g. “Dog”

 Two-word utterance stage e.g. “Little dog”
 Three-word utterance e.g. “Two little dogs”
 Telegraphic stage
 Multiword stage
One-Word Utterance
At this age a child uses one word as a kind of shorthand to communicate.

He/she may utter the following words to his/her caretaker:
“Milk”- to mean can I have a cup of milk.
“Ball”- to mean give me a ball or that is my ball.
Sometimes, a child may point at a picture of an animal. At this point

he/she is asking for the name of the animal.
Two-Word Utterance
“Mama gone”- meaning mum has gone.
When children are exposed to a situation where they are animals, they
take mental photos of these animals for future identification.
“A dog”- a four-legged animal that barks
“A cat”- a four-legged animal that says “meows”
“A rabbit”- a four legged animal with fur
149
The question you need to answer yourself is: How does a 3 year old child
learns to distinguish a dog from a cat and a cat from a rabbit?
9.2 Definition of a Concept

Let us now look at the definition of a concept. A concept is a mental
category of objects or events. Remember we have said that a child takes
mental photos/pictures of objects within is growing environment. In this
context a concept is a classification of stimuli that have or share common
characteristics. In other words, concepts are classes of objects, symbols
and events that are grouped together in some fashion by shared
characteristics. Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2014) defined a concept as “a
way grouping or classifying objects, events, animals or people based on
some features, traits, or characteristics that they all share in common”(p.
306).
It is through concepts that we make sense of the world. Thus a young

child has:
 A concept of “big things”.
 A concept of “small things”.
 A concept of “a dog”.
When the child encounters or is faced with problems of any kind he/she
attempts to make sense of them by fitting them into the range of
concepts or mental pictures that he/she already has. For example, if an
urban child visits a village farm and sees a cow for the first time, he/she
may call it a “big dog” – because he already holds the concept of a dog.
Once he/she realizes the differences between a dog and the cow, he/she
modifies or replaces his/her concept of calling a cow “a big dog”.
Concepts are built up, sometimes over the years, by observation,
abstraction and generalization; they are sometimes by-products of other
learning.
Piaget formulated the theory of how children form concepts that are
involved in thinking. The theory purposes that the way we are able to
form and handle concepts changes as we go through childhood into
150
adolescence and adulthood. Children formation of concepts are in
concrete form while at adulthood we can understand concepts in abstract
form, for example, truth, justice, democracy, human rights.
According to Piaget, the two cognitive processes that the child goes
through in learning concepts are:
 Assimilation
 Accommodation
These two cognitive processes constitute what Piaget called adaptation.
What is assimilation?
Assimilation is a cognitive process that describes how we take in new
information and incorporate the new information into our existing
knowledge. For example, when a young child learns the concept of “dog”
for the family pet, he eventually begins to identify every similar-looking
canine as “a dog”.
What is accommodation?
Accommodation is a cognitive process that involves alteration of existing
concept or ideas as a result of new information or new experience. For
example, a young child may have an existing concept of a dog – as an
animal with four legs. So the child may automatically believe that all
animals with four legs are dogs. When the child learns that cats also
have four legs, she will undergo a process of accommodation in which her
existing idea/concept of a dog will change and she will also develop a new
idea/concept for cats.
Both assimilation and accommodation go on at the same time.
To test whether a child has formed a particular concept, we simply
present him/her with unfamiliar objects and see if he/she can identify the
ones to which the concept applies. For example, to see whether a child
who has learned to call grass “green” actually has acquired the concept of
“greenness”, we present him/her with various unfamiliar objects, some
151
green and others not. We conclude that he/she has formed the concept
of “greenness” if he/she can apply the label “green” to the correct object.
9.3. Mode of Learning Concepts

