CHAPTER 5

Bio-cultural Approach: The Essence of Anthropological Study

in the 21st Century
R. Khongsdier

INTRODUCTION needs to formulate and deal more with research

questions relating to problems or issues that are
It appears as though anthropology in the 20th socially relevant. With respect to the second
century confused itself by creating a vast array question, an attempt will be made to provide an
of sub-disciplines which are difficult to ascribe overview of some models/paradigms which are
to the same umbrella. Such a trend has both based on a series of assumptions and relation-
positive and negative scopes for the strength and ships. Such models can be modified or formulated
development of the discipline. Various practi- with new research questions to understand human
tioners and researchers of various sub-fields biological variability. Finally, the operational
represent a variety of perspectives, “particularly aspects and challenging tasks for bio-cultural
those that are comparative, developmental, studies are briefly mentioned keeping in view the
ecological, and/or evolutionary” (Dufour, 2006). scope and prospect of the subject.
Indeed, one may argue that there is nothing
wrong with such perspectives as far as we do not WHAT IS BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH?
deviate from the core of our discipline. However,
it is difficult to comprehend whether anthropology Bio-cultural approach is one which views
in the 21st century should have a core or not? humans as biological, social and cultural beings
This question is highly debatable. The answer in relation to the environment (McElroy, 1990). It
may be either affirmative or negative depending also views human biological variability as a
upon our understanding and vision of anthro- function of responsiveness and adaptation to the
pology. But we ought to acknowledge that environment with a special focus on the role of
anthropology is a science which is concerned socio-cultural environments. Its significance
with both biological and socio-cultural aspects consists in conceptual framework and models for
of humankind in time and space. It is neither dead understanding the dynamic interactions among
nor will it be dead, but suffers a setback at times. human biological/phenotypic, psychological and
This chapter is concerned with a bio-cultural/ socio-cultural traits in response to the environ-
bio-social approach to the study of human ment. Bio-cultural approach has been part of the
variation and evolution – the subject matter of long history of human biology and biological
anthropology as a scientific discipline. The basic anthropology (McElroy, 1990; Hruschka et al.,
premise is that the bio-cultural approach is 2005; Dufour, 2006), but it has gained more
essential for anthropological study of the survival momentum since the 1960s with the initiative of
and well-being of human populations in the 21st the Human Adaptability Project of the Inter-
century. The chapter is delimited to two basic national Biological Programme. Initially, it was
questions: What and why is bio-cultural mainly concerned with the influence of physical
approach? How is to go about it? As for the first environment on human biological variation, but
question, an attempt will be made to suggest that it has given rise to the incorporation of biotic and
bio-cultural approaches should be taken as socio-cultural environments into research
essential not only for bringing the gap between designs for understanding human biological
social/cultural and physical/biological anthro- variation.
pology but also for popularizing anthropology In most cases, central to bio-cultural studies
with integrative thinking especially in India. is the use of demographic, genetic and phenotypic
“Integrative thinking means rethinking basic traits such as fertility, mortality, anthropometric
assumptions, asking new questions, challenging measurements and indices, blood pressure,
existing theories, and forging new methods” hemoglobin, genetics markers, and so forth as
(McElroy, 1990). An attempt will also be made to indicators of the survival and well being of human
discuss that anthropology in the 21st century populations in different environments. These indi-
40 R. KHONGSDIER

