Q.1 Explain the concept nature and scope of psychology.

How does educational psychology help the teacher for

effective teaching?
Nature and scope of psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. Behaviour

includes all of our outward or overt actions and reactions, such as verbal and facial
expressions and movements.Mental processes refer to all the internal and covert
activity of our mind such as thinking, feeling and remembering. It is a scientific study
because to study behaviour and mental processes, the psychologists use the scientific
methods for understanding more precisely and accurately.The word Psychology has its
origin from two Greek words ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’, ‘psyche’ means ‘soul’ and ‘logos’
means ‘study’. Thus literally, Psychology means ‘the study of soul’ or ‘science of soul’.

1.The first definition of the Psychology was the study of the

soul:The earliest attempts at defining Psychology owe their origin to the most
mysterious and philosophical concept, namely that of soul. What is soul? How can it be
studied? The inability to find clear answers to such questions led some ancient Greek
philosophers to define psychology as the study of the mind.

2.In terms of the study of the mind:Although the word mind was less
mysterious and vague than soul, yet it also faced the same questions, namely what is
mind? How can it be studied, etc. This definition was also rejected.
3.In terms of the study of consciousness: The description and explanation
of the states of consciousness is the task of Psychology which is usually done by the
instrument introspection process of looking within.

4This definition was also rejected on the grounds that: It could not
include the study of the consciousness of animals.It would not include subconscious and
unconscious activities of mind.The introspection method for the study proved that it is
most subjective and unscientific method.

4. In terms of the study of behaviour:

The most modern and widely accepted definition of psychology even today, is the study
of behaviour, both humans and animals.
5. William McDougall:
In his book An Outline of Psychology, “Psychology is a science which aims to give us
better understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole”.

6. JB Watson:
Psychology is “the science of behaviour” (taking into account the human as well as
animal behaviour).

7. NL Munn:
“Psychology is the science and the properly trained
psychologist is a scientist, or at least a practitioner who uses
scientific methods and information resulting from scientific
investigations”.
Science is the body of systematized knowledge that is gathered by carefully observing
and measuring events. The observation of events are systematized in various ways but
mainly classifying them into categories and establishing general laws and principles to
describe and predict events as accurately as possible. Psychology has these
characteristics; it clearly belongs within the province of science.

Scope of Psychology:
The field of psychology can be understood by various subfields of psychology making an
attempt in meeting the goals of psychology.

1. Physiological Psychology:
In the most fundamental sense, human beings are biological organisms. Physiological
functions and the structure of our body work together to influence our behaviour.
Biopsychology is the branch that specializes in the area. Bio-psychologists may examine
the ways in which specific sites in the brain which are related to disorders such as
Parkinson’s disease or they may try to determine how our sensations are related to our
behaviour.
2. Developmental Psychology:
Here the studies are with respect to how people grow and change throughout their life
from prenatal stages, through childhood, adulthood and old age. Developmental
psychologists work in a variety of settings like colleges, schools, healthcare centres,
business centres, government and non-profit organizations, etc. They are also very
much involved in studies of the disturbed children and advising parents about helping
such children.

3. Personality Psychology:
This branch helps to explain both consistency and change in a person’s behaviour over
time, from birth till the end of life through the influence of parents, siblings, playmates,
school, society and culture. It also studies the individual traits that differentiate the
behaviour of one person from that of another person.

4. Health Psychology:
This explores the relations between the psychological factors and physical ailments and
disease. Health psychologists focus on health maintenance and promotion of behaviour
related to good health such as exercise, health habits and discouraging unhealthy
behaviours like smoking, drug abuse and alcoholism.

5. Clinical Psychology:
It deals with the assessment and intervention of abnormal behaviour. As some observe
and believe that psychological disorders arise from a person’s unresolved conflicts and
unconscious motives, others maintain that some of these patterns are merely learned
responses, which can be unlearned with training, still others are contend with the
knowledge of thinking that there are biological basis to certain psychological disorders,
especially the more serious ones. Clinical psychologists are employed in hospitals,
clinics and private practice. They often work closely with other specialists in the field of
mental health.

6. Counselling Psychology:
This focuses primarily on educational, social and career adjustment problems.
Counselling psychologists advise students on effective study habits and the kinds of job
they might be best suited for, and provide help concerned with mild problems of social
nature and strengthen healthy lifestyle, economical and emotional adjustments.
They make use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests and personality characteristics.
They also do marriage and family counselling, provide strategies to improve family
relations.

