Module 2 Engineering Ethics

Engineering Ethics is the activity and discipline aimed at

(a) understanding the moral values that ought to guide engineering profession or practice,
(b) resolving moral issues in engineering, and
(c) justifying the moral judgments in engineering. It deals with set of moral problems and issues
connected with engineering.
Engineering ethics is defined by the codes and standards of conduct endorsed by engineering
(professional) societies with respect to the particular set of beliefs, attitudes and habits displayed
by the individual or group. Another important goal of engineering ethics is the discovery of the
set of justified moral principles of obligation, rights and ideals that ought to be endorsed by the
engineers and apply them to concrete situations. Engineering is the largest profession and the
decisions and actions of engineers affect all of us in almost all areas of our lives, namely public
safety, health, and welfare.
Scope
The scope of engineering ethics are twofold:
1. Ethics of the workplace which involves the co-workers and employees in an organization.
2. Ethics related to the product or work which involves the transportation, warehousing, and use,
besides the safety of the end product and the environment outside the factory.
Approach
There are conventionally two approaches in the study of ethics:
1. Micro-ethics which deals with decisions and problems of individuals, professionals, and
companies.
2. Macro-ethics which deals with the societal problems on a regional/national level. For example,
global issues, collective responsibilities of groups such as professional societies and consumer
groups.
SENSES OF ENGINEERING ETHICS
There are two different senses (meanings) of engineering ethics, namely the Normative and the
Descriptive senses. The normative sense include:
(a) Knowing moral values, finding accurate solutions to moral problems and justifying moral
judgments in engineering practices,
(b) Study of decisions, policies, and values that are morally desirable in the engineering practice
and research, and
(c) Using codes of ethics and standards and applying them in their transactions by engineers. The
descriptive sense refers to what specific individual or group of engineers believe and act, without
justifying their beliefs or actions.
VARIETY OF MORAL ISSUES
It would be relevant to know why and how do moral issues (problems) arise in a profession or
why do people behave unethically? The reasons for people including the employer and
employees, behaving unethically may be classified into three categories:
1. Resource Crunch
Due to pressure, through time limits, availability of money or budgetary constraints, and
technology decay or obsolescence. Pressure from the government to complete the project in time
(e.g., before the elections), reduction in the budget because of sudden war or natural calamity
(e.g., Tsunami) and obsolescence due technology innovation by the competitor lead to
manipulation and unsafe and unethical execution of projects. Involving individuals in the
development of goals and values and developing policies that allow for individual diversity,
dissent, and input to decision-making will prevent unethical results.
2. Opportunity
(a) Double standards or behavior of the employers towards the employees and the public.
(b) Management projecting their own interests more than that of their employees. Some
organizations over-emphasize short-term gains and results at the expense of themselves and
others,
(c) Emphasis on results and gains at the expense of the employees, and
(d) Management by objectives, without focus on empowerment and improvement of the
infrastructure.
This is best encountered by developing policies that allow ‘conscience keepers’ and whistle
blowers and appointing ombudsman, who can work confidentially with people to solve the
unethical problems internally.
3. Attitude
Poor attitude of the employees set in due to
(a) Low morale of the employees because of dissatisfaction and downsizing,
(b) Absence of grievance redressal mechanism,
(c) Lack of promotion or career development policies or denied promotions,
(d) Lack of transparency,
(e) Absence of recognition and reward system, and
(f) Poor working environments.

Giving ethics training for all, recognizing ethical conduct in work place, including ethics in
performance appraisal, and encouraging open discussion on ethical issues, are some of the
directions to promote positive attitudes among the employees9.

To get firm and positive effect, ethical standards must be set and adopted by the senior
management, with input from all personnel.

TYPES OF INQUIRIES
The three types of inquiries, in solving ethical problems are: normative inquiry, conceptual
inquiry, and factual or descriptive inquiry.
The three types of inquiries are discussed below to illustrate the differences and preference.
1. Normative Inquiry
It seeks to identify and justify the morally-desirable norms or standards that should guide
individuals and groups. It also has the theoretical goal of justifying particular moral judgments.
Normative questions are about what ought to be and what is good, based on moral values. For
example,
1. How far does the obligation of engineers to protect public safety extend in any given
situation?
2. When, if ever, should engineers be expected to blow whistle on dangerous practices of their
employers?
3. Whose values ought to be primary in making judgment about acceptable risks in design for
a public transport system or a nuclear plant? Is it of management, senior engineers, government,
voters or all of them?
4. When and why is the government justified in interfering with the organizations?
5. What are the reasons on which the engineers show their obligations to their employees or
clients or the public?
2. Conceptual Inquiry
It is directed to clarify the meaning of concepts or ideas or principles that are expressed by words
or by questions and statements. For example,
(a) What is meant by safety?
(b) How is it related to risk?
(c) What is a bribe?
(d) What is a profession?
When moral concepts are discussed, normative and conceptual issues are closely interconnected.