cators are used to assess the interrelationship genetics, “life is genes and genes are life” (Weiss,
between biology and environment in terms of 2000), giving rise to modern synthesis theory of
ecological, historical, social, economic, psycholo- evolution. Evolution is defined as a change in
gical, behavioural and other cultural factors. The gene frequencies from generation to generation
work of Livingstone (1958) on the evolution of through the operation of mutation, natural
sickle-cell trait in West Africa is one of such good selection, genetic drift and migration – the major
examples. It is often cited as one of the best bio- evolutionary forces. The “modern synthesis
cultural models of disease (malaria) as an agent provided legitimacy for the Darwinian approach,
of natural selection resulting in genetic adaptation which was largely comparative and anatomical”
of human populations. It gives an explanation of (Weiss, 2000). “The New Physical Anthropology”
the interaction between sickle-cell anemia and conceptualized by Washburn in the 1950s, was
culture, which is linked with population growth, primarily an “area of interest, the desire to
agricultural expansion, prevalence of Plasmodium understand the process of primate evolution and
falciparum malaria and the evolution of sickle human variation”, and population genetics has
cell gene in West Africa (it will also be discussed become the core of the science. However,
in the Section on integrated bio-cultural model). Washburn also cautioned that evolution should
not be conceptualized in terms of non-adaptive
WHY BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH? traits or genes only because it is impossible if
evolution is largely due to natural selection. “If
The need for greater integration of cultural the form of human face can be thoroughly
and biological anthropology has recently become analyzed, this will open the way to the under-
the express concern of many anthropologists all standing of its development and the interpretation
over the world. In her comments on a series of of abnormalities and malocclusion . . . may lead to
views on physical anthropology at the millennium, advances in genetics, anatomy, and medicine”
Szathmáry (2000) writes, “What impressed me the (Washburn, 1951).
most . . . was the concern expressed by several Considering the recent findings on population
contributors about the need for greater integration genetics at the molecular level in particular, the
of the cultural and biological side of anthropology role of genes in understanding evolution is once
itself. The culture-biology interface, the inter- again thought-provoking. Recent DNA studies
action of these poles, and indeed, the need to of contemporary populations, especially
reintegrate these poles were themes touched on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), have revealed that
by several contributors.” Bio-cultural approach humans are relatively homogeneous with little
provides a basic framework to bridge the gap genetic variation (Rosenberg et al., 2002; Jorde
between cultural and biological anthropology, and Wooding, 2004), thereby leaving little scope
thereby depicting the true nature of anthropology for understanding genetic variation between
as a scientific discipline. In other words, bio- human populations. What actually is the role of
cultural approach of anthropological studies is gene in evolution? According to Weiss (2000),
one of those attempts to reintegrate sub-disci- “we have tended to forget that natural selection
plines, especially cultural and biological anthro- screens phenotypes not genotypes: it is organi-
pology, in the present century. It strengthens the sms that survive and reproduce. Darwin’s pan-
holistic approach to understanding the biological genesis was a form of genetic determinism in
and cultural aspects of human populations not which circulating heritable units (gemmules) were
only from sub-disciplinary but also from multi- directly controlled by phenotypes. But genetic
disciplinary perspective, thereby making anthro- variation is not directly controlled by phenotypes
pology more trans-disciplinary in nature. (so far as we know), and DNA is not the only
It may be acknowledged that Darwin’s theory thing in an egg, bud, or spore. Though genes
of natural selection has a considerable influence remain the only known quasi-permanent heritable
on the development of anthropology especially material, what determines success is the
biological anthropology. The 20th century is known phenotype of the organism. Selection does not
as a Darwinian century for biology. Natural identify the perfect genotype, and preserve it.
selection has been recognized as the most Selection identifies phenotypes that are too
important evolutionary force that patterns life and imperfect and removes them. As we identify the
