Measurements 

of high voltages 
and currents

1
Introduction:

• It is essential to measure the voltage and currents accurately, ensuring

perfect safety to the personnel and equipment.
equipment

• Linear extrapolation of the devices beyond their ranges are not valid for
high voltage meters and measuring instruments,
high-voltage instruments and they have to be
calibrated for the full range.

• Electromagnetic
El i interference
i f i a serious
is i problem
bl i impulse
in i l voltage
l and
d
current measurements, and it has to be avoided or minimized.

2
Measurement of High DC Voltages:

• Series Resistance meters and potential dividers cause current drain from the
source and hence p problems arise due to large
g p power dissipation,
p , leakage
g
currents and limitation of voltage stress per unit length, change in
resistance due to temperature variations.

• Generating Voltmeters are high impedance devices and do not load the
source.

• Spark gaps such as sphere gaps are gas discharge devices and give an
accurate measure of the peak voltage. Sphere gap measurement of voltages
is independent of waveform and frequency.

• Atmospheric conditions like temperature and humidity and by the vicinity

of earthed objects affects the measured values.

3
High Ohmic Series Resistance with Micrometer:
• High dc voltages are usually measured by connecting a very high
resistance (few hundreds or Mega ohms) in series with a micro ammeter.

• Current I flowing through large calibrated resistance R is measured by

Moving Coil Micro ammeter.

• Voltage drop in the meter is negligible, as the impedance of the meter is

only
y few ohms compared
p to few hundred mega g ohms
of the series Resistance R.

• A protective
t ti device
d i like
lik a paper gap, a neon glow
l tube,
t b
or a zener diode is used in case the series resistance R
fails or flashes over as shown in fig.1

4
• Voltage drop in each resistor element is chosen to avoid surface flashovers
and
d discharges.
di h

• Resistance chain is provided with corona-free terminations.

• The limitations in the series resistance design are:

¾ power dissipation and source loading
¾ temperature effects and long time stability
¾ voltage dependence of resistive elements
¾ sensitivity
iti it to
t mechanical
h i l stresses.
t

5
Resistance Potential Dividers:

• Influence of temperature and voltage on the elements is eliminated in

voltage
g divider.

• With sudden changes in voltage, such as Switching operations, flashover of

test objects or source short circuits, flashover or damage may occur to
divider elements due to stray capacitance across the elements and due to
ground capacitances.

• To avoid these transient voltages, voltage controlling capacitors are

connected to linearize the transient potential distribution as in fig.3

6
Generating Voltmeters:

• Direct connection to high-voltage source is avoided in Generating

Voltmeters.

• A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor electrostatic voltage

generator which generates current proportional to the applied external
voltage.(driven by external synchronous or constant speed motor and does
not absorb power or energy from the voltage measuring source).

7
 Principle of operation
Principle of operation
• The charge stored in a capacitor of capacitance C is given by q = CV. If the
capacitance of the capacitor varies with time when connected to a voltage
source of voltage V, the current through the capacitor is given by
dq dC dV
i= =V +C
dt dt dt
dq dC
• For dc voltages dV/dt=0.Hence, i = =V
dt dt
• If the capacitance varies between the limits C0 and C0+Cm sinusoidally as
C = C0 + Cm sin ωt
The current is i = im cos ωt
where im = VCmω

8
• For a constant angular frequency ω, the current is proportional to the
applied voltage V. The generated current is rectified and measured by a
moving coil meter.
• Generating voltmeter can be used for a.c voltage measurements also
provided that angular frequency ω is the same or equal to half that of the
supply frequency.
• Generating voltmeters employ rotating sectors for variation of capacitance.
• Fig.4 gives the schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter. The high
voltage source is connected to a disc electrode S3 which is kept at a fixed
distance on the axis of the other low voltage electrodes S0,S1 and S2.
• The rotor S0 is driven at a constant speed by a synchronous motor at a
suitable speed(1500,1800, 3000, or 3600 rpm).
• The rotor vanes of S0 cause p periodic change
g in capacitance
p between the
insulated disc S2 and the hv electrode S3.
• The shape and number of the vanes of S0 and S1 are so designed that they
produce sinusoidal variation in the capacitance.
p p

9
• The generated ac current through the resistance R is rectified and read by a
moving coil instrument.An amplifier is needed, if the shunt capacitance is
large or longer leads are used for connection to rectifier and meter. The
instrument is calibrated using a potential divider or sphere gap.
• The meter scale is linear and its range can be extended by extrapolation.

10
• Advantages :
¾ No source loading by the meter
¾ No direct connection to high voltage electrode
¾ Scale is linear and extension of range is easy
¾ a very convenient instrument for electrostatic devices such as
Van de Graaff generator and particle accelerators.
• Limitations:
¾ Require calibration
¾ Careful construction is needed and is a cumbersome instrument
requiring an auxiliary drive.
¾ Disturbance in position and mounting of the electrodes make the
calibration
lib i invalid.
i lid

11
DC Electric Field Strength (E):

• Electric fields exist in the near vicinity of very high voltage power lines.

• Development of electric field meters and measurement of electric fields are

necessary due to their biological, and ecological effects and possible shock
hazards.

• Electric field strength can be measured by using

¾ variable
i bl capacitor
it probeb or generating
ti voltmeter
lt t
¾ vibrating plate capacitor

• Basic principle of measurement is by measuring either the induced charges

or currents sensed by the electrodes.

12
Variable Capacitor Field Meter:

• If a metallic electrode is kept in an electric field E, the total charge induced

on its surface A is
Q = ε AE = ε ∫ EdA

• If the area of the sensing electrode varies and the variation of the area of
the sensing electrode is periodic, then the current flowing through the
measuring electrode to the ground is
dq 1 dq q − qmin
I= = ∫ .dt = max
dt T dt T
Average value of electric field is

qmax − qmin q i
E= = max = if qmin = 0
ε 0 AT ε 0 AT ε 0 A

13
• Arrangement of electrodes is shown in fig.6
• Sensing electrode which is in the form of a circular disc is divided into
sectors and shielded by a rotating shutter which rotates at an angular
velocity ω. The shutter is driven at a constant speed by a motor.
• Two opposite sectors of the sensing electrode
are grounded and the other two are connected
to g
ground through
g a measuring g resistance R.
• The voltage across the resistance is measured
and then electric field intensity E is measured.
• The induced current signal(voltage) is rectified by
a phase sensitive detector operating with suitable
phase angle relative to the movement of shutter
and is calibrated in terms of electric field E.

14
Vibratingg Plate Field Meter:

• A vibrating plate or electrode is located below the fixed plate and is made
to oscillate at a fixed rate by a driver motor and voltage is induced between
the plates.

• The Electric field is proportional to voltage induced V.

V

15
AC Field Strength Meter:

• Principle : Electric field between the plates of the capacitor is proportional

to the charge induced on the plates of the capacitor and varies because of
the variation of the ac electric field, the capacitive current is a measure of
the field.

• yp of electrode for field p

Types probe:

16
• Charge Q induced on the surface of a conductor in an electric field E for a
Spherical electrode is Q = 3πa2ε0E=Kε0E

C
Current
t through
th h the
th probe
b I = dq/dt
d /dt = Kωε
K 0Ecosωt
E t
K -> Determined by Type of probe electrode
I -> Rectified meter

• Accuracy of the instrument is about 0.5% .

