ASSIGNMENT 2

Under the guidance of-

Submitted by-
Ankit Kumar Barick

M.Tech 1st year

2021MGM012
Q1. Discuss the atmospheric boundary layer with suitable schematics.

Ans- Atmosphere is the envelope of gases above the surface of the earth. It stretches from the surface of the earth
to about 10,000 km above the surface and after that it blends with the space. Many don’t agree with the upper
boundary but yes all agree that the bulk of atmosphere is located from surface to somewhere about 15 km from
surface of the earth. Earth’s atmosphere is divided into layers namely Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Thermosphere and Exosphere. Troposphere is closest to the surface and Exosphere is the one that blends with the
outer space.

Our atmosphere has air and due to pressure gradients, it flows from one part to another. The velocity at which the
wind flows changes when it flows near the surface of the earth. This change in velocity is due to shearing forces
between air and surface layer (land and water surfaces) and also due to the friction offered by terrain and structures
like buildings, trees etc. But this change in velocity is only seen very near to the surface of earth and it has some
distinct boundaries above the earth’s surface. This boundary is termed as Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL).

Now we can define the Atmospheric Boundary Layer as the layer of atmosphere in the troposphere where the
velocity of flowing wind is significantly influenced by the shearing forces and the frictional forces. The limit of this
boundary varies from water surface to land surface, from plain to mountainous terrain, from deserts to forests,
from barren lands to urban industrial cities. Every place has its own ABL upper boundary and its own velocity profile.
ABL boundary is also temperature dependent i.e. ABL can vary from day to night, from summer to winter, from
equator to poles.

ABL above water (sea or ocean) surface is less when compared to land. This is because the adhesive force between
water molecule and air molecule is very weak. So the amount of shearing due to friction is small and thus the change
in wind velocity is less. Moreover the surface of water (sea or ocean) is almost still and no structures are found over
it(in general), so no other friction is found so this also contributes to a lower upper boundary of ABL above oceans
and seas. The velocity profile over ocean is very steep.
We know that the velocity of wind decreases when its obstructed gradually r it increases as we move up. So we have
a definite velocity profile. With respect to the velocity profile we can define the ABL height as the height at which
the velocity of wind after facing obstruction reaches 99% of the wind velocity before any obstruction. Above the
ocean this 99% of wind velocity is reached at a lower height when compared to that of land surface. Therefore the
height of ABL is less in case of oceans.

The wind over the land surface faces different challenges as terrain is not the same everywhere as in case of oceans.
Somewhere it’s plane land and somewhere it’s mountainous. Some lands are covered with forests and somewhere
there are huge buildings and man-made constructions. The velocity profile over plane land looks quite similar to
that of the ocean but the shearing forces are more so more velocity dip is seen when compared to oceans. The ABL
boundary rises further up for forests due to hindrance provided by trees. The ABL boundary is further high for hills
and mountainous terrains. Same is the case for lands with tall buildings. We can’t comment on the comparison
between the ABL boundaries of land with mountainous and buildings because it would solely depend on the height
of the structure obstructing the wind flow. But surely we can say that the velocity profile of these two landscapes
would be somewhat similar to each other there would a gradual velocity profile.

The difference in ABL in between day time and night time is due to heating. As the surface heats up the air in contact
with it also heats up. It becomes positively buoyant and it expands. The heating is adiabatic in nature. But in night
time heating from sun is absent and the atmosphere cools down, becomes negatively buoyant. This is why the ABL is
higher at daytime but it shrinks in night time.

In general sense we can take Atmospheric Boundary Layer to be ranging from 1 km to 3 km from the surface of the
earth. Inside the ABL we have laminar sub layer, blending height, atmospheric surface boundary layer at different
heights from surface. After the ABL we have free atmosphere where we consider the velocity of air to be constant.
Q.2 What are the forces responsible for blowing of the wind? Discuss each with schematics.
Ans- The following are responsible for blowing of wind:-

a) Pressure gradient force

Pressure gradient force-

The air above the surface of earth receives heat radiation from sun. This heating is not even all throughout the
earth surface as only one part of the earth faces the sun at one time and also the earth is inclined. As the air heats,
air expands and moves up and thus create areas of low pressure. Thus the areas of low and high pressures are
created throughout the earth. Wind always blows from area of low pressure towards the areas of high pressure.
The pressure difference here act as a driving force so this is called pressure gradient force. The magnitude of the
velocity is determined by the amount of difference in pressure and the distance between two points (i.e. between 2
areas). If we consider only pressure gradient force then the direction of wind flow is perpendicular to the isobars.
Coriolis force:-

It is the force experienced on each and every object on earth’s surface due to rotation of earth. It’s basically an
effect which results due to the movement of the air relative to the movement of earth. The coriolis force is directly
proportional to velocity of moving body, mass of moving body and sine of the latitude angle. The Coriolis force is
maximum at poles and zero at the equator. This force acts toward the right at the northern hemisphere and
towards the left at the southern hemisphere. This force opposes the pressure gradient force on the wind and if we
don’t consider the frictional force then coriolis force let the wind blow parallel to isobars.