screens biological variation. With the advent of genes involved in complex traits (most current
BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 41
data concern disease), we find that genetic a good evidence for the strength and positive
reductionism does not work as well as we development of anthropology in India (Basu,
expected.” 2003). These areas of interest can be ascribed to
Evolution as a change in gene frequencies the same umbrella of the “survival and well-being”
cannot be fully comprehended without consider- paradigm or “bio-cultural” approach to studying
ing the role of environment. If genes are not life biological and socio-cultural aspects of Indian
and life is not genes, what genes are for life? The populations.
answer to this question varies from one scholar
to another, but it is unquestionably believed that FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
the end product of the interaction between the
genetic constitution (genotype) and changing The need for greater integration of cultural
environment is the phenotypes. From the human and physical anthropology is indeed very crucial
biological point of view, phenotypes refer to the to the strength and identity of the discipline. But
morphological, physiological and biochemical the question of “what should we do?” is still
characteristics of humans as manifested through- debatable, which needs to be addressed meaning-
out their life. On the other hand, environment fully and practicably. There is no doubt that the
refers to all biotic, physical (abiotic) and socio- “the strength of anthropology as a discipline
cultural conditions that influence the growth, depends on what it contributes both to thought
development, health and survival of an individual and to society” (Peacock, 1997). Although
or a group of individuals. How far we have learned contributions of anthropologists to the scientific
the nature and extent of genotype-environment thought cannot be totally ignored, we may ask
interaction is again debatable, and we need to ourselves whether or not our thoughts are also
learn more about it in the present century. The formulated systematically and practically in such
basic observation of Darwin on variability of a way that they are socially relevant. Therefore,
phenotypes may, therefore, still remain the basic formulating meaningful-research questions that
research problem that would generate a lot of are socially relevant should be considered one of
research questions to be addressed clearly and the most effective ways to strengthen anthropo-
practicably in the 21st century. Accordingly, bio- logy as an important discipline in the present
cultural approach to studying human biological century.
and phenotypic variability should gain more Formulating research questions means asking
momentum in the 21st century. new questions in the light of previous questions/
Anthropologists in the 21st century ought to hypotheses/theories/methodology or empirical
develop integrative thinking with a view to research findings. Research question is a
making anthropological research more relevant statement or question that identifies the pheno-
to the survival and well-being of human popu- menon or problem to be investigated or experi-
lations. In his Presidential Address to the Anthro- mented. It is the guiding force for a given study
pology and Archeology Section of the Indian to generate, analyze and present qualitative and/
Science Congress in 1951, S. S. Sarkar, one of the or quantitative data in a systematic manner
well-known pioneers of biological anthropology (Maxwell, 1996). Barring the merits of descriptive
in India, visualized that the discipline should aim or ethnographic study, a research study without
and play an important role in making an research questions is many a time like a boat
individual healthy in mind and body and thus without oars, especially in biological anthro-
build a healthy nation. Considering the broad pology. Such type of study is often repetitive or
concept of health as a “complete physical, mental, messy because the researcher is bound to get
and social well-being” (WHO, 1971), the most mixed-up with different aspects of a given
effective way to strengthen and popularize problem. Research questions allow the researcher
anthropology is to have a set of common beliefs to deal with a given problem systematically, to
and agreements, or conceptual framework, to highlight its importance and priority, and to justify
study socially relevant problems including health why the proposed research on a given problem
problems as visualized by S.S. Sarkar. The interest should be carried out.
in nutrition, auxology, demography, human As for anthropological research in India, if
genetics, epidemiology, gerontology, medical one takes a glance at research papers published
anthropology and other health related studies is so far, one may admit that there is often an absence
42 R. KHONGSDIER