From the way we have seen how children learn concepts and the nature
of concepts, the two modes of learning concepts that have been identified
are:
 Learning by observation: Concepts that are learnt outside the

school are learnt through observation. As we have seen a young
child learns the concept of a dog by observing the attributes of this
animal. As Piaget said, this concrete learning is common among
young children.
 Learning by definition: Not all concepts are learnt through
observation. Non-observational concepts are learnt through
definition. A concept of “aunt” or “justice” cannot be observed.
Slavin (2015) tells us that to be an “aunt”, one must be female
whose brother or sister has children.
9.4 Attributes of Concepts

Concepts are grouped together on the basis of the following attributes or
shared characteristics:
 Functionality (classification on the basis of functions)
- Chair, tables, stools = Furniture
- Chair, sofa set, stools = Things we sit on
- Spear, gun and arrow = Things for defence
- Telephone, mobile phone, radio = Things for communication.
- Newspapers, book & painting = Things that tell stories.
 Similarity (classification on the basis of similarities)
- Shape = Square, circular, triangle
- Size = Small, big, tall, short
- Texture = Cloth, sack, mat
- Colour = Black, white, yellow
- Features = Having 4 or 2 legs
152
- Mass(quantity)= Heavy, light
 Differentiation (classification on the basis of differences)
- Man, animal, tree = Living things
- Stone, copper, nail = Non-living things
- Milk, water, kerosene = Liquids
- Lion, leopard, rhino = Wild animals
- Dogs, cow, donkey = Domesticated animals
9.5 Instructional Strategies in Concept Learning

There are several strategies involved in concept learning. Common
instruction strategies that facilitate concept attainment include:
 Reinforcement. Immediate reinforcement to the learner is effective
in school related concept learning.
 Application of discrimination and generalization principles. In
forming a concept, a student must first discriminate between
relevant and irrelevant features of the object. Second, the student
must generalize by correctly identifying the several instances that
belong to the conceptual category.
 Use of examples or non-examples of the concept. In helping
students to form concepts, teachers should know whether
examples, non-examples or examples, and non-examples combined
are most effective. Examples are members of a concept class e.g.
animals with four legs. Non-examples are non-members of the
concept class. Those without four legs e.g. two legs.
 Example: Teaching concept of “mammal”:
 Examples of mammals are dogs, cats, and humans
 Non-examples of mammals are insects, reptiles, and fish.
 Extensive use of examples is effective in teaching concepts.
Concepts are best learned when acquired within meaningful contexts.
Where possible, the instruction should draw upon students’ existing
knowledge to put the concepts into a context that has meaning and
153
employment potential. For example, historical (i.e. events) concepts are
meaningful when viewed within the context or culture of the current
environment.
9.6 Educational Applications

Concept formation is central to a child’s educational progress in school.
 The ability to think clearly involves grasping of concepts. No matter
what subject/content area the child is studying, failure to
understand what is required of him/her, and to identify and tackle
the problems are barriers to the child’s educational progress. It is
difficult for a child to understand geometry if he lacks the concepts
of angles and perpendicular; to write a story without the concepts
of sentence, description and characterization.
 The clarity and completeness of a child’s concepts are the best
measure of his success in school learning because meaning is
fundamental to such learning. Such school activities such as
arithmetic, reading and social studies are built on meaning.
 Concepts are premises, the foundations and structural steel of
thinking. If a child has wrong concepts of multiplication he is
handicapped in mathematics achievement.
 Concept formation facilitates organization of information. We only
need to store one mental image of an average dog and hence we do
not need to store images of 100 dogs. Once the children have learnt
general principles, they apply to all other situations.
 Concept formation facilitates avoidance of re-learning. Once you
developed classification or categorization of things you do not have
to relearn every time you encounter the object.
Topic Summary
In this topic you were introduced to the notion of concept learning. We
discussed that we come to learn these things if we experience or interact
with them in our growing environment through the process of assimilation
and accommodation. We also discussed that this adaptation process
154
requires that we group and classify objects and events according to the
features they share in common and that this process helps us to
differentiate these objects and events whenever we encounter them so
that we do not have to relearn.
Further Reading