7. Educational Psychology:
Educational psychologists are concerned with all the concepts of education. This
includes the study of motivation, intelligence, personality, use of rewards and
punishments, size of the class, expectations, the personality traits and the effectiveness
of the teacher, the student-teacher relationship, the attitudes, etc. It is also concerned
with designing tests to evaluate student performance. They also help in designing the
curriculum to make learning more interesting and enjoyable to children.

8. Social Psychology:
This studies the effect of society on the thoughts, feelings and actions of people. Our
behaviour is not only the result of just our personality and predisposition. Social and
environmental factors affect the way we think, say and do. Social psychologists conduct
experiments to determine the effects of various groups, group pressures and influence
on behaviour.

Defining the Discipline

As a discipline, educational psychology has been around for more than a century. As early as
the 1880s, Louisa Parsons Hopkins wrote about recognizing the importance of psychology in
education.It would be as absurd for one to undertake to educate the young with no knowledge
of psychology, as for one to attempt to produce a sonata while ignorant of the phenomena of
sound. (Hopkins, 1886, p. 3, as cited in Glover & Bruning, 1990)Despite the early insight of
Hopkins, many still debate the relationship of education and psychology and, thus, the definition
of educational psychology. Several factors complicate the task of defining educational
psychology. “Good” Teacher As we ponder our educational careers, most of us can remember
exceptional teachers. Think about your favorite teacher(s).If you remember characteristics such
Ingersoll & Merrill, 2010; Ripley, 2010). as friendliness, good management skills, knowl-edge of
subject matter, were academically demanding yet their classes were interesting and fun, then
you agree with the research literature in Educational Psychology.Will you be happy with your
chosen profession? A recent poll found that most of today’s teachers are happy with their
profession. And beginning teach-ers are critically important as they continuously revitalize of
Americans would support their children becoming teachers.Despite the myth “some people are
born teachers,” prospective teach-ers become “good” teachers through hard work, study and
experience. Contemporary Educational Psychology has identified the typical characteristics of
good and/or effective teachers. In fact, we know more about effective teaching than ever;
unfortunately much more than we use”

Q 2. Discuss the different stages and aspects of

cognitive development. Critically analyze the role of
heredity and environment in his regard.
Definition
Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering,
problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adole scence to adulthood.

Description
It was once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form complex ideas and remained
without cognition until they learned language. It is now known that babies are aware of their
surroundings and interested in exploration from the time they are born. From birth, babies begin
to actively learn. They gather, sort, and process information from around them, using the data to
develop perception and thinking skills.Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives,
thinks, and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction of genetic and
learned factors. Among the areas of cognitive development are information
processing, Intelligence, reasoning, language development, and memory.Historically, the
cognitive development of children has been studied in a variety of ways. The oldest is through
intelligence tests, such as the widely used Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test first
adopted for use in the United States by psychologist Lewis Terman.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

The most well-known and influential theory of cognitive development is that of French
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget's theory, first published in 1952, grew out of
decades of extensive observation of children, including his own, in their natural environments as
opposed to the laboratory experiments of the behaviorists. Although Piaget was interested in
how children reacted to their environment, he proposed a more active role for them than that
suggested by learning theory. He envisioned a child's knowledge as composed of schemas,
basic units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and serve as a basis for
understanding new ones.Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary
processes that Piaget termed assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the
process of taking in new information by incorporating it into an existing schema. In other words,
people assimilate new experiences by relating them to things they already know. On the other
hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema itself changes to accommodate new
knowledge. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves an ongoing attempt to achieve
a balance between assimilation and accommodation that he termed equilibration.

(i) Children's Health

(ii)  C

(iii)  Cognitive Development

Cognitive development
 Photo by: Bruce Rolff

Definition
Cognitive development is the construction of thought processes, including remembering,
problem solving, and decision-making, from childhood through adolescence to adulthood.