of research question(s) of social significance. In indigenous or marginalized groups vis-à-vis some

this connection, it may be worthwhile to mention numerically, technologically or socio-econo-
what Basu (2004) has written, “Glancing through mically dominant groups? One may add to these
the journals which published anthropological issues those concerning indigenous knowledge,
articles, in India and abroad, one is still confronted biodiversity maintenance, human rights
with numerous articles presenting the frequencies (individual legal rights and traditional community
of innocuous traits like tongue rolling, arm folding, rights), and so forth”(Basu, 2004). Indian
or describing the birth, marriage or death rates of anthropologists could have contributed to a great
well-or ill-defined social groups without any extent in understanding these issues of social
conceptual framework. Even if we grant that relevance.
anthropologists and fellow-travelers are hell-bent One of the most effective ways to formulate
on ensuring methodological rigor, including our thoughts to socially relevant questions is to
biochemical (of late molecular biological) and follow the bio-cultural approach. The different
statistical finesse, what are their research models given below are likely to generate different
questions?” The racial paradigm has still domin- forms and levels of research questions that are
ated the mind and thoughts of many biological socially relevant. It has been shown that a
anthropologists in India, and their research particular model is responsible for the formulation
questions are mostly to address the phylogenetic of another model with different research
relationship or differences and similarities questions. Under the bio-cultural approach, there
between population groups with respect to certain are a lot of research questions that are socially
traits. relevant, especially in developing countries like
The major concern is the lack of conceptual India where problems relating to the survival and
framework and meaningful-research questions in well-being of human populations are manifold
many research works relating to the biological (Huss-Ashmore and Johnston, 1985; Basu, 1987).
and/or socio-cultural aspects of Indian popu- In addition to diversity in physical environment
lations. If we are interested in reporting only the with different stressors and pathogens or disease
frequencies of certain traits as pointed out by vectors; other factors such as depletion of
Basu (2004), our research question is nothing but resources, disruption of ecologies, inadequate
mostly related to this question: Is the study food supply, socio-economic disparity, poverty,
population/group of individuals higher or lower illiteracy, population growth, increasing urbani-
than the other population(s)/group(s) of zation and modernization, migration, globalization,
individuals with respect to certain traits? ethnic conflicts, and so forth may have a consi-
Although biological anthropologists may not ask derable bearing on the survival and well-being of
specifically this question, it cannot be totally Indian peoples.
denied that the main purpose of many research
articles published from India and abroad is to BIO-CULTURAL MODELS
address this research question, which is of little
social significance. In other words, the results According to Thomas et al. (1989) “models
may be interesting to the educated few, but lack are representations of reality that depend largely
practical significance. Consequently, we should on a visual or mathematical framework to
not shy away from admitting that our contribution demonstrate relationships among essential
to the society is not as significant as it should be. components of a system.” A model is also defined
Considering the influence of “racial paradigm” as an exemplar or a paradigm formulated and
consciously or unconsciously on our thoughts, modified to accurately understand the study
one should have extended or modified the phenomenon (Basu, 2003). In the present
paradigm to the problems of ethnic conflict and discourse, a model is defined as an exemplar of a
its consequences for the survival and well-being system developed or modified to understand a
of the affected peoples. For example, “Why are study phenomenon which is interrelated with
there so much of ethnic upsurge and ethnic different aspects of the system. It is, therefore, a
conflict in recent decades? Why so much of heuristic tool to generate research questions or
ethnic conflicts even in societies generally known test hypotheses and approaches thereof to
to be homogeneous? … . Are these all because of understand a complex phenomenon. In bio-
a sense of insecurity perceived by small, cultural study, the system is composed of biology,
BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 43
culture and both biotic and physical environ- depicts the general adaptability model of the
ments in which certain behavioural, psychological human-environment interaction developed to
and biological characteristics of human popula- under-stand human adaptation. This model also
tions are the study phenomena. Each of these provides a starting point to deal with the complex
major parts of the system is again composed of interaction between human biology and
different components. The focus of attention is environment. It has four major parts: (a) physical
to understand the interrelationship of the selected or non-living environment – in terms of topogra-
components of the system at the population level, phy, climate, altitude and energy resources, (b)
especially those that reflect the interaction biotic environment – in terms of nutrition,
between biology and culture. pathogens, predators, etc., (c) cultural environ-
Models are based on a series of assumptions ment - in terms of behavioural, social, economic
and relationships that can be modified or and technological changes, and (d) human
formulated to study the complex phenomenon or variation in terms of demographic, morphological,
human biological variability in anthropological genetic, physiological, clinical and functional
research. For example, biological anthropology characteristics. This model serves as a device for
in India started with studies based on taxonomic understanding “elementary feedback relation-
or racial model. Initially, various studies adopted ships” (Thomas et al., 1989). The model does not,
Risley’s classification of Indian population on the however, provide sufficient guidelines on which
basis of morphological and anthropometric types of the environment and biological variation
techniques, followed by the additional use of of human populations should be the focus of
serological data, and recently by the use of study. Most studies under this model have
molecular and sophisticated statistical techni- considered an environmental stressor as an
ques. The main purpose of such studies is to independent variable, thereby taking many
understand the phylogenetic relationships among reductionist assumptions in which biotic and
Indian populations and sub-populations under physical environmental factors are regarded as
the basis of the exemplar of racial or taxonomic the major factors in bringing about human
model. With the initiative of the Human Adapta- biological variation. It, however, provides a
bility Project of the International Biological framework to view human biological variation as
Programme during 1962-1974, the taxonomic dependent on the biotic and physical environ-
model is modified into more “explanation-oriented ments and interdependent on the cultural environ-
approach.” The realization that biological ment, which is in turn interrelated with biotic and
anthropology should be concerned with the physical environments. It also generates many
“health and well-being” of Indian populations has new research questions and hypotheses which
also started simultaneously in which a new bio- are ultimately responsible for the formulation of
cultural model has emerged. Basu (2003) new models. Following are some of the models
designated this model as “survival and well-
being” paradigm. This “paradigm seems to
constitute the basis, consciously or unconscious-
ly, of many biological anthropological studies, Biotic Physical
environment environment
even though static, descriptive studies following
the earlier “race” paradigm, with or without the
Human variation
sophisticated laboratory and/or statistical
methodologies, also continue” (Basu, 2003).
The interest in bio-cultural model among
biological and medical anthropologists has its
connection with the adaptability model in which
the human-environment interaction is the focus
of attention to understand human biological Cultural
variation and/or variability. The adaptability environment
model gets modified and becomes more complex
with the formulation of more research questions
depending upon the interest of a given study. Fig. 1. A simple model of the system showing
General Adaptability Model: Figure 1 human relationship with the environment
44 R. KHONGSDIER

