Rest of the questions and their answers

1. A) What were the main features of the social organization in the Gupta Empire that led to a great
improvement in Science and Technology? (5)

SOLUTION

In the Gupta empire, the main mode of production was still agriculture. The Gupta kings continued the land acquisition
started by the Mauryans. Samudragupta conquered a number of forest kingdoms in the valleys of the Ganges, Narmada
and Mahanadi. The pattern of land settlement in this period was, however, very different from that of the Mauryan-s, Stale
control and oknership of the cleared land was greatly reduced and land passed into private ownership. New laws were
enacted to allow individuals to administer land and collect taxes, irrespective of whether they tilled the land or not. Most
of the Gupta kings, . irrespective of their individual religious faith, were secular as far as the state was coricerned.
Buddhism, Jainism and traditional Hindu institutions were all supported by the state though grants and patronage.

Lineage which had determined one's position in society, gave way, to a certain extent, to one's property status. Thus,
Brahmins lost their preeminence. Importance of agricultural and craft production meant some improvement in the
condition of the Sudras. In general, what one did in society became important. Even Brahmins were obliged to take up
occupations other than performance of religious rites. This relaxation of rigid state control of the previous era had a
liberating influence initialiy, as it encouraged individual initiative. It heralded a certain decline in the hold of the
Brahmins and that of the rigid 'varna' system over agricultural society

Agriculture

Pepper and spices were grown for export as well as domestic consumption. A wide variety of crops like rice, wheat,
barley, sesame, pulses, beans and lentils, vegetables such as cucumbers, onions, garlic, pumpkin, and betel were grown.
New fruits like pears and peaches were introduced for the first time. All this did not take place at random or as a matter of
chance. There were proper manuals which gave information on the type and quality of soil required for each plant, various
plant diseases, the distances between plants as well as sowing techniques (e.g., working of the soil before sowing). These
manuals also deseribed techniques for processing grain, vegetables and fruits. As a wide variety of soil types had to be
cultivated, new varieties of agricultural implements also appeared. Weights and designs of ploughshares for different
types of soil were fixed and the use of iron for making agricultural implements became widespread.

Crafts

Rapid strides were made during this era in metallurgical and weaving crafts. Rust-proof iron and copper alloys were found
and worked into intricate articles for civilian as well as military purposes (Fig. 4.10). The quality of the articles was so
good that they were widely exported, even as far as Africa. In the design of these articles, there was, to an extent, Greco-
Roman and Central Asian influence. However, on the whole, they had a local character. In weaving, techniques were
perfected for the making of cotton and silk materials. ' Manufacture of dyes and their widespread use in colouring textiles
came into practice. Indian textile materials, especially from Varanasi and Bengal became famous for their light weight and
fine texture. The textiles became popular in the West and became an important commodity for export and trade. Guilds or
'shrenis' of artisans in this new situation of reduced state intervention, became powerful and important. They enjoyed a
great deal of independence and often drew up contracts among individuals, and even entered into agreements with state
authorities. The 'shrenis' borrowed capital from individuals and paid them back with interest. This gave a tremendous
impetus to improve the crafts

Trade

The importance of direct producers became greater as internal and external trade reached unprecedented volume and
proportions. Opening up of previously inaccessible and uninhabited regions, organisation of better transport,
communication and trade routes helped the growth of trade. The existence of a huge market, spread over a vast empjre,
gave rise to extensive cirkulation of money through a flourishing trade. For merchants, just as for artisans, there existed
associations which were also known as shrenis. The main trade routes were based around the rivers Ganges and Indus.
The state still supervised the influx and sale of commodities. Internal trade was augmented by rapid development of
foreign trade, actively encouraged through the foreign diplomatic contacts established by the Kushanas, the Satavahanas
and the Guptas. Improvement in navigation by the Indians, especially using the knowledge of monsoons, and

A new design of seaworthy ships played an important role in this. The Indians traded with Arabs, the Mediterranean
countries, especially Rome, Africa, south-east Asian countries such as Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. The existence of
these associations too, helped the growth of trade

The above description gives the picture of an Indian society, where commodity production and exchange were in full
swing due to an expansion of internal market as well as foreign trade. These activities demanded new techniques of
production. new mathematics and numbers to facilitate administration, and new methods of construction, communicarion
and navigation. What is important is that this social demand for new technologies took place in an atmosphere where rigid
state control of a previous era had been relaxed i.1 favour of individual initiative. The old ruling elite was, to an extent,
giving way. And there was a certain amount of social mobility that possibly encouraged contacts between the literate and
illiterate strata ~f the society. It was a society where the old caste system still prevailed, though somewhat weakened, and
where a new caste system, which was not.yet oppressive, came into existence, on the basis of division of labour.

1 B) Discuss briefly some developments in astronomy during Gupta period. (5)

SOLUTION

While there is no doubt that great advances were made in astronomy during the Gupta period, it is difficult to assign exact
chronological order to discoveries and theories, or to assess the influence of earlier works of Indian and Greek origin in
this field. The source of most information is commentaries by later astronomers, who very often attributed their own work
to earlier sages in order tagaip acceptability by the contemporary Brahmin law makers. An assessment of the exact stage
of knowledge is further complicated by the fact that scientists, again to gain social acceptability, mixed all kinds of
irrelevant and imaginary religious characters (such as Rahu and Ketu) and causes with their otherwise impeccable
scientific theories.

Aryabhatta, born in 476 A.D., was the greatest astronomer of the Gupta period. It was his fm belief that the earth was
rotating, and the heavens resting. He also gave a scientific explanation for the occurrence of eclipses as opposd to the
prevailing ideas that Rahu and Ketu caused eclipses. hother great achievement to Aryabhatta's credit was the.construction
of higonometric tables. He computed trigonomehic tables geometrically and used the values of 'sine' and 'cosine' in his
astronomical calculations. Besides these, he developed formulas for the sum of arithmetic and geomehic series, and
worked out the sum of series . Aryabhatta was followed by Varahamihira (born 505 A.D.), who recorded the works of
Aryabhatta and older astronomical findings in his classic work Brihatasamhita. The problem with Varahamihira was that
he attempted to raise astrology to the level of scientific astronomy. This was possibly due to the pressures exerted on him
by the Brahmin law makers. Varahamihira, a Brahmin himself, was employed in the king's court. For him to be able to
continue with his work on astronomy, he had to gain the favour of priests and the king. He was, possibly, in an awkward
position and had to reconcile he demands of science and the decrees of the rishis which were deemed to be infallible.
Thus, he included astrology as one of the three main components of his astronomical treatise. While he worked out the
horoscopes of the kings and princes to earn a living, his scientific training asserted itself whenever possible, without
sacrificing his social standing. For example, after describing the natwe of the two eclipses, according to the prevailing
state of observation and on fairly scientific grounds, he complained to those who did not know this. He said, "However,
common people are always very loud in proclaiming the Head (Rahu) to be the cause of an eclipse, and they say, 'if the
Head were not to appear and wen not to bring about an eclipse, the Brahmins would not at that moment be taking an
obligatory washing'." One may sympathise with Varahamihira for the frustrations and tensions he had to bear. But the
practice that he introduced, of bringing on par science and non-science to explain natural phenomenon, most probably
blocked any significant growth of Indian astronomy after Aryabhatta. For, in another hundred years time, even the
astronomers did not object to the Rahu-Ketu explanatiori of eclipses. Brahmagupta, (born 598 A.D.), an otherwise
excellent scientist, proclaimed in Brahmasphuta-siddhanta, "Some people think that the eclipse is not caused by the Head
(Rahu). This, however, is a foolish idea, for it is he in fact who eclipses. . . . The Veda which is the word of God from the
mouth of Brahma, says that the Head eclipses". He made this statement, of course, with full knowledge that he was going
against the scientific writings of Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and Srisena. He maintained that if Rahu etc. were considered
illusory, as was done by Aryabhatta and Varahamihira, "then one will not be blessed with heavenly bliss. . . . he then
stands outside of the generally acknowledged dogma and that is not allowed". We find that the compromises between
science and non-science, which the Indian astronomers after Aryabhatta increasingly practised, took the real scientific
challenge out of Indian astronomy. Astronomy gave way more and more to astrology, and what was, indeed, one of the
most promising schools of science in the world, became a victim of the pressures of politics and dogma. This is best
exemplified when one considers the fate of one of the most brilliant suggestions of Aryabhatta, that the earth rotated while
the heavens stood still. Atharvaveda invoked ritual metaphysics to maintain that the earth was motionless. Anything
which went against this statement was heretical. Aryabhatta, from that point of view, was a heretic. Modem historical
research shows that a whole series of astronomers including Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Lalla either ignored the
above statement of Aryabhatta or deliberately misinterpreted it. They wanted to show to their Brahmin masters that they
were good Hindus who firmly believed in the Vedas and the geocenmc (earth-centred) universe. Some opinion today even
raises the possibility of deliberate tampering of manuscripts to erase any mention of a heliocentric (suncentred)
hypothesis.

2. Explain the role of scientific knowledge in agriculture with respect to arid zones, dry lands and hills.
(10)

SOLUTION
In the arid zone there is considerable scope for growing fruit trees like ber and pomegranate and
fuel wood yielding trees like Acacia (Kikar), Prosopis (Mosquite) and Eucalyptus (Safeda). In such
areas, large scale planting of shelter belts will minimize soil erosion caused by wind. It will also
help in the establishment of pastures and grazing lands. Later on this land can be used for growing
pearlmillet and mungbean.

Since water is a limiting factor in drylands, as much run off as posssible should be collected in
community owned ponds, so that the crops can be gived life saving irrigation. In dry lands with red
soil, deep ploughing helps in conserving water. In black soils, sowing two crops at a time is
possible with surface drainage and good water management.Leaves and crop management, when
mixed with soil improve its texture and water holding capacity. If crops like pigeonpea and castor
have deep roots, are cultivated in these regions, the physical condition of the soil improves further,
as the roots of these crops add organic matter.Now that varieties of sorghum, millets, sunflower,
safflower, mustard, groundnut various pulses and cotton are available which grow within a shorter
time and can withstand scarcity of water, it is possible to diversify what grows in the dry lands. A
variety of crops and cropping patterns allow the farmer to make a proper choice of what to grow in
different climate and soil types.There is a solution to the agricultural problem of the hilly regions.
The upper regions of the hills are devoted to forestry. The next zone is developed for growing fruit
trees, perennial fodder grass and legumes. The roots of legumes fix nitrogen and improve the soil.
In the third zone, a mix of crops are raised on terraces constructed with low cost implements.
Earthen dams are constructed with locally available material. The collect enough water to be
utilized for irrigation and fish culture. Polutry, piggery, bee-keeping mushroom cultivation and
related activities create a self sustaining, complete farming system that perfectly blends with the
ecosystem.

3. A) Why is it important to pursue the policy of self-reliance for the progress of science and technology and for the
development of the nation? (5)
SOLUTION

To ensure national security and social stability

For a resource-poor country, conserving energy and oil-substitutable

energy is vital. Food technology is similarly important to maintain social stability. Science and
technology are expected to play a vitally important role in ensuring national security and social
stability.

To sustain the growth of the national economy and to improve its efficiency

In the past, technological progress made only a minor contribution to the growth of national
income, and this should be changed. Furthermore, the technological gap with developed countries
should be reduced in certain strategically selected areas. At the same time, technology
intensification should be undertaken in small and medium-scale enterprises, which take
approximately 97.5 per cent of the total.

To prepare for a smooth transition to an information society

Societal change to an information society will demand the development of information-related

industries centred around micro-electronics, communications, computers, etc. Moreover, reducing
the labour component of production systems through automation technology will require re-
education of displaced labour.

To improve the quality of life

Technology in areas of public health such as disease control, medicine and medical electronics
needs to be developed. Another area is the protection of the environment for better dwelling
conditions on the one hand, and for increased productivity of the land on the other.

Development of information technology directly related to daily living, it should be noted, will
increase social benefits, and this in turn will help reduce urbanization. The preference for urban
living will disappear with the development of an information system on a nationwide scale.

To create a new culture suitable for the new society

A conflict between traditional cultural values and progressive contemporary values has existed in
Korean society during the recent process of industrialization. A national consensus should be
created for the development of science and technology. Another far-reaching goal of science and
technology is the creation of a new culture for the next century.

Long-term goal of S&T development

The long-term goal of science and technology should be in accordance with that of national
development. The national development goal is stated as achieving equal ranking with the
developed countries by becoming the world's fifteenth in terms of GNP and the tenth in terms of
trade volume. To compensate for the country's paucity of natural resources, the necessary goal for
S&T is to become no. 10 in the world in the area of industrial technology.Because of the limitation
in available resources, priority areas should be established through consideration of, among other
things, national needs and comparative advantage. The role of S&T is to lead national development
and to support socio-economic needs. The priority areas that have been identified are:

- Development of electronics, information, and communication technologies.

- Development of selected high technologies to lead the industrial structure

adjustment.
 - Development of key technologies to increase the international competitiveness of
Existing industries.

- Development of technologies related to resources, energy, and food for social and
economic stability.

- Development of technology in the area of health care, environmental protection, and

social information systems to improve the quality of life and social benefits.

- Fostering of creative basic research to promote scientific advancement and to expand

sources of technological innovation.

These priority areas were identified using the following basic criteria:

- Economic return and growth potential in view of limited development resources.

- Probability of success in view of development capability and experience.
- Indispensability in relation to national security and socio-economic stability.
- Industrial and technological linkage.
- Future contribution in relation to public welfare and new industrial possibilities.

3 B) What goals need to be set for the management of water resources? How water can be managed in a
scientific manner? (5)

SOLUTION

The goal of the water resources management is sustainable water use. In order to achieve the effective and
sustainable water resources management, items which shall be required for the proper monitoring, evaluating
and controlling works are summarized as follows;

a) Water quantity

b) Water quality

c) Hydro-meteorological and hydro-geological network

 d) Drought management (Reservoir operation/ Water diversion)

e) Watershed management (Drainage water regulation/Forest protection/Land conservation)

f) Facilities maintenance

4. Distinguish between infectious and non-infectious diseases. Discuss briefly how the infectious diseases travel from
one person to another. (10)

SOLUTION

Difference between infectious and non-infectious diseases

The table given below shows the between infectious and non-infectious diseases.

Infectious diseases Non-infectious diseases

Diseases that spread from one person to They do not spread to others and they restrain within a person
another are called communicable diseases. who has contracted them

They are caused by microorganisms called These diseases are caused by pathogens, but other factors such
pathogens such as bacteria, protozoans, as age, nutritional deficiency, the gender of an individual, and
viruses, etc. lifestyle also influence the disease

Examples: Cholera, chickenpox, malaria Examples: Diabetes, cancer, asthma, etc.

The infectious diseases travel from one person to another

Germs can spread through:

 the air as small droplets (droplet spread) or tiny aerosol particles (airborne spread)
 contact with faeces (poo) and then with the mouth (faeco-oral spread)

 contact with the skin or mucus membranes (the thin moist lining of many parts of the
body such as the nose, mouth, throat and genitals) (contact spread)
 Blood or other body fluids (for example, urine, saliva, breastmilk, semen and vaginal
secretions).
Germs can spread:

 directly from person to person or

 indirectly from an infected person to the environment (for example toys, door handles,
bench tops, bedding and toilets) and then to another person who comes in contact with
the contaminated environmental source.

Germs can enter the body through the:

 mouth
 respiratory tract
 eyes
 genitals

 broken skin.

Some infections can be spread in several different ways.

There are other ways of describing how germs are spread that are commonly used. Germs can be
spread through sexual contact, which is usually through semen and vaginal secretions (body
fluids), but can also occur through contact with mucus membranes. Germs can spread
through food or water. Many but not all the germs spread in this way are through contact with
faeces and then with the mouth (faeco-oral). Germs can also spread from a mother to her unborn
child, usually though blood (body fluids) but also through contact with skin or mucous
membranes during delivery.
Spread through the air by droplets

Some infections are spread when an infected person talks, coughs or sneezes small droplets
containing infectious agents into the air. Due to their size, these droplets in the air travel only a
short distance (around a metre) from the infected person before falling. The droplets in the air
may be breathed in by those nearby. Spread can also occur by touching the nose or mouth with
droplet contaminated hands.
Examples of droplet spread diseases:

 common cold
  flu
 meningococcal disease

 rubella.

Spread through the air by aerosol

Some infections are spread when an infected person talks, breathes, coughs or sneezes tiny
particles containing infectious agents into the air. These are called small particle aerosols. Due to
their tiny size, small particle aerosols can travel long distances on air currents and remain
suspended in the air for minutes to hours. These small particle aerosols may be breathed in by
another person.
Examples of airborne spread diseases:

 chickenpox
 measles
 tuberculosis (TB)

Spread through faeces and then the mouth (faecal-oral spread)

Some infections are spread when microscopic amounts of faeces (poo) from an infected person
with symptoms or an infected person without symptoms (a carrier) are taken in by another
person by mouth. The faeces may be passed:

 directly from soiled hands to the mouth

 indirectly by way of objects, surfaces, food or water soiled with faeces.

Examples of diseases spread from faeces:

 Campylobacter infection
 Cryptosporidium infection
 Giardia infection
 hand, foot and mouth disease
 hepatitis A

 meningitis (viral)
 rotavirus infection
 Salmonella infection
 Shigella infection

 thrush
 viral gastroenteritis
 worms

 Yersinia infection.