3. Factual or Descriptive Inquiry

It is aimed to obtain facts needed for understanding and resolving value issues. Researchers
conduct factual inquiries using mathematical or statistical techniques. The inquiry provide
important information on business realities, engineering practice, and the effectiveness of
professional societies in fostering moral conduct, the procedures used in risk assessment, and
psychological profiles of engineers. The facts provide not only the reasons for moral problems
but also enable us to develop alterative ways of resolving moral problems. For example,
1. How were the benefits assessed?
2. What are procedures followed in risk assessment?
3. What are short-term and long-term effects of drinking water being polluted? and
4. Who conducted the tests on materials?

MORAL DILEMMA

Dilemmas are situations in which moral reasons come into conflict, or in which the application
of moral values are problems, and one is not clear of the immediate choice or solution of the
problems. Moral reasons could be rights, duties, goods or obligations. These situations do not
mean that things had gone wrong, but they only indicate the presence of moral complexity. This
makes the decision making complex. For example, a person promised to meet a friend and dine,
but he has to help his uncle who is involved in an accident — one has to fix the priority. There
are some difficulties in arriving at the solution to the problems, in dilemma. The three complex
situations leading to moral dilemmas are:
1. The problem of vagueness: One is unable to distinguish between good and bad (right or
wrong) principle. Good means an action that is obligatory. For example, code of ethics specifies
that one should obey the laws and follow standards. Refuse bribe or accept the gift, and maintain
confidentiality
2. The problem of conflicting reasons: One is unable to choose between two good moral
solutions. One has to fix priority, through knowledge or value system.
3. The problem of disagreement: There may be two or more solutions and none of them
mandatory. These solutions may be better or worse in some respects but not in all aspects. One
has to interpret, apply different morally reasons, and analyze and rank the decisions. Select the
best suitable, under the existing and the most probable conditions.
Steps to Solve Dilemma
The logical steps in confronting moral dilemma are:
1. Identification of the moral factors and reasons. The clarity to identify the relevant moral
values from among duties, rights, goods and obligations is obtained (conceptual inquiry).
The most useful resource in identifying dilemmas in engineering is the professional codes of
ethics, as interpreted by the professional experience. Another resource is talking with colleagues
who can focus or narrow down the choice of values.

2. Collection of all information, data, and facts (factual inquiry) relevant to the situation.
3. Rank the moral options i.e., priority in application through value system, and also as
obligatory, all right, acceptable, not acceptable, damaging, and most damaging etc. For example,
in fulfilling responsibility, the codes give prime importance to public safety and protection of the
environment, as compared to the individuals or the employers (conceptual inquiry).
4. Generate alternate courses of action to resolve the dilemma. Write down the main options and
sub-options as a matrix or decision tree to ensure that all options are included.
5. Discuss with colleagues and obtain their perspectives, priorities, and suggestions on various
alternatives.
6. Decide upon a final course of action, based on priority fixed or assumed. If there is no ideal
solution, we arrive at a partially satisfactory or ‘satisficing’ solution.