that can be considered as the by-products of the since it is also found in the offspring of native
general adaptability model. highlanders who grow up in lowland conditions.”
Single-Stress Model: The single-stress model However, the inability to identify genes
is an offshoot of the general adaptability model. responsible for morphological variation in high-
It takes an environmental stressor as independent altitude populations is the major drawback to the
variable to understand human adaptation. High- single-stress model. Critics have criticized that
altitude hypoxia (low-oxygen pressure) is scholars working under the single-stress model
considered to be the primary stressor that brings have just taken for granted that adaptation is an
about biological and morphological variation. For explanatory paradigm of human variation
example, the pattern of growth and development without taking into consideration other alternative
in body size and organs of oxygen-transport explanations (Gould and Lewontin, 1978). It is
systems at high altitude differs from those at the pointed out that, unlike sickle-cell gene for the
low altitude. Figure 2 shows that hypoxia at high malaria, there is a lack of evidence for specific genes
altitude accelerates the growth of thorax dimen- responsible for enhancing oxygen transmission
sions. “On the other hand, joint effects of hypoxia in high-altitude populations (Baker, 1984). Thus,
and cold increase energy requirements. This in the view that a genotype of an organism is able
turn affects the energy balance and results in to produce a range of phenotypic changes in
prenatal and postnatal growth retardation of the response to the environment seems to be, at
musculoskeletal system, which affects both birth present, more acceptable than that of genetic
weight and stature. Because of the two directional adaptation which holds that a given modification
responses, human growth in high altitude is due to genes which are transmitted through
populations must be viewed as the result of generations. There is evidence that physical work
interaction and adaptation of the organism to capacity among Europeans, who have grown up
competing stresses of hypoxia, cold and energy at high altitude, are comparable to the Andean
requirements that characterize the high-altitude natives (Frisancho et al., 1973). In addition, recent
environment.” (Frisancho, 1993) It is suggested studies among Asian populations indicate the
that the Andean chest morphology is not acquired absence of altitude differences in chest
by either developmental or adult acclimatization, dimensions (Weitz et al., 2000; Weitz and Garruto,
rather it is influenced more by genetic than by 2004). It was also observed that Tibetan males at
developmental and physiological responses/ 4,300 m had narrow and deeper chests during and
factors (Frisancho, 1993). According to Harrison after adolescence than their counterparts at 3,200
(1998), the “typical ‘barrel-shaped’ thorax of many m and 3,800 m (Weitz et al., 2000). On the basis of
mountain peoples is … partly genetically fixed these and other evidences, it is difficult to
attribute thorax dimensions in high-altitude
populations to genetic adaptation only. It
HYPOXIA COLD suggests, instead, that a given genotype has a
range of phenotypes characterized by develop-
mental plasticity - any observable modification
or phenotypic variability in response to a
High energy sequence of environments during growth and
Low oxygen requirement development – which is highly unpredictable
(Khongsdier, 2006).
The relationship between genotype and
Energy balance phenotype is very crucial for understanding
developmental plasticity. We know that the
phenotype is the developmental outcome of the
complex interaction between genotype and
ADAPTIVE OUTCOMES: environment. The development of any phenotype
•Accelerated growth of
thorax dimensions
depends on the genotype that determines a range
•Slow growth of musculo-skeletal or set of alternative phenotypes in response to a
system sequence of environments. This range is known
as the range of reaction, or norm of reaction, of
Fig. 2. Single-stress model the genotype (Dobzhansky, 1970). It is also
BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 45
defined as the mapping function of the environ- the Figure that the relationship between culture
ment into phenotype for a given genotype and environment is not fully addressed under the
(Lewontin, 2004). The norm of reaction of each segmented model. In other words, the segmented
genotype is highly unpredictable because it model does not account in detail for the interplay
encompasses a set of alternative modifications, between culture and environment in relation to
or outcomes (phenotypes), depending upon a biology. For example, the growth and nutritional
sequence of environments in relation to that status of children is correlated with socio-
genotype. Experimental works on plants show economic status, or with geographical altitude,
that a given genotype produces different pheno- to simply understand whether growth or
types according to different elevations from sea nutritional status is affected by altitude or socio-
level. It is, therefore, suggested that the relative economic status of the population. Thus, the
height of different plants was unpredictable from approach in this model is more deductive or
one environment to another. For example, the deterministic. In other words, growth or nutritional
genotype of a given plant that grew tallest at low status is assumed to be dependent on socio-
elevation was the shortest at medium elevation economic status or ecological factors. There is a
and the second tallest at high elevation (Zuzuki lack of attempt to understand whether altitude or
et al., 1981; Lewontin, 2004). The findings on chest ecological condition is correlated with socio-
dimensions of the Tibetan males at high altitudes economic status which is in turn associated with
by Weitz et al. (2000) may have certain implications the growth and nutritional status of children.
for human populations. Integrated Bio-cultural Model: This model
In view of the above circumstances, it is depicts the interaction among biological, cultural
expected that the human adaptive pattern at high and environmental variables with respect to
altitudes would demonstrate considerable plasti- certain biological traits or health variables in
city (Thomas et al., 1979, 1989). It also appears question (Fig. 4). When the research question is
that organisms “avoid a relatively irreversible related to health problems, collected data on health
commitment to genetic change when solutions indicators are systematically integrated with
to environmental problems can be reached socio-cultural and other environmental variables.
through phenotypic plasticity” (Slobodkin, 1968).
Although hypoxia is a primary stressor at high
altitude, its direct links with the genetic make-up
of populations at high altitude is still a subject of Environmental Biological Socio-cultural
controversy. The single-stress model paves the data data data