Description
It was once believed that infants lacked the ability to think or form complex ideas and remained
without cognition until they learned language. It is now known that babies are aware of their
surroundings and interested in exploration from the time they are born. From birth, babies begin
to actively learn. They gather, sort, and process information from around them, using the data to
develop perception and thinking skills.
Cognitive development refers to how a person perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his
or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors. Among the areas of cognitive
development are information processing, intelligence , reasoning, language development ,
and memory.
Historically, the cognitive development of children has been studied in a variety of ways. The
oldest is through intelligence tests, such as the widely used Stanford Binet Intelligence Quotient
(IQ) test first adopted for use in the United States by psychologist Lewis Terman (1877–1956) in
1916 from a French model pioneered in 1905. IQ scoring is based on the concept of "mental
age," according to which the scores of a child of average intelligence match his or her age,
while a gifted child's performance is comparable to that of an older child, and a slow learner's
scores are similar to those of a younger child. IQ tests are widely used in the United States, but
they have come under increasing criticism for defining intelligence too narrowly and for being
biased with regard to race and gender.In contrast to the emphasis placed on a child's native
abilities by intelligence testing, learning theory grew out of work by behaviorist researchers such
as John Watson (1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), who argued that children are
completely malleable. Learning theory focuses on the role of environmental factors in shaping
the intelligence of children, especially on a child's ability to learn by having certain behaviors
rewarded and others discouraged.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

The most well-known and influential theory of cognitive development is that of French
psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget's theory, first published in 1952, grew out of
decades of extensive observation of children, including his own, in their natural environments as
opposed to the laboratory experiments of the behaviorists. Although Piaget was interested in
how children reacted to their environment, he proposed a more active role for them than that
suggested by learning theory. He envisioned a child's knowledge as composed of schemas,
basic units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and serve as a basis for
understanding new ones.Schemas are continually being modified by two complementary
processes that Piaget termed assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the
process of taking in new information by incorporating it into an existing schema. In other words,
people assimilate new experiences by relating them to things they already know. On the other
hand, accommodation is what happens when the schema itself changes to accommodate new
knowledge. According to Piaget, cognitive development involves an ongoing attempt to achieve
a balance between assimilation and accommodation that he termed equilibration.
At the center of Piaget's theory is the principle that cognitive development occurs in a series of
four distinct, universal stages, each characterized by increasingly sophisticated and abstract
levels of thought. These stages always occur in the same order, and each builds on what was
learned in the previous stage. They are as follows: Sensorimotor stage (infancy): In this period,
which has six sub-stages, intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of
symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited, but developing, because it is based on physical
interactions and experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about seven months of
age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new
intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

Heredity and Environment:

Man’s behaviour is influenced by two forces: heredity and environment.
The biological or psychological characteristics which are transmitted by
the parents to their off-springs are known by the name of heredity.
Heredity is, in other words, a biological process of transmission of
certain traits of behaviour of the parents to their children, by means of
the fertilized egg. Heredity traits are innate; they are present at birth. The
human individual is the progeny of two parent cells that come together
when a male sperm fertilizes a female egg. In the nuclei of these parent
cells are certain hair like substances called ‘chromosomes’. The
chromosomes contain chemical substances called genes. These basic
substances, chromosomes and genes determine characteristics of the
individual. And this is what constitutes heredity.exact conclusions with

Effects of Heredity:
The main supporters of the heredity theory have been authors like
Galton, Karl Pearson, Mc Dougall, and others while the champions of the
environment have been G. B. Watson in the United States and other
behaviorist authors. Among the arguments brought forward in support
of the preeminence of heredity over environment following are most
important: Modern biology has long insisted that we are what our
parents and grandparents have made us, that heredity counts far more
than social opportunity. Not only it is impossible for a man to change his
skin, but he cannot change his outlook, his mode of thinking or
behaviour because these too are hereditary. Others, on the other hand,
belittle the importance of heredity.

Q. 3 Discuss the process of language development

in children. Elaborate major features and principles
of language development given by B.F Skinner.