• Accuracy depends on
¾ Harmonic content.
¾ Atmospheric conditions like temperature, humidity.
¾ Position and location of the meter in Electric field.

17
Measurement of Ripple
pp Voltage
g in DC Systems:
y

• Ripple voltages are ac voltages of non-sinusoidal nature and if a resistance

potential divider is used along with an oscilloscope,
oscilloscope the measurement of
small values of the ripple will be inaccurate.

• Principle : Measure the varying component of the ac voltage by blocking

the dc component in C-R circuit.(condition to be satisfied is ωCR >>1).

18
Measurement of Ripple
pp with CRO:

• Switch ‘S’ must be closed when the CRO is connected to the source so that
the CRO input terminal does not receive any high voltage signal while ‘C’
C
is being charged.

• Capacitance ‘C’
C is rated for peak voltage and capacitance should be larger
than the capacitance of the cable and input capacitance of CRO together.

19
High AC and Impulse Voltages:

• Series Impedance Voltmeters :

¾ For power frequency ac measurements the series impedance may be a pure
resistance or reactance and since resistances involve power losses, often a
capacitor is preferred as a series reactance.

¾ Problems with High resistances:

™ Variation of resistance with temperature.
™ Residual
R id l Inductance
I d t off the
th resistance.
it
™ Stray Capacitances.

20
• At any frequency ω of ac voltage , the impedance of the resistance
R( h
R(shown i fig.10)
in fi 10) is
i
R + jω L
Z=
(1 − ω 2 LC ) + jωCR

• If ωL and ωC are small compared to R,

ωL
Z = R[1 + j ( − ωCR)]
R
and the total phase angle is
ωL
tan φ ≈ ( − ωCR)
R

21
• For extended and large dimensioned resistors, each elemental resistor has
to be taken as a transmission line equivalent, for calculating the effective
resistance.

• Equivalent circuit of a high voltage resistor neglecting inductance.

22
• Ground or stray capacitance of each element influences the current flowing
i the
in th currentt and
d hence
h results
lt error in
i the
th meter.
t

• Stray ground capacitance effects can be removed by shielding the resistor R

by a second surrounding spiral Rs, which shunts the actual resistor but does
not contribute to the current through the instrument.

• By tuning the resistors Ra, the shielding resistor and potentials may be
adjusted w.r.t actual measuring resistor so that resulting compensation
currents between the shield and the measuringg
resistors provide a minimum phase angle.

23
Series Capacitance
p Voltmeter :
A series capacitor is used instead of a resistor for ac high voltage
measurements.

• Current Ic through meter is Ic = jωCV (V is applied ac voltage)

If ac voltage contains harmonics, error due to changes in series impedance
occurs The rms value of voltage V with harmonics is
occurs.

V = V12 + V2 2 + ...... + Vn 2

Currents due to harmonics are I1 = ωCV1

I 2 = 2ωCV2
I n = nωCVn
With a 10% fifth harmonic only, the current is 11.2% higher, 
and hence error is 11.2% in the voltage measurement.
This method is not recommended when ac voltages are not 
pure sinusoidal waves 
24
Capacitive potential dividers :

¾ A standard compressed air or gas capacitor (C1) is a three terminal

capacitor and it is connected to any large capacitor(C2) (mica, paper, or any
low loss capacitor) through a shielded cable and C2 is completely shielded
to avoid any stray capacitances.
Applied Voltage V1 is V1 = V2 ( C1 + C2 + Cm )
C1

Cm- capacitance of meter, connecting cable and leads

¾ Capacitive voltage dividers with an electrostatic voltmeter

is used to eliminate the errors due to harmonic voltages.

25
Capacitive Voltage Transformers(CVT):

¾ CVT can be connected to a low impedance device like a wattmeter pressure

coil or relay
y coil whereas Capacitance
p divider requires
q a high
g impedance
p
meter like electrostatic voltmeter.

¾ C1 is made of few units of high voltage capacitors, and the total capacitance
will be around a few thousands picofarads as against a gas filled standard
capacitor of about 100 pF.

26
• A matching transformer(10-30kV/100-500V)is connected between the load
or meter M and C2.

• For Resonance,, the value of tuning

g choke L is
1
ω ( L + LT ) =
ω (C1 + C2 )

where L=Inductance of choke

LT= equivalent inductance of transformer ref. to hv side

• Capacitance divider with suitable matching or isolating potential

transformer tuned for resonance condition is used in power systems for
voltage measurements

27
CVT Phasor Diagram:

• The meter reactance, Xm is neglected and is taken as a resistance Rm when

the load is connected to a voltage divider side. The voltage across the
potential transformer V2= ImRm and the voltage across the capacitor is
V2+Tm(Re+jXe).

• The phasor diagram is written taking V1 as the reference phasor.

phasor
V1=Vc1+Vc2 and total current = Im+Ic2.

• With proper tuning V2 will be in phase with V1.The

The potential transformer
resistance and reactance are included in Ri and Xi, the resistance and
reactance of tuning inductor.

• Voltage V2 (meter voltage) will be

in phase with the input voltage.

28
• Advantages of a CVT
¾ Simple design and easy installation.
¾ Useful for voltage measuring device for meter and relaying purposes
and also as a coupling
p g condenser for p power line carrier communication
and relaying.
¾ Frequency independent voltage distribution along elements as against
conventional magnetic
g potential transformers which require
p q additional
insulation design against surges.
¾ Provides isolation between high voltage terminal and low voltage
metering.
g

• Disadvantages of a CVT:
¾ Voltage ratio is susceptible to temperature variations, and
¾ Problem of inducing ferro-resonance in power systems.

29
Potential Transformers(Magnetic Type):
• Magnetic potential transformers are the oldest devices for ac measurements
• For very high voltages, cascading of the transformers is possible.
Voltage ratio V1 / V2 = a = N1 / N 2

• PT’s suffer from the ratio and phase angle errors caused by the magnetizing
and leakage impedance of the transformer windings and these errors are
compensated by adjusting the turns ratio with the tapping's on the high
voltage side under load conditions.

• PT do not permit fast rising transient or high frequency voltages along with
normal supply frequency, but harmonic voltages are usually measured with
sufficient accuracy.

• With high voltage testing transformers, no separate potential transformer is

used, but a PT winding is incorporated with the high voltage windings of
the testing transformer.
transformer

30
• With test objects like insulators, cables, etc. which are capacitive in nature,
a voltage rise occurs on load with the testing transformer, and the potential
transformer winding gives voltage values less than the actual voltages
applied to the test object.

• If the percentage impedance of the testing transformer is known, the

following correction can be applied to the voltage measured by the PT
winding of the transformer.
V2 = V20 (1 + 0.01vx C / CN )

V20 = open circuit voltage of PT winding,

CN=load capacitance used for testing,
C= test object capacitance (C<<CN) and
vx= % reactance drop in the transformer.