Belmont: Wadsworth.
Topic Activities
1. Complete the following diagram by explaining each term in your own
words as applied to concept formation
a) Assimilation
-------------------------------------------------------
b) Accommodation
-------------------------------------------------------
2. Take a minute to answer the following questions. On what basis would

you classify different objects and events together?
Objects and Events Classification Attributes
Laptop, computer, mobile phone, TV
155
Shirt, dress, trouser, coat
Arrow, pistol, bomb
Oil, copper, stone, Tanzanite
Lion, tiger, lynx
Knowledge, comprehension, application
Tip
In this activity refresh your knowledge on environmental impact on a
child’s cognitive development before engaging in this activity.
Assessment
a. Assignment 1 is for your self-response. This is to help you assess
your understanding of the coverage of the topic.
b. Assignment 2 is to be submitted online in not more than 150 words
1. Define “concept learning” according to Wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org>wiki>Concept_Learning
2. Explain possible differences in spatial ability development between
a child growing up herding goats in a rock mountain and a non-
herder.
****************************************************
156
TOPIC TEN: PROBLEM SOLVING
Introduction
Welcome to topic ten. Those who play chess know that chess playing
requires a lot of thinking. The best thinker and problem solver wins the
game. When we are faced with a problem, we try to find out a rule or a
plan or a strategy that we can provide a solution. It is in this course that
we will discuss the various approaches and strategies that we can use to
solve problems.
Topic Time
exercises [3 hours]

 Define the concepts of a problem and problem-solving

 Discuss and give examples of problem-solving strategies
 Discuss obstacles to solving problems
157
Topic Content
10.1 Problem and Problem-Solving

What is a problem?
A problem is a task which a child can understand but for which he does
not have an immediate solution. Problems make immediate and specific
demands on an individual and often have to be solved rather quickly.
What is problem-solving?
Problem solving is the process by which the child goes from the task or
problem as he sees it to a solution which, for him/her, meets the
demands of the problem. Problem solving behaviour occurs in response to
a problem situation. Though problem situations are unique to the
individuals and vary in complexity, they all require a focus.
For example:
 A young child trying to climb the stairs at home. The unsolved
problem is how to get to the top of the stairs or access mum’s
bedroom upstairs.
158
 Pre-school children climbing peg ladder as shown below. The
unsolved problem is how to get to the top of the ladder.
These five-year old pre-school children are involved in problem-solving

exercise. In their efforts to climb the peg ladder, they are responding
differently to the structure of the apparatus and focusing on strategies
that make the most impact on their success.
 High school students trying to prove the triangle sum theorem in
geometry.
159
 University student’s trying to get elected as the President of
students’ government/congress. The unsolved problem is how to
get elected.
In all these situations, the problems are different and hence different
strategies are being used to solve the problem or achieve the solution.
The strategy, the candidate campaigning for the position of the President
of the student government is door to door campaign. This might have
been applied before and the results were positive. She agrees with
strategy of narrowing the focus to individual voters.
Common Threads
From the above examples the problems being addressed by various
groups, we see the following commonalities:
 That a child must be able to understand a task before it is a
problem to him/her. If the teacher gives a child a task which
he/she does not understand, that can be considered a “puzzle”
rather than a problem. To ask a child to find the percentage gain
on selling potatoes when he has no clear idea of percentage is to
give him a puzzle rather than a problem.
160
 That a problem is rather individual matter. What is a problem to
one child or adolescent may not be a problem to his nearest
neighbour.
 That the solution must be the child’s own solution (see children
climbing the peg ladder using their own individual strategies).
Steps in Problem Solving

Problem-solving is internally driven and the person involved in the
assignment must have a high level of interest. Similarly, the materials to
work with in solving the problem are available. In summary, the two
critical steps in problem-solving are:
Becoming interested in a problem

The person who is completely unmotivated will not think- like those
students given below. The need for the learner to recognize the problem
is an important step in the solution of a problem. This gives the problem
solver an opportunity to sustain attention to the problem.
Assembling the materials with which to work