MORAL AUTONOMY
Moral autonomy is defined as, decisions and actions exercised on the basis of moral concern for
other people and recognition of good moral reasons. Alternatively, moral autonomy means ‘self
determinant or independent’. The autonomous people hold moral beliefs and attitudes based on
their critical reflection rather than on passive adoption of the conventions of the society or
profession. Moral autonomy may also be defined as a skill and habit of thinking rationally about
the ethical issues, on the basis of moral concern. Viewing engineering as social experimentation
will promote autonomous participation and retain one’s professional identity. Periodical
performance appraisals, tight-time schedules and fear of foreign competition threatens this
autonomy. The attitude of the management should allow latitude in the judgments of their
engineers on moral issues. If management views profitability is more important than consistent
quality and retention of the customers that discourage the moral autonomy, engineers are
compelled to seek the support from their professional societies and outside organizations for
moral support. It appears that the blue-collar workers with the support of the union can adopt
better autonomy than the employed professionals. Only recently the legal support has been
obtained by the professional societies in exhibiting moral autonomy by professionals in this
country as well as in the West. The engineering skills related to moral autonomy are listed as
follows:
1. Proficiency in recognizing moral problems in engineering and ability to distinguish as well
as relate them to problems in law, economics, and religion,
2. Skill in comprehending, clarifying, and critically-assessing arguments on different aspects
of moral issues,
3. Ability to form consistent and comprehensive view points based on facts,
4. Awareness of alternate responses to the issues and creative solutions for practical difficulties,
5. Sensitivity to genuine difficulties and subtleties, including willingness to undergo and tolerate
some uncertainty while making decisions,
6. Using rational dialogue in resolving moral conflicts and developing tolerance of different
perspectives among morally reasonable people, and
7. Maintaining moral integrity.
Autonomy which is the independence in making decisions and actions, is different from
authority. Authority provides freedom for action, specified within limits, depending on the
situation. Moral autonomy and respect for authority can coexist. They are not against each other.
If the authority of the engineer and the moral autonomy of the operator are in conflict, a
consensus is obtained by the two, upon discussion and mutual understanding their limits.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT (THEORIES)
1. Kohlberg Theory
Moral development in human being occurs overage and experience. Kohlberg suggested there
are three levels of moral development, namely pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional, based on the type of reasoning and motivation of the individuals in response to
moral questions. In the pre-conventional level, right conduct for an individual is regarded as
whatever directly benefits oneself. At this level, individuals are motivated by obedience or the
desire to avoid punishment or to satisfy their own needs or by the influence by power on them.
All young children exhibit this tendency. At the conventional level, people respect the law and
authority. Rules and norms of one’s family or group or society is accepted, as the standard of
morality. Individuals in this level want to please or satisfy, and get approval by others and to
meet the expectations of the society, rather than their self interest (e.g., good boy, good girl).
Loyalty is regarded as most important. Many adults do not go beyond this level. At the post-
conventional level, people are called autonomous. They think originally and want to live by
universally good principles and welfare of others. They have no self-interest. They live by
principled conscience. They follow the golden rule, ‘Do unto others as you would have them do
unto you’. They maintain moral integrity, self-respect and respect for others. Kohlberg believed
that individuals could only progress through these stages, one stage at a time. He believed that
most of the moral development occurs through social interactions.
2. Gilligan’s Theory
Carol Gilligan found that Kohlberg’s theory had a strong male bias. According to Gilligan’s
studies, men had a tendency to solve problems by applying abstract moral principles. Men were
found to resolve moral dilemma by choosing the most important moral rule, overriding other
rules. In contrast, women gave importance to preserve personal relationships with all the people
involved. The context oriented emphasis on maintaining personal relationships was called the
ethics of care, in contrast with the ethics of rules and rights adopted by men. Gilligan revised the
three levels of moral development of Kohlberg, as stages of growth towards ethics of caring. The
pre-conventional level, which is same as that of Kohlberg’s first one, right conduct, is viewed in
a selfish manner solely as what is good for oneself. The second level called conventional level,
the importance is on not hurting others, and willing to sacrifice one’s own interest and help
others. This is the characteristic feature of women. At the post-conventional level, a reasoned
balance is found between caring about others and pursuing the self-interest. The balance one’s