31
Electrostatic Voltmeters:
• Principle : In Electrostatic fields between the electrodes of a parallel plate
capacitor is

−δWs δ 1 2 1 2 δC 1 2 A 1 V 2 d2 V 2
F= = ( CV ) = V = ε0V 2 = ε0 A( ) = ( ) gmwt
.
ds δs 2 2 δs 2 s 2 s 2825 s

• When one of electrode is free to move, the force on the other plate can be
measured by controlling it by a spring or balancing it with a counter
weight.

• For High voltage measurements, a small displacement of one of the

electrodes by a fraction of a millimetre to a few millimetres is usually
sufficient for voltage measurements.

• As the force is proportional to the square of the applied voltage, the

measurement can be made for ac or dc voltages.
g

32
• Electrostatic voltmeters are made with parallel plate configuration using
guard
d rings
i t avoid
to id corona and
d field
fi ld fringing
f i i att the
th edges.
d

• An absolute voltmeter is made by balancing the plate with a counter weight

and is calibrated in terms of a small weight.

• p
Electrostatic voltmeters have a small capacitance ((5 to 50 p
pF)) and high
g
insulation resistance(R>1013Ω).

• Upper frequency limit for ac applications is determined from the following

considerations :
¾ natural frequency of the moving system
¾ Resonant frequency of the lead and stray capacitances with meter
capacitance
¾ R-C behavior of the retaining or control spring(due to fractional
resistance and elastance)
• Accuracy for ac voltage measurements is better than 0.25% and for dc it is
0.1% 33
Construction:
• It consists
i t off parallel-plate
ll l l t disc
di type
t electrodes
l t d separated
t d by
b a small ll
distance . The moving electrode is surrounded by a fixed guard ring to
make the field uniform in the central region.

• The central torque is provided by balancing weight. The moving disc M

forms the central core of the guard ring G which is of the same diameter as
th fixed
the fi d plate
l t F.
F The
Th cap D encloses
l a sensitive
iti balance
b l B one arm off
B,
which carries the suspension of the moving disc.

• The balance beam carries a mirror which reflects a beam of light. The
movement of the disc is magnified. As the spacing between the two
electrodes is large, the uniformity of the electric field is maintained by the
guardd rings
i H which
hi h surroundd the
th space between
b t th discs
the di F andd M.
M The
Th
guard rings H are maintained at a constant potential in space by a
capacitance divider ensuring a uniform special potential distribution.

34
Electrostatic Voltmeter

35
• The main differences between several forms of voltmeters lies in the
manner in which the restoring force is obtained.

• For conventional versions of meters, a simple spring control is used , which

actuates a p
pointer to move on the scale of the instruments. In more versatile
instruments, only small movements of the moving electrodes is allowed,
and the movement is amplified through optical means (lamp and scale
arrangement as used with moving coil galvanometers).

• Two air vane dampers are used to reduce vibrational tendencies in the
moving system , and the elongation of the spring is kept minimum to avoid
field disturbances.
disturbances

• Range of the instrument is easily changed by changing the gap separation

so that V/s or electrical stress is the same for the maximum value in any
range.

• With compressed
p ggas or vacuum as medium,, the meter is compact
p in size.

36
Peak Reading AC Voltmeters:

• Peak value of the ac waveform is necessary to obtain the maximum

dielectric strength of insulating solids.

• When
h theh waveform
f i not sinusoidal,
is i id l rms value
l off the
h voltage
l multiplied
l i li d
by √2 is not correct , hence a separate peak value instrument is desirable in
high voltage applications.

37
Series Capacitor Peak Voltmeter:

• Principle: When a capacitor is connected to a sinusoidal voltage source,

the charging
g g current is
t
i0 = ∫ qdt = jωCV
0

• If a half-wave rectifier is used , the arithmetic mean of the rectifier current

is proportional to peal value of the ac voltage. The dc meter reading is
proportional to the peak value of the value Vm or

I
Vm =
2π fC

• This method is known as Chubb- Frotscue method for peak voltage

measurement.

38
• Diode D1 is used to rectify the ac current in one half cycle while D2 by
passes in the other half cycle.
cycle
• The charging current through the capacitor changes its polarity within one
half cycle itself.

39
• This is suitable only of positive or negative half cycles and hence is valid
only
l when
h both
b th half
h lf cycles
l are symmetric
t i andd equal.
l This
Thi is
i nott suitable
it bl
when the voltage waveform is not sinusoidal but contains more than one
peak or maximum.

• The shaded areas gives the reverse current in any one of the half cycles and
the current within that period subtracts from the net current. Hence the
reading
di off the
th meter
t will
ill be
b less
l and d is
i nott proportional
ti l tot Vm as the
th currentt
flowing during intervals (t1-t2) will not be included in mean value.

40
• Pre-discharges currents with in the test circuits cause very short duration
voltage drops which introduces errors and this can be overcome by using a
resistance R in series with capacitor C such that CR<<1/ω

• E
Error d to
due t resistance
it i
is
ΔV V − Vm 1
= = (1 − )
V V 1+ ω C R
2 2 2

• The different sources that contribute to the error are

¾ Effective value of the capacitance being different from the measured value .
¾ Imperfect rectifiers which allows small reverse currents.
¾ Non-sinusoidal voltage waveforms with more than one peak or maxima per
half cycle.
cycle
¾ Deviation of the frequency from that of the value used for calibration.

41
Digital Peak Reading Meter:

• Series capacitance peak voltmeter is not suitable for waveforms with more
than one p
peak in each half cycle.
y

• In digital peak reading meter , instead of directly measuring the rectified

charging current, a proportional analog voltage signal is derived which is
then converted into a proportional mean frequency, fm as shown in fig.20

• The ratio frequency fm/f is measured with a gate circuit controlled by the ac
power frequency(f).

42
• A cou
counter
e thata ope
openss for
o a adjus
adjustable
ab e number
u be oof pe
periods
ods Δt=p/f.
p/ . During
u g thiss
interval, the number of pulses counted , n is
fm
n = f m Δt = p. = 2 pCVm AR
f
p – constant of the instrument
A- conversion factor of ac-dc converter

• Reading of the voltage in kV can be obtained by suitable choice of the

parameter R and number of periods p( im is the rectified current through R)

fm
A=
Rim
• Total estimated error in this instrument was less than 0.35%.

43
44
Peak Voltmeters with potential dividers:

• Voltage across C2 is made use of in charging the storage capacitor Cs.Rd is

the discharge
g resistor employed
p y to p permit variation of Vm whenever V2 is
reduced.
• Cs is charged to a voltage proportional to the peak value to be measured.
The indicatingg meter is either an electrostatic voltmeter or a high g
impedance VTVM.

• The discharge time constant CsRd is designed to be about 1 to 10s. This

give rise to a discharge error which depends on the frequency of the supply
voltage.

45
• To compensate for the charging and discharging errors due to resistance,
the circuit is modified as

• Rabus’ modification to compensate the charging errors

46
Spark Gaps:

• A uniform field spark gap will always have a sparkover voltage within a
known tolerance under constant atmospheric conditions. Hence a spark gap
can be used for measurement of the peak value of the voltage.