Talking with your child

Talk to your child and treat them as a talker, beginning in the first 12 months. When you
finish talking, give your child a turn and wait for them to respond. And when your child
starts babbling, copy your child and babble back. You’ll probably find that your child
babbles back to you again. This keeps the talking going and is great fun.Everyday talking
Talking about what’s happening in your daily life together is a great way to increase the
number of words your child hears. You can talk about things that make sense to your child,
like what you’re seeing or doing together – the key is to use lots of different words and in
different contexts. For example, you can talk to your child about an orange tree and about
cutting up an orange for lunch. This helps your child learn the meaning and function of
words in their world. It doesn’t matter if your child doesn’t understand, because
understanding will grow as your child develops. From the time your child starts telling
stories, encourage your child to talk about things in the past and in the future. For example,
at the end of the day, you could talk about plans for the next day, by making a shopping list
together or deciding what to take on a visit to grandma. Or when you come home from an
outing together, you could talk about it. with your child, and read more complex books as
your child grows. Reading lets your child hear words in different contexts, which helps with
learning the meaning and function of words. Language development the first 8 years. Here
are just a few of the important things your child might achieve in language development
between three months and eight years.3-12 months
In this period, your baby will most likely coo and laugh, play with sounds and begin to
communicate with gestures like waving. Babbling is an important developmental stage
during the first year. Babbling is often followed by the ‘jargon phase’ where your child
might sound like they’re talking or having a conversation. 12-18 months. At this age,
children often say their first words with meaning. For example, when your child says ‘Dada’,
your child is actually calling for dad. In the next few months, your child will keep adding
more words to their vocabulary. Your child can understand more than they can say and can
follow simple instructions too. For example, your child can understand you when you say
‘No’ – although they won’t always obey!18 months to 2 years. In your child’s second year,
their vocabulary has grown and they’ll start to put two words together into short
‘sentences’. Your child will understand much of what you say, and you can
understand what your child says to you (most of the time!).Language development varies
hugely, but if your child doesn’t have some words by around 18 months, talk to your GP or
child and family health nurse or another health professional. 2-3 years. Your child can speak in
longer, more complex sentences now, and is getting better at saying words correctly. Your child
might play and talk at the same time. Strangers can probably understand most of what your child
says by the time your child is three.3-5 years. You can expect longer, more abstract and more
complex conversations now. For example, your child might say things like, ‘Will I grow into a
watermelon because I swallowed the watermelon seed? ‘Your child will probably also want to talk
about a wide range of topics, and vocabulary will keep growing. Your child might show
understanding of basic grammar, as they experiment with more complex sentences that have words
like ‘because’, ‘if’, ‘so’ or ‘when’. And you can look forward to some entertaining stories too.5-8 years
During the early school years, your child will learn more words and start to understand how the
sounds within language work together. Your child will also become a better storyteller, as they learn
to put words together in different ways and build different types of sentences. These skills also let
your child share ideas and opinions. By eight years, your child will be able to have adult-like
conversations.
Principle 1: Children Learn What They Hear Most
Frequency matters; children learn what they
hear most. A concern for ESL children growing up in impoverished environments is that
the amount of input a child hears in each language may affect vocabulary size in each language
(Gollan, Montoya, Cera, & Sandoval,; Hoff,; Pearson, Fernandez, Lewedeg, & Oller, 1997). Research
suggests that ESLchildren tend to have a smaller vocabulary size in each language compared to their
monolingualpeers (Bialystok, Craik, Green, & Gollan, 2009; Pearson et al., 1993), although the
combined conceptual vocabulary size of both languages is often equal to that of monolinguals
(Hoff,. ESL children, who already have an established L1, May face additional struggles that bilingual

Principle 2:
children who simultaneously acquire two languages donor experience.

Children Learn Words for Things and Events That

Interest Them.Bloom (1993) argued that children are likely to learn words for things they
find interesting orsalient. In her words, “Language learning is enhanced when the words a child hears bear
upon and are pertinent to the objects of engagement, interest, and feelings.The learner’s interest plays an
essential role in any type of learning. Importantly, what is appealing to an infant may be different from
what is interesting to a child. Here, we consider how perceptual and social factors may promote L1 and
L2 development. Within an interactive environment, the mindset of caregivers is also important. Mexican-
American mothers who saw themselves as an important participant in their children’s language learning
were more likely to actively listen to their children, interact with them, label objects andideas, and create

Principle 3: Interactive and

opportunities for interaction with others.,

Responsive Rather Than Passive Contexts

Promote.Frequent language input matters but the social context in which language learning
takes places also important to consider. For example, hearing words—even if presented in an interesting
format like television—does not guarantee that language learning will occur Liu,; Roseberry, Hirsh-Pasek,
Parish-Morris, & Golinkoff, 2009). Interactions that involve periods of joint focus, positive affect,
sensitivity, cooperation, and acceptance provide children. American mothers who saw themselves as an
important participant in their children’s language learning were more likely to actively listen to their
children, interact with them, label objects and ideas, and create opportunities for interaction with others.