way for bio-cultural models, which seek to under-

stand the interaction of specific morphological,
physiological, behavioural, and genetic processes
(Thomas et al., 1989). Thus, genetic adaptation is Fig. 3. Segmented bio-cultural model
simply considered one of the several modes of
adaptation. Other modes of adaptation include
ontogenetic modifications or developmental
plasticity, physiological acclimatization, cultural Environmental Biological
and behavioural adjustments (Lasker, 1969). data data
Segmented Bio-cultural Model: This model
is commonly followed by biological anthro-
pologists in which biological data, such as
physiological, genetic, morphological and demo-
graphic variables are collected and correlated with
socio-cultural or environmental variables. Figure
3 depicts that biological data are the primary focus Socio-cultural
of attention in the segmented model. Under this data
model, the focus of study is to understand
whether biological variables are associated or
correlated with either socio-cultural or ecological
variables (McElroy, 1990). It can be observed from Fig. 4. Integrated bio-cultural model
46 R. KHONGSDIER

This model is easy to teach, a bit harder to make understanding a given characteristic of human
a research design, and very difficult to execute in population in a given ecological condition.
field research (McElroy, 1990). The main assump- Complex Bio-cultural Models: As hinted
tion in this model is that the interplay between earlier, a model serves as a device for under-
biological and cultural variables is to be looked standing the interrelationship among various
from historical and/or ecological perspective. For aspects of the system. It can also be modified
example, the interplay between sickle-cell anemia according to research questions or research
and culture in West Africa is linked with design, which may be different according to
agriculture and the spread of malaria (Livingstone, different circumstances including operational
1958). It is observed that the spread of sickling difficulties. This holds true with a bio-cultural
gene is greatly enhanced by the development of model which tends to become more complex with
agriculture. The clearing of forest for cultivation the formulation of new research questions. The
provides a breeding ground for mosquito study phenomenon in a bio-cultural model is a
(Anopheles gambiae) which is the vector of part of the whole system which is directly or
Plasmodium falciparum malaria. It is found that indirectly linked to the survival and well-being of
the individuals, who are the carriers (heterozy- human populations. For example, the vicious-
gotes) of sickling gene, have a higher immune circle model (Fig. 5) indicates that malnutrition
system against malarial infection when compared leads to a decreased working capacity which again
with either the normal persons without the gene leads to low productivity, poverty, poor living
or with those persons who are homozygous for conditions and ill health or diseases (Pacey and
the gene. There is clear evidence that the fre- Payne, 1985). Thus, the vicious-circle model
quency of sickling gene is low in hunting and depicts that malnutrition is influenced by socio-
gathering populations as compared to those economic condition which is in turn influenced
populations which are more dependent on by the former through its effects on body size
agriculture. This indicates that the spread of that is correlated with productivity through
sickling gene is associated with the spread of physical work capacity. In a developing country,
agriculture because the gene provides a superior where it is characterized by minimal mechani-
fitness to the heterozygous individuals. This is zation, high levels of physical labour are important
known as selective advantage of the hetero- to obtain the basic needs for the survival and
zygotes. It provides a good example of the well-being of human populations. Under the
interplay between biological and cultural adap- vicious-circle model, it is assumed that a
tation of human populations to the environment. deterioration of any character at any point of the
The integrated model also provides a circle will affect other aspects of the circle.
framework to understand not only how biology However, the assumptions underlying the
is interrelated with culture, but also how the latter
in terms of behavioural traits is conditioned by
biological and environmental conditions. For
example, hypervitaminosis A, a condition with an Malnutrition Disease
excess of vitamin A due to consumption of the
livers and fats of marine and artic animals, is
reported to be responsible for the aberrant
behaviour known as pibloktoq among Eskimo
peoples (Landy, 1985). Such aberrant behaviour Decreased Poor living
could also be linked with socio-economic working capacity conditions
conditions which may be associated with other
biological factors. The integrated model provides
a framework for the anthropologists and human
biologists to look at the interaction between
biology and culture in terms of a sequence of
events or variables that are interrelated either
directly between culture and biology, or indirectly Low productivity Low income
between them through ecological and historical
factors. The model offers a holistic approach to Fig. 5. Vicious-circle model of malnutrition
BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 47