A pre-school child can only carry out inter-locking exercise if he/she has
the required materials.
161
10.2 Problem-Solving Strategies
There are many strategies for solving-problems. These include:
Trial and Error
When we discussed Thorndike’s Law of Effect we said that trial and error
involves trying out different solutions until one works. This is what the cat
did until it found a solution of getting out of the Puzzle Box. This type of
strategy is practical only when the number of possible solutions is
relatively small.
Algorithms
Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that are guaranteed to achieve a

particular goal. For example: A cookbook provides recipe for preparing
different types of soup. A manual provided by manufacturers provides
step-by-step strategy of how to detect a problem in a product.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is the process by which a particular conclusion is

drawn from a set of general premises or statement. The conclusion has to
be true if the premises are to be true. For example: If the premises
a. “All birds have wings” and a penguin is a bird” are true, then the
conclusion, “A penguin has wings” must also be true.
b. All women have breasts; Janet has breasts and so Janet is a
woman.
c. All women wear skirts. Mary Atieno is a woman. Conclusion: Mary
Atieno also wears a skirt.
d. All men are mortal. John is a man, so he is mortal
e. Maasai love livestock. Ole Tutu is a Maasai so, he (Ole Tutu) loves
livestock.
162
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process by which a general conclusion is drawn

from specific observation. In this case, the conclusion is likely, but not
guaranteed, to be true. That is, inductive reasoning starts from specific
observation and derives general conclusions from them. For example,
1. “All swans which have been observed are white in colour. Therefore
one can conclude that all swans are white”.
2. Mary Atieno eats fish. Since Mary Atieno is a human being, one can
make a general statement that “all human beings eat fish”.
Heuristics
A heuristic is a general rule of thumb that may lead to a correct answer

but doesn’t guarantee one. This rule of thumb may not work in certain
situations. For example, a useful heuristic approach for finishing a timed
examination such as a CAT might be “Do the easy questions first”.
Dialectical Reasoning
Dialectical reasoning is the process of going back and forth between

opposing points in order to come up with a satisfactory solution. For
example, a first year B.Ed. (Arts) student might use dialectical reasoning
when she considers the pros and cons of choosing History as one of her
two teaching subjects.
Changing one’s Mental Set
From our definition of learning that we covered in Topic One, we said that
we learn by practice and through experience. This means that if we were
able to solve a problem at one stage using specific strategies we may
generalize that those strategies work in all situations. We develop mental
sets and fixedness. A mental set by definition is the tendency to use
problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past. Sometimes old
163
strategies work sometimes they do not work for all problems and hence
the need for change.
Using Analogies
We learnt in our topic on intelligence that one of the elements of

intelligence test is the use of analogies for example a doctor is to patients
as a teacher is to pupils. In the same we use analogical strategies to solve
problems. By definition, an analogy is a strategy for finding a similarity
between the new situation and an old or familiar situation.
Forming Sub-goals
For practice, you may be asked to carry out a project in the nearby
nursery school on “aggressive behaviours of five year old boys”. This is
your problem to solve. How do you go about carrying out your project?
According to Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2014) a good strategy for solving
this problem is to breakdown the assignment into sub-goals as shown in
the box below:
Your Problem to Solve: Aggressive Behaviours of Five Year Old Boys

Your sub-goals are:
1.Carry out literature review 1
2. Summarize information in the literature 2
3.Give your own definition and measurement of aggression 3
4.Carryout and write your project 4
This is a practical strategy in research where the researcher breaks down

the research problem into parts. When these parts are put together they
result in a solution of a problem being addressed.
Obstacles to Effective Problem-Solving
The problems and obstacles that prevent people from solving problems
include:
164
Irrelevant Information
Focusing on irrelevant information hinders one from solving a problem.
Mental Set/ Past Experience
As discussed earlier, a mental set is a tendency to use only those

solutions that have worked in the past. Past experience may hinder
problem-solving. One way this happens is through rigid continuation of
behaviour which has been successful previously but which for some
reasons, is inappropriate to the present situation.
Making Assumptions
Making assumptions about constraints and obstacles that don’t exist

prevent people from solving problems effectively. There are people who
start to solve a problem with a negative attitude such “today is not a
lucky day for me”.
Frustration and Stress