own need and the needs of others, is aimed while maintaining relationship based on mutual
caring. This is achieved by context-oriented reasoning, rather than by hierarchy of rules.
The criteria for achieving and sustaining professional status or professionalism are:
1. Advanced expertise: The expertise includes sophisticated skills and theoretical knowledge in
exercising judgment. This means a professional should analyse the problem in specific known
area, in an objective manner.
2. Self-regulation: One should analyse the problem independent of self-interest and direct to a
decision towards the best interest of the clients/customers. An autonomous judgment (unbiased
and on merits only) is expected. In such situations, the codes of conduct of professional societies
are followed as guidance.
3. Public good: One should not be a mere paid employee of an individual or a teaching college
or manufacturing organization, to execute whatever the employer wants one to do. The job
should be recognised by the public. The concerted efforts in the job should be towards promotion
of the welfare, safety, and health of the public
Characteristics
The characteristics of the ‘profession’ as distinct from ‘non-professional occupation’ are listed as
follows:
1. Extensive Training
Entry into the profession requires an extensive period of training of intellectual (competence)
and moral (integrity) character. The theoretical base is obtained through formal education,
usually in an academic institution. It may be a Bachelor degree from a college or university or an
advanced degree conferred by professional schools.
2. Knowledge and Skills
Knowledge and skills (competence) are necessary for the well-being of the society. Knowledge
of physicians protects us from disease and restores health. The lawyer’s knowledge is useful
when we are sued of a crime, or if our business is to be merged or closed or when we buy a
property. The Chartered Accountant’s knowledge is important for the success of recording
financial transactions or when we file the income return. The knowledge, study, and research of
the engineers are required for the safety of the air plane, for the technological advances and for
national defense.
3. Monopoly
The monopoly control is achieved in two ways:
(a) the profession convinces the community that only those who have graduated from the
professional school should be allowed to hold the professional title. The profession also gains
control over professional schools by establishing accreditation standards
(b) By persuading the community to have a licensing system for those who want to enter the
profession. If practicing without license, they are liable to pay penalties.
4. Autonomy in Workplace
Professionals engaged in private practice have considerable freedom in choosing their clients or
patients. Even the professionals working in large organizations exercise a large degree of
impartiality, creativity and discretion (care with decision and communication) in carrying their
responsibilities. Besides this, professionals are empowered with certain rights to establish their
autonomy. Accordingly physicians must determine the most appropriate medical treatments for
their patients and lawyers must decide on the most successful defense for their clients. The
possession of specialized knowledge is thus a powerful defense of professional autonomy.
5.EthicalStandards
Professional societies promulgate the codes of conduct to regulate the professionals against their
abuse or any unethical decisions and actions (impartiality, responsibility) affecting the
individuals or groups or the society.
MODELS OF PROFESSIONAL ROLES
Promotion of public good is the primary concern of the professional engineers. There are several
role models to whom the engineers are attracted. These models provoke their thinking, attitudes
and actions.
1. Savior
The engineer as a savior, save the society from poverty, illiteracy, wastage, inefficiency, ill
health, human (labor) dignity and lead it to prosperity, through technological development and
social planning.
2. Guardian
He guards the interests of the poor and general public. As one who is conversant with technology
development, is given the authority befitting his expertise to determine what is best suited to the
society.
3. Bureaucratic Servant
He serves the organization and the employers. The management of an enterprise fixes its goals
and assigns the job of problem solving to the engineer, who accepts the challenge and shapes
them into concrete achievements.
4. Social Servant
It is one who exhibits social responsibility. The engineer translates the interest and aspirations of
the society into a reality, remembering that his true master is the society at large.
5. Social Enabler and Catalyst
One who changes the society through technology. The engineer must assist the management and
the society to understand their needs and make informed decisions on the desirable technological
development and minimize the negative effects of technology on people and their living
environment. Thus, he shines as a social enabler and a catalyst for further growth.
6. Game Player
He is neither a servant nor master. An engineer is an assertive player, not a passive player who
may carry out his master’s voice. He plays a unique role successfully within the organization,
enjoying the excitement of the profession and having the satisfaction of surging ahead in a
competitive world.
THEORIES ABOUT RIGHT ACTION (ETHICAL THEORIES)