Child malnutrition
productivity, thereby affecting the current
nutritional status of both adults and children. In
a more complex model (Fig. 7), environmental
quality and market structure can also be consi-
Adult behaviour:
dered as important determinants of nutritional
Adult body
size
Intelligence, learning, status (Ferro-Luzzi, 1985).
opportunity, etc.

Physical
OPERATIONAL ASPECTS
work
capacity
It is clear from the presentation given above
Work output:
that bio-cultural approach is very broad just like
Nutritional intake
Productivity holistic approach – the conventional ideal of
anthropological study of humankind. We may
Fig. 6. Simplified vicious-circle model of agree with Hruschka et al. (2005) that “In most
malnutrition
cases no single researcher can cover the breadth
of knowledge, master the variety of research
vicious-circle model can be undermined by other techniques, or collect the diversity of data often
variables depending upon the research design of necessary for a bio-cultural project.” However, it
a given study. Figure 6 shows a simplified vicious- is also doubtful whether there is such a perfect
circle model which explains the interrelationship bio-cultural study from the practical point of view.
between malnutrition and other morphological, In addition to the diversity of data required, the
functional and behavioural variables (Martorrel interaction between biology and culture is
and Arroyave, 1988). The Figure depicts that the dynamic or an on-going process. As shown in
effect of malnutrition on working capacity of this presentation, a given bio-cultural model gives
adults is through childhood malnutrition. Physical rise to the formulation of other models, depending
work capacity is also influenced by behavioural upon research questions or research design. It is
factors such as intelligence, learning, motivation, unlikely for any single researcher to carry out an
opportunity, etc. Therefore, childhood malnutri- ideal bio-cultural study. It is the cumulative joint
tion leads to small adult body size and poor efforts from within and outside the discipline that
behavioural condition which jointly affect the approximate the ideal bio-cultural study. Indeed,
individual physical capacity that leads to low students should be encouraged to begin by

Training
NUTRITIONAL PHYSICAL WORK
STATUS CAPACITY
Body size
Ecological and
Biological link Morphological link
cultural link
(Valid only for moderate
and heavy human energy input)

MORE & BETTER Control of means POTENTIAL FOR

FOOD of production INCOME PRODUCTION

Social and cultural link Labour market

Control of finished
Availability
products Social structure

Advertisement pressure Control of Personal priorities

market
Cultural awareness prices Incentives

PURCHASE QUALITY/QUANTITY
POWER Socio-economic link OF PRODUCTION

Fig.7. Complex vicious-circle model of nutritional risk

48 R. KHONGSDIER

formulating anthropological research questions to look more at confounding or mediated socio-