Frustration and stress negatively affect learning. Stress is more of a
hindrance to problem-solving when the solving requires a complex
response that goes against old habits.
Topic Summary
In this topic you were introduced to the concept of problem-solving,

strategies and obstacles. We began by defining problem-solving and
discussed the main idea behind problem-solving. The starting point we
discussed is that an individual must be faced by unsolved issue or an
issue that requires immediate solution and that problem-solving situations
require reflective thinking.
Further Reading
165


Belmont: Wadsworth.
Topic Activities
1. Competency-Based Curriculum philosophy is based on nurturing talent
in learning. Do you think this is a workable solution to the problem
relating to education outcomes in Kenya? Why?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.Complete the following by identifying the different steps you could use
to complete your semester project on “sociability of nursery school girls”
a)
b)
166
c)
d)
Tip
Make sure that you operationally define sociability for purpose of
measurement.
Assessment
a. Assignment 1 is for your self-response. This is to help you assess
your understanding of the coverage of the topic.
b. Assignment 2 is to be submitted online in not more than 150 words
1. Explain how you can use the following in training pre-school
teachers on helping children to climb the playing ladder.
i. Inductive approach
ii. Deductive approach
iii. Dialectical approach
2. Using the examples you have encountered discuss how the
following can act as obstacles in problem-solving.
i. Mind-set
ii. Making assumptions
***********************************************************
167
168

Econtent Module Epsc 223 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Econtent Module Epsc 223 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Econtent Module Epsc 223 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ECONTENT MODULE EPSC 223 TO PDF

COLLEGE OF OPEN AND DISTANCE LEARNING

EPSC 223: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

COURSE PRELIMINARIES ............................................................................................................vi

Is this course for you? ..............................................................................................................vi

Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 135

Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 148

Topic Time ................................................................................................................................ 157

EPSC 223: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Is this course for you?

Welcome to psychology of learning course. As a student taking

Introduction to the course

Welcome to psychology of learning course. This course on the psychology

There are ten topics to be covered in this course, namely:

Topic 1: Domains of psychology of learning

Course Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this course you should be able to:

Course Study Skills

As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a

We recommend that you take time now-before starting your self-study--

The instructor for this course is Ezra Maritim. My office is in the

Assignments/activities are provided at the end of each topic. Some

 Timely submission of the assignments

 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice

Topic Learning Requirements

 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)

Topic Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Define the concept “learning” and “behaviour”.

1.1 The Domains of Psychology of Learning

First, it is difficult to define learning because it is a construct and hence

Second, there are various definitions of learning. Though learning falls in

This learning definition draws your attention to three things:

Critical Period in Language Learning

If a child has no opportunity to learn and practice a language he/she

1.3 Types of Learning

Operant learning is seen more among children who want to do something

i. Gross Motor Skills

ii. Fine Motor Skills

iii. Graph Motor Skills

Handwriting falls under graph-motor skills. Graph motor skills are

How to hold a pencil correctly

Developmentally, the graph-motor skill development emerges as follows:

1.5 Theories of Learning

Any discipline has its own theories. In psychology, we define a theory as a

How do you explain aggression (behaviour) in children or adults? In

Figure 1.1 Learning Theories

McLead, S. A. (2018). Nature vs. nurture in psychology.

Berk, L. E. (2013). Child development. Boston: Pearson.

Catania, A. C. (2013). Learning. New York: Sloan.

Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2006). Adult development and

Felder, R. M., & Solomon, B. A. (2005). Learning styles and strategies.

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology. Boston: Pearson.

1 Read the following case study:

Make sure you revisit nature-nurture debate in psychology of learning.

 Compulsory online reading, activities, self-assessments & practice

Topic Learning Requirements

 Participation in one chat (at least 5 entries)