• A sparkover voltage of 30kV(peak) at 1 cm spacing in air at 200C and 760

torr pressure occurs for
f a sphere
h gap or any uniform
if fi ld gap.
field

• Only sphere gaps are used for voltage measurements. In certain cases
uniform
if fi ld gaps and
field d rod
d gaps are also
l used
d but
b t their
th i accuracy is
i less.
l

• The spark gap breakdown, especially the sphere gap breakdown, is

independent of the voltage waveform and hence is highly suitable for all
types of waveforms from dc to impulse voltage of short rise times.

• Sphere gaps can be used for radio frequency ac peak measurement(1 MHz)

47
• Sphere gaps can be arranged either
¾ Vertically with lower sphere grounded
¾ Horizontally with both spheres connected to the source voltage or one
sphere
p grounded.
g

• In horizontal configurations, it is generally arranged such that both spheres

are symmetrically at high voltage above the ground.
ground

• The voltage to be measured is applied between the two spheres and the
distance or spacing S between them gives a measure of the sparkover
voltage.

• A series
i impedance
i d i usually
is ll connected
t d between
b t th source and
the d the
th sphere
h
gap to (i)limit the breakdown current (ii) suppress unwanted oscillations in
source voltage when breakdown occurs.

48
Sphere
p gap
g p for voltage
g measurement

49
Horizontal Arrangement
g of Sphere
p Gap
p

50
Peak Value of Sparkover voltage in kV for a.c, d.c. voltages of
either
ith polarity
l it

51
• In the case of ac peak value and dc voltage measurements, the applied
voltage
lt is
i uniformly
if l increased
i d until
til sparkover
k occurs in
i the
th gap. Generally,
G ll
a mean of about five breakdown values is taken when they agree to within
3% .

• In the case of impulse voltages, to obtain 50% flashover voltage, two

voltage limits, differing by not more than 2% are set such that on
application
li ti off lower
l li it value
limit l either
ith 2 or 4 flashovers
fl h t k place
take l and
d on
application of upper limit value 8 or 6 flashovers take place respectively.

• The mean of these two limits is taken as 50% flashover voltage. In any
case, a preliminary sparkover voltage measurement is to be made before
actual measurements are made.

52
Sphere
p Gapp Construction:

• Sphere gaps are made with two metal spheres of identical diameters D with
their shanks
shanks, operating gear,
gear and insulator supports.
supports

• Spheres are generally made of copper, brass, or aluminium; the latter is

used due to low cost
cost.

53
Factors Influencingg the Sparkover
p Voltage
g of Sphere
p Gaps:
p

(i) nearby earthed objects

(ii) atmospheric
h i conditions
di i andd humidity
h idi
(iii) irradiation, and
(iv) polarity and rise time of voltage waveforms.

54
Effect of Nearby Earthed Objects :
• The Effect
Th Eff off nearby
b earthed
h d objects
bj was investigated
i i d by
b Kuffel
K ff l by
b enclosing
l i
the earthed sphere inside an earthed cylinder. It was observed that the sparkover
voltage is reduced.
• The reduction was observed to be

ΔV = m log (B / D) + C
where
h ΔVΔ = percentage reduction
d i
B = diameter of earthed enclosing cylinder,
D = diameter of the spheres,
S = spacing , and m and C are constants.
• The reduction was less than 2% for S/D ≤ 0.5 and B/D ≥ 0.8. Even for S/D≈ 1.0
and B/D ≥ 1.0 the reduction was only 3%. Hence, if the specifications
regarding the clearances are closely observed the error is within the tolerances
and accuracy specified.
• The reduction in voltage is within the accuracy limits, if S/D is kept less than
0 6A , A iis th
0.6A the distance
di t from
f sparking
ki point
i t to
t horizontal
h i t l groundd plane.
l

55
Influence of gground pplates on Sparkover
p voltage
g

56
Effect of Atmospheric
p Conditions:

• The sparkover voltages of a spark gap depends on the air density which
varies with the changes in both temperature and pressure.
pressure

• If the sparkover voltage is V under test conditions of temperature T and

pressure p torr and if the sparkover voltage is V0 under standard conditions
of temperature T=200 C and pressure p=760 torr, then
V = kV 0
where
h k is
i a function
f i off the
h air
i density
d i factor
f d,
d is
i given
i by
b
p 293
d= ( )
760 273 +T
• Relation between correction factor k and air density factor d
d 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.10 1.15
k 0 72
0.72 0 77 0.82
0.77 0 82 0 86 0.91
0.86 0 91 0 95 1.0
0.95 10 1 05 1.09
1.05 1 09 1 12
1.12

57
• The sparkover voltage increases with humidity. The increase is about 2 to
3% over normall hhumidity / 3 to
idit range off 8 g/m / 3.
t 15 g/m

• Humidity effect increases with the size of spheres and is maximum for
uniform field gaps.

• p
The sparkover voltage
g increases with the partial
p pressure
p of water vapour
p in
air, and for a given humidity condition, the change in sparkover voltage
increases with the gap length.

• The influence of humidity on sparkover voltage of a 25cm sphere gap for 1

cm spacing is shown in fig…….

58
Effect of irradiation:
• Illumination of sphere gaps with ultra-violet or X-rays aids easy ionization
in gaps.

• The effect of irradiation is pronounced for small gap spacings.

• A reduction of about 20% in sparkover voltage was observed for spacings

of 0.1 D to 0.3 D for a 1.3 cm sphere gap with dc voltages.

• The reduction in sparkover voltage is less than 5% for gap spacings more
than 1 cm, and for gap spacings of 2 cm or more it is about 1.5%.

• Hence, iirradiation
H di ti isi necessary for
f smaller
ll sphere
h gaps off gap spacing
i less
l
than 1 cm for obtaining consistent values.

59
Effect of Polarity and Waveform:

• It has been observed that the sparkover voltages for positive and negative
ppolarity
y impulses
p are different.

• For sphere gaps of 6.25 to 25 cm diameter, the difference between positive

and negative dc voltages is not more than 1%.

• For smaller sphere gaps( 2cm diameter and less ) the difference was about
8% between negative and positive impulses of 1/50 μs waveform
waveform.

• The wave front and wave tail durations also influence the breakdown
voltage.
lt
• For wave fronts of less than 0.5 μs and wave tails less than 5 μs the
breakdown voltages are not consistent.Hence the use of the sphere gap in
thi case is
this i nott recommended
d d for
f voltage
lt measurement. t

60
Uniform Field Electrode Gaps:

• Sphere gaps, have only limited range with uniform electric field. It is not
possible to ensure that the sparking always takes place along the uniform
fi ld region.
field i

• Rogowski presented a design for uniform field electrodes for sparkover

voltages up to 600kV,
600kV given by
V = AS + B S

where A and B are constant, S is the gap spacing in cm.

• The constants A and B were found to be 24.4 and 7.50 respectively at a

temperature T=250C and pressure =760 torr.

• Sparking potential is a function of air density ( air density factor ‘d’)

sparkover voltage is modified as
V = 24.4dS + 7.50 dS

61
Uniform
U o field
e d eelectrodes
ect odes

62
• Bruce made uniform field electrodes with a sine curve in the end region.