that are socially relevant and then select methods cultural factors that shape the apparently
and techniques from within and outside the statistical relationship between biological traits
discipline appropriate to the task at hand. By or health indicators and such commonly reported-
formulating research questions that are socially independent variables that tend to vary across
relevant, or related to the survival and well-being cultures, or those constructs that are not defined
of human populations, we are not only delimiting clearly. For example, the relationship between
the vast area of bio-cultural study but also popu- health and racial groups has been largely reported
larizing more and more anthropology. in nutritional, epidemiological and other medical
Our capacity for culture, on the one hand, journals, despite evidences that genetic differe-
makes us possible to create and manage many nces between races are negligible (Rosenberg et
aspects of the biotic and physical environments. al., 2002), and the concept of race in public health
That very capacity, on the other hand, creates is of little or no value (AAPA, 1996; AAP, 2000;
havocs and challenges to the survival and well- Cooper, 2003; Karter, 2003). More studies are
being of the different species including our own needed to deal with the genetic and socio-cultural
species. Central to the bio-cultural study is the dimensions of health disparities between specific
interaction between biological and cultural populations or ethnic groups. Similarly, only few
characteristics of human populations in relation studies have dealt with the cultural dimensions
to the biotic and physical environment. Thus, a of socio-economic differences in health or risks
bio-cultural approach can be represented diff- of diseases (Dressler et al., 1998; Dressler, 2004),
erently by means of either a very simple or and so forth.
complex model. In that respect, any study which
deals with the relationship/interrelationship CHALLENGING TASKS
between biological and socio-cultural charac-
teristics may be ascribed to the broad perspective Bio-cultural approach is not without any
of bio-cultural approach. However, a bio-cultural problems and challenging tasks. Although it
study ought to be designed as a contribution to sounds more appealing, the models given above
our understanding of the complex whole of the are easy to teach, but subject to operational diffi-
genotype-environment interaction in which culties in field research. Dufour (2006) has
culture plays a very important role. Formulating mentioned three types of challenges which
of meaningful research questions, as discussed include “(1) defining precisely what we mean by
earlier, is very crucial in this respect. For example, constructs like socio-economic status, poverty,
how long shall we continue to prove that poor rural, and urban; (2) operationalizing key variables
socio-economic status in terms of income and/or so that they can be measured in ways that are
educational levels is associated with poor ethnographically valid as well as replicable; (3)
nutritional status of populations in developing defining and measuring multiple causal path-
countries? We tend to forget that income and/or ways.” For example, poverty is multidimensional;
educational levels are the “universal factors” of its definition varies according to psychological,
social and economic change (Khongsdier et al., social and economic contexts. The question of
2005). What are the role of other socio-cultural how to define and measure poverty or socio-
factors such as beliefs, ideas and behaviours at a economic status in bio-cultural studies still
population level that may act as constraints or in remains to be addressed meaningfully and
congruence with the so-called universal factors practicably. Biological anthropologists are more
in bringing about human biological variation? It familiar with measuring biological variables than
is clear that improvement in economic status is socio-cultural variables. They ought to collabo-
crucial for improving the growth and nutritional rate more with cultural anthropologists and other
status of children in developing countries. social scientists in understanding and measuring
Whether or not other socio-cultural factors like the key socio-cultural variables that are likely to
exogamy or intermixture between populations influence human biology. More importantly, more
could also produce significant changes in the integrated courses at the teaching level should
growth and nutritional status of children be introduced to strengthen the holistic nature
(Khongsdier and Mukherjee, 2003a, 2003b)? The of the discipline. In addition, the definitions of
point is that bio-cultural studies may also need physical and biological environmental variables
BIO-CULTURAL APPROACH 49
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KEYWORDS Bio-cultural Approach. Research Questions. Models

ABSTRACT This paper is concerned with a bio-cultural/bio-social approach to the study of human variability. The
basic premise is that the bio-cultural approach is essential for anthropological study of the survival and well-being of
human populations in the 21st century. The chapter is delimited to two basic questions: What and why is bio-cultural
approach? How is to go about it? Addressing the first question, it is suggested that bio-cultural approaches should be
taken as essential not only for bridging the gap between cultural and biological anthropology but also for popularizing
anthropology with integrative thinking especially in India. It is also suggested that anthropology in the 21st century
needs to formulate and deal more with research questions that are socially relevant. With respect to the second
question, an attempt has been made to provide an overview of different bio-cultural models/paradigms, based on series
of assumptions and relationships, which can be modified with new research questions relating to human biological
variability – the subject matter of anthropological research. In addition, the operational aspects and challenging tasks
for bio-cultural studies were briefly highlighted.

Author’s Address: Dr. R. Khongsdier, Professor & Head, Department of Anthropology, North-Eastern
Hill University, Permanent Campus, Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India
E-mail: rkhongsdier@hotmail.com

© Kamla-Raj Enterprises 2007 Anthropology Today: Trends, Scope and Applications

Anthropologist Special Volume No. 3: 39-50 (2007) Veena Bhasin & M.K. Bhasin, Guest Editors