The ethical theories are useful in many respects.

1. In understanding moral dilemma. They provide clarity, consistency, systematic and
comprehensive understanding.
2. It provides helpful practical guidance in moral issues towards the solution.
3. Justifying professional obligations and decisions, and
3. In relating ordinary and professional morality.
Different criteria may be applied for evaluating various ethical theories and deciding upon the
best.
1. The theory must be clear and (coherent) formulated with concepts that are logically connected.
2. It must be internally consistent, i.e., none of its principles conflicts with any other
3. The theory and its defense must depend, only upon facts.
4. It must organize basic moral values in systematic and comprehensive manner. It is to fix
priority of values and provide guidance in all situations
5. It must provide guidance compatible with our moral convictions (judgments) about concrete
situations.

Ethical Theories/Approaches
Several ethical theories have been developed over different times, each of them stressing certain
ethical principles or features. Each stresses a view and many a times, we find that these theories
converge and reinforce the ethics, in deciding upon the actions and justifying the results
1. Utilitarian Theory
The term Utilitarianism was conceived in the 19th century by Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best. They suggested that the
standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequences. Good consequences mean
either ‘utilities’ or the ‘balance of good over evil’. This approach weighs the costs and benefits.
Right actions are the ones that produce the greatest satisfaction of the preferences of the affected
persons. In analyzing an issue in this approach,
we have to:
(a) Identify the various courses of action available to us.
(b) Ask who will be affected by each action and what benefits or harms will be derived from
each.
(c) Choose the action that will produce the greatest benefits and the least harm. The ethical
action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.
The ACT UTILITARIAN theory proposed by J.S. Mill (1806-73) focuses on actions, rather than
on general rules. An action is right, if it generates the most overall good for the most people
involved.
The RULE UTILITARIAN theory, developed by Richard Brandt (1910-97), stressed on the
rules, such as ‘do not steal’, ‘do no harm others’, ‘do not bribe’, as of primary importance. He
suggested that individual actions are right when they are required by set of rules which
maximizes the public good. The act utilitarian theory permitted a few immoral actions. Hence,
there was need to develop rule utilitarian theory to establish morality and justice, in the
transactions. For example, stealing an old computer from the employer will benefit the employee
more than the loss to the employer. As per Act, utilitarian this action is right. But rule utilitarian
observes this as wrong, because the employee should act as ‘faithful agent or trustee of the
employees’. In another example, some undisciplined engineers are terminated with the blame for
the mistakes they have not committed. The process is unfair although this results in promotion of
overall good.
2. Duty Ethics
The actions are consequences of performance of one’s duties such as, ‘being honest’, ‘not cause
suffering of others’, ‘being fair to others including the meek and week’, ‘being grateful’,
‘keeping ‘promises’ etc. The stress is on the universal principle of respect for autonomy i.e.,
respect and rationality of persons. As per Kant we have duties to ourselves, as we are rational
and autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit suicide; a duty to develop our talents and
a duty to avoid harmful drugs. Kant insisted that moral duties are categorical imperatives. They
are commands that we impose on ourselves as well as other rational beings. For example, we
should be honest because honesty is required by duty. A businessman is to be honest because
honesty pays — in terms of profits from customers and from avoiding jail for dishonesty.
3. Rights Theory--Rights are entitlement to act or to have another individual act in a certain way.
Minimally, rights serve
as a protective barrier, shielding individuals from unjustified infringement of their moral agency
by others. For every right, we have a corresponding duty of noninterference.
The RIGHTS approach to ethics has its roots in the 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant,
who focused on the individual’s right to choose for oneself. According him, what makes human
beings different from mere things is, that people have dignity based on their ability to choose
freely what they will do with their lives, and they have a fundamental moral right to have these
choices respected. People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to
use people in ways they do not freely choose. Other rights he advocated are:
1. The right to access the truth: We have a right to be told the truth and to be informed about
matters that significantly affect our choices.
2. The right of privacy: We have the right to do, believe, and say whatever we choose in our
personal lives so long as we do not violate the rights of others.
3. The right not to be injured: We have the right not to be harmed or injured unless we freely and
knowingly do something to deserve punishment or we freely and knowingly choose to risk such
injuries.
4. The right to what is agreed: We have a right to what has been promised by those with whom
we have freely entered into a contract or agreement.

4. The Virtue Theory

This emphasizes on the character rather than the rights or duties. The character is the pattern of
virtues (morally-desirable features). The theory advocated by Aristotle, stressed on the tendency
to act at proper balance between extremes of conduct, emotion, desire, attitudes to find the
golden mean between the extremes of ‘excess’ or ‘deficiency’.