• According to Bruce, the maximum voltage for electrodes of different

voltages are given as below:
Diameter Of Electrode(inches)
( ) 4.5 9.0 15.0
Maximum Voltage(kV) 140 280 420

• For the Bruce profile,

profile the constants A and B are respectively 24.22
24 22 and 6.08
6 08

• Sparkover voltage increases with humidity and it is modified as

V = 6.66
6 66 dS +[24.55
[24 55 + 0.41(0.1
0 41(0 1e −1.0)]
1 0)]dS

where, V = sparkover voltage, kVpeak (in kVdc).

е = vapour pressure of water in air ( mm Hg).

• Constants A and B differ for ac, dc, and impulse voltages.

63
• A comparison between sparkover voltages ( in air t a temperature of 200C
and a pressure of 760 torr) of a uniform field electrode gap and a sphere
gap is given as below:

64
Rod Gaps:
• A rod gap is also sometimes used for approximate measurement of peak
values of power frequency voltages and impulse voltages.IEEE recognized
that this method gives an accuracy within ± 8%.

• The rods will be

™ Either square edged or circular in cross-section.
™ Length of the rods may be 15-75 cm
™ Spacing varies from 2 to 200 cm.

• The sparkover voltage, as in other gaps, is affected by Humidity and Air

density.
• H idit correction
Humidity ti for
f rodd gap sparkover
k voltages:
lt

Vapour pressure of water (torr) 2.54 5 10 15 20 25 30
Correction factor % ‐16.5 ‐13.1 ‐6.5 ‐0.5 4.4 7.9 10.1

65
• The power frequency breakdown voltage for 1.27 cm square rods in air at
270C and at a pressure of 760 torr with the vapour pressure of water of
15.5 torr is given below:

• In case of impulse voltage measurements, the IEC and IEEE recommend

horizontal mounting of rod gaps on insulators at a height of 1.5 to 2.0 times
the gap spacing above
abo e the ground.
gro nd One of the rods is usually
s all earthed.
earthed

66
• Corrections for humidity for 1/5 μs impulse and 1/50 μs impulse are given
below:

• Sparkover voltages for impulse waves are given below:

67
Impulse
p Voltage
g Measurement:
Potential Dividers:
• Potential or voltage dividers for high-voltage impulse measurements, high
frequency ac measurements,
measurements or for fast rising transient voltage
measurements are usually either resistive or capacitive or mixed element
type.
• The low voltage arm of the divider is usually connected to a fast recording
oscillograph or a peak reading instrument through a delay cable.
• Z1 is usually resistor or a series of
resistors in case of a resistance potential
divider, or a single or a number of
capacitors in case of a capacitance divider
or a combination of both resistors and
capacitors.

68
• When a step or fast raising voltage is applied at the high voltage terminal ,
the voltage developed across the element Z2 will not have the true
waveform as that of the applied voltage. The cable can also introduce
distortion in the waveshape.
• Different Errors in the measurements:
i. Residual Inductance in the elements.
ii. Stray Capacitance occurring
a. between the elements,
b. From sections and terminals of the elements to ground, and
c. From the high voltage lead to the elements or sections;
iii. The impedance errors due to
a. Connecting leads between the divider and test objects, and
b
b. Ground return leads and extraneous current in ground leads; and
iv. Parasitic oscillations due to lead and cable inductances and capacitance
of high-voltage terminal to ground.

69
Resistance Potential Dividers:
Very Low Impulse Voltages and Fast Rising Pulses:
• A simple resistance potential divider consists of two resistances R1 and R2
in series(( R1>>R2)).
• The attenuation factor of the divider is given by

V1 ( t ) R
a= = 1+ 1
V2 (t ) R2

• The divider element R2, in practice, is

connected through a coaxial cable to the
oscilloscope. The cable will generally have
a surge
g impedance
p Z0 and this will come in
parallel with oscilloscope input impedance.

70
• For high frequency and impulse voltages (since they also contain high
frequency fundamental and harmonics), the ratio in the frequency domain will
be given by
V1 R1
a= =1+
V2 (R2 /1+ jωR2Cm )

• Hence, the ratio is function of the frequency. To avoid the frequency dependent
of the voltage ratio , the divider is compensated by adding an additional
capacitance C1 across R1. The value of C1, to make the divider independent of
the frequency, may be obtained from the relation,
R1 C m
=
R2 C1
• This compensation is used for the construction of high-voltage dividers and
probes used with oscilloscopes.

• Usually, probes are made with adjustable values of Cm so that the value of Cm
can include any stray capacitance including that of a cable.

71
• Compensated resistance potential divider

• Output
p of compensated
p resistance voltage
g divider.

(i) Overcompensated (ii) correctly compensated (iii) Undercompensated

fi 33 O
fig.33 Output off compensated
d resistance
i potential
i l di
divider
id ffor diff
different degrees
d off compensation
i

72
• For the exponential slope or for the rising portion of the wave, the time
constant
τ = [ R1 R 2 / R1 + R 2 ]( C 1 + C m )

• The time constant will be too large when the value of C1 is greater than that
required for correct compensation and hence an overshoot with an
exponential decay occurs as shown in fig.33(i)

• For undercompensation, the charging time is too high and as such an

exponential rise occurs as shown in fig.33(iii)

73
Potential dividers for High-Voltage Impulse Measurements
• For voltages
F lt above
b 100 kV,
kV R1 isi no longer
l small
ll in
i dimension
di i andd is
i
usually made of a number of sections. Hence the diameter is no longer a
small resistor of lumped parameters, but has to be
considered as an equivalent distributed network
with its terminal to ground capacitances and inter-
sectional series capacitances as shown in fig.34

• The total resistance R1 is made of n resistors of

value R1’ and R=nR1’. Cg is the terminal to ground
capacitance of each of the resistor elements R1’, and
Cs is the capacitance between the terminals of each
section.

• The inductance of each element (L1’) is usually small

compared to the other elements.

74
• This divider produces a non-linear voltage distribution along its length and
also acts like an R-C
R C filter for applied voltages.
voltages

• The output of divider for various values of Cg /Cs ratio is shown in fig.35

• By arranging guard rings at various elemental points, the equivalent circuit

is modified using Capacitive Voltage divider.

75
Capacitance
p Voltage
g Dividers:

• Capacitance voltage dividers are ideal for the measurement of fast rising
voltages and pulses.
pulses

• The capacitance ratio is independent of frequency, if their leakage

resistance is not high enough to be neglected.But
neglected But usually the dividers are
connected to the source voltage through long leads which introduce lead
inductances and residual inductances.

• The capacitance used for very high-voltage work is not small in dimension
and hence cannot be considered as a lumped element.

• Therefore, the output of the divider for high frequencies and impulses is
distorted as in the case of resistance dividers.

76
77
Pure Capacitance
p Dividers:
• A pure capacitance divider for high voltage measurements and its electrical
equivalent network without stray elements is shown in fig.37

• Ratio of the divider is

V1 (t ) C
a= = 1+ 2
V2 (t ) C1

78
• Capacitance C1 is formed between the hv terminal of the source (impulse
generator) and that of the test object or any other point of measurement
measurement.