Principle
Such interactions in turn have an impact on ESL children’s language development.

4: Children Learn Words Best in Meaningful

Contexts. Strategies that introduce young children to new words and entice them to engage in
meaningful contexts through semantically related activities are much needed” p. 384). This insight is in
line with research on memory: adults retain information long-term when it is presented in integrated
contexts rather than as a set of isolated facts (Bartlett, 1932;Bransford & Johnson, 1972). This same idea
can be applied to learning an L2 for ESL children. Meaningful connections between words are also
fostered when thematic play is used as a prop for language development. For instance, children who
often engage in thematic play such as picking up a cup and pretending to drink out of it are more likely to

Principle 5:
have a larger receptive vocabulary(Tamis-LeMonda & Bornstein, 1994).

Children Need to Hear Diverse Examples of Words

and Language. A growing body of research emphasizes the importance of diversity in
linguistic input to fosterrich language outcomes. Mothers’ use of rare words and the breadth of children’s
vocabulary in kindergarten and second grade are strongly related (Weizmann & Snow, 2001; see also Pan,
Rowe, Singer, & Snow, 2005). Similarly, when fathers use diverse vocabulary in interactions with their
children at 6 months of age, their children have more advanced communication skills at15 and 36 months
(Pancsofar, Vernon-Feagans, & The Family Life Project Investigators, 2010).More recently, Rowe (2012)
reported that the diversity of vocabulary input toddlers receive at18 months is related to children’s later
vocabulary ability at 42 months even when controlling for SES, amount of input, and children’s vocabulary
skill at 18 months.

Principle 6: Vocabulary and Grammatical

Development Are Reciprocal Processes.The final principle is
based on the notion that children rarely learn new words and their mean-ings in isolation. The ECM of
language learning predicts that after overcoming the initial biasof favoring perceptual saliency to learn
words, children began to rely on linguistic cues suchas sentence context (Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek,;
Hollich et al., 2000). The idea that children use the syntactic structure of a sentence to learn new words is
a mechanism known assyntactic bootstrapping (e.g., Dionne, Dale, Boivin, & Plomin, 2003; Fisher, Klinger,
& Song, 2006; Gillette, Gleitman, Gleitman, & Lederer, 1999; Hirsh-Pasek & Golinkoff, 1996; Landau &
Gleitman, 1985; Naigles, 1990). Children use syntactic bootstrapping in learning new vocabulary, just as
children use vocabulary knowledge to learn the structure of language Studies illustrate that vocabulary
and grammar develop simultaneously . The relationship between vocabulary and grammar has been
investigated in a large sample of children between 16 to 30 months (N = 1,461), using the MacArthur
Communicative Development.

Q.4 Write brief but comprehensive note on the

followings:
(a) Mastery Learning
Mastery learning (or, as it was initially called, "learning for mastery") is an instructional
strategy and educational philosophy, first formally proposed by Benjamin boom  in
1968. Mastery learning maintains that students must achieve a level of mastery (e.g.,
90% on a knowledge test) in prerequisite knowledge before moving forward to learn
subsequent information. If a student does not achieve mastery on the test, they are
given additional support in learning and reviewing the information and then tested
again. This cycle continues until the learner accomplishes mastery, and they may then
move on to the next stage. Mastery learning methods suggest that the focus of
instruction should be the time required for different students to learn the same material
and achieve the same level of mastery. This is very much in contrast with classic models
of teaching, which focus more on differences in students' ability and where all students
are given approximately the same amount of time to learn and the same set of
instructions. In mastery learning, there is a shift in responsibilities, so that student's
failure is more due to the instruction and not necessarily lack of ability on his or her
part. Therefore, in a mastery learning environment, the challenge becomes providing
enough time and employing instructional strategies so that all students can achieve the
same level of learning. In mastery learning, students must attain a given level set by their
instructor in order to move forward. If a student does not master the material on their first
attempt, they are given additional support in learning and reviewing the information and then
tested again. This cycle continues until the learner accomplishes mastery, and then they may
move on to the next stage. Mastery learning refers to a shift in responsibilities, so that a student’s
success or failure is more reliant on the instruction and not necessarily a student’s ability. The
difficulty of a mastery learning environment is in giving students a sufficient amount of time to
learn and using teaching methods so that all students can reach the same level of learning Mastery
learning is an instructional strategy and educational philosophy, first formally proposed by Benjamin
Bloom in 1968. Mastery learning maintains that students must achieve a level of mastery in prerequisite
knowledge before moving forward to learn subsequent information. Mastery learning is based on the
idea of narrowing achievement gaps between students in the same classroom.

(b) Phases in Information processing

The information processing cycle, in the context of computers and computer
processing, has four stages: input, processing, output and storage (IPOS). However,
at some levels within a computer, some processing devices actually only use three of
these stages -- input, processing and output -- without the need to store data. Each of
these stages plays an important role in the collection, analysis and distribution actions
performed by a computer system. Input Processing Data must enter a system before
it can be processed into either stored data or information output. The input stage of
IPOS provides the means and mechanisms through which data enters the IPOS
model. Some experts believe the input process itself could be divided into as many as
three stages: collection, preparation and input. However, the general view of the input
stage is that data is input into a system using some form of an input device.An input
device is able to collect data at its source or point of measurement. The source of data
entered into the system by a human is through a keyboard, microphone or perhaps
even the movement of eyes or another body part. Other forms of input devices, such
as thermometers, sensors and clocks, also meet the general definition of input
devices. The input stage of IPOS could also be referred to as the encoding stage.
Data Processing Once data enters the IPOS model, it is processed into either stored
data or information. The processing agent is typically some form of software or
firmware, with a specific action taken on a particular type of data. In a portable or
desktop computer, it is common for the processing agent to be active even before the
data enters. In fact, it is also common for the processing software to request data and
guide its input process. Processing can range from relatively small and simple to very
large and complex. Regardless, the sole purpose of the processing stage is to convert
the raw input data into a form that can be stored for later use or provide information
output for further processing or interpretation.Output Processing Output processing
in IPOS sends information to a display screen, a printer, a plotter, a speaker or some
other medium that human senses can interpret. However, the output stage could store
the data in a new format or transform the processed data into an input to another
IPOS module as well. For most users, output means either a display on a monitor
screen or a printed document or graphic. Output can also mean data, information or
coding.Storage Processing The storage stage of IPOS can occur directly from or to
the processing or the output stages. The storage stage can serve as a pseudo-input or
pseudo-output stage for the processing stage. The processing stage may need to
store data for later use or recall previously stored data for processing new data from
the input stage. The output stage may store processed data as information for display
by another IPOS module when needed. The storage stage does not only store data or
information on a fixed storage medium, such as a hard disk, but can also store data
and information on removable media, such as a flash drive, CD-ROM or DVD.

Q.5 Comparatively discuss the behaviorist and

cognitive theories of learning. Explain the underlying
concepts and assumptions with the help of relevant
example.
Behaviorist and cognitive learning: The big difference between behaviorist and cognitive
learning perspectives is that behaviorism is more about explaining things through ones
outward behavior or something that can be observed. Cognitivism is more based around
cognitive processes like decision making and memory. These two perspectives are
important when a teacher is deciding the methods of teaching styles are working or not.
The students will have different learning behaviors between students and grades, so it is
important as an educator to use these methods to best fit your class. It is important to
apply these perspectives of learning to instruction when we mentioned in class about
Albert Bandura’s theory that environmental, personal, and behavior factors all flow
together from one to the other. Whats good about this theory is that it really defines what
kind of behavior will be seen in the classroom. A reason why one student may act very
good compared to really bad is that their parents may be more nurturing rather than
neglecting. What’s important about this is that just because the good student is grown up
to be a good person, it would be good to understand why the misbehaving kid is bad. My
dad is a teacher, and he has told me a number of times of when kids that are less fortunate
at home acted out. Then he has realized that a lot of the kids didn’t have a father figure,
so he became a positive role model and made a connection, and believe it or not, he has
turned a lot of kids around in a positive direction. In the classroom, the role of the teacher
is to understand how well your students progress and what makes learning easy to them.
One teaching method year after year will not be good enough, different students learn in
different ways each years and it is the teachers job to figure that out. The views that
reside within my own beliefs in regards to the role of teacher, peers, and students is social
cognitive. I really like the idea of students learning after each other and communicating.
Sometimes a student may not understand a correct way of doing an assignment or
activity, so working together may help improve their study habits and communication.
What is important to me though is that since I personally like that method the best for me,
other students may not like that idea. So when I personally teach, I plan on trying
different methods and theories to figure out which environment the students like the best.

In the study of learning, there are two major

Behaviorist and Cognitive theories.
perspectives that attempt to explain the components of learning. The two
perspective are behavioral and cognitive approaches. Behaviorist
approaches view learning as a behavior. The behavior is observable and
can be measured. Cognitive approaches explain learning as the
acquisition of knowledge and the processing of information. In There are
several big questions in the field of learning theory that both of these
perspectives attempt to answer. 

Underlying Assumption:
Factors that Determine a Company’s Culture
In the seminal book, “Organizational Culture and Leadership,” Edgar Schein describes organizational culture on three
levels: artifacts, espoused beliefs and values, and underlying assumptions (Schein, 2004). Artifacts are visible
products of a group or culture, such as organizational structures, processes, language, environment, or technology
use.  Espoused beliefs and values are officially introduced in a company’s mission, vision, and values statements.
Beliefs and values can be unofficially revealed by employees who are keepers of a company’s culture. For example,
it may be widely known that the president of an organization prefers employees to make appointments instead of
having a conversation in the halls. While it may be problematic to interpret specific meaning, artifacts, espoused
beliefs and values in an organization are easily seen or heard.
Underlying Assumptions Can Impede Change
Underlying assumptions are the source of values in a culture and what causes actions within the organization. 
Organizational assumptions are usually “known,” but are not discussed, nor are they written or easily found.  They
are comprised of unconscious thoughts, beliefs, perceptions, and feelings (Schein, 2004). Since assumptions are not
discussed or dealt with openly, assumptions cannot easily be addressed or changed. As a result, organizational
problems may arise, signifying that change is needed.
Encourage Deep Reflection to Avoid Drama
What can be done if underlying assumptions impede organizational change? One technique from the field of
counseling is to ask a probing question at least three times to trigger deeper reflection. Here are sample questions:By
drilling down and asking why, a person may be encouraged to think more deeply about the underlying assumptions
that guides their thoughts, and through the interview process, the basis of those assumptions can be addressed
along with the anxiety people may feel. Change may threaten unconscious belief systems. Addressing underlying
assumptions at their core can allow organizational change to take place without excessive drama.

1. The Consistency Assumption

One key accounting assumption is known as the consistency assumption. Under this
assumption, it is important that companies make sure that they use the same
accounting method across all accounting practices and accounting periods. The only
exception to this assumption is the case in which a different method would be more
relevant and efficient. Maintaining consistency in accounting methods will ensure that
accounting records over several accounting periods can easily be compared.

2. The Going Concern Assumption

Another key accounting assumption that persons working towards an accounting
degree will need to understand is the going concern assumption. This assumption
assumes that the business in question will likely continue operating in the foreseeable
future. It assumes that the company will not go bankrupt and will be able to meet its
obligations and objectives. The going concern assumption presumes that the business
will be operating beyond its next fiscal period, will complete its expected plans, and
meet its projected goals.

3. The Time Period Assumption

According to the Financial Accounting standard board, another extremely important
accounting assumption is the time period assumption. What this assumption means is
that the accounting practices and methods used by a company should be maintained
and reported for specific periods of time. These periods should also be consistent each
year that the business is in operation. Time periods can be monthly, quarterly,
biannually, or annually but must be consistent so that records can be compared over
set time periods.

4. The Reliability Assumption

The reliability accounting assumption states that only transactions that can be proven
should be recorded in accounting practices. And what this means is that businesses
must be able to prove transactions through such things as receipts, billing statements,
invoices, and bank statements. There must be some form of objective evidence of a
transaction before the business can report it in its accounting records. This assumption
is often known as the objectivity assumption.

5. Economic Entity Assumption

A key accounting assumption that is especially important for small businesses is the
economic entity assumption. This assumption assumes that the accounting records of
a business and the personal accounting records of the business’ owner will be kept
separate. Business transactions should never be mixed with the business owner’s
personal transactions in accounting practices. This issue is particularly problematic
with small, family-owned businesses.