SELF-INTEREST
Self-interest is being good and acceptable to oneself. It is pursuing what is good for oneself. It is
very ethical to possess self-interest. As per utilitarian theory, this interest should provide for the
respect of others also. Duty ethics recognizes this aspect as duties to ourselves. Then only one
can help others. Right ethicist stresses our rights to pursue our own good. Virtue ethics also
accepts the importance of self-respect as link to social practices. In Ethical Egoism, the self is
conceived in a highly individualistic manner. It says that every one of us should always and only
promote one’s own interest. The ethical egoists do not accept the well being of the community or
caring for others. However this self interest should not degenerate into egoism or selfishness, i.e.,
maximizing only own good in the pursuit of self-interest. The ethical egoists hold that the society
benefits to maximum when (a) the individuals pursue their personal good and (b) the individual
organizations pursue maximum profit in a competitive enterprise. This is claimed to improve the
economy of the country as a whole, besides the individuals. In such pursuits, both individuals
and organizations should realize that independence is not the only important value. We are also
interdependent, as much as independent. Each of us is vulnerable in the society. Self-respect
includes recognition of our vulnerabilities and interdependencies. Hence, it is compatible with
caring for ourselves as well as others. Self-interest is necessary initially to begin with. But it
should be one of the prime motives for action; the other motive is to show concern for others, in
the family as well as society. One’s self-interest should not harm others. The principles of ‘Live
and let (others) live’, and ‘reasonably fair competition’ are recommended to professionals by the
ethicists.
CUSTOMS
Ethical Pluralism: Various cultures in our pluralistic society lead to tolerance for various
customs, beliefs, and outlooks. Accordingly ethical pluralism also exists. Although many moral
attitudes appear to be reasonable, the rational and morally concerned people can not fully accept
any one of the moral perspectives. There are many varied moral values, which allow variation in
the understanding and application of values by the individuals or groups in their everyday
transactions. It means that even reasonable people will not agree on all moral issues and
professional ethics.
Ethical Relativism: According to this principle, actions are considered morally right when
approved by law or custom, and wrong when they violate the laws or customs. The deciding
factor is the law or the customs of the society. Should we accept the principle of relativism or
not? A few reasons to accept this are explained in the following paragraphs:
1. Laws appear to be objective ways for judging values. The laws and customs tend to be
definite, clear and real, but not always. Further moral reasons allow objective criticism of laws,
as being morally lacking. For example, the Apartheid laws of South Africa violated the human
rights of the native Africans. No legal protection was available for native citizens for a long time.
Now, of course, these laws have been repealed.
2. Ethical relativism assumes that the values are subjective at the cultural level. Moral standards
also vary from culture to culture. The objectivity is supported by the existing laws of that society.
The relative morality accepted, supports the virtue of tolerance of differences among societies.
This argument is also not fully acceptable. As per ethical relativism, the actions and laws of the
Nazis and Hitler who vowed on Anti-Semitism and killed several million Jews would be
accepted as right.
3. Moral relationalism or moral contextualism: According to this, the moral judgments must be
made in relation to certain factors, which may vary from case to case. The morally important
factors for making judgments include the customs and laws. The virtue ethicists hold that the
practical wisdom should prevail upon assessing the facts and in the judgment. This principle was
accepted by the early anthropologists because they had a specific tendency to over-stress the
scope of moral difference between cultures. The human sacrifices and cannibalism were
accepted. But the modern anthropologists insist that all cultures shall exhibit the virtue of social
welfare and safety against needless death or physical or mental harm. Moral differences were
based on the circumstances and facts and not on the difference in moral attitudes. For example,
the pharaohs buried the live attendants along with their dead king with the belief that they would
continue to serve the king in his after life.
RELIGION
Religions have played major roles in shaping moral views and moral values, over geographical
regions. Christianity has influenced the Western countries, Islam in the Middle-East countries,
Buddhism and Hinduism in Asia, and Confucianism in China. Further, there is a strong
psychological link between the moral and religious beliefs of people following various religions
and faiths. Religions support moral responsibility. They have set high moral standards. Faith in
the religions provides trust and this trust inspires people to be moral. The religions insist on
tolerance and moral concern for others. Many professionals who possess religious beliefs are
motivated to be morally responsible. Each religion lays stress on certain high moral standards.
For example, Hinduism holds polytheistic (many gods) view, and virtues of devotion and
surrender to high order. Christianity believes in one deity and emphasizes on virtues of Love,
Faith, and Hope. Buddhism is non-theistic and focuses on compassion and Islam on one deity
and adherence of ishan (piety or pursuit of excellence) and prayer. Judaism stresses the virtue of
‘tsedakah’ (righteousness). But many religious sects have adopted poor moral standards, e.g.,
many religious sects do not recognize equal rights for women. The right to worship is denied for
some people. People are killed in the name of or to promote religion. Thus, conflicts exist
between the ‘secular’ and religious people and between one religion and another. Hence,
religious views have to be morally scrutinized.
Divine Command Ethics
As per this principle, the right action is defined by the commands by God. It implies that to be
moral, a person should believe in God and an action is right only if it is commanded by God.
There are some difficulties in this approach, namely, (a) whether God exists or not is not clear.
(b) How to know what are the God’s commands? and (c) How to verify the genuineness of the
commands? Further, religions such as Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity accept the existence of
God. But Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism adopt only faith in a right path and do not
believe in God. Socrates was said to have argued that God, an entity which is responsible,
morally good, and beyond fear or favor, would not command murder, rape, torture, immoral
activities, and even mass suicide. Many such crimes were committed in the name of God then
and continue even now in different parts of the world. Some Western leaders had claimed that
God had commanded them to invade against the Middle-East countries. If anyone claims to have
obtained commands from God to kill people merciless, then we have to conclude that the person
is not religious but insane.