• The CRO is located within the shielded screen surrounding capacitance

C2(C2 includes
i l d the th capacitance
it used,
d the
th lead
l d capacitance,
it input
i t
capacitance of the CRO)

• The advantage of this connection is that the loading on the source is

negligible ; but a small disturbance in the location of C2 or hv electrode or
the presence of any stray object nearby changes the capacitance C1, and
h
hence th
the divider
di id ratio
ti is
i affected.
ff t d

• In many cases, a standard air or compressed gas capacitor is used which

has coaxial cylindrical construction.

79
• Design frequently used is to make C1 to consist of a number of capacitors
C1’ in se
series
es for
o a given
g ve voltage
vo age V1.
• Equivalent circuit is similar to that of a string insulator unit used in
transmission lines.

80
• Voltage distribution along the capacitor chain is non-linear and hence
causes distortion of the output wave.
wave But the ratio error is constant and is
independent of frequency as compared to resistance dividers.

• A simplified
i lifi d equivalent
i l t circuit
i it is
i shown
h in
i fig.39
fi 39 which
hi h can be
b usedd if
C1<<C2 and Cg <<C1. The voltage ratio is

V1 (t ) C2 Cg
a= ≈ [1 + ][1 + ]
V2 (t ) C1 6C1

• The ratio is constant and gives an error of less than 5%

when C1=3C 3Cg. This equivalent circuit is satisfactory
up to 1 MHz.

81
Field Controlled Voltage Dividers:
• The electrostatic or capacitive field distribution of a shield or guard ring
placed over a resistive divider to enforce a uniform field in the
neighborhood and along the divider may be adopted for high voltage
measurements.
t

82
• The shield is in the form of a cone. R1 is a non-linear resistance in the sense
the resistance per unit length is small and hence loading effect is reduced.

• The main advantage is that the capacitance per unit length is small and
hence loading g effect is reduced. Sometimes the parallel
p resistance R2
together with the lead inductance and shunt capacitances cause oscillations
as shown in fig.41(a).The oscillations can be reduced by adding a damping
resistor Rd as shown in fig.40

• These dividers are constructed for very high voltages( up to 2MV) with
response times less than 30 ns.

• Resistance column is made of woven resistance of 20 kΩ.

• The step
Th t response off suchh a divider
di id isi shown
h in
i fig..
fi With andd without
ith t
damping resistor. With a proper damping resistor (Rd) the response time is
much less and the overshoot is reduced.

83
84
Mixed R
R-C
C Potential Dividers:

• Mixed potential dividers use R-C elements in series or in parallel.

• A better construction is to make an R-C series element connection and

these dividers are made up to rating of 5 MV with response time less than
30 ns.

• The Equivalent circuit is shown in fig.42

• The low voltage arm R2 is given “L peaking” by connecting a variable

inductance L in series with R2. The step
p response
p of the divider and the
schematic connection is shown in fig.43

• For a correctly designed voltage divider L peaking will not be necessary.

necessary

85
86
87
R-C Potential Dividers for 2 MV Rating and above:

• Voltage dividers used for measuring more than one million volt attenuate
the measuring signal to value in the range of 100V to few hundreds of
volts.
lt

• The criteria required to assess the dividers are

(i) Shape of voltage in the test arrangement should be transferred 
without anyy distortion to the LV side.

(ii) Simple determination of transfer behavior should be ensured.

(iii) Should be suitable for multipurpose  use ( for use with ac power 

frequency voltages, switching impulse voltages as well as with 
lightning impulse voltages.)

88
• The dividers should have broad bandwidths. The above requirements are
generally
ge e a y met
e by
a) Optimally damped R-C dividers.
b) Under damped or low-damped R-C dividers
• The high-voltage
high oltage arm of such
s ch dividers
di iders consists of series R
R-C
C units
nits while
hile
the secondary arm is usually an R-C series or parallel circuit.

Optimally
p y Damped Dividers
p
(i) R1 = 4 L1 / Cg Where
L1 is the inductance of the high‐voltage lead and HV portion of divider.
Cg is the equivalent capacitance to ground.   

R1 is in the range of 400‐1000 ohms.       

(ii) Step Response is shown in
(ii) Step Response is shown in fig.44 Because of large time constant(R
fig 44 Because of large time constant(Rd+R1)C1, the 
the
optimal damped divider affects the voltage shape at the test object. Standard 
lightning impulses sometimes cannot be generated to the correct standard 
specifications. R‐C potential dividers re not suitable for measurements with test 
objects of very low capacitance.

89
Underdamped  R‐C divider
(i) R1 will be equal to 0.25 to 1.5 times L / C1
where L is inductance for complete measuring loop
C1 is the capacitance of HV part of divider.
Normal value of R1 lies between 50 and 300 ohms. 
(ii) Acts s a load capacitance and is suitable for applications over a broad bandwidth, 
i.e. ., ac ,switching impulses, lightning impulses, chopped waves, etc. These re also 
suitable for measurement of steep fronted impulse waves. Even though the step 
response is poor in this case, they can be used to measure the standard impulse wave 
to a better accuracy.

90
91
92
Different Connections employed with Potential dividers:
• Possible
P ibl errors are
i. R2 ≠ Z 0 (surge impedance of the cable)
ii. Capacitance of the cable and CRO shunting R2 and hence
introducing distortion
iii. Attenuation or voltage drop in surge cable Z0.
iv. Ground capacitance effect.
• To avoid reflections at the junction of the cable and R2, R2 is varied to
give the best possible step response. When a unit step voltage is applied
to take a fraction of the voltage [C1/(C1+C2)] into it and cause reflections
at the input end.
• In the beginning of the cable acts like a resistance of value = Z0 the surge
impedance, but later behaves like a capacitor of value equal to total
capacitance of the cable.
• Introduced distortion is compensated by using a split capacitor connection
as shown ….with (C1+C2)=(C3+Ck)[Ck= capacitance of the cable].

93
94
Mixed Potential Dividers:

• Arrangement for mixed potential dividers are shown in fig.47 is modified

and improved in the arrangement of fig.47(b)
fig 47(b)
C2 Z 0 (C1 + C2 + Ck )
R1C1 =
(C1 + C2 )
R1 R2
Z 0 = R3 + ( ), and R1C1 = R2C2
R1 + R2

• The response is greatly improved. The arrangement shown in fig.47(c) is

simple and gives the desired impedance matching.

95
96
Peak Reading Voltmeters for Impulse voltages:

• It is enough if the peak of an impulse voltage wave is measured; its

waveshape might already be known or fixed by a source itself.
• The basic circuit along with its equivalent circuit and the response
characteristic is shown in fig.48.The circuit consists of only rectifiers.

97
• Diode D conducts for positive voltages only. For negative pulses, the diode has
to be connected in reverse.
reverse

• When a voltage impulse v(t) appears across the low voltage arm of the potential
divider,, the capacitor
p Cm is charged
g to the peak
p value of the pulse.
p

• When the amplitude of the signal starts decreasing the diode becomes reverse
biased and prevents the discharging of the capacitor Cm.

• The voltage developed cross Cm is measured by a high impedance voltmeter

(an electrostatic voltmeter or an electrometer).

• As the Diode D has finite forward resistance, the voltage to which Cm is

charged will be less than the actual peak of the signal , and is modified by the
R-C network of the diode resistance and the measuring capacitance Cm.

• The error is shown in fig. The error can be estimated if the waveform is known.
( y
The actual forward resistance of the diode D(dynamic value)) is difficult to
estimate, and hence the meter is calibrated using an oscilloscope.
98
• Peak voltmeters for either polarity employing resistance and potential
dividers are shown in fig.49
fig 49
• The voltage of either polarity is transferred into a proportional positive
measuring signal by resistive or capacitive voltage divider and a diode
circuit.
circuit
• An active network with feedback circuit is employed in commercial
instruments, so that the fast rising pulses can also be measured.
• I t
Instruments
t employing
l i capacitor it dividers
di id requirei discharge
di h resistance
it
across the low-voltage arm to prevent the build-up of dc charge.

99
Measurements of High Currents:
• In power systems, it is often necessary to measure high currents, arising
due to short circuits.

• For conducting temperature rise and heat run tests on power equipments
like conductors, cables, circuit breakers, etc., measurement of high currents
are required.

• During lightning discharges and switching transients also, large magnitudes

of impulse and switching surge currents occur, which require special
measuring techniques at high potential levels
levels.

• High magnitude direct currents are measured using a resistive shunt of low
Ohmic value.

• High current resistors are usually oil immersed and are made as three of
four terminal resistances.

100
Hall Effect for DC measurements:

• If an electric current flows through metal plate located in a magnetic field

perpendicular to it, Lorentz forces will deflect the electrons in the metal
structure in a direction normal to the direction normal to the direction of
both the current and the magnetic field.The charge displacement generates
an emf in the normal direction, called the “Hall voltage”.

• The Hall voltage is proportional to the current I, the magnetic flux density
B ,and the reciprocal of the plate thickness d, the proportionality constant R
is called the ‘ Hall coefficient’.
Bi
VH = R
d

• For metals, the Hall coefficient is very small, and hence semi-conductor
materials re used for which the Hall coefficient is high.

101
• In large current measurements, the current carrying conductor is
surrounded by an iron cored magnetic circuit,
circuit so that the magnetic field
intensity H=(1/δ) is produced in a small air gap in the core.

• The Hall
Th H ll elements
l t is
i placed
l d ini the
th air
i gap ( off thickness
thi k d) , andd a small
ll
constant dc current is passed through the element. The schematic
arrangement is shown in fig.50

• The voltage developed across the Hall element in the normal direction is
proportional to the dc current I.

• Hall coefficient R depends on the temperature and the high magnetic field
strengths, and suitable compensation has to be proved when used for
measurements of very high currents.

• Hall generators can be used for measurement of unidirectional ac and

impulse currents also with proper design of H.
102
Hall Generator for measuringg high
g dc currents

103
Measurement of High-power Frequency Alternating Currents:
• Measurement
M t off power frequency
f currents
t are normally
ll done
d using
i currentt
transformers only, as use of current shunts involves unnecessary power
loss.
• Uses
U off Current
C t transformers:
t f
a) They provide electrical isolation from high voltage circuits in power
systems.
b) Current transformers used for extra high voltage(EHV) systems are
quite different from the conventional designs s they have to be kept at
very high voltages above the ground.
• Current transformers introducing Electro-optical technique is shown in
fig.51.
• A voltage signal proportional to the measuring current is generated and is
transmitted to the ground through an electro-optical device. Light pulses
proportional to the voltage signal are transmitted by a glass-optical fiber
bundle to a photodetector and converted back into an analog voltage
signal.
signal

104
• Accuracies better than ± 0.5% have been obtained at rated current as well as
for high short circuit currents.
currents
• Required power for the signal converter and optical signal are obtained
from suitable current and voltage transformers.

105
Measurement of High Frequency and Impulse currents:

• High impulse currents occur in lightning discharges, electrical arcs and post
arc phenomenon studies with circuit breakers, and with electric discharge
studies in plasma physics.
physics

• The current amplitudes may range from few amperes to few hundred
kiloamperes. The rate of rise of such currents can be as high as 106 to
1012A/s, and rise times can vary from few microseconds to few
nanoseconds.

• The methods that re frequently employed such that the sensing device
should be capable of measuring the signal over a wide frequency band are
i. Resistive Shunts
ii. Magnetic Potentiometers or Probes
iii. Faraday and Hall Effect Devices

• Accuracy of measurement varies from 1 to 10%.

106
Resistive Shunts:

• The most common method employed for high impulse current

measurements is a low ohmic pure resistive shunt is shown in fig.52(a) and
its equivalent circuit is shown in fig.52
fig 52 (b)

• The current through the resistive element R produces a voltage drop

v(t ) = i (t ) R

• The voltage signal generated is transmitted to a CRO through a coaxial

cable of surge impedance Z0.The
The cable at oscilloscope end is terminated by
a resistance Ri=Z0 to avoid reflections.

• Thee resistance
es sta ce element,
e e e t, because of
o its
ts large
a ge dimensions
d e s o s will
w have
ave a residual
es dua
inductance L and terminal capacitance C. The inductance may be
neglected at low frequencies (ω), but becomes appreciable at higher
frequencies.

107
• Normally L and C become significant above a frequency of 1 MHz. The
resistance
it value
l usuallyll ranges from
f 10μΩ
10 Ω to
t few
f milliohms,
illi h andd the
th
voltage drop is usually about a few volts. The value of the resistance is
determined by the thermal capacity and heat dissipation of the shunt.
• V lt
Voltage drop
d across the
th shunt
h t in
i the
th complex
l frequency
f domain
d i is
i

( R + Ls )
V ( s) = I (s)
(1 + RCs + LCs )2

• With the value of C neglected , voltage drop is V ( s ) = ( R + Ls ) I ( s )

108
• To reduce the stray effects, the resistance shunt is usually designed in the
following manner :
a) Bifilar flat strip design
b) Coaxial tube or Park’s shunt design
c) Coaxial squirrel cage design.

a) Bifilar Strip Shunt:

i. Bifilar design consists of resistor elements wound in opposite
directions and folded back, with both ends insulated by a Teflon or
other high quality insulation.
ii. Voltage signal is picked up through a ultra high frequency coaxial
connector. The shunt suffers from stray inductance associated with the
resistive element, and its potential leads are linked to a small part of
the magnetic flux generated by the current that is to be measured.
iii. To overcome these problems, coaxial shunts are chosen.

109
110
b) Coaxial Tubular or Park’s Shunt:
i. In the coaxial design the current is made to enter through an inner
cylinder or resistive element and is made to return through an
outer conducting cylinder of copper or brass.
ii. The voltage drop across the resistive element is measured
between the potential voltage drop across the resistive element is
measured between the potential pick-up point and the outer case.
iii. The space between the inner and the outer cylinder is air and
hence acts like a pure insulator.
iv. The maximum frequency
q y limit is about 1000 MHz and the
response time is a few nanoseconds.
v. The upper frequency limits is governed by the skin effect in the
resistive element. The equivalent
q circuit to the shunt is given
g in
fig.55 The step response and frequency response are shown in
fig.56

111
112
113
• Inductance L0 is shown in fig.55 is
μ dl
L0 =
2π r

where d= thickness of cylindrical tube

l = length of cylindrical tube
r= radius of cylindrical tube
• Effective Resistance is given by
V (t )
R= = R0θ (ωt )
I0
where R0 = the dc resistance ; L0 = inductance for dc currents and
θ(ωt)
( ) is the theta function of type
yp 3 and is equal
q to
∞
[1 + 2∑ (−1) n exp(−n 2ωt )]
n =1
π R0
2
where ω = v(t) is the signal developed and Io is step current
current.
L0

114
• The effective impedance of the shunt for any frequency f according to
Silsbee is given by
R0 (1 + j )δ
Z=
sinh[(1 + j )δ ]
where R0 = dc resistance Ω,
δ = 2π d f μ / ρ
ρ = resistivity of the material ,Ω-cm,
d = thickness of the tube, cm,
f = frequency , Hz, and
μ = permeability
permeability.
• The rise time is given by
μd 2
T = 0.237
0 237
ρ
• Bandwidth is given by

1.46
1 46 ρ
46 R 11.46
B= =
L0 μd 2
115
(c) Squirrel-Cage Shunts:
i
i. In post arc current measurements , high ohmic value shunts which
can dissipate larger energy are required.
ii. Tubular shunts are not suitable due to their limitations of heat
dissipation
p , larger
g wall thickness,, and the skin effect.
iii. To overcome these problems, the resistive cylinder is replaced by
thick rods or strips, and the structure resembles the rotor
construction of double squirrel-cage induction motor.
iv. The equivalent circuit for squirrel-cage construction is different,
and complex.
v. The shunts show peaky response for step input, and a
compensating
ti network
t k has
h tot be
b designed
d i d to t gett optimum
ti
response.
vi. Step response (fig.57(a)) and frequency response (fig.57(b))
characteristics are given . Rise times of better than 8 ns with
bandwidth more than 400 MHz were obtained for this type of
shunts.
vii. A typical R-C compensating network used for these shunts is
shown in fig.58
116
117
118
(d) Material and Technical Data for the Current Shunts:

i. The important factor for the materials of the shunts is the

y of the material with temperature.
variation of the resistivity p
ii. Physical properties of some materials with low temperature
coefficient, which can be used for shunt construction are given.
iii. Importance of the skin effect has been pointed out in the coaxial
iii
shunt design.
iv. The skin depth for a material of conductivity σ at any frequency is
given by

1
d=
π f μσ

119
120
• Skin depth d, is defined as the distance or depth from the surface at which
th magnetic
the ti fi
field
ld iintensity
t it is i reduced
d d tot ‘1/е’
‘1/ ’ off th
the surface
f value
l for
f a
given frequency f.

• Materials of low conductivity σ ( high resistivity material) have large skin

depth and hence exhibit less skin effect.

• Low ohmic shunts of coaxial type or squirrel cage type construction permit
measurement of high currents with response times less than 10 ns.

121
Rogowski Coils:
• If a coil is placed surrounding a current carrying conductor, the voltage
signal induced in the coil is vi(t)=MdI(t)/dt where M is the mutual
inductance between the conductor and the coil, and I(t) is the current
flowing in the conductor.
conductor

• The coil is wound on a nonmagnetic former of toroidal shape and is

coaxially placed surrounding the current carrying conductor.
conductor

• The number of turns on the coil is chosen to be large, to get enough signal
induced. The coil is wound cross
cross-wise
wise to reduce the leakage inductance.
Usually an integrating circuit(see fig.59) is employed to get the output
signal voltage proportional to the current to be measured.

• The output voltage is given by

t
1 M
Vm (t ) = ∫
CR 0
vi (t ) =
CR
I (t )

122
• Rogowski coils with electronic or active integrator circuits have large band
widths( about 100 MHz).At frequencies greater than 100 MHz the response
is affected by the skin effect, the capacitance distributed per unit length
long the coil , and due to the electromagnetic interferences.

123
Magnetic Links:
• Magnetic links re short retentivity steel strips arranged on a circular wheel
or drum. These strips have the property that the remanent magnetism for a
current pulse of 0.5/5μs is same as that caused by a dc current of the same
value.

• Hence, these can be used for measurement of peak value of impulse

currents. The strips will be kept at a known distance from the current
carrying
i conductor
d andd parallel
ll l to it.
i

• The remanent magnetism is then measured in the laboratory from which the
peak
k value
l off the
th currentt can be
b estimated.
ti t d

• These are mainly useful for estimating the lightning currents on the
transmission lines and towers.
towers

• The rate of rise of impulse currents can be measured using the magnetic
links by placing them within the magnetic field of inductors which carry
the main current to be measured.
124
• The inductors are connected in series with different values of resistances
giving
i i different
diff t time
ti constants.
t t Hence
H the
th magneticti links
li k recordd the
th peakk
currents whose values are different.

• Knowing the time constants of the resistance –inductance combination, the

mean rate of rise of the current in the main circuit is estimated.

125
Other techniques for Impulse current Measurements:

1. Hall Generators
2. y Generator or Ammeter
Faraday
3. Current Transformers

126
Hall Generators:

• Hall generators can be used for ac and impulse current measurements.

• The Bandwidth of these devices was found to be about 50 MHz with

suitable compensating devices and feedback.

• The saturation effect in magnetic core can be minimized, and these devices
are successfully used for post arc and plasma current measurements.

127
Faraday Generator or Ammeter:
• When a linearly polarized light beam passes through transparent crystal in the
presence of a magnetic field, the plane or polarization of the light beam
undergoes rotation.

• Th angle
The l off rotation
t ti isi given
i by:
b

where α = VBl
V= a constant of the crystal which depends on the wavelength of light.
V

• To measure the waveform of a large current in an EHV system an arrangement

shown in fig….. will be employed.

• A beam of light from a stabilized light source is passed through a polarizer P1

to fall on a crystal F placed parallel to the magnetic field produced by the
current I.

• The light beam undergoes rotation of its plane of polarization. After passing
through the analyzer, the beam is focused on a photomultiplier, the output of
which is fed to CRO.

128
• The output beam is filtered through a filter M, which allows only the
monochromatic
h ti light.
li ht The
Th relation
l ti between
b t the
th oscillograph
ill h display
di l andd the
th
current to be measured are complex but can be determined.

• The advantages of this method are that

i. There is no electrical connection between the source and the device.
ii. No thermal p problems even for largeg currents of several kiloamperes.
p
iii. As Signal Transmission is through n optical system , no insulation
problems or difficulties arise for EHV system. However, this device
p
does not operate for dc currents.

129
130
Current Transformers:
• Measurement of high frequency currents such as fault currents in power
systems, switching current transients and impulse currents during impulse
testing of transformers can be measured using current transformers with an
air
i core or a ferrite
f it core.
• The transformer will have torroidal core with central bar primary or wound
primary with single turn.
• The secondary side of the current with N1 primary and N2 secondary turns
is given by N1 I (t )
I 2 (t ) =
N2
• Usually, the secondary winding is terminated by a resistance R2 and a CRO
will be connected through a cable of surge impedance Z terminated by a
resistance R equal to surge impedance.
R2
I 3 (t ) = I 2 (t )
R + R2 + Z 0
RR2
V (t ) = [ ]I 2 (t )
R + R2 + Z 0
N1 RR2
I 2 (t ) = I1 (t )
N 2 R + R2 + Z 0 131