Frictional force:-
The surface of the earth provides hindrance to wind in the form of friction. Friction is offered in the form of
shearing between the surface of air and water or the surface of air and surface of land, and in the form of
obstruction in the path of flow like trees, hills, buildings, etc. The frictional force tends to reduce the effect of
coriolis force. So as before mentioned that considering only coriolis and pressure gradient force, the wind will blow
parallel to isobars but now as the friction force is opposing the coriolis force, the wind will blow at an angle with
respect to the isobars. Taking the collective effect of all the above mentioned forces the wind in the northern
hemisphere flows clockwise and outwards for high pressure areas and anti-clockwise and inwards for areas of low
pressure and in the southern hemisphere, the wind flows anti clockwise and outwards for areas of high pressure
and clockwise and inwards for areas of low pressure.
Apart from wind from the above mentioned above, there are few other forms of wind flow. They are-
a) Mesoscale wind- The flow of wind in the form of land breezes and sea breezes are called mesoscale winds.
These are in very low scales. These occur due to difference in wind temperature above land and water bodies. In
the day time the temperature of land mass rises rapidly in comparison to the water bodies. So a low pressure is
created near the shore and wind from above the water surface rushes to the land and this is called sea breeze. In
the night just the opposite occurs as the lands cools rapidly than water so a low pressure is created above the
water bodies and air from above the land rushes towards the water bodies as land breeze.

b) Geostrophic wind- Air above 1 km from earth is not influenced by frictional forces. That air in under a
 balance of pressure gradient force and coriolis force. These wind flow parallel to isobars.

c) Gradient wind- Wind moving along the isobars at such a velocity that the pressure gradient force is balanced by
coriolis force and centrifugal force is called gradient wind.

Q.3 What is atmospheric surface boundary layer? What are the conditions of atmospheric stability? Write down the
significance of atmospheric stability.

Ans- Atmospheric surface boundary layer refers to the part or section of the atmospheric boundary layer which is
most affected from the hindrance or obstruction offered from the structures on the surface of the earth.
Atmospheric surface boundary layer lies in between 5 m to 150 m from the surface of the earth. The turbulence in
air is experienced in this layer. The amount of turbulence decreases as we move up. The atmospheric surface layer
is the lowest layer of ABL or troposphere. We can say that ASL is 10% of ABL. In general, wind turbines are installed
in this layer.
Atmospheric stability:-

We define atmospheric stability by considering individual air parcel. Atmospheric stability refers to the tendency of
air or air parcel to either rise up or create storm or to stay down resisting vertical movement. If air tends to rise up
and create storms it is unstable elsewise if it resists vertical movement then it is stable.

We define the criteria for stability in the form of change in temperature with respect to change in height. We know
that pressure is directly proportional to temperature. Also pressure is directly proportional to velocity of wind. So
we can say that temperature is directly proportional to velocity of wind.

Criteria for stability-

dT/dZ > 0 => stable

dT/dZ < 0 => unstable

dT/dZ =0 => neutral

Stable- As velocity is proportional to temperature so if dV/dZ > 0 then it is stable condition. We have velocity profile
as a graph between height (z) and velocity (v). When we have a velocity profile where change in velocity change is
more than change in height, i.e. the slope is less, it is stable atmosphere.

Unstable- When dV/dZ <0, it is unstable condition. When we have a steep velocity profile where change in height (z)
is more than the change in velocity (v) i.e. slope is more, it is unstable atmosphere.

Neutral- When dV/dZ = 0, it is neutral condition. When we have a gradual velocity profile where there is equal
change in height (z) for every change in velocity (v), i.e. a gradual slope, it is neutral atmosphere.
Significance of atmospheric stability

Stable atmosphere- A stable atmosphere signifies that the air is cooler with respect to the environment. The air will
resist the vertical movement. Turbulence in air is generally not found. The polutants will be allowed to be trapped
in ground levels. Chances of drizzle are there if there is exist a moist air mass. Undular bores can form and undular
bore waves can appear as cloud bands. Overnight and morning fog also appears.

Unstable atmosphere- An unstable atmosphere signifies that the air is warmer with respect to the surrounding.
Deep convective currents will occur and it may lead to thunderstorms when enough moisture is present in the air.
Thunderstorm conditions over a warm ocean can grow into a tropical cyclone. In the day time over a warm land
surface , unstable atmosphere may lead to mirrages. Also dust devils are evident in unstable conditions. Also small
scale tornado can happen above any intense hot surface. Unstable atmosphere can intensify wild fires. Steam devil
may appear over a hot spring or warm lake due to unstable